handbook of dress and childhood schoo american school of home economics chicago, illinois the university of chicago libraries cres vita catsci exco entia latur gift of mrs. william b. serbing - handbook ool of a solo of dress and childhood -- a complete home-study course comprising textiles and clothing by kate heintz watson formerly teacher of household art, lewis institute, chicago study of child life by marian foster washburne editor of mothers magazine author, lecturer care of children by alfred cleveland cotton, a. m., m. d. professor diseases of children, rush medical college, university of chicago chicago american school of home economics t Т? С a copyright, - by home economics association school sowo textiles and clothing by kate heintz watson graduate armour institute of technology formerly instructor in domestic art lewis institute lecturer university of chicago *homes chicago american school of home economics copyright , , , , by home economics association entered at stationers hall, london all rights reserved contents primitive methods weaving fibers. cotton wool flax silk modern methods weaving weaves bleaching and dyeing . printing finishing cotton goods linens. woolens and worsteds sulks names of fabrics bibliography on textiles hand sewing ornamental stitches hems tucks and seams plackets sewing on bands fastenings patching darning mitering embroidery, joining lace machine sewing i iii iv contents dressmaking patterns skirt making making shirt waists fitted linings sleeves collars seamless yokes pressing construction and ornament in dress ornament of textiles color children's clothes care of clothing cleaning repairing bibliography on sewing and dressmaking references: history of costume; ornament and design program for supplemental study index 一 ​ "the thread of life" spinning with the distaff and spindle. from a painting. textiles and clothing origin of textile arts pinning and weaving are among the earliest arts. in the twisting of fibers, hairs, grasses, and sinews by rolling them between the thumb and fingers, paims of the hands, or palms and naked thigh, we have the original of the spinning wheel and the steam-driven cotton spindle; in the roughest plaiting we have the first hint of the finest woven cloth. the need of securing things or otherwise strengthening them then led to binding, fastening, and sewing. the wattle- work hut with its roof of interlaced boughs, the skins sewn by fine needles with entrails or sinews, the matted twigs, grasses, and rushes are all the crude beginnings of an art which tells of the settled life of to-day. nothing is definitely known of the origin of these arts; all is conjecture. they doubtless had their be- ginning long before mention is made of them in his- tory, but these crafts-spinning and weaving-modi- fied and complicated by inventions and, in modern times transferred largely from man to machine, were distinctively woman's employment. the very primitive type of spinning, where no spindle was used, was to fasten the strands of goats' hair or wool to a stone which was twirled round until primitive methods co italian woman spinning flax spindle and distaff. from hull house museum. (in this series of pictures the spinners and weavers are in native costume. russian spinning flax held on frame, leaving both hands free to manage the thread and spindle from hull house museum. textiles and clothing spinning with the the yarn was sufficiently twisted when it was wound upon the stone and the process repeated over and over. the next method of twisting yarn was with the spindle, a straight stick eight to twelve inches long on which the thread was wound after twisting. at first it had a cleft or split in the top in which the thread was fixed; later a hook of bone was added to the upper end. the spindle is yet used by the north american indians, the italians, and in the orient. the bunch of wool or flax fibers is held in the left hand; with the right hand the fibers are drawn out several inches and the end fastened securely in the slit or hook on the top of the spindle. a whirling motion is given to the spindle on the thigh or any convenient part of the body; the spindle is then dropped, twisting the yarn, which is wound on the upper part of the spindle. another bunch of fibers is drawn out, the spindle is given another twirl, the yarn is wound on the spindle, and so on. a spindle containing a quantity of yarn was found to rotate more easily, steadily and continue longer than an empty one, hence the next improvement was the addition of a whorl at the bottom of the spindle. these whorls are discs of wood, stone, clay, or metal which keep the spindle steady and promote its rota- tion. the process in effect is precisely the same as the spinning done by our grandmothers, only the spin- ning wheel did the twisting and reduced the time required for the operation. spindle whorl spinning with crude wheel and distaff distaff thrust into the belt. "gossip" in the olden times then colonial wool wheel the large wheel revolved by hand thus turning the spindle and twisting the yarn, which is then wound on the spindle; intermittent in action. colonial flax wheel worked by a foot treddle; distaff on the frame of the wheel; "fliers” on the spindle, continuous in action; capacity seven times that of hand spindle. dutch wheel spinner sits in front of the wheel-spinning flax at hull house. textiles and clothing distaff later the distaff was used for holding the bunch of wool, flax, or other fibers. it was a short stick on one end of which was loosely wound the raw material. the other end of the distaff was held in the hand, under the arm or thrust in the girdle of the spinner. b.c. birth of christ a.d. time during which the hand spindle was the only form of spindle kaowa. spinning wheel also kaown. steam has been applied to spinning. graphic diagram showing time during which different methods of spinning has been used. wheel spinning when held thus, one hand was left free for drawing out the fibers. on the small spinning wheel the distaff was placed in the end of the wheel bench in front of the "fillers" ; this left both hands free to manage the spindle and to draw out the threads of the fibers. the flax spinning wheel, worked by means of a treadle, was invented in the early part of the sixteenth syrian spinning spinner sits on the floor, wheel turned by a crank; spindle held in place by two mutton joints which contain enough oil for lubrication, at hull house. textiles and clothing century and was a great improvement upon the dis- taff and spindle. this it will be seen was a compara- tively modern invention. the rude wheel used by the natives of japan and india may have been the progenitor of the european wheel, as about this time intercourse between the east and europe increased. these wheels were used for spinning flax, wool, and afterwards cotton, until hargreaves' invention super- seded it. weaving someone has said that “weaving is the climax of textile industry.” it is an art practiced by all savage mma- pueblo woman working heddle in weaving a belt tribes and doubtless was known before the dawn of history. the art is but a development of mat-making and basketry, using threads formed or made by spin- ning in place of coarser filaments. in the beginning of the art the warp threads were stretched between convenient objects on the ground a navajo belt weaver zuni woman weaving ceremonial belt weaving or from horizontal supports. at first the woof or filling threads were woven back and forth between the warp threads as in darning. an improvement was the device called the “heald” or “heddle,” by means of which alternate warp threads could be drawn away from the others, making an opening through which the filling thread could be passed quickly. one form tho hodala primitive heddles of the heddle was simply a straight stick having loops of cord or sinew through which certain of the warp threads were run. another form was a slotted frame having openings or "eyes” in the slats. this was carved from one piece of wood or other material or made from many. alternate warp threads passed through the eyes and the slots. by raising or lower- ing the heddle frame, an opening was formed through which the filling thread, wound on a rude shuttle, was thrown. the next movement of the heddle frame navajo loom one of the earliest types of looms. at hull house. weaving crossed the threads over the filling and made a new opening for the return of the shuttle. at first the filling thread was wound on a stick making a primi- tive bobbin. later the shuttle to hold the bobbin was devised. simple colonial loom the reed before the “reed” was invented, the filling threads were drawn evenly into place by means of a rude comb and driven home by sword-shaped piece of wood or "batten.” the reed accomplished all this at one time. it is probable that the european looms were de- rived from those of india as they seem to be made on the same principle. from crude beginnings, the hand loom of our grandmothers' time developed. a loom a japanese loom. a four harness hand loom weaving linen in the mountains of virginia. (photograph by c. r. dodge). scale typical colonial hand loom two harnesses in use; weaving wool at hull house. weaving has been defined as a mechanism which affects the following necessary movements: . the lifting of the healds to form an opening, or shed, or race for the shuttle to pass through. definition of a loom c w w diagram of a hand loom a-warp beam; b-cloth beam; dd-lees rods; h-harness, -treddle. . the throwing of the weft or filling by means of a shuttle. : the beating up of the weft left in the shed by the shuttle to the cloth already formed. this thread may be adjusted by means of the batten, needle, comb, or any separate device like the reed. & . the winding up or taking up of the cloth as it is woven and the letting off of the warp as the cloth is taken up swedish hand loom norwegian woman weaving linen at hull house. weaving colonial loom no essential changes have been made since our grandmothers made cloth a hundred years ago. the “harnesses” move part of the warp now up, now down, and the shuttle carries the weft from side to side to be driven" home by the reeds to the woven cloth. our grandmothers did all the work with swift movements d d h diagram of the working parts of a loom. s-suttle for carrying the woof; r-reed for beating up the woof; h-frame holding heddles, with pullies (p) making the harness; -treddles for moving the harness. of hands and feet. the modern weaver has her loom harnessed to the electric dynamo and moves her fin- gers only to keep the threads in order. if she wishes to weave a pattern in the cloth, no longer does she pick up threads of warp now here, now there, accord- ing to the designs. it is all worked out for her on the loom. each thread with almost human intelli- gence settles automatically into its appointed place, and the weaver is only a machine tender. fly shuttle hand loom the pulling of the reed automatically throws the shuttle back and forth and works the harness, making a shed at the proper time. weaving primitivo fabrics no textiles of primitive people were ever woven in "pieces” or “bolts” of yards and yards in length to be cut into garments. the cloth was made of the size and shape to serve the particular purpose for which it was designed. the mat, robe, or blanket had tribal outlines and proportions and was made according to the materials and the use of common forms that pre- vailed among the tribes. the designs were always conventional and sometimes monotonous. the decora- tion never interfered with its use. "the first beauty of the savage woman was uniformity which belonged to the texture and shape of the product.” the uni- formity in textile, basketry, or pottery, after acquiring a family trait, was never lost sight of. their designs were suggested by the natural objects with which they were familiar. picking cotton from department of agriculture bulletin, "the cotton plant.” fibers both the animal and vegetable kingdoms furnish the materials for clothing as well as for all the textiles used in the home. the fleece of sheep, the hair of the goat and camel, silk, furs, and skins are the chief animal products. the principal vegetable fibers are cotton, flax, ramie, jute, and hemp. cotton linen, wool, and silk have heretofore formed the foundation of all textiles and are the principal fibers used for clothing materials. ramie or china grass and pineapple fibers are sometimes used as adulterants in the manufacture of silk. when woven alone, they give soft silky textiles of great strength and beauty. chief fibers cotton cotton is now our chief vegetable fiber, the yearly crop being over six billion pounds, of which the united states raises three-fourths. texas is the world's crop. united states. texas. production of cotton largest producer, followed by georgia, alabama, and mississippi. the remainder of the world supply comes chiefly from india, egypt, russia, and brazil. the hindoos were the first ancient people to make exten- sive use of the cotton fiber. not until the invention of the cotton gin by eli whitney in did the cotton begin to reach its present importance. only textiles and clothing native homo sea island cotton four or five pounds of the fiber could be separated by hand from the seed by a week's labor. the modern saw gins turn out over five thousand pounds daily. cotton is the white downy covering of the seed of several species of cotton plant. it is a native of many parts of the world, being found by columbus growing in the west indies and on the main land, by cortez in mexico, and pizarro in perii. the value of cotton depends upon the strength, and evenness of the fiber. in ordinary cotton the individual fiber is about an inch in length. the sea island cot- ton grown chiefly on the islands off the coast of georgia, carolina, and cotton fiber attached to seed florida is the most valu- able variety, having a fine fiber, one and one-lialf to two inches in length. some of the egyptian cotton be- longs to this species. sea island cotton is used chiefly for fine laces, thread and knit goods and for the finest lawns and musiins. the short fiber or upland cotton is the most common and useful variety. it is grown in georgia, north and south carolina and alabama. texas cotton is similar to upland, but sometimes is harsh with shorter fiber. gulf cotton occupies a position between upland and sea island cotton. the brazilian and peruvian cotton yields a long staple and is sometimes used to adulterate silk and upland cotton upland cotton plant with fully developed boles from bulletin no. , georgia experiment station. cotton bole fully devel- oped from year book of the department of agriculture, . bole opened, cotton ready for picking year book of . textiles and clothing nankin cotton other fibers. some varieties of this cotton are harsh and wooly and are prized for use in mixing with wool, the nankin cotton grown in china and india and in the southwestern part of louisiana is characterized by its yellow color. it is used in weaving cloth of various kinds in the "fireside industries” which have. become popular in the united states and england. کے لیے درکار b ap b spinning qualities cotton fibers a a unripe fibers; b b-half-ripe fibers; c c-ripe fibers. very fine yarn can be spun from cotton because of the spiral character of the fibers. this twist of the fibers is peculiar to cotton, being present in no other animal or vegetable fiber. on account of this twist, cotton cloths are much more elastic in character than those woven from linen, the fibers of which are stiff and straight. after the removal of the seed, no other fiber is so free from impurities— per cent is the loss sustained cotton by cleaning and bleaching. in its natural condition, cotton will not dye readily because of a waxy sub- stance on the surface of the fibers. this must be removed by washing. cotton should be picked only when it is fully ripe picking when the pods are fully burst and the fibers expanded. ginning the unripe fiber is glassy, does not attain its full and cotton bales strength and resists the dye. after picking, the cotton is sent to the ginning factory to have the seed removed. it is then pressed into bales by hydraulic presses, five hundred pounds being the standard bale in the united states. purified bleached cotton is nearly pure cellulose. it resists the action of alkalis well, but is harmed by hot, strong acids, or if acid is allowed to dry on the fabric. it is not harmed by high temperature, and so may be ironed with a hot iron. physical character. istic wool fiber and substitutes , south american wool; , noil from the same; , tangled waste, , waste combed out; , lap waste; , shoddy. wool wool character of fiber wool is the most important animal fiber. strictly speaking the name applies only to the hairy covering of sheep, but the hair of certain goats and of camels is generally classified under the same terms. the wool fiber is distinguished by its scale-like surface which gives it its felting and spinning properties. hair microscopic appearance of wo fibers as distinguished from wool has little or no scaly struc- ture being in general a smooth filament with no felting properties and spinning only with great difficulty. fur is the undergrowth found on most fur-bearing animals and has in a modified way the scaly structure and felt- ing properties of wool. the great value of wool as a fiber lies in the fact that it is strong, elastic, soft, very susceptible to dye stuffs and being woven, furnishes a great number of value for clothing textiles and clothing quality of wool air spaces, rendering clothing made from it very warm and light. climatę, breed, and food influence the quality of the wool. where the pasturage is barren and rocky, the wool is apt to be coarse. varieties of sheep merino rams the variety of sheep giving the finest wool. there are supposed to be about thirty distinct varie- ties of sheep, nearly half of which are natives of asia, one-third of africa, and only four coming from eu- rope, and two from america. wool is divided into two general classes—long and short staple, according wool to the average length of fiber. the long fiber wool is commonly carded, combed and spun into worsted yarn. the short fiber is usually carded and spun into woolen yarn. the short fiber obtained in combing long staple wool is called "noil." it is used for woolens.. alpaca, vicuna and llama wools are obtained from animals which are native to the mountains of peru goat woola angora goats and chile. the angora goat, originally from asia minor, furnishes the mohair of commerce. this fiber does not resemble the hairs of common goats in any respect. it is a very beautiful fiber of silky luster, which constitutes its chief value. textiles and clothing fur the fur of beavers and rabbits can be and is used. in manufacture, either spun into yarn or made into felt. the fibers of both animals enter largely into the manufacture of felt hats. the fleece of sheep after being sheared is divided into different parts or sorted, according to to the qual- sorting wool a b с d wool fibers a-medium wool; —camel's hair; c-diseased fiber; d-merino wool; mohair. scouring wool ity of the wool, the best wool coming from the sides of the animal. as it comes from the sheep, the wool contains many substances besides the wool fiber which must be re- moved before dyeing or spinning. this cleansing is called scouring. before scouring, the wool is usually dusted by machines to remove all loose dirt. the scouring must be done by the mildest means possible in order to preserve the natural fluffiness and bril- liancy of the fiber. the chief impurity is the wool wool grease or "yolk” which is secreted by the skin glands to lubricate the fiber and prevent it from matting. in the scouring of wool, soap is the principal agent. soft soap made from caustic potash is generally used scouring agents head tail one method of wool sorting -the best grade; -lowest grade; —fair; -medium grade. as it is less harmful than ordinary hard soda soap. potassium carbonate—"pearl ash"-is often used in connection with the soap. if the water for scouring is hard, it is softened with pearl ash. the temperature textiles and clothing of wash water is never allowed to go above ° f. the scoured wool weighs from a little over a half to one-third or less of the weight of the fleece. wool has the remarkable property of absorbing up to- per cent or more of its weight of water and yet not feel perceptibly damp to the touch. this is called hydroscopic moisturo wool sorting "hydroscopic moisture." to this property wool owes its superiority as a textile for underclothing. the thoroughly cleansed fiber is made up chiefly of the chemical substance keratin, being similar in com- position to horn and feathers. in burning it gives off a characteristic disagreeable odor. it is a substance. very weakly acid in its nature, for which reason it combines readily with many dyes. wool resists the action of acids very well, but is much harmed by the alkalis, being dissolved completely by a warm solution of caustic soda. high temperature harms wool. flax flax next to wool and cotton, flax is used most largely in our textile manufactures. the linen fiber consists of the bast cells of certain spe- cies of flax grown in eu- rope, africa, and the uni- ted states. all bast fibers are obtained near the out- er surface of the plant stems. the pith and woody tissues are of no value. the flax plant is an annual and to ob- tain the best fibers it must be gathered before it is fully ripe. to obtain seed from which the best quality of lin- seed oil can be made it is usually necessary to sacrifice the quality of the fibers to some extent. flax unlike cotton, fax is contaminated by impurities from which it must be freed before it can be woven into cloth. the first process to which the freshly pulled flax is submitted is that of “rippling" or the removal of the seed capsules. retting, next in order, is the most important operation. this is done to remove the substances which bind the bast fibers to each other and to remove the fiber from the central treatment of flax a field of flax in minnesota the flax must be pulled up by the roots to give fibers with tapered ends. (photograph of c. r. dodge). flax woody portion of the stem. this consists of steeping the stalks in water. ( ) cold water retting, either running or stagnant water. ( ) dew retting. ( ) warm water retting. retting mwa mw retting tank a-inlet; b-undisturbed water; c—bundles of flax. -- cold water retting in running water is practiced in belgium. retting in stagnant water is the method usually employed in ireland and russia. the retting in stagnant water is more rapidly done, but there is danger of over-retting on account of the organic mat- ter retained in the water which favors fermentation. in this case the fiber is weakened. in dew retting, the flax is spread on the field and exposed to the action of the weather for several weeks retting flax in the river lys, belgium from the government bulletin, "flax for seed and fiber." flax a n d without any previous steeping. this method of retting is practiced in germany and russia. warm water retting and chemical retting have met with limited success. when the ret- ting is complete, the flax is set up in sheaves to dry. the next operations con- sist of "break- ing,” "scutch- ing,” “hackling” and are now done by machinery. fibers of flax breaking removes the woody center from the retted and dried flax by being passed through a series of fluted rollers. the particles of woody matter adher- ing to the fibers are detached by scutching. hackling or combing still further separates the fibers into their finest filaments—“line" and "tow." the "flax line" is the long and valuable fiber; the tow, the short coarse tangled fiber which is spun and used for weaving coarse linen. when freed from all impurities the chief physical characteristics of flax are its snowy whiteness, silky luster and great tenacity. the individual fibers may hackling character- istics of linen b d. flax a, unthrashed straw; b, retted; c, cleaned or scutched; d, hackled or dressed. (photograph of c. r. dodge). hackling flax by hand the "tow” is seen at the left and a bunch of “flax line' on the bench. (photograph of c. r. dodge, special agent u. s. department of agriculture.) textiles and clothing ramie be from ten to twelve inches in length; they are much greater in diameter than cotton. it is less pliant and elastic than cotton and bleaches and dyes less readily. linen cloth is a better conductor of heat than cotton and clothing made from it is cooler. when pure, it is, like cotton, nearly pure cellulose. besides the linen, there is a great number of bast fibers fit for textile purposes, some superior, some in- ferior. india alone has over three hundred plants that are fiber yielding. one-third of these furnish useful fibers for cordage and fabrics. the next in importance to linen is ramie or rhea, and china grass. china grass comes from a different plant but is about the same as ramie. the staple is longer and finer than linen. the great strength of yarn made from it is due to length of the staple. the variety and great value of the ramie fibers has long been recognized, but difficulties attending the separation and degumming of the fibers have pre- vented its employment in the manufactures to any great extent. the native chinese split and scrape the plant stems, steeping them in water. the common retting process used for flax is not effective on account of the large amount of gummy matter, and although easy to bleach it is difficult to dye in full bright shades without injuring the luster of the fibers. jute and hemp belong to the lower order of bast fibers. the fiber is large and is unfit for any but the jute and hemp jute growing in louisiana from Çulture of hemp and jute, report of u. s. department of agriculture, drying hemp in kentucky from “culture of hemp and jute. silk olona coarsest kind of fabrics. jute. is mainly cultivated in bengal. the fiber is separated from the plant by retting, beating, etc. olona, the textile fiber of hawaii, is found to have promising qualities. this plant resembles ramie and belongs to the nettle family also, but it is without the troublesome resin of the ramie. the fiber is fine, light, strong, and durable. the philippines are rich in fiber producing plants. the manila hemp is the most prominent, of which coarse cloth is woven, besides the valuable cordage. the sisal hemp, pineapple, yucca, and a number of fiber plants growing in the southern part of the united states are worthy of note. these fiber industries are conducted in a rude way, the fiber being cleaned by hand, except the pineapple. silk the silk fiber is the most perfect as well as the most beautiful of all fibers. it is nearly faultless, fine and continuous, often measuring from to feet long, without a scale, joint, or a blemish, though not of the same diameter or fineness throughout its entire length, as it becomes finer as the interior of the cocoon is approached. silk differs from all other vegetable or animal fibers by being devoid of all cellular structure. southern europe leads in the silk worm culture- where produced italy, southern france, and turkey, with china and india. several species of moths, natives of india, china, and japan, produce the wild silk. the most textiles and clothing silk worm important of the "wild silks" are the tussah. silk plush and the coarser varieties of buff colored fabrics are made of this silk. while manufacturers do not favor the wild silk, the coarse uneven weave and soft- ness make it a favorite with artists and it is being used for interior decoration as well as for clothing. the silk of commerce begins with an egg no bigger than a mustard seed, out of which comes a diminutive caterpillar, which is kept in a frame and fed upon mulberry leaves. when the caterpillars are full grown, they climb upon twigs placed for them and begin to spin or make the cocoon. the silk comes from two little orifices in the head in the form of a glutinous gum which hardens into a fine elastic fiber. with a motion of the head somewhat like the figure eight, the silk worm throws this thread around the body from head to tail until at last it is entirely enveloped. the body grows smaller and the thread grows finer until at last it has spun out most of the substance of the body and the task is done. if left to itself, when the time came, the moth would eat its way out of the cocoon and ruin the fiber. a few of the best cocoons are saved for a new supply of caterpillars; the remainder are baked at a low heat which destroys the worm but preserves the silk. this now becomes the cocoon of commerce. next the cocoons go to the reelers who wind the filaments into the silk yarn that makes the raw ma- reeling silk silk telecom terial of our mills. the cocoons are thrown into warm water mixed with soap in order to dissolve the gum. the outer or coarser covering is brushed off down to silk:-caterpillar, cocoon, chrysalis, moth the real silk and the end of the thread found. four or five cocoons are wound together, the sticky fibers clinging to each other as they pass through the various guides and are wound as a single thread on the reels. textiles and clothing organize and tram the silk is dried and tied into hanks or skeins. as the thread unwinds from the cocoon, it becomes smaller, so other threads must be added. at the mill the raw silk goes to the “throwster” who twists the silk threads ready for the loom. these threads are of two kinds—“organize” or warp and "tram" or filling. the warp runs the long way of woven fabric or parallel with the selvage and it must be strong, elastic, and not easily parted by rubbing. to prepare the warp, two threads of raw silk are slightly twisted. twist is always put into yarn of any kind to increase its strength. these threads are united and twisted together and this makes a strong thread capable of withstanding any reasonable strain in the loom and it will not roughen. for the woof or tram which is carried across the woven cloth on the shuttle, the thread should be as loose and fluffy as possible. several threads are put together, subjected to only a very slight twist-just enough to hold the threads together so they will lie evenly in the finished fabric. after the yarn leaves the spinners it is again run off on reels to be taken to the dye house. first the yarn is boiled off in soapy water to remove the remaining gum. now the silk takes on its luster. before it was dull like cotton. the silk is now finer and harder and is known as “souple." the silk fiber has a remarkable property of absorb- ing certain metallic salts, still retaining much of its boiling off loading silk silk luster. this process is known as “loading" or "weight- ing,” and gives increased body and weight to the silk. silk without weighting is known as "pure dye,” of which there is little made, as such goods take too much silk. support basin reeling silk for the weighting of white or light colored silk goods, tin crystals (stanous chloride) are used and for dark shades and black, iron salts and tannin. by this means the original weight of the fiber may be increased three or four hundred per cent. this result is not attained, however, except through the weakening of the fiber. textiles and clothing action of common salt artificial silk character. istics of si common salt has a very curious action on weighted silk. it slowly weakens the fiber. a silk dress may be ruined by being splashed with salt water at the sea- shore. most often holes appear after a dress comes back from the cleaners; these he may not be to blame for, as salt is abundant in nearly all the bodily secre- tions,—tears, perspiration, urine. artificial silk is made by dissolving cellulose ob- tained from cotton. it is lacking in strength and water spoils all kinds manufactured at present. silk, like wool, has the property of absorbing con- siderable moisture without becoming perceptibly damp. like wool and all the animal fibers, it is harmed by alkalis. the important physical properties of silk are its beautiful luster, strength, elasticity and the readi- ness with which it takes dyes. silk combines well with other fibers, animal and vegetable. a comparison of the relative value of textile fibers may be seen from the following approximate prices : cotton—$. to $. per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching per cent. flax-$. to $. per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching about per cent. wool—$. to $. per pound; loss in scouring to per cent. raw silk-$ . to $ . per pound; loss in “boiling off” about per cent which is made up and much more by "loading." value of raw fibers modern methods all the complex processes and machinery of the textile industry are but developments of the old-time methods of the home. brief outlines only will be given here for the processes are most intricate in detail. spinning picking and carding the spinning of cotton yarn (thread) is typical of all the fibers. the stages may be divided into- . opening and picking. . carding. . combing . drawing . spinning the picking and carding have for their object the removal of all foreign substances with as little damage to the fiber as possible. the foreign substances in cotton are sand, dirt, pieces of leaves, seed, husk, etc., which have become mixed with the fiber during the process of growing, ginning and transportation. the cotton bales are opened and thrown into the automatic feeder which carries up a layer of cotton on a spiked apron from which it is removed by a rapidly revolving "doffer" underneath which is a screen which catches some of the dirt. it is next fed between rolls in front of a rapidly revolving blunt-edged knife which throws out more of the dirt through a screen. there is a suction of air through the screen which helps remove the foreign substances. the cotton passes cleaning textiles and clothing carding through several of such machines, being formed into a soft web or "lap” which is wound into a roll. the carding machine further cleans the fibers and lays them in a general parallel position. from this machine the web is formed into "sliver," a loose rope m mwili : cotton opener and picker the cotton from the bale is thrown into a, carried by the spiked aprons band ç, evened by e, removed from the apron by f (some of the dirt falls through the screen into box c) is beaten by the revolving “knife,” np, more dirt being removed through screen n, then goes through the flue cto the next machine. combing of cotton fiber about two iriches in diameter. this is received in circular cans. the combing is omitted for short fiber cotton, but is used in worsted spinning and with long staple cotton to remove the short fibers. cotton to be used for spinning making yarn suitable for hosiery, underwear, sewing thread, lace, and for very fine cotton fabrics is carded. in drawing, from six to sixteen "slivers" are run together and the fibers drawn out in several stages until the soft rope is about an eighth of an inch in diameter, called "roving." this tends to get rid of any unevenness and makes the fibers all parallel. from this machine the roving is wound on a bobbin ready for the spinning frame. cylinder so dia over wire revolutions per min. . .dofter diaover wire spinning cotton card the roll of webbing a is beaten and transferred to the cylinder hh, carded by the spiked belt e, removed by the “doffer” and formed into a "sliver" which runs into the can m. the spinning frame may have a hundred spindles or more, each one of which is drawing out its supply of “roving” to the required size of yarn and giving it the twist necessary to bind the fibers together. the yarn to be used for the warp is given a harder twist so that it may be strong enough to stand the strain in weaving. the yarn for filling is usually left soft. dee works aunton cotton comb, used for long staple receiving the "sliver" at the back of the draw. ing frame, drawing frame drawing the roving finer. * : . lll a fly spinning frame the spools of roving above are being drawn out, given the twist by the fliers, and wound on bobbins below. mule drawing and spinning frame always used for wool. part of the machine moves away from the frame, thus drawing out the thread, which is then twisted. nega modern ring spinning frame for cotton. sixty-eight spindles gives the largest production. a plain power loom weaving linen weaving modern loom the yarn for warp is now usually given a coating or “sizing” of starch and gums so that the thread may not become unwound and break during weaving. the process of spinning is much the same for flax and for wool, although somewhat differently con- structed machines must be used. flax is usually spun wet. weaving the modern power driven loom is a wonderful piece of machinery. the principle of its operation is essen- tially the same as the hand loom, but it is almost per- fectly automatic in its action, a man or woman being able to tend from ten to fifteen looms weaving plain cotton goods. the yarn coming from the spinning frame is some- times dyed before weaving. the warp is formed by winding as many threads as the width of the fabric is to contain on a slowly revolving drum, called a "beam,” in the same relative position in which they are to ap- pear in the finished cloth. from its position on the beam at the back of the loom, each thread is brought through its particular loop or eye with the heddle, then passes through its own slot in the reed, and down to the roller or "cloth beam” that is to take up the woven cloth. this is called "drawing in the warp.” if there is a piece of cloth coming from the loom, the work is very simple, for the ends of the new warp are tied to the ends remaining from the warp that has been woven out. warping textiles and clothing. the harness the shuttle with its bobbin, containing the yarn of the filling, is much the same as is used in the hand looms, except for form and size, which varies accord- ing to the requirements and size of the warp being used. at first only one shuttle was used, but in robert kay invented a mechanism by which several shuttles containing different grades or colors of yarn might be used. each throw of the shuttle across the width of the goods is called a "pick.” in making a cloth with plain weave, that is, with every thread interlacing with every other, as in darn- ing, only two harnesses are required, but the modern loom may have up to about twenty-four harnesses so that an infinite variety of weaves may be obtained. various cams and levers move the harness frame and so raise or lower the threads required for the design. the jacquard loom is arranged on a different prin- ciple. in this loom, all kinds of fancy weaves may be obtained as in table linen, tapestries and carpets. each warp thread is supplied with a separate hook and by means of perforated card the desired threads are raised or depressed at each throw of the shuttle. the cards are worked out by the designer. a set of a thousand or more cards may be required to produce the desired design. jacquard looms are sometimes to be seen at fairs and expositions weaving handkerchiefs with some picture design. jacquard loom jacquard hand loom weaving ingrain carpet at hull house. weaves the great variety of weaves found in the textiles of to-day are modifications of a few fundamental weaves invented in the earliest times. the chief fundamental weaves are: ( ) plain weave. ( ) twills, ( ) sateen. to which may be added the derivatives, ( ) rib weave. ( ) basket weave. these do not include the many fancy weaves, too ra puuhunsub suubuve diagram of fancy knit goods numerous to classify, and the open work weaves, made in the leno loom, in which some of the threads are crossed. knit goods are made by the interlooping of a single thread, by hand or on circular knitting ma- weaves chines and lace by an analogous process, using several systems of threads. felt is made up of matted fibers of fur and wool and has no thread structure, plain twill in cassimere twill saleen weave diagrams the plain weave is the most common, nearly all light weight goods being thus woven. in plain weav- ing, each thread of both warp and filling passes alter- nately over and under the threads at right angles. this makes a comparatively open cloth, requiring the plain weavo textiles and clothing smallest amount of yarn for the surface covered. this weave is used in nearly all cotton goods, as in muslins, sheetings, calicoes, ginghams, and thin woolen goods. even in the plain weave variety is obtained by having a b d sections of weaves -plain weave; —prunella twill; c—cassimere twill; d–swans- down twill. some of the threads larger than others, either in warp or filling or both, thus producing stripes and checked effects. after the plain weave the twill is the most common, being much used for dress goods, suitings, etc., as well as some of the thicker cottons. in this weave the intersections of the threads produce characteristic lines diagonally across the fabric, most often at an angle of °. the twill may be hardly visible or very twills weaves pronounced. the simplest twills are the so-called "doeskin” and “prunella.” in the doeskin the filling threads pass over one and under two of the warp threads and in the prunella twill over two and under one. the most common twill is the cassimere twill in which both the warp and filling run over two and under two of the threads at right angles. rib w z. double cloth uit basket diagram of rib and basket weave and double cloth uneven twills a twill made by running both warp and filling under one and over three threads is called a swansdown twill and the reverse is known as the crow weave. in these the diagonal twilled effect is much more marked. various twills are often combined with each other and with plain weave, making a great variety of texture. numerous uneven twills are made, two over and three under, etc., etc. textiles and clothing sateen weave in the sateen weave, nearly all of either the warp or the filling threads are on the surface, the object being to produce a smooth surface fabric like sateen. with textile design a-on cross-section paper; b-graphic diagram. this weave it is possible to use a cotton warp and silk filling, having most of the silk appear on the surface of the fabric. the rib and basket weaves are derivatives of the plain weave, two or more threads replacing the single rib and basket weaves weaves double cloth strand. in the rib weave, either the warp or the fill- ing threads run double or more, thus making a corded effect. in the basket weave, both warp and filling are run double or treble, giving a coarse texture. this weave is sometimes called the panama weave. in the thicker fabrics like men's suitings and over- coatings, there may be a double series of warp threads, only one series appearing on the face of the goods, and in the still thicker fabrics, there may be a double set of both warp and filling threads, making double cloth, the two sides of which may be entirely different in color and design. in weaving plush, velvet and velveteen, loops are made in the filling or warp threads which are after- wards cut, producing the pile. volnot bleaching, dyeing, printing, finishing madder bleach when the cloth comes from the loom it is by no means ready for the market. nearly all kinds are washed and pressed and in some classes of goods the finishing process is very elaborate. bleaching and dyeing the fiber may be dyed in a loose or unspun state, as is customary with wool; after it has been spun and is in the form of yarn, as in the case of silk and linen; and when it has been woven to form cloth, as is most commonly the case with cotton. the bleaching of cotton involves a number of steps, the most thorough process being called the “madder bleach," in which the cloth is ( ) wet out, ( ) boiled with lime water, ( ) rinsed, ( ) treated with acid, ( ) rinsed, ( ) boiled with soap and alkali, ( ) rinsed, ( ) treated with bleaching powder solution, ( ) rinsed, ( ) treated with acid, ( ) finally rinsed again. all this is done by machines and hundreds of yards go through the process at a time. the product is a pure white cloth suitable for dyeing light shades and for white goods. when cloth is to be dyed a dark shade the treatment is less elaborate. if the cloth is to be printed for calicoes, before bleaching it is singed by passing through gas flames or over a red hot plate and then sheared in a shearing machine constructed somewhat on the principle of the singeing and bhearing dyeing mordant colors lawn mower, the cloth being run close to the rapidly revolving knives. although cotton is usually dyed in the piece, it may be dyed in the form of yarn, as for ginghams, and sometimes before being woven, in the loose state. cotton is more difficult to dye than wool or silk. although there are now what are called “direct” cotton colors, the usual process is to first treat the cotton goods with a "mordant"-various salts of aluminum, chromium, iron, tin and copper, fixing these on the fiber by means of tannin or alkali. the mordanted cloth is then entered into the dye bath and boiled for an hour or longer, until the desired shade is obtained or the dye bath exhausted. the salts of aluminum are used as mordants for the lighter shades, the salts of chromium for the medium shades, and iron for the dark shades. in general, chromium mordants give the fastest dyes. the discovery of the so-called aniline dyes has greatly increased the variety of colors available. al- though some of the first aniline dyes to be made were not fast to washing or to light and they thus received a bad reputation, they are now to be obtained which compare favorably in fastness with the natural dye stuffs such as cochineal, madder, etc., provided suf- ficient time and care are given to dyeing. the chief trouble is that in the endeavor to furnish cheap goods, processes are hurried and results are unsatisfactory. aniline dyes textiles and clothing home dyeing home dyeing is practically confined to the use of direct aniline colors. these are put up in small quan- tities and sold in many places. directions for their use are given on the packages. the chief precautions are to have the goods perfectly clean and thoroughly wet before entering into the dye bath (this is by no means as easy as one might think), and to keep the goods in motion while dyeing so as to prevent un- evenness of shade. wool and silk dyes cannot be used for cotton and linen, nor the reverse. of course cloth already colored cannot be dyed a lighter shade of the same color and the original shade must be very light to enable one to change the color, say from red to blue, etc. the original color always modifies that of the dye somewhat and it is best to experiment first with a small portion of the dye and cloth. rather dark shades are apt to be most successful. indigo for blue, madder for turkey red, logwood with fustic for black, cutch or gambia for browns on cotton are about all the natural dyestuffs which are used to any extent commercially at the present time. the artificial product alizerin, the active principle of madder, has about superseded the natural dyestuff, and artificial indigo is gaining on the natural product. linen is bleached and dyed in much the same man- ner as cotton. this weakens linen more than cotton and the finest table linens are whitened by grass bleaching or a combination of grass and chemical bleach. woolen and silk may be dyed directly with a great variety of dyes without the addition of a mordant, natural dyestuffs dyeing woolen and silk printing although they are often mordanted. both must be well washed or scoured before dyeing. when white or delicate shades on woolen or silk are desired they are bleached. the bleaching is usually done with sul- phurous acid gas, the cloth or yarn being exposed in a damp condition to the fumes of burning sulplur. were it not for the expense, hydrogen peroxide would be the ideal bleaching agent for the animal fibers. printing block and machino printing a great variety of colored designs are produced on the loom by using different cciored warp and filling yarns and different weaves, but in all these the designs are easily made only in somewhat rectangular patterns. print goods have doubtless evolved from the deco- ration of fabrics with the brush. block printing was first used, the design being engraved in relief on blocks of wood. these are dipped in the colored paste, spread thinly, and applied to successive portions of the cloth by hand. these blocks are now replaced in the printing machine by engraved copper rolls, the design being such that it is repeated once or a number of times in each revolution of the cylinder. there is a printing roll for each color of the design. sometimes both the background and the design are printed on the cloth, but the more common process is for the design only to be printed on the cloth which may be dyed afterwards. in the paste of the printed design there textiles and clothing fixing the print is some chemical which prevents the portions printed · from taking the dye, consequently these remain white or a different color. this is called the “resist’ process. another process is to first dye the cloth and then print on some chemical which, when the calico is steamed, discharges the color. this is called the "discharge" process. sometimes this weakens the goods in the places where the color has been discharged. the color paste used for printing contains both the dye and the mordant. after the calico has been printed it is steamed to develop and fix the color, washed, sometimes very slightly bleached, to clear the whites, and usually given a sizing of starch or gum, and then pressed and dried by passing over slowly revolving, steam-heated drums. in general print goods are not so fast to washing and to light as those that have been dyed in the regu- lar way, although the better grades are reasonably fast. prints are sometimes made in imitation of the more costly gingham or other goods in which the color design is made in the weaving. it is easy to detect the imitation as the design of printed fabrics does not penetrate to the back of the cloth. sometimes the warps are printed before the cloth is woven, thus giving very pretty indefinite designs, especially in silk. warp printing finishing finishing burling and mending fulling the finishing of woolen and worsted goods has much to do with their appearance. no cloth comes from the loom in a perfect condition, therefore inspection is the first process. loose threads and knots are carefully cut off by the “burler” and imperfections in the weav- ing rectified by the "menders.” the goods may now be singed and sheared. woolens, and sometimes worsteds, are next “fulled” or felted by being run round and round in a machine while moistened with soap. the friction of the cloth on itself produces some heat which, with the mois- ture and soap, causes the goods to shrink in length and width while increasing in thickness. during this proc- ess, "flocks" are often added, especially for smooth finished woolen goods. these flocks are fine fibers of wool obtained from the shearing machine or made by cutting up old woolen cloth. they are felted with the fibers of the goods and add weight and firmness. after the fulling, the goods is washed to remove the soap, dyed, if desired, and often “speck dyed” with a special dye which colors the bits of burs, remaining in the cloth, but not the wool. the next process is the "gigging” which raises the nap. the cloth is run close to rapidly revolving "teazels” and also may be run through a napping machine. it may be sheared again and then steamed and pressed. this is but a brief outline; there are generally more processes. woolen cloth coming from the loom may be so flocks raising the nap textiles and clothing treated in the finishing room as to produce fabrics entirely different in appearance. one of the chief ob- jects of the finishing is to give to the cloth as fine an appearance as possible to attract the buyer. much of the fine finish disappears through wear, especially with inferior goods made from poor materials. the wear- ing quality of the goods is primarily dependent upon the strength and quality of the fibers of which it is made, so that the yarn of the filling and the warp should be examined when selecting materials. in gen- eral, hard twisted yarn wiii give the better wearing cloth. fabrics the present day shops offer such a great variety of fabrics that only a few of the most important can be mentioned here. cotton goods cotton is cool and heavy, is a non-conductor of heat, crushes easily, but like all vegetable fibers it may be laundered without injury to the fibers. cotton does not take the darker dyes as well as animal fibers and for this reason it does not combine satisfactorily with wool. as an adulterant it wears shabby and loses its brightness. it is only when cotton does not pretend to be anything else that it is our most useful and dur- able, textile. the readiness with which cotton takes the lighter dyes and improved methods of ginning, spinning, and weaving have made cotton goods supe- rior to any other for summer use. muslin, calico, and gingham must always head the list of cotton goods. muslin is coarse and fine, bleached, unbleached, and half bleached, twilled or plain weave. under the head of muslin brought to a high degree of perfection in weave and finish will be found dimity, mull, indian lawn, organdie, swiss, and madras, and a host of others equally beautiful. mad- ras muslin has a thin, transparent ground with a heav- ily raised pattern woven of a soft, thick thread unlike the ground work. waste is used for the pattern. or- gandie muslin is soft, opaque, white, or colored, with maslin textiles and clothing raised dots of pattern and plain weave. dimity has a fine cord running with the selva ge. gingham is a smooth, close cotton usually woven in checks or stripes. the yarn is dyed before being woven, making the cloth alike on both sides, and the weave is either plain or twilled. ginghams are also woven of silk and cotton mixed or of silk and ramie. cretonne, chintz, dress linings, crape, velveteen, and iace are made of cotton. flannelette, which is woven to imitate flannel, is soft and light and is preferred by many who find woolen irritating. it does not shrink as woolen does and is made in beautiful, soft colors and the best grades do not fade. for nightdresses, underwear, and sheets, during cold weather this inexpensive fabric is unequaled. among the heavier cotton fabrics may be mentioned denim and ticking which are now printed in beautiful designs and colors and used for interior decoration as well as for clothing and bedding. the great variety of fibers, the many different ways of preparing each for manufacture, the differences in the preparatory processes in spinning, weaving, or in any of the later processes of finishing produce the varied appearance of the finished product in cotton as in other fabrics. linens linen is one of the oldest textiles; it was used by the early egyptians for the priests' garments and for linens tablo linen the wrappings of mummies. many housekeepers think that there is no material for sheets and pillow cases comparable to linen, but it is not an ideal dressing for beds, for in spite of its heavier body, it wrinkles and musses much more readily than good cotton. for table service, however, for the toilet, and for minor ornamental purposes linen has no equal. its smooth- ness of texture, its brilliancy which laundering in- creases, its wearing qualities, its exquisite freshness, make it the one fabric fit for the table. table linen is woven plain and figured, checked and diapered. in the figured or damask cloth the patterns stand out distinctly. this is due to the play of light and shade on the horizontal and vertical lines. in some lights the pattern is scarcely noticeable. when buy- ing a cloth, let it be between the observer and the light, for in this position the pattern will show to the best advantage. there is a certain amount of shade on all horizontal lines or of shadow cast by them, while the vertical lines are illuminated, thus although the warp and woof threads are of the same color, the pattern seems to stand out from the background. linen should not be adulterated. it should be for use and not for show, for use brightens and whitens it. linen adulterated with cotton becomes fuzzy through wear because of the much shorter cotton fibers. the tendency can often be seen by rolling the goods between the thumb and fingers. textiles and clothing crash of different widths and quality furnishes tea towels, “huck,” damask and other weaves come in vari- ous widths and may be purchased by the yard. russia crash is best for kitchen towels. woolens and worsteds standard goods the many grades of wool with the great variety of weaves and finish make an almost infinite variety of woolen and worsted fabrics. new goods are con- stantly being put upon the market, or old goods with new names. standard goods, such as serges, cashmere, henrietta cloth, and covert cloth, are always to be found in the shops. these are all twilled goods. the serges are woven of combed wool and are harsh, tough, springy, worsted fabrics of me- dium and heavy weight, with a distinct twill, rather smooth surface, and plainer back. there are also loosely woven serges. cashmere and henrietta cloth have a fine, irregular twill—the finest made. they are woven with silk, wool, and cotton warp, but the latter gives an inferior textile. tweeds and homespuns are names given to coarse cloth of which the wool is spun by hand and woven on hand looms. these goods vary according to the lo- cality in which they are made. the wool is mixed without regard to color, the yarn being spun and twisted in the most primitive manner, giving the cloth an uneven, unfinished appearance. these are among the best wearing cloths on the market and are espe- tweeds woolens and worsteds harris tweede cially suitable for suits that will receive hard wear. scotland and ireland are famous for their tweeds and homespuns and what are known as the "cottage indus- tries" have been recently revived in those countries as the products of their hand looms have become de- servedly popular abroad. the "harris tweeds," made on the island of lewis and harris, north of scotland, are in the old style by the "crofters." after weaving the goods are “waulked”—milled or felted—with the bare feet, ac- companied by singing the waulking song and beating time with the feet. the dyeing is done in pots in the old-fashioned way and until recently the dyestuffs were obtained from mosses, lichens, heather, broom, and other plants. now, however, some of the best aniline dyes are being used. a peculiar characteristic of the harris tweed is the peat smoke smell caused by the fabı ic being woven in the crofters' cottages, where there is always a strong odor of peat “reek” from the peat which is burned for fuel. the ordinary so-called harris tweeds sold in this country are made on the southern border of scotland, in factories, and are but imitations of the real harris tweeds. the light colored tweeds—natural color of wool- come from the island of st. kilda. this island stands out in mid ocean, barren and wild, devoid of plants or shrubs of any kind for making dyes. the crofters content themselves without dyestuffs. the industry textiles and clothing is maintained by nobility to help the islanders and the fabrics are fashionable and high priced. the foregoing represent the worsteds. among the heavy woolens are covert cloth, a twilled fabric of hard finish and great durability, melton, doeskin, broadcloth and cassimeres. the light weight woolen goods are represented by crepe cloth, with crinkled, rough surface, nun's veiling, flannel, which is woven in many ways and given various names, wool canvas, and poplins. the list might be extended, but these fabrics are always to be found in the shops of good color and are the best of the all wool fabrics for wear. mohair is a material made from the hair of the angora goat, woven with silk, wool, worsted, or cotton warp. it is a dust-shedding material, does not shrink, and bears hard wear well. alpaca, on account of its alpaca softness, elasticity, and exemption from shaggy defects, combines admirably with cotton in the manufacture of fine goods, which attains almost the glossy brightness of silk. the yarn is used for weaving alpaca linings and light coatings for warm climates. mohair silks many silks can be washed without injury to the fi- bers, but they cannot be boiled without destroying the luster. silks may be had in various widths and end- less variety of weaves. many are reversible. silks are adulterated with cotton and ramie fibers. the chemicals used in "loading” or “dynamiting” to give the weight lost by cleaning or removing the gum loading bilk silks wash silks from the raw silk give to the cheaper grades the stiff, harsh feeling and cause the splitting and cracking of the silk, hence the quality of the fiber should be con- sidered when selecting a silk, not the weight. taffeta is often heavily loaded. foulard and surah are twilled silks. corded silks are woven with a cord running from selvage to selv- age. to this class belong the grosgrains, ottoman, faille francaise—a silk resembling grosgrain, but softer and brighter. irish poplins and bengalines have wool for the filling instead of silk. great improvement has been made in the manufac- ture of wash silks. they are fine in color and have a glossy surface. pongee is a beautiful, durable silk in different shades of natural color. it is woven in dif- ferent widths. this silk is especially valuable for un- derwear. the first cost is greater, but it outwears muslin or linen. it is also used for children's gar- ments and for outside wraps. for many purposes, no better textile can be found. crepe de chine is an incomparable textile possess- ing as much softness as strength. it is always supple, never creases, launders well, and comes in the most beautiful soft shades as well as in black and dark colors. satin is distinguished by its glossy, lustrous surface, obtained in the weaving. piled fabrics are rich, thick materials made of silk, wool, mohair, and cotton, comprising the velvets, vel- veteens, plushes, corduroys, and wilton and velvet car- piled fabrics textiles and clothing velvet pets. the soft, raised pile is first woven in loops- brussels carpet is a good example—and the loops are cut. the back of the goods is plain. velvet has always and justly been regarded as the most beautiful of textiles. no matter how fashions change in regard to other materials, velvet never loses its vogue. for robes and cloaks, for mantles and jack- ets, for hats and bonnets, for trimming and decoration, velvet has been popular for a greater period than the life of any living mortal, but never before has it been so cheap, so varied and so beautiful as it is now. one can in the passing throng of pedestrians on any crowded street see the use and abuse of this noble material. there is scarcely an article of dress into whose composition it does not enter and it is worn upon all occasions. many things have brought about this result. the tendency of fashion is towards the decorative and picturesque and in these qualities vel- vet excels all other fabrics. silk waste and thread are cheaper than ever before so that velvet costs much less than formerly. the men behind the looms have evolved more designs and novelties in the making of velvet than has ever been known and colors beautiful in themselves are seemingly enhanced when applied to velvet. all that has been said in favor of velvet applies equally as well to the best velveteen, in fact it is a textile of even greater value and beauty than velvet the best grades are not cheap, but they wear better velveteen fabrics widths of fabrics than silk velvet, are fine and silky, excellent in color and sheen, launder well, and do not press-mark as does silk velvet. velveteen takes the dye so beautifully and finishes so well that it has taken rank with our best standard fabrics. it is made entirely of cotton. it varies in width but is always wider than velvet. a knowledge of the various widths of textiles is im- portant in buying. transparent fabrics are usually wider than heavier goods made of the same fiber. muslin is wider than calico or ordinary print, and thin silk fabrics such as mull and chiffon are wider than velvet. in wool dress goods various distinct widths are known as single-thirty and thirty-six inches-double fold (forty-five and fifty-four inches), etc. silk, vel- vet, and velveteen are single width. the velvet ranges from eighteen to twenty-four inches in width and vel- veteen twenty-seven. bodice linings vary from thirty- five to thirty-eight inches; skirt linings come in both single and double fold. household linen including bedding varies in width from one yard to two and one-fourth and two and one- half yards for sheeting and from thirty-eight to fifty- four inches for pillow case muslin. table linen is woven in both square and circular cloths of various sizes, and napkins vary in width from the small sizes to a yard square. no fixed widths can be given for any textile as width often changes with the weave. textiles and clothing names of fabrics textiles usually take their names from the country, city, port, or province from whence they originated; from the names of the makers; and methods of weav- ing, dyeing, ornamentation, etc. the fixing of locali- ties, methods, etc., is oftentimes guesswork. the tex- tiles of to-day bearing the same name as those of the iniddle ages have nothing in common. buckram was originally made in and called from bokkara. in the middle ages it was costly, fine, and beautiful, used for church vestments, veils for covering lecterns, cathe- dral flags, and in the th century for the lining of vel- vet gowns. the coarse, heavy, plain-woven linen or cotton material known as buckram today is used for stiffening, etc. fustian, a kind of corduroy or velveteen, was orig- inally woven at fustat on the nile. the warp was stout linen, the woof of cotton so twilled and cut that it gave a low thick pile. chaucer's knight in the four- teenth century wore fustian. in the fifteenth century naples was famous for the weaving of fustians. a cloth made in france at a town called mustre- villiers was known as “mustyrd devells." china is supposed to be the first country to weave patterned silks. india, persia, syria, and byzantine greece followed. those were known as "diaspron" cr diaper, a name given them at constantinople. in the twelfth century, the city of damascus, long famed fustian damask fabrics muslin for her beautiful textiles, outstripped all other places for beauty of design and gave the damascen or da- mask, so we have in modern times all fabrics whether of silk, cotton, wool, or linen, curiously woven and designed, known as damask, and diaper, which means pattern, is almost forgotten, or only a part of the elab- orate design on damask. bandekin, a costly cloth, took its name from bagdad. dorneck an inferior damask woven of silk, wool, linen, thread and gold, was made in flanders at the city of dorneck. from the asiatic city mosul came the muslin used then as it is now throughout the world. so skilled were its weavers that the threads were of hair-like fineness. this was known as the invisible muslin, the weaving of which has become a lost art. to this beau- tiful cloth were given many fanciful and poetic names. it was woven with strips of gold and silver. calico derives its name from the city of calicut in india. the city is scarcely known to-day; it was the first indian city visited by europeans. in the thirteenth century arras was famous for its areste or tapestry, “the noblest of the weaving arts”; in it there is nothing mechanical. mechanical weaving repeats the pattern on the cloth within comparatively narrow limits and the number of colors is in most cases limited to four or five. silks and cottons are distinguished through their colors and shades. tarsus was a purple silk. other cities gave their name to various shades, according as calico textiles and clothing they were dyed at antioch, alexandria, or at naples. watered or moire silk takes its name from the finish. from "canabis," the latin name for hemp or flax, we have the word “canvas” to mean any texture woven of hempen thread. to this list of fabrics might be added many others of cotton, linen, wool, and silk with new names, closely resembling the old materials, having greater or less merit. the following lists of fabrics and terms may be help- ful for reference: art linen-with round, hard twisted threads. “albert cloth”—named for england's prince, is a reversible all-wool material each side of different colors and so finished that no lining is required. it is used chiefly for overcoats and better known as “golf cloth,” “plaid back," etc. armure-a cloth woven in miniature imitation of feudal metal armor plates, heraldic devices, diamonds, birdseye, and seeded effects. astrakhan-a woolen or silk material with a long and closely curled pile in imitation of the fur from which it is named. backed-cloth worsteds or other fabrics which are woven with an extra layer of warp or other filling underneath the face, usually for increased weight and bulk. batiste—the french word for lawn, fine white cotton or linen fabric. sometimes printed. batting or padding, cotton or wool prepared in sheets for quilting or interlining. beaver-similar to kersey, but with a longer nap, soft, thick nap inside. bedford cord-a closely woven woolen or cotton cloth having a raised corded surface similar to pique, used for women's suits. bonde-a loosely woven fabric with a curly, hairy surface, usually made with a jersey or stockinet body. fabrics bourette-an effect of weaving produced by fancy yarns showing in lumps at intervals over the face of the cloth; used for women's and children's suits. beverteen-a heavy cotton cloth used for men's hunting garments. broadcloth-a fine woolen cloth with a glossy finished surface, the better grades being woven with a twilled back. it takes its name from its width. it is used for men's and women's wear. buckram-a coarse, heavy, plain-woven linen or cotton ma- terial used for stiffening. buckskin-a stout doe skin with a more defined twill. butternut—the coarse brown twilled homespun cloth woven of wool prior to the civil war-colored brown with dye from the butternut or walnut tree; used for men's wear and for decorative purposes. cambric-fine white linen, also made in cotton in imitation. camel's hair-a beautiful, soft, silky fabric, usually woven like cheviot of hair of camel and goat. canvas-a linen, cotton, silk, or wool cloth of different weaves and widths, used for many purposés-clothing, as a background for embroidery, hangings, spreads, etc. canton fannel-a stout, twilled cotton cloth with a nap on one or both sides, used for clothing and decorative pur- poses. cassimere-a general term for all-wool fabrics woven either plain or twilled, coarse or fine, of woolen yarn. the pat- tern is always woven plain and distinct and the cloth is never napped. castor beaver-a heavy, milled, face-finished, all-wool cloth lighter in weight than ordinary beaver. chinchilla—a thick, heavy, double woven fabric with a long napped surface curled up into little tufs in imitation of chinchilla fur; used for coats. clan tartan—the plaids of the various highland clans of scotland. clay-a name given to serges, worsteds, and diagonals woven after a process of j. & p. clay of haddersfield, eng- land. coating-those woolen and worsted fabrics most especially adapted to men's dress and overcoats. textiles and clothing re- corduroy–a thick cotton pile material, corded or ribbed on the surface; used for men's, women's, and children's wear. corkscrew-worsted goods-so-called from its fancied semblance to the twists of the corkscrew. cotton worsted-all cotton or part cotton worsted-wove cloth. cottonade—stout cotton cloth in imitation of woolen or worsted cloth; used for men's trousers. covert-a twill-woven cloth sometimes with full face, some- times sheared to imitate whipcord. crape cloth—a stout worsted fabric with surface in imitation of silk crape, used for dress coats. crash—a strong, coarse linen cloth of different widths, used for towels, suits, table linen, hangings, bed spreads; in fact, there is no end to the uses to which this textile can be adapted. cravenette-cloths treated and finished before weaving by an improved process which renders them rainproof. Á secret process owned by the cravenette company and by priestly & company of england and the united states. crepe-a light weight silk, silk and wool, or all wool or cot- ton cloth of irregular weave. diagonal-a worsted cloth with prominent diagonal ridges. doeskin-a compact twilled woolen, soft and pliable. drap d’alma-a fine, close, flat-ribbed, twilled fabric of wool or silk and wool, finished on but one side. drap d'ete—a fine, light worsted fabric woven in longitudi- nal cords. drilling—general term for various twilled cotton stuffs used for lining, men's wear, and general purposes. empress cloth-a heavy dress goods with napped or corded surface, named for the empress eugenia; sometimes called electrol cloth or beretz. etamine-a light woolen cloth similar to batiste and nun's cloth, used for women's and children's wear. faille francaise-a soft, lustrous silk of wider cord than grosgrain, but narrower than ottoman. farmer satin-a lining of cotton chain or warp and wool filling, finished with high lustre, also called italian cloth. flannel-a soft, light weight woolen fabric of which the yarn is but lightly twisted, plain weave or twilled; used for clothing, etc. fabrics flannelette-a half cotton or all cotton flannel-like fabric. frieze-a thick, shaggy, heavy nap woolen overcoat cloth. gingham was first manufactured in gonghamp in france and was known as madras gingham. seersucker gingham was originally a thin linen fabric made in the east indies. zephyr gingham is a soft fine variety of scotch and french ginghams, are superior qualities, heavier in weight. fur beaver-a long napped cloth imitation fur. grass cloth-a fine, smooth, linen woven in checks of blue and white, red and white, etc., used for dish towels; also a thin dress material of ramie and cotton, etc. grenadine-a thick silk gauze, either plain with a solid design or pattern upon it or combined in stripes with other weaves, as satin, moire, etc. grosgrain-a close-woven, finely ribbed or corded silk with but little lustre. haircloth-a cloth woven of horse hair, from which it takes its name, for weft with cotton or linen warp; used for facings, linings, furniture cover, etc. holland-a stout, plain-woven, unbleached, linen cloth used for linings, window shades, etc. homespun-a cloth woven on hand looms or made in imita- tion of such cloth for both men's and women's wear. hop-sacking—a plain woven canvas dress fabric of wool. huchaback-a corruption of huckster-back, meaning orig- inally pedler's ware-toweling made of all linen, linen and cotton, cotton and wool, either by the yard or as separate towels; the part wool huck always separate towels. irish linen-full bleached, fine, plain woven linen used for shirts, collars, cuffs, etc., of different widths. jersey cloth-woolen stockinette. kaikai–a thin japanese silk. kersey-a heavy, closely woven cloth with a smooth face and glossy finish. kerseymere-a fine, twilled, woolen cloth of peculiar tex- ture, one thread of warp and two of woof being always above. khaki-a light, yellow-brown colored cotton cloth used for army service in hot countries. ladies' cloth-a fine, wide, wool flannel, slightly napped, similar to broadcloth. textiles and clothing lusterine-a thin, twilled, cotton lining finished with high lustre in imitation of silk. marseilles—a sort of figured pique, used for women's and children's clothes and for men's coats. matelasse-a silk and wool or all wool brocade, usually for coats. melton-a stout woolen cloth, 'fulled, sheared, and finished without a nap; like kersey, but without a gloss. merino-a thin woolen fabric made of the fine wool of the marion sheep, generally used for women's and children's wear, vestings, and underclothing. mohair-a shiny fabric of great durability, made from the wool of the angora goat; used for both men's and women's clothing. moire—the water effect produced on silk, moreen, and like fabrics. the finest watered silks are known as moire antique. moreen is a woolen or mixed fabric to which the same process has been applied. moleskin—a medium heayy twilled cotton cloth, napped in- side; used for men's wear and ornamental purposes. muslin-a cotton fabric of various classes and names; bleached and unbleached, half bleached, cambric, book mus- lin, long cloth, mull, organdie, lawns, etc.; used for all purposes. nankeen-a peculiar fabric of a pale dull yellow or orange color, woven out of the fibrous tissue which lies between the outer and sap-wood of a tree or shrub that grows in the east indies and especially in china. the name is de- rived from the city of nankin. an imitation is made out of cotton, colored with annato. the genuine nankeen is never more than eighteen or twenty inches wide and is used for light summer clothing. overcoating-fabrics woven especially for overcoats-covert, kersey, melton, beaver, frieze, vicuna, whipcord, cheviot, chinchilla, etc., made of both wool and worsted. pique-a heavy cotton cloth having a surface that is corded or having a raised lozenge pattern; used for women's and children's suits, men's vests, etc. prunella-lasting cloth. sateen-a close twilled cotton fabric, soft and glossy, used for lining. textiles and clothing cord–the general term is applied to any fabric in which the lines run in the same direction as the selvage. count-in spinning, the number given to any thread or yarn, except silk, to indicate its relative fineness, based on the number of yards required to weigh one pound. felt-a cloth of wool, hair, fur, etc., not woven, but felted together; used for hats, slippers, boot tops, etc. flock-finely divided woolen waste used in finishing cheap woolens. kemps—fibers of hair like structure that sometimes come in wool, always in goat hair. they do not take the dye. mercerized-a term applied to cotton fabrics of which the yarn is chemically treated with a strong solution of caustic soda, giving the appearance of silk, more or less permanent; named after mercer, discoverer of the process. mill ends-trade term referring to short lengths, seconds, damaged pieces, etc., of cloth, embroideries, etc., that ac- cumulate in mills and shops and are usually sold at a nominal price. narrow cloth—trade term for fabrics less than inches wide. wider cloths are called broad cloths. oil-boiled-trade term for colors so treated to insure per- manence. oiled silk-the plain silk boiled in oil. silk boiled in oil and dried, becoming translucent and waterproof; used as a perspiration guard. pepper-and-salt-a black and white or grayish mixture, ef- fected in weaving. rubber cloth—usually cotton sheeting or drilling with a coating of rubber on one side; used as protective cloth for various purposes. shepherd check-tiny checks, usually black and white. twilled-woven in such a manner as to produce lines or ribs diagonally or across the surface of the fabric. woolens-name of fabrics of carded wool, usually soft woven. worsteds–fabrics made of combed wool, usually hard woven. the combing is the process of arranging the fibers of wool, mohair, cotton, linen, into a parallel con- dition, preparatory to spinning into a smooth, even and regular yarn. the perfected application of the combing principle. bibliography on textiles historical and art arts and crafts' essays morris, crane, et al. colonial days in old new england alice morse earle. the primitive family starcke. man before metals joly. origin of inventions mason. woman's share in primitive culture mason. textiles—the lesser arts william morris. industrial evolution of the united states carroll d. wright. $ . postage . . postage , . postage . . postage . . postage . . postage . . postage . . postage . technical books through a special arrangement with the american school of correspondence we are able to lend or sell to our students some of their textile books, which are technical though simple. price cents per part, postage c. textile chemistry and dyeing. parts. part i. textile fibers. part ii. bleaching. part iii. mordants and natural dyes. part iv. artificial dyestuffs. cotton fiber. cotton spinning. parts. weaving. parts. textiles and clothing textile design. parts. woolen and worsted spinning. parts. woolen and worsted finishing. parts. textile fibers $ . mathews. postage . textile fabrics . rock. postage . dyeing of textile fabrics . hummell. postage bleaching and calico printing . duerr. postage . note.-books may be ordered through the school or may be borrowed by members for one week. send postage with request. . u. s. government publication free of the department of agriculture, washington, d. c.: flax for seed and fiber, farmers' bulletin no. . cotton seed and its products, farmers' bulletin no. . raising sheep, farmers' bulletin no. . the angora goat, farmers' bulletin no. . silk worm culture, farmers' bulletin no. . essential steps in securing an early crop of cotton, farmers' bulletin no. . the cotton seed industry, reprint no. . · the hemp industry in u. s., reprint no. . improvement of cotton by seed selection, reprint no. . the growing of long-staple upland cotton, reprin! no. . principal commercial plant fibers, reprint no. . bibliography on textiles for sale by the superintendent of documents, washington, d. c. send coin or money order,-stamps not accepted: sheep and wool, report no. , office of the secretary. price c. the cotton plant: its history, botany, chemistry, ene- mies, and uses. bulletin no. . office of experi- ment stations. price oc. cotton culture in egypt. bulletin no. . price c. office of fiber investigations. uncultivated bast fibers. report no. . price oc. cultivation of ramie. eport no. . price foc. culture of hemp and jute. report no. . price loc. fax culture for seed and fiber. report no. . price loc. test questions the following questions constitute the "written reci. tation” which the regular menībers of the a. s. h. e. answer in writing and send in for the correction and comment of the instructor. they are intended to emphasize and fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. textiles and clothing part i read carefully. place your name and address on the first sheet of the test. use a light grade of paper and write on one side of the sheet only. leave space between the answers for the notes of the instructor. answer every question fully. read the lesson paper a number of times before attempting to answer the questions. i. give a brief outline of the craft of spinning, primitive and modern. . outline the same for weaving. . describe the hand loom. . describe the cotton fiber. what kinds are there? . who invented the cotton gin and how did this in- vention affect the cotton industry? . give the chief characteristics of wool. name the wool and fur bearing animals. how does wool differ from hair? . trace briefly the prepartion of wool from the fleece to the finished product. . describe flax and outline the method for the preparation of the fibers. what is the name of the manufactured product of flax? . name some other bast fibers and their products ? . how do the textile fibers compare in the raw state in condition and price? ii. give a brief description of silk from the egg to the woven cloth. textiles and clothing . (a) what is the chief constituent of the vege- table fibers? (b) how does their affinity for dyestuffs compare with wool and silk? (c) how do the alkalies affect wool? . describe the principal weaves and give examples of each. . (a) how are cotton and flax bleached? (b) what is a mordant? (c) how should mate- rial be prepared for dyeing ? (d) state what you know about old time methods of dyeing. . how are print goods made? name some print- ed fabrics. . define woolens and worsteds. . describe the finishing of woolen and worsted cloths. . what is noil; shoddy; felt; flocks? . with what dress goods have you had experience, and with what results ? . what factors determine the use of fabrics ? . of what value is the study of textiles ? what have you gained by the study of this lesson? note. after completing the test sign your full name. textiles and clothing part ii gg b d la embroidered initials w and l-sewed on initials; b-satin stitch in wreath of feather stitches; c-outline and seed work; d-chain and french knots; h- cross stitch; l-chain; h-at the right, and the cross stitch h are made over canvas and the canvas threads drawn. textiles and clothing part ii kinds of sewing hand sewing good sewing, good pressing, well finished ends and corners, lightness of touch which holds the work without apparently touching it, thus giving to the fin- ished garment a fresh look-all these are important considerations. the sewing done on wool, silk, and dresses of all kinds differs from that on underwear and white work. muslin underwear requires frequent washing and iron- ing, hence the first essential is durability; close, small stitches, all raw edges carefully turned and stitched securely. seams that are to come close to the body should lie perfectly flat. a round seam would wear out sooner by coming into frequent contact with the washboard and iron, besides irritating the skin. in dressmaking, unless the stitching is used for orna- mental purposes, it should never show on the outside. periods of beautiful and dignified costume have been periods of fine needlework-one art leading to and helping on the production of the other. stitches may be divided into plain and ornamental. the plain stitches are the ( ) basting, ( ) running, ( ) the running and back stitch, ( ) half back stitch, ( ) back stitch, ( ) overhand or whipping stitch, ( ) overcast, ( ) hemming, and ( ) blind or slip stitch. plain stitches textiles and clothing ornamental stitches the ornamental stitches most frequently used are ( ) outline, ( ) chain, ( ) cat or herringbone, ( ) blanket or loop, ( ) feather, coral or briar, ( ) hem- stitching, ( ) french knots, ( ) button hole, and ( ) cross stitch. excepting the cross stitch, these are all variations of the plain and button hole stitches. the plain stitches may be used for ornamental pur- poses. the basting stitch is known as queen anne darned work. the back stitch, known as "seed work,' is used in embroidering letters and monograms. the overhand stitch is used as an ornamental stitch for joining selvages and in hemming. the chain stitch, besides being ornamental, makes one of the best darning stitches, reproducing the stitch in knitting. the cat stitch is also useful in binding down open seams for flannel hems, patching, etc. ( ) basting proper is used only in the preparation of work to hold the stuff and lining, or any two or more parts of the work together while it is being stitched, none being left in the finished garment. it is also used as a guide for sewing, feather stitching, etc. the slanting basting stitch or “tacking" is used in dressmaking for holding linings. the needle is pointed towards the worker. even basting is used for holding several thicknesses of cloth and if the garment is to be fitted, the stitches should be placed rather close. un- even basting is used for hems and seams to be machine stitched. several short stitches with one long one are basting tucking stitches and their uses used to baste crape and wiry fabrics, for this method holds them better than stitches of equal length. all basting should be fastened at start with a knot or knot and back stitch and finished with two or three back stitches. the length of thread may be broken or fastening the thread a b :- c d basting stitches a-even; -uneven;. c-for wiry fabrics; d-tacking; e-over- casting; f-double or tailor overcasting. cut from the spool, but should always be cut from the work. breaking weakens the fastening and biting off soils delicate work with the moisture from the breath, to say nothing of the injury to the teeth. basting for large work should usually be done with the goods ly- ing flat on the sewing table. iio textiles and clothing drawing basting threads for ordinary work, basting threads should be cut every few inches and drawn out. in velvet, every al- ternate stitch should be cut and drawn out on the right side with the pile of the goods. in the basting for vel- vet where the slanting stitch is used, only one end of the stitch touches the line of the seam—the rest is on the outside of the seam. silk thread should be used position of the hands in running running stitch to baste velvet and gauze; fine thread should be used for basting delicate work. ( ) running is closely related to basting. it is not used for any seams that have to bear great strain, but for joining seams in this material, gathering, tucking, making cords, etc. the stitches are usually of equal length on both sides. take one stitch in the seam and hold the goods between the thumb and first finger of each hand, as shown in the illustration, with the back of the thimble on the eye of the needle. then, with as free wrist motion as possible, run or shake the needle through the material. the motion of the hand should come from the elbow joint. stitches and their uses i gathoring gathering, gauging, casing, etc., are used for draw- ing up the fullness of skirts, ruffles, flounces, etc., into a given space. the running stitch is used for these. for gathering, the cloth is held in the same manner as for running. the needle, ordinarily, need not be taken out of the work, the stitches being pushed back over the eye as they are made; but for running long skirt seams in delicate material which would crinkle at the line of sewing and roughen the seam, the needle should be drawn through and the line of sewing smoothed on the thread at each needleful of stitches. never use a double thread for gathering, as it is apt to knot, but put in two lines of gathering threads- one a full one-eighth of an inch below the other-and slip the stitches along the needle as described above. this method is a saving of time in the end. when the gathering threads are in, remove the needle, place a pin vertically close to the last stitch, and wind the thread around it a few times in the form of a figure eight. use a coarse needle for stroking. hold the work between the thumb and fingers of the left hand with the thumb on the gathering threads. to place the gathers, put the point of the needle under the lower gathering thread and press the plait or gather under the thumb, drawing the needle down, or simply press- ing on the needle. care must be taken not to scratch or tear the material. continue entirely across the gathers, putting the needle under each stitch and hold- ing the plait firmly between the thumb and finger: turn stroking textiles and clothing gauging running and back stitch the material and stroke the upper edge of the gathers. the gauging stitch is usually longer on the face than on the back, draws the material up into distinct plaits, making it easy to dispose of the fullness neatly, regu- larly and securely by overhanding the top edge of each plait to the bottom edge of the band. the right side of the skirt and the right side of the belt are placed against each other and each gather oversewed to the belt. the space into which the material is to be gath- ered determines the length of the long stitch. the succeeding rows of stitches should be directly under those of the first. ( ) the running and back stitch is made by taking a few running stitches, drawing out the needle and making a back stitch over the last running stitch to strengthen the seam. care must be taken not to hold the side next the worker too full and not to miss the under material, but to take the stitches even on both sides. ( ) the half-back stitch is made by taking one stitch and placing the needle half way back, then bring- ing it out twice the length of the stitch and placing the needle half way back each time from where the last stitch ended. the appearance on the right side will be of regular space as in the running stitch. ( ) the back stitch is made by placing the needle back to the last stitch, bringing it out once the length of the last stitch, then placing the needle back into the half back stitch back stitch stitches and their uses last stitch, and so on, making the stitches follow each other with no space between. this is used in places that are to bear great strain as in sewing in sleeves. ( ) overhanding, oversewing, whipping, top sew- ing are one and the same—small stitches taken over whipping stitch b u plain stitches a-running; –running and back; c-half back; d-back stitch. edges, to join folded edges or selvages, for sewing bands on gathers, sewing lace and insertion, and for sewing carpet strips together. the pieces for an over- hand seam should be pinned carefully, placing the pins at right angles to the edge. the folded edges or sel- vages are placed together, the right side of the goods textiles and clothing position in overhanding being in. do not use a knot to begin sewing, but leave the knot end of the thread and sew it in with the first stitches, carrying the thread on top of the seam. to finish off the seam, overhand back over the last few stitches. in sewing this seam, the goods should be held be- tween the thumb and first finger of the left hand par- allel with the chest, not over the end of finger. point the needle towards the left shoulder, thus giving a slanting stitch. care should be taken not to pucker or draw the seam. when the seam is finished, it should be opened and pressed flat. ( ) overcasting is a slanting stitch used to keep raw edges from ravelling. this stitch, like oversew- ing, may be worked from right to left or from left to right. the hem stitch and blind or slip stitch will be con- sidered under hems. overcasting outlino stitch ornamental stitches never use a knot in any embroidery, but start by running a few stitches along the line which is to be covered. ( ) the outline stitch is the simplest of all embroid- ery stitches. take a long stitch on the surface, with the needle pointing towards the chest in the line to be covered, and a short back stitch on the under side of the material. the effect of the under or wrong side of the material is exactly that of an ordinary back stitch. the beauty of this stitch depends upon its کو شروع ornamental stitches a–outline; b-chain ; c—cat; c'—catch; d–single feather; e-double feather; f-tripple feather; g-modified feather; h-double feather with knots; i-french knots and outline; j-herrine bone; k-fancy feather; -catch stitch with french knots. textiles and clothing chain stitch regularity and in always keeping the thread on the same side of the needle. ( ) the chain stitch when perfectly done should look like the stitch made by a single-thread machine. this stitch is made by taking the thread toward the worker, and before the needle is drawn out of the cloth the thread is held by the thumb under the point of the needle, as in a buttonhole, making a loop. the needle is inserted in the last loop for the next stitch. the chain stitch is used in modern embroidery as an outline and for darning, but in old embroidery, the outline and chain stitches were used for filling as well. they are found in persian, indian, and italian renais- sance work. like the feather stitch, the chain stitch is worked towards the worker. ( ) the cat stitch or herringbone stitch is an alter- nate slanting back stitch, the needle being placed first to the right and then to the left. this stitch must be worked evenly to be effective. it is used to finish flan- nel seams and hems, fasten down linings, opened seams, and canvas facings and featherbone, in milli- nery—in fact, this stitch is one of the most useful in sewing. the catch stitch is a variation of the cat stitch. instead of pointing the needle towards the chest, the stitch is taken parallel with the chest. it is used for about the same purposes as the cat stitch. as with the outline stitch, the cat stitch is worked from the worker. ( ) blanket or loop stitch, used to ornament the edge of blankets, etc., and for finishing the edge of cat stitch loop stitch bo ko hem stitching -position of needle; a'-finished hem stitch; –ladder stitch; example of drawn work finished with loop and cat stitches, textiles and clothing er. feather stitch stockinet or web material, is worked from left to right, the edge of the material being held towards the work- start with three or four running stitches along the edge so the line of stitching will cover them. in- sert the needle the desired width from the edge, draw it towards you down over the thread, being careful not to draw the thread too tightly over the edge of the flannel. fasten the thread by taking running stitches under the last blanket stitch on the wrong side. ( ) single, double, and triple feather or coral stitches may be made very ornamental and are used in all kinds of sewing and on all materials. they are al- ways made towards the worker, the stitches being taken alternately to the right and left of the line of the design. the thread should always be carried un- der the needle as in a buttonhole stitch. the design may be varied by taking the stitches diagonally or straight, by making them close or separated, etc. ( ) hemstitching is used for ornament in making hems and tucks. the first step in hemstitching is the drawing of threads. rubbing the cloth along the line of threads to be drawn will make the drawing easier if the cloth is sized. after the threads are drawn, the hem is turned and basted even with the lowest edge of the drawn space. insert the needle into the edge of the hem and material, taking up a cluster of threads bring the thread under the needle to form a button- hole stitch or make a simple stitch in the edge of the fold. the number of threads drawn and the number in a cluster must be determined by the coarseness or fine- hom stitch ornamental stitches ness of the material, the greater number being drawn and taken in fine material. there are several methods of hemstitching, but the results are about the same. french knots embroidery stitches eyelet embroidery. embroidery button hole, flat satin stitch. ( ) french knots are used in connection with other stitches for borders enclosed in outline and chain stitches, in initials, centers of flowers, and as a filling- in stitch. the simplest method is of taking a small back stitch, bringing the thread from the eye of the needle under the point from right to left and drawing i textiles and clothing embroidery buttonhole cross stitch the needle perpendicularly from the cloth. place the needle back of the knot and bring the point out in the place where the next knot is to be made. the size of the thread will determine the size of the knot. ( ) the embroidery buttonhole stitch has many pos- sibilities and many variations. it is worked from left to right instead of from right to left as in a buttonhole. the thread from the work is carried under the point of the needle from left to right, just the reverse of the buttonhole. this stitch is used on flannel and in eni- broidery of all kinds ; it may be padded or worked flat and the stitches may be taken a distance apart or near together. ( ) the cross stitch is worked on linen, scrini, can- vas, or any open-meshed material. if done on a flat, smooth surface, it will be necessary to work over can- vas, afterwards drawing out the canvas threads. the canvas should be well basted on the material, the warp threads of the canvas lying perfectly straight on a line with the warp threads of the material on which the pattern is worked. the stitches should always run the same way. if the first ground stitches are made from left to right, from bottom towards the top, the cross stitches should be made from right to left from the top towards the bottom. all the ground stitches run one way and the cross stitches in the opposite way. this stitch is used for marking table linen, under- wear, and embroidery designs. when marking linen and unlined work, make the under side very neat by running the thread under the stitches already made, ornamental stitches i batin stitch instead of taking a long stitch when beginning in an- other part of the letter or design. ( ) the satin stitch is an over and over stitch and is used on materials of all kinds for marking linen, etc. the padding is the first step and should be done in long even stitches placed closely and over one another in the center. the size and proportions of the figure or letters determine the size of the thread. fine thread gives the best results. the outline should be run embroidery button hole and blanket stitches scallops outlined and padded. twice; this keeps the edge firm. an even darning or basting stitches, chain stitches or outline stitch may be used if the space is not too small. the padding may be worked in an embroidery hoop to keep it smooth and even. scallops may be padded in the same way, or worked flat. in large figures the stitches are laid closely and ex- actly parallel the entire length of the form. they may be straight across or at an angle, but the one slant must be maintained throughout. in small curved figures, textiles and clothing the stitches may be placed more closely at the inner edge and spread slightly at the outer edge. in flat work where the leaf or petal is large, two or three stitches taken in the cloth, back of the face stitch, aa arrow head. double arrow head and crow's foot. eyelet embroidery holds them even and prevents misplacement in launder- ing. (all embroidery should be ironed on the wrong side.) eyelet embroidery is a simple over and over stitch forming a smooth, round edge. like satin stitch, all outlines are run with an even darning stitch, except the very small eyelet holes, made with a stiletto. long or oval openings must be cut through the center. hems shadow embroidery arrow heads shadow embroidery is worked on the wrong side of thin material, using the cat stitch. the outline of the design only shows on the right side, the body of the design being seen dimly through the material. the arrow head and crow's foot are ornamental fastenings used in fine tailoring as endings for seams, tucks, plaits, and at corners. they are made as shown in the illustration. mercerized cotton, linen, or any of the embroidery silks can be used for these stitches, in all sizes and colors, or they can be worked with ordinary thread, cotton or linen, sewing silk, or twist. cotton thread wears better than linen. hems hems a hem is a fold of goods twice folded to protect a folding raw edge. the first turn or fold of the hem is the most important. it should be straight and even, folded to a thread, for upon it depends the beauty of the hem. the hem should always be turned towards the worker and creased firmly, but never pleated along the fold. first crease the narrow fold, then crease the second fold the desired width, marking by a measure and baste not too near the edge. the first fold along the woof threads should be at least one-fourth of an inch in width, as the woof threads give or stretch more than the warp threads; otherwise it will not lie flat. in sewing the hem, the needle should take up only sowing the edge to be hemmed down and just enough to hold on the cloth or lining. in white work the stitches shouid be fine, showing as little as possible. homs textiles and clothing bics hom facod hom all bias and curved edges should have the first fold basted. in cloth or silk this first basting thread should match the material and not be taken out. a facing or faced hem is also used as a protection to the edge of a garment. a true bias or fitted facing should be used for a facing if the edges of the garment are curved. an extension hem is one in which the whole width of the hem is used. foretretera lsid order senare mesas hemming a-shows method of cutting to do away with a clumsy corner. hems slip-stitching or invisible hemming is done on silk, slip-stitching wool, and thick material. the hem is pressed with an iron, a stitch as fine as possible is taken on the surface of the cloth and the needle slipped under and through the first fold, drawing the thread lightly. the needle and thread used in this stitch must be very fine. mitered co ners method of folding and cutting. textiles and clothing rollod hom rolled hem and whipped gathers are made with the wrong side of the material next the worker. make a tiny roll of the edge towards the worker, using the gen rolled hem and whipped gathers a-rolled hem gathered ; —whipped roll; c-double whipped; d-roll hommed; e-gathers sewed to band. left thumb and index finger, rolling an inch at a time (and no more) before hemming. make fine, even stitches in the roll and goods. keep the hem perfectly round, firm and not too large. this hem is adapted hems gathers only to fine material and the edge across the warp is the more easily rolled. to gather, whip the rolled hem without hemming, whipped making overcasting stitches towards you, even and not too fine. use coarser thread than for hemming. this gathering thread is used to hold down the edge as well as for drawing up the gathers and is not to be taken out, as is the ordinary gathering thread. it should not catch in the roll. have the thread the length of the plain space to which it is to be sewed and regulate the gathers as you do the gathering. after the edge is rolled, whipped and gathered, it is sewed to the garment by the little scallops or raised parts made by the whipping. this is used only for making ruffles or gathering on very fine hand work. the french hem is used for table linen. fold as in an ordinary hem, then fold the hem back on the right side and overhand the edge formed, taking fine stitches. press the hem flat from the right side. flannel hems should not be twice folded, for there flannel will be a ridge instead of a flat surface after the gar- ment has been laundered, owing to the felting proper- ties of the wool. hems on flannel should not be stitched by hand or machine, but cat stitched on the wrong side and finished on the right side with any ornamental stitch. hems in infants' clothing may be turned on the right side and made ornamental by feather stitching. no selvage should ever be used on a hem. the sel- vage is more closely woven and will draw or pucker in laundrying french hom homs textiles and clothing tucks tucks are folds made on thin material for orna- ment, to shorten or to provide for lengthening a gar- ment. if done by hand, a card measure is preferable to a tape measure for marking the space and width of the tucks. the folds should be creased to a thread, basted and sewed with a running stitch showing but little on the face, or stitched on the machine. fine thread should be used. seams felled seam a seam is the line of sewing that joins material; it may be plain or ornamental. the most important are the overhand, felled, french, slot, lapped, flannel, and beaded. the overhand seam is described under the overhand stitch. a fell is a seam hemmed down to the goods to pro- tect the raw edge. it is usually made in night dresses, drawers, corset covers, etc. baste with the piece farthest from the worker extended one-eighth of an inch beyond the other and sewed with the grain of the goods, beginning at the widest part of any bias. press the seam with the nail on the right side, turn the wide edge down flat to cover the raw edge and line of sewing, and hem flat either by hand or ma- chine. care should be taken to keep the seam flat on the right as well as on the wrong side. if the felling is done with the machine hemmer, the wide edge must be on the opposite side. the seam may be basted with li b a seams full; -french screen. beaded and taped seams a-tapo basted on one edge, and the other edge turned and stitched; b-beading whipped to the folded edges ; a-stitched hem; -hem finishsd with feather stitching. seams french seam beaded seam both edges even if preferred, cutting off one edge after stitching a french seam is sewed twice—first on the right side as near the raw edge as possible. cut off all frayed edges, turn the material by folding on the seam or line of sewing, so the seam is folded inside and the second sewing is on the wrong side below the raw edges. this is not a good seam for underwear worn next the body, as it leaves a ridge on the wrong side, but it is useful for skirts of thin material, etc. it is more easily made than a fell. beaded seams used for fine white work have a line of beading overhanded between gores, hems, or gathers. the hem along the seam should be folded on the right side, leaving a perfectly flat surface to iron on the wrong side, and finished with an ornamental stitch covering the hem. the slot seam, used in cloth dresses and jackets, re- quires exact basting with silk or very fine thread with small, even stitches. if a coarse thread is used, the material will be badly marked. after basting, press the seam open as if it had been stitched, and baste the strap or under strip of the dress material (which has been cut perfectly straight and even) over the wrong side of the seam, having the center of the seam on the center of the strap. stitch any width desired be- yond the center through the three thicknesses. this will hold the seam in position. now remove the bast- ings from the seam and the slot effect is complete. if slot seams slot seam finished with arrow head seams desired, there may be a double row of stitching, an extra row on the edge of the fold or plait. these seams may be finished at the bottom with arrow heads or stitched designs. the lines of machine stitching co mititit flannel seams and hems finished with various ornamental stitches. should not end without some ornament to appear to hold the plait. in the lapped seam the edges are folded each within the other or one over the other so that both sides are alike. if made of heavy material, the raw edges ate lapped seam b plackets a--made by folding a wide hem over a narrow one; b-tape faced sewing for the purpose of a gusset. method of folding the tape shown, plackets seams left unturned; in muslin or linen the edges are in- turned, lapped, basted and the hem stitched on both edges or hemmed down on both sides by hand. flannel seams should be stitched, opened and pressed flannol flat, either on the right or wrong side of the garment. if on the right side, taffeta ribbon should be basted over the seam, so that the raw edges of flannel will not show, and cat stitched or buttonhole stitched on both sides of the ribbon, or any fancy stitch—not too long-may be used. this is the dorothy seam. for the seam on the wrong side, the edges should be cat stitched with fine thread. any ornamental stitch may be used on the right side of the seam. always press flannel seams and hems before finishing. flannel should never be hem stitched. plackets a placket is an opening in a garment allowing it to be put on. the simplesi placket is made by cutting a. slit and folding a wide hem over a narrow one turned on the face of the goods; this makes a pleat below the vent. there should be a double line of stitching across the bottom of the hem to strengthen the placket. the tape faced placket is stronger and may be used in children's drawers, etc., in place of a gusset to strengthen the end of the opening. a single piece of tape folded back as for a loop is stitched along all edges, making an opening without a lap. this offers as much resistance as a gusset and is more quickly done. tape facod placket a b - faced placket a-wrong side, opened, showing tape; b-right side showing on-set piece; aa and bb the same ends of the tape; - method of folding and cutting end of on-set piece. plackets faced plackot in a third kind of placket, the opening is faced with a continuous piece of tape on both sides and finished with a piece of material on the outside. see illustra- tion. this makes a strong and simple placket. when skirt placket with lap a tape cannot be used, a hem or facing may be made on the under side of the opening and a facing on the upper side, over which the on-set piece is stitched. the on-set piece and facing may be cut from one piece, but the fitting is more troublesome. in figured goods, the piece set on should match the pattern exactly, textiles and clothing gathering a simple placket for underwear is made from a single strip of the goods put on like an extension hem. on drawers it may be turned in at the button- hole end, but not stitched down except at the band. the placket of a skirt should have an underlap ex- tending well below the opening: sewing on bands divide the top of unhemmed edge of the garment in halves and mark with a cross stitch, notch or pin. gather from the placket to the middle of the front gore, if a skirt, apron, or dress. take a new thread and gather the remainder. put in a second gathering thread one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch below the first. two gathering threads are better than one and they should be longer than the length of space to be gathered. stroke or lay the gathers above and below the threads. divide the band and pin the middle to the center of the garment, placing the right side of the band on the wrong side of the garment. pin in the middle and at each end, secure the gathering threads by winding around the pin, adjust the gathers, and baste between the gathering threads. stitch just below the line of basting. fold the band over on the right side, press, baste over the line of stitching, press again, then stitch on the right side after having turned in both ends and over-sewed. turn the top of the band over on the right side one-eighth or one-fourth of an inch and stitch securely. this upper fold keeps finishes -bias facing; -band on gathers: -corded edge. textiles and clothing the edge from wearing and stretching and is a stay for children's skirts and drawers where button holes are used and serves as a finish for the top of the band. for flannel, pleating or gathers may be used to put fullness into a band. two rows of gathering threads draw tape finish for under skirt drawing tapos should be used and the stitches should not be too fine. the band should be made of cotton or at least lined with it to avoid clumsiness and prevent shrinking. ruffles are set in hems, etc., in the same manner. in finishing the top of an underskirt, many like to dispense with the placket and fitted band. this may be done by using drawing tapes at the back. the up- per edge is faced with a piece of material which should be bias in front to accommodate it to the curve, but may be straight across the back. work a button hole fastenings bias facings at each side of the back, insert a tape through one button hole and draw it over an inch beyond the oppo- site one and fasten securely by two lines of stitching across the tape. a second tape is put through the other button hole and fastened in the same way. by pulling the tape on each side the fullness may be adjusted. all facings around curves, such as arm holes and neck, should be a true bias which is cut by holding the warp threads diagonally across the woof threads. these strips for facings, pipings, ruffles, etc., should be cut exactly even in width. all bands, ruffles, etc., of serge, twilled, or diagonal materials should be cut across the twill and not with it, in order to have the ruffle hang well. fastenings the standard fastenings are buttons and button holes, hooks and eyes or hand made loops, lacings through rings and eyelet holes, loops over buttons, and fancy frogs, clasps, studs, ball and socket, "notta- hooks," etc. button holes should be carefully measured and making marked before cutting. they should be a little longer button than the diameter of the button for flat buttons and one and one-quarter the diameter for round buttons. hav- ing decided upon the distance apart they are to be placed, cut a marker from a piece of cardboard and measure off the space, marking with pins, french chalk, pencil, or thread. the distance from the edge (one-fourth inch), as well as the length of the button holos textiles and clothing hole may also be marked with the card. the scissors should be sharp, the hand must be steady, and the cut should be made with one firm slash, not with two or three jerks. great care must be taken that each but- ton hole is of the same length. the goods should be cut to a thread, for it is impossible to make a neat buttonhole if it is improperly cut. in cutting a round end buttonhole for thick goods, a punch may be used for the end, after which the remainder of the button- hole is cut directly on a line with the center of the circle. the same marker may be used to mark the position for the buttons. all markings for buttons and button- holes, or for hooks and eyes, should be made at one time. after cutting, the button holes are overcast. this should always be done directly after cutting, espe- cially if the goods ravels easily, otherwise it will be impossible to work a neat buttonhole. overcasting should be done with very fine thread (no. for white goods), split silk for wool and silk. three overcast stitches on each side are sufficient for an ordi- nary size buttonhole. a very good plan to follow in cutting a buttonhole in heavy material or material that frays easily is to chalk the position and length of the buttonhole, then stitch a row of machine stitching each side of this mark, the two rows being a little more than one-eighth of an inch apart. this holds all the thicknesses to- ovorcasting buttonholes ܓܓܕ buttons, button holes, eyelets, loops textiles and clothing making buttonholes gether and the buttonhole may then be cut easily. it also serves as a guide in working the buttonhole stitches. the buttonholing is begun at the inner side of the slit. always place the knot on the outside of the garment a short distance to the right of the buttonhole, leaving a long stitch underneath which can be cut off when the buttonhole is finished. a buttonhole should be com- pleted with one thread if possible as it is difficult to mend the thread securely and neatly. letter d for twist is usually employed. insert the needle in the edge of the material and when half way through, take the two threads at the eye of the needle, bringing them towards you at the right and under the point of the needle, and draw the thread from you, making the purl or loop stitch di- rectly on the edge of the buttonhole. the stitches should be about the width of the needle apart to allow for the purl. be careful to complete each stitch with a uniform movement so that the line will be perfectly straight and not wavy. the stitches are placed more closely together in the rounded end of the buttonhole where the chief wear comes. many workers, particularly tailors, always "stay" or "bar" around a buttonhole before working. this may be done with several threads of twist or with a cord so that the worked edge of the buttonhole will be firm and distinct. tailors usually use a cord as this makes the edges heavier. it is always well to stay button- staying textiles and clothing cloak buttons it. if a button is much concaved, the pin may be placed underneath. the pin is removed before winding. in sewing on a four-hole button, the stitches should be made symmetrically, either parallel or crossed, but not both. if parallel or in a two-holed button the stitches should run in the line of the buttonhole. the thread should always be fastened securely at the begin- ning and at the end of the work. place the knot upon the outside of the garment where it may be cut off when the button is sewed securely. the knot is some- times placed under the button. in sewing buttons on a cloak or coat an extra strip of canvas or silesia over the canvas interlining should be placed the entire length of the buttoning for strength. this should be applied before the work on the garment is too far advanced and if cut sufficiently wide, will allow of any slight alteration. the sewing should go through the canvas facing and stay, but not through the under side or facing of the material. in sewing buttons on bodices a tape should be sewed over the front basting for a stay. if sufficient material has not been allowed for a lap, this should be added, as a lap is necessary under the opening of such but- tonholes. buttons may be sewed through lining having a small button on the wrong side. this method prevents the cloth from tearing and makes an ornamental finish as well as a substantial one. fastenings hooks and eyos buttons which are supplied with wire shanks should be sewed down firmly as the shank already provided permits the buttons to set up well from the material. they should be placed in such a position that the wire shank will run parallel with the buttonhole and not cross it. the position for hooks and eyes should be marked before sewing on. the simplest, though least desira- ble, method of sewing on these fastenings is to place the eye at the edge of the seam or facing and the hook sufficiently far back from the opposite side to give a lap. a much preferable method is to baste a bias strip of crinoline along the positions to be occupied by the hooks and eyes; this gives strength to the finish. suf- ficient material should be allowed for folding over the shanks after the hooks and eyes have been sewed on, or they may be covered with silk ribbon, slipping the edge under the beak of each hook and then catstitched in position. the hooks and eyes are sewed securely through the crinoline and one thickness, but the stitches should not show on the outside. over and over stitches are taken through the small rings in the line of the full and again on each bar of the eye and on the shank of the hook so that they may be held in position securely. in many cases, it is advisable to have an underlap of the material. this should be slip-stitched in position on the garment after the eyes have been sewed in place. hooks and eyes sewed on tape, shanks covered with taffeta tape and with fold of the goods. patching eyelets underset patch eyelet holes are made with a stiletto which forces the threads aside, but does not cut them. the edge is finished with over and over stitches placed closely together, or with a buttonhole stitch making the purl on the outer edge of the stitches. loops are made by buttonholing very closely over several foundation threads, making the purl on the outside edge. the needle may be run under the loop eye first if preferred. patching with the underset patch have the part to be patched pressed smooth, baste the patch on the wrong side of the garment before cutting out the worn place. (if the garment or article to be mended is worn or faded and shrunken by laundering, boil the piece in soap, soda and water to fade the patch, if of cotton or linen.) after basting, cut away all the worn cloth, making a square or oblong hole. cut to a thread. cut each corner, diagonally, one-eighth or one-quarter of an inch, turn all four edges of the garment towards the wrong side. begin at the center of one side and hem all around the square, taking slanting even stitches, not too close together. remove the basting, trim the edges of the patch, press the patch on the wrong side and catch stitch to the garment. this shows less on the right side and does not make a hard line as if the patch were turned back on the edge. if the cloth has a pattern or stripe, match it perfectly, having the warp threads of both running the same way. cut both hole and patch square. an oval or round patch is un- underset patch, right side, edge turned and hemmed to patch m my mo wa tus wrong side of patch, cat stitched textiles and clothing wrong side of patch in table cloth-raw edge overcast workmanlike and does not wear well. keep the cor- ners square and hem down well. the object of press- ing is to keep both garment and patch flat and even. flannel patches should be cat-stitched on the right side. no flannel edges should ever be inturned. the onset patch is used on lined garments and lin- ings. the patch should be rectangular and larger than onset patch linen patch; cross stitch initial textiles and clothing the worn place. fold the four edges on the wrong side of the patch, place the patch with its wrong side on the right side of the garment directly over the center of the hole. this will bring the folded edges of the wn w right side of flannel patch edge cat stitched but not turned, back cat stitched in the same way. patch between the two pieces of cloth and both right sides towards the worker. do not baste, but pin care- fully. after the garment has been folded back until there are two folded edges side by side, overhand the darning patch for trowsers seam with even slanting stitches. see that the corners are well sewed, that warp and woof threads run in the same direction, that pattern and stripes match. the worn part of the garment under the patch is cut away, leaving one-fourth of an inch on the three sides. cut the corners diagonally and turn back the edge quarter of an inch, overcast and press. if this patch is sewed on a lining, the worn part is not cut away. if this patch is used to repair skirts near the band, only three sides are oversewed, the upper edge should be gathered into the band. a large patch is less conspicuous than a small one. an onset patch may be used for the seats of trousers by shaping the patch like the pieces on the seats of bicycle trousers and stitching on the machine. heavy cloth will need no inturned edges. the same precau- tions are necessary regarding warp and woof, pattern, etc. darning darning is usually done with a running stitch, with or without a piece of net or cloth underset. thread for darning should be as near as possible the size of the threads in the garment. whenever it can be done, a warp thread of the garment should be used. no sew- ing silk is fine enough to use without separating the thread and using one of the strands. never use the thread as it is, as it is too hard twisted. cotton and linen thread of the finest quality, untwisted, should be used for darning stockings and underwear. linen may thread for darning textiles and clothing bias dara be darned with linen or mercerized cotton. cotton is preferable. a long slender needle with a large eye should be used. darning should never be commenced with a knot, nor finished with a back stitch. a bias or diagonal cut and a three-cornered tear are the most difficult to repair. if the place is badly pulled and frayed, a piece of the same material should be basted on the wrong side of the material and darned in even stitches. always darning parallel with the warp threads and the woof threads. in the diagonal tear, as the threads are cut diagonally, to prevent draw- ing apart, the darning threads must cross each other. the stitches around any darn should not end in a stiff even line ; this makes a hard edge which does not wear and is unsightly, and uncomfortable if on under- wear. the three-cornered tear may be darned in two ways. begin by darning diagonally through the center, darn- ing back and forth towards the end of the tear until one-half has been finished; then begin at the center and work in the opposite direction. at the corner, the stitches should form the shape of a fan. the other method, which is the stronger, is done by darn- ing a square in the angle, first with the warp threads, then with the woof threads and finishing each end across the tear. stocking darning may be done on the right side. begin by picking up the stitches and drawing the darning a throo cornered toar darning edges together. this should always be done in any kind of stocking darning, but not so close as to make a wrinkle. in knees and heels of stockings, or knitted under- stockinet darning over net interlaced stitches and chain stitches. wear, a piece of net large enough to extend beyond the thin part should be basted carefully; then darn down the outer edges of the net and finally the hole or thin place. this makes a strong, neat piece of mending. if the hole' je large, the net may be covered with the textiles and clothing purposes, may be chain stitch, thus imitating the knitting stitch. this should be done on the right side of the garment. if the hole is to be filled in with the interlaced stitches, draw the edges together, darn beyond the thin places, lengthwise of the knitted garment, making each line of stitches longer until the center of the hole is reached, then decrease in the same manner, making a diamond in shape. darn across the hole in the same way, taking up every •alternate stitch as in weaving. leave a tiny loop at the end of each row of darning, so that the threads will not draw, darning, satisfactory for some done quickly on a double thread. sewing machine. it is best done in an embroidery ring, first drawing the edges together. loosen the 'tension on the presser foot, use fine thread with light tension. sew back and forth, first along the warp threads and then at right angles along the woof threads. the machine will be sewing backwards part of the time, but if the pressure is light, there will be no difficulty. for large holes, paper may be placed underneath. * machino darning mitering embroidery or lace the mitering of lace or embroidery is often neces- sary in making collars and in finishing corners. be- fore applying, plan carefully and select a scallop or portion of the embroidery which will produce the best effects when finished. this can be accomplished by folding the embroidery over at various portions of the a c mitering and joining embroidery a-finished with a stitched seam ; b-edge hemmed down and clotlı cat away underneath ; c-joinod with lapped seam. textiles and clothing pattern until a suitable point is found. fold over at right angles and mark along the line to be mitered. the triangle may now be cut, but an extra width must always be allowed for the seam, as there is frequently a slight unevenness and one side may have to be held a little full or stretched to make a perfect match. the mitered seam is over-sewed. after the corner is properly made, cut away the cloth of the embroidery, allowing only enough for an inturned seam on the edge. this seam may be stitched on the machine on both edges, or oversewed to the goods, or the embroidery may be securely sewed on the plain part, after which the underlying cloth may be cut away. this will make an almost perfect corner. lace may be matched and mitered in a similar way. matching and joining lace in joining lace, avoid a seam if possible. select por- tions of the design that will match, placing one pat- tern of the same design over the other. cut away a portion of the thick part of the pattern underneath and hem the edges and inner part of the design down with fine thread. smyrna or torchon lace is more difficult to hem or join when very open or very fine. a small, felled seam is better than lapping and trying to match the pattern embroidery can be matched in the same way. never let two heavy designs lap over each other. the one matching and mitering tosteronenser insertion with mitred corner, taped and faced; embroidery rolled whipped and gathered on the wrong side should be cut out and the edge sewed securely to the upper part of the design. the plain material above the embroidery can be joined by a lapped seam, turning first the right side and then the wrong side and hemming on both sides of the seam. machine sewing types of machines the sewing machine has taken away much of the drudgery of home sewing, but its use does not lessen the need of skill in hand work. no machine can finish ends of belts, collars, sew on trimming, fastenings, and like work and the finish has much to do with the gen- eral appearance of a garment. all the prominent makes of sewing machines were invented in the decade following howe's patent in . the two chief types of machines are the lock stitch, using double thread, and the chain or loop stitch, using a single thread. whatever the make of machine it should be run in accordance with the rules accom- panying it. the worker should familiarize herself with the directions for setting and threading the needle, winding the bobbin, regulating the tension and the stitch and all other technicalities of the particular ma- chine she has to operate. agencies of the various machines usually have skilled workers to give instruc- tion to beginners. while it is not always an economy of time to use the attachments for hemming, tucking, etc., unless much work is to be done, it is worth while to know how to use them if desired. as much or more skill is required for neat machine work as for hand sewing. results will not be satisfactory without careful basting the machine should be kept well oiled, free from dust and gum and it should be run evenly. in case it becomes "gummed” a drop of kerosene on the parts care of the machine machine sewing noodlo, and thread that have been oiled will cut the gum. remove the shuttle and run the machine rapidly for a moment, then wipe off all the kerosene and oil the machine carefully with good machine oil-only the best should be used. a machine should always be wiped thoroughly before any work is placed upon it. as in hand sewing, needles and thread should be selected with care. a blunt or bent needle should never be used, it should have a fine sharp point and the eye should be sufficiently large to carry the thread easily. the needle and thread should be suitable for the material to be sewed. glazed thread should never be used in a machine. the best quality of thread and silk should be purchased but only enough for imme- diate use, as it loses strength with age, chiefly because of the action of the dyes and chemicals. even white thread may become "tender” from the chemicals used in bleaching it. sewing silk and cotton should be kept in a closed box to exclude the light and air. for sewing cotton or linen the best cotton thread should be used. woolen, silk, and velvet should be stitched with the best machine silk. the thread should match the material in color. cotton thread fades or loses its brightness when exposed to the light, there- fore for stitching that will show it is always better to use silk. the thread on the bobbin should be wound evenly and carefully to insure an even stitch and the tension of both threads should be equal, otherwise the stitch will not be perfect. as a lock stitch machine textiles and clothing fastening throads requires two threads while in hand sewing only one is used, the two need not be as coarse as the single thread. for ordinary home sewing, underwear, thin gowns and the like, no. to no. will be found satisfactory finer thread may be used when the ma- terials demand it, but no coarser than no: should be used in the machine and this only with the coarsest material. much time may be saved in fastening the threads at the ends of tucks, hems on sheets, towels, etc., by careful manipulation of the machine. for example, on sheets begin to stitch along the hem at the selvage, or if the end of the hem is over-sewed, begin an inch from the edge and stitch the hem towards the selvage, then lift the presser-foot so as to turn the work, and retrace the bit of stitching, continuing across the whole hem. when the end is reached, release the presser- foot, turn the work, and stitch back for an inch or more in the same line, as was done at the beginning of the hem. by this method the threads are fastened much more easily and quickly than by drawing them through on to the wrong side and tying or sewing them by hand and, of course, it is more satisfactory than the "shop" way of cutting them off short. tucks or seams may be fastened in the same way. if fine thread is used the double stitching at the ends is hardly noticeable. when stitching a seam having one bias and straight side, let the bias side come next to the feed, bias sido next feod machine sewing stitching gathers that is, on the underside. this is especially impor- tant in thin materials. if the material is very sheer, strips of soft paper-newspaper will answer for or- dinary purposes-should be sewed in the seam. this will insure a seam free from puckers and when fin- ished the paper can be pulled away easily. in sewing gathers on a band they should also come next the "feed," as it takes up the side next to it a little faster than the upper side. when the bias, or cross-way side of the seam, or gathers are next to the "feed" the material runs along smoothly, but if the straight side is towards it there is apt to be a pucker. stitching can be done more easily on the right of the presser foot with the bulk of the material lying to the left. the tendency of the “feed” or teeth is to crowd the work off the edge as well as forward and the stitching may be guided better on the right side all straight seams should be stretched to the full extent of their straight edge in stitching, as the work passes under the presser foot . when a large amount of machine sewing is to be done---such as household linen, sheets, pillow cases and underwear-it is a good plan to do all the basting and hand work first and keep the machine stitching for a rainy or a damp day, as the thread is then less apt io break. a current of air or a breeze from an open window on a dry day will often cause the thread to snap. for the same reason the machine should never stand near the fire or radiator. textiles and clothing part ii read carefully. this test consists of two parts,-an- swers to the questions and the making of models. both should be sent to the school for inspection and correction. all models should be made about by inches so that they may be put into the envelope provided without being folded. two series of models are given; either or both may be made. . what instruction have you ever had in sewing? (b) has the subject any, educational value ? . what are the common basting stitches, and for what are they used ? . can you make the running stitch properly? how is it done? . for what purpose may the cat stitch be used ? . hems and seams : describe the different kinds for thick and thin materials, including those for flannel and state when they should be used. . describe three kinds of plackets. . how are gathers made, and how sewed into a band ? . what can you say of fastenings? . with what sewing machine are you most famil- iar, and what are its peculiarities? io. what sti hes or methods described in this les son are new to you? note: after completing the answers, sign your full name. textiles and clothing models, first series i. stitches. on a piece of cotton about by inches, make with colored thread ( ) a line of even basting stitches, ( ) uneven basting stitches, ( ) tacking, ( ) running, ( ) back stitch, ( ) running and back, ( ) half back. with embroidery silk make a row each of ( ) cat stitch, ( ) single feather, ( ) double feather, ( ) chain, ( ) rows of french knots with border of outline stitch. make your initial in one corner, using any stitch preferred. overcast one long edge of the model, double overcast the opposite side, finish one end with plain loop or blanket stitch, and the other end with some fancy loop stitch. fasten all threads as described in the text. ii. seams and hems. (a) join two pieces of fine cotton with a french seam at the long edge, about by inches, with warp running lengthwise. (b) cut a piece of muslin on a true bias and attach the bias edge to a with a felled seam. (c) trim the model and hem all sides so that the finished model may measure by inches. iii. darning and patching. (a) in gingham or figures cotton, make an underset patch of a square hole, matching the goods. (b) darn a three-cornered tear. iv. fastenings. the proper distance from the edge of folded goods make (a) button hole, one end rounded and the other finished with a bar tack. (b) under it make a partly fin- textiles and clothing ished, barred buttonhole. (c) below this make an eyelet hole, (d) below the eyelet hole a loop, and sew on an eye. on a second piece of folded goods opposite the first buttonhole, (a) sew a four-hole button, corresponding in size to the buttonhole. (b) opposite the second buttonhole sew on a two- hole button; (c) below, on other side of the goods, sew on two hooks for the loop and eye. make the two parts of the model so that the corresponding fastenings will join. apron. using fine muslin, make a doll's apron, gathering into band at top. above hem at the bottom, make two clusters of tucks of three each. v. models, second series, for experienced workers i. rolled hem; hem stitching. make a doll's apron of fine muslin, attach top to band with rolled, whipped gathers. make tivo clusters of tucks of three each at the bottom and hem stitch the bottom hem. ii. sleeve placket. make a taped sleeve placket as shown in the illustration iii. make a slot seam, using dress goods and finish with an arrow head. (b) make a large cloak buttonhole. iv. mitre embroidery and finish as shown in the illustration. (b) match and join the same. v. embroidery: make something small and use- ful—a doily, stock, collar-illustrating some style of embroidery, or make a model of the first series which will afford you the most new experience. textiles and clothing part iii making mexican drawn-work textiles and clothing part iii good tools necessary dressmaking the greatest obstacle to home sewing of any kind is the failure to provide suitable materials with which to do the work. to do good work-to make attractive gowns the simple tools which the work requires must be provided. first, there should be needles and pins of the best quality and make. they should be fine and well pointed. the needle should be suitable to the material to be sewn and sufficiently large to carry the thread easily. a blunt or bent needle should never be used. long or milliner's needles are preferred by many for basting. a good supply of thread should be kept on hand- thrond not too great a quantity, but the stock should be added to as it is used. there should be both silk and col- ored cotton, also twist for button holes, loops and arrow heads and knitting silk to sew on and finish feather bone. two pairs of scissors are required-one with long, sclagore sharp blades, and a pair of medium sizes for snipping machine stitches. among the other necessary articles are a tape meas- ure, cake of wax, pencils or tailor's chalk, tracing wheel, emery, lap board. textiles and clothing tapes cutting tablo canvas, scrim, or any like material should be kept in the sewing room, as these are invaluable for fac- ings, linings of collars, cuffs, etc. hooks, eyes, but- tons, tape, linings, featherbone and shields are requis- ites not to be forgotten. tape is constantly needed. linen tape is thinner and makes a neater finish for some purposes than cot- ton tape. the bias tape or binding now kept by the larger stores is very useful for binding curved edges and for other purposes. if a regular cutting table is not available, the din- ing room table should be used. skirts, bodices, rufe fles, and bias bands should be cut on firm, even, and large surfaces. if cut upon the floor or bed and pressed on a coarse crash towel, the garment will have the undesirable home-made look. a good pressing board should be provided and if possible a sleeve board. in the process of garment making of any kind too much stress cannot be laid upon constant and careful pressing. the ironing board should have for its outside cover a finely woven, perfectly smooth cloth, tightly stretched, free from wrinkles, and securely tacked. where there is gas, a small, portable stove should be kept near the sewing table with a medium-sized flat iron. lacking gas, one of the single burner oil stoves may be used. an electric flat iron is especially con- venient. a bust form is a great convenience in fitting and pressing board bust form padded bust form (from dressmaking up-to-date, butterick co.) textiles and clothing almost a necessity for one who does much home dress- ing. these may be purchased at department stores, some kinds are adjustable, but it is always best to make a carefully fitted lining for it and pad out to the correct shape and size. the pattern should be one that extends well over the hips and heavy unbleached muslin may be used. after padding firmly, the front opening should be oversewed. special care should be taken with shoulders and neck and the neck band should be carefully adjusted on the figure. a padded sleeve lining is also very useful in mak- ing sleeves. dressmaking never should be begun until each needed article required for the work has been pur- chased. the sewing room should be in order; the machine well oiled and wiped before any work is un- dertaken. if the finished garment is to be perfect, careful at- tention must be given to every detail of the cutting and making up. to possess mechanical skill alone is not sufficient. a successful garment depends not only upon the dexterity with which the worker manipulates the actual tools of her craft, but upon all her faculties and her power of applying them. she must have a comprehension of the laws of beauty in dress, con-. struction, ornament, color, selection, economy. the artisan knows the technical part only, and looks upon each dress—each piece of lace and velvet—as so much material to be snipped and cut and sewed, copying from the fashion plate, making gown after gown alike. the artist, on the other hand, makes the gown skill and taste patterns to suit the individual wearer, considering each dress no matter how simple—and the simpler, the more art- istic—as a creation designed to suit the woman for whom it was planned. people who study economy from principle will never adopt anything extreme in weave, or color, or make. these extreme fashions are never lasting; they are too conspicuous and are vulgarized by bad copies, while a thing which is known to be good and beautiful once will remain so for all time. those who are beginners in the art of dressmaking should select plain designs until skill is acquired. the making up and finishing of new fabrics and new or untried meth- ods are problems that often dismay even the most experienced dressmaker. patterns the makers of good and reliable patterns are many. always buy patterns of firms that make proportion of figure as well as fashion a study. these patterns state length of skirt, waist and hip measure and quan- tity of material required in all widths. buy a skirt pattern with correct hip size, as it is much more diffi- cult to change this than to alter the dimensions of a waist. adjust the pattern to the figure for which the garment is to be cut and see that it is right in all of its proportions. always follow the notches indicated in the seams of the pattern, and thus avoid putting wrong pieces together. be sure that the pattern is selection of patterna textiles and clothing what the pattern gives placed correctly upon the material with the straight grain or warp threads of the goods running directly on a line with the straight perforations indicated in the pattern. lay the entire pattern upon the cloth. this gives an idea just where every piece is to come out. in symmetrical dresses the pattern gives one-half of the waist and the skirt, from center of back to center of front. the number of pieces in a plain pat- tern vary according to styles. the sleeve may be cut in one piece with the waist, as in kimona sleeves; the back of the waist may be all in one piece or have a side back when fitted waists are in vogue. likewise skirts may have few or many gores. most patterns allow for seams and state what that allowance is. all pieces are notched to show how they should go together. on the skirt pieces the front gore has one notch, the front side of the next gore one notch, the back side two notches, etc. the best patterns now are accompanied by charts showing the different pieces and the method of put- ting them together. directions are given which, if followed carefully, enable one to cut and make the garment correctly. skirt making fashions in skirts vary greatly, but a well-fitted skirt should hang in graceful folds, be even around the bottom, should fit easily without being strained and without defining the figure too closely. the object of goring the skirt at the top is, of skirt making course, to take out unnecessary fullness. in draped skirts this fullness is partly taken care of by the folds. skirts should allow perfect freedom in walk- ing, but prevailing styles do not always permit this. a skirt for street wear should be short enough not to pick up the dirt of the street—the narrow skirt may be longer than the wide one without becoming a "street sweeper." plan of skirt making shortening or lengthening of pattern if neces- sary. placing of goods. pinning on of pattern so there is no waste. cutting removing and care of patterns. finishing placket hole. basting seam-fitting. stitching pressing finishing of seams. making and putting on waist-band. marking length and finishing the bottom. fastenings, loops, braids, hooks and eyes. to lengthen or shorten a skirt pattern, measure the figure and regulate the length of the patterns by mak- ing a fold in each gore two-thirds of the way from the top of the pattern if too long. this is for the simplest skirt pattern. the shape of the skirt may re- quire two folds, one two-thirds from the top and a small fold near the bottom to preserve the outline. if too short, pin the pattern on the material, cut lengthening or shortening patterns textiles and clothing testing patterns around the top of gore and on each side two-thirds of the distance from the top of gore. unpin and draw the pattern down to the bottom and cut the required length. except for wash material, or when the skirt is moderately narrow, do not turn a gored skirt up at the bottom to form a wide hem, as the fullness made by turning is hard to dispose of neatly and the right curve at the bottom of the skirt may be lost. another way to lengthen the pattern is to cut it in two, two-thirds the distance from the top. see that all pleats or tucks are exactly the same width and at the exact distance from the top, or bottom of the gore, also that all seams are of the right length. a shorter skirt must be proportionately narrower. it is well to test the skirt and waist patterns by using inexpensive materials, such as calico, gingham, or cheap lining. cut, baste, fit and make this as care- fully as if it were the best cloth or silk. if the skirt and waist are satisfactory, the pattern will do duty for several seasons. the plain waist pattern is the foundation for any waist and many changes can be made easily with a well-fitting skirt and plain waist pattern as a basis. as paper patterns soon wear out, after a waist and skirt have been perfectly fitted, it is a good plan to cut an exact pattern of cambric, both skirt and waist, tracing seams and notching the parts. this will en- able the home dressmaker to cut and make all ordi- nary dresses with little trouble and with but one try- ing on. it is always well to try on once, as materials differ and a slight change may be necessary. cloth patterns h d placing patterns. at the left, on plain or symmetrical designs; at the right, on figured or napped goods. a–half of front gore; –second gore; c-third gore; d-back gore; e-front waist; f-under arm piece; g-side back; h- back; ;-outside sleeve; j-under sleeve; c d'—piecing of goresc, d. textiles and clothing placing patterns if the material is plain, has no nap, or if the de- sign is perfectly symmetrical, the gores may be alter- nated, the top of one gore coming opposite the bot- tom of the next. the half pattern of the front gore is always laid on a lengthwise fold of the goods. if the goods is wide, the other gores may be cut double with the cloth folded lengthwise. with narrow goods the cloth may be folded end to end after the middle gore has been cut out, and the other gores cut double. care should be taken that the line of holes in the middle of the gores runs exactly in a line with the warp of the material—i. e., parallel to the selvage. if the goods has a figure, the design should run up- wards. any nap should run downward, except with velvet or velveteen, in which it should run upwards. with such goods, the gores if cut double must be placed on a lengthwise fold, with the lengths running the same way. if the goods is narrow, the gores may have to be cut single, reversing the pattern (turning it over), so that both pieces may not be for the same side. if piecing is necessary on wide gores, it should always be done along the warp thread, with the usual care that any figure be made to match perfectly. pin the middle of the pattern to the goods and smooth towards each end, pinning securely at top and bottom. avoid too many pins and pin carefully, otherwise the pattern will be displaced. after the pattern is securely pinned, cut out the gores, using long, sharp shears. care should be taken not to lift the material from the table, not to have pinning patterns cutting out skirt making making placket jagged, uneven edges, as both time and material will be wasted in straightening them. open the shears as wide as possible, taking a long sweep of the mate- rial, and do not allow the points of the shears to come together. mark all notches with basting thread, tailor's chalk, or notch the goods if it does not ravel. now remove the pattern, pin carefully all pieces to- gether and fold as little as possible. the trinity-pin, baste, press—should be written in large letters in every sewing room, for much of the beauty of the gown de- pends upon these three. the placket, which may be at the back, side or front, may be finished before the gores are put to- gether. the placket is easier to finish in this way, may be pressed better, and the other gores are not crushed. on the left side of the opening sew an underlap of sufficient length to extend well below the end of the opening. face the right side of the open- ing with a piece of the goods, or tape not too wide, hem or cat-stitch to the skirt, and finish with hooks and eyes, loops, or any fastening that will secure the placket. to join the skirt, pin the side gores to the front gores, beginning at the top, with pins running across the seams, then begin at the top of the skirt and baste downward, allowing all unevenness to come out at the bottom. baste straight and evenly, with the gores laid flat on the table, taking one stitch at a time. several stitches should never be taken at once on thick or piled goods, as the side next to the sewer is apt to be fuller in that case. when all seams are joining the skirt textiles and clothing lined skirt stitching skirts basted, try on the skirt and make all changes neces- sary before stitching. both the outside skirt and any under or "drop” skirt should be fitted as carefully as a waist. if the skirt is to be lined the lining should be made and fitted first, then ripped and the outside carefully basted on the lining, being well stretched over the lin- ing, care being taken to have the warp of the outside and the lining run the same way. this will prevent the lining from drawing the goods. a stitch of medium length should be used on all seams whether white goods or cloth. if the stitch is too long, the seam will "gap" and will show the thread; if too short, the seam is apt to draw. the line of stitch- ing must be absolutely parallel inside or outside of the basting or the curve will be ruined. use silk or the best cotton for stitching skirts and be sure that the needle is not too coarse. after stitching, all bastings along the seams should be taken out by cutting the thread in several places. never pull a basting the length of the skirt. the seams should be opened and pressed according to direc- tions. the seams may be finished with a taffeta bind- ing, overcast, stitched flat or notched, as the case de- mands. fashion at times calls for lined skirts with stiffen- ing at the bottom. in such skirts the stiffening should be fitted to each lining gore separately and securely stitched before the lining and outside are put to- gether. heavy cloth skirts with rows of stitching at the bottom should have a light canvas stitched in. finishing seams stiffening skirt making putting on band the skirt is now ready for the band, which should be narrow. always cut parallel with the selvage and the length of the underlap longer than the waist meas- ure, allowing for turning at the ends. the band should never be thick and clumsy and not too tight. excellent webbing bands which are ready to be put on the skirt may be purchased—these are firm and not clumsy. try on the skirt and fit the band carefully, mark- ing the seam with pins, a line of basting, or chalk. hold the skirt easy on the band and baste with small stitches, then stitch on the machine. if the skirt is too tight around the hips, it will draw. if the skirt is stretched on the band, the seams will not fall in a straight line. for a high-waisted skirt without a band use a firm piece of belting one and one-half to two inches wide. sew hooks and eyes on this belt, then baste skirt carefully to the top of the belt; try on. stitch about one-fourth of an inch from the top, being sure that the skirt conceals the belt. fasten skirt and belt separately, leaving the skirt free from the belt except at the top. before finishing the seams be sure that the skirt fits the figure smoothly but does not draw anywhere; that the seams fall in a straight line, and that gathers and draping take graceful lines becoming to the figure. the draped skirt requires skill in handling material and is more difficult to make than the fitted skirt. while patterns may be followed in draping, the best results are obtained when it is done on the figure. fitting and draping textiles and clothing finishing <h bottom after the band is securely stitched and finished with hooks and eyes, adjust the length by turning under at the bottom and pinning, after which baste all around and try on again to make sure that the length is correct. in finishing the bottom of the skirt a hem is used in narrow or moderately full skirts in all materials. care must be taken that any fullness in the hem is laid in smooth folds, where it seems to fall naturally. it is best to baste a hem on a flat surface. a bias facing may be used on any skirt, and is desirable on heavy materials when the skirt is at all full. fitted facings are also used, but the bias one answers all purposes. braid may be used to strengthen the edge of the hem and should be shrunken before using, then basted with care that it neither draws nor puckers on the skirt. braid should be sewed at the top by hand, and usually again near the bottom. velveteen is used when skirts are lined and have canvas in the buttom. it may be used as a binding, an inch or so wide, or as a facing—in either case the upper edge is usually cat- stitched down. skirts of wash material are better if the material is shrunk; even then it may continue to shrink with each washing. some materials—notably heavy linens, shrink across the warp. to allow for shrinkage in both directions extra width of hem and extra material at the seams over the hips is advisable. in wash skirts of medium weight material a six-inch hem is advisable. if desired, the bias seam down the back of the skirt allowance for shrinkage skirt making may have a narrow woven tape or selvage of thin goods stitched in with the seam. this strengthens the seam and prevents dragging. all cloth dresses demand every detail of finish to make them complete and able to stand hard usage, but simple house dresses and thin summer dresses do not require such careful finish. with the changing fashions, methods of making and finishing skirts necessarily change. good stitching, finish of house dresses applying velveteen binding textiles and clothing trace seams baste lavishly careful fitting, good lines, an even bottom, are to be desired, whatever the style. extreme styles should be avoided not only for economy's sake but because they make one conspicuous. the home dressmaker should attempt only those things in which she feels moderately sure of success. a well-made skirt in a simple style is far more to be desired than an elab- orate one poorly made. shirt waists in planning a waist the same rules should be ob- served in placing patterns, etc., as described for skirts, except that the lines and seams should be traced with a tracing wheel or marked carefully. in making a waist of any kind care must be taken to cut all the pieces the proper way of the material. the difficulty of putting garments together after they have been cut properly is due to undue haste, lack of care in details and insufficient pressing. the ap- parently simple act of basting is really, of primal im- portance, particularly in the making of a waist. one need never be afraid of basting too much or too care- fully: - economize cloth and time in cutting, but use basting lavishly. the waist pattern may be made shorter by laying folds across both back and front. the fold across the back should be, two inches above the waist line and across the front two inches below the arm's eye.(in the back). securely pin or bašte the folds in the pattern. if the pattern is of nearly the correct size it may be only necessary to make the waist shorter and smaller. the neck and arm's eye will seldom need altering. altering waist patterns shirt waists the sleeves may be shortened in the same way by lay- ing folds in the pattern, above and below the elbow.' plan for making a shirt waist after the waist is cut, remove and care for the pattern. make the sleeves, cuffs and collar band first. make box plait on right or left side as liked by the wearer and hem or face the other side. put in tucks if desired. baste shoulders and under-arm seams. try on the waist, making all changes necessary by enlarging or taking up seams. pin for neck band and mark for seams. fit sleeves and mark places for seams. arrange fullness and place tape at back of 'waist line. if the pattern is for a plain, one-seam sleeve with the cuff opening at the end of the seam, hem each side of the opening one or two inches from the bottom, gather the bottom between the notches, lay the gath- ers, baste the wrong side of the sleeve band or cuff to the wrong side of the sleeve, stitch and press, fold in a hem on all edges of the cuff, fold the cuff over on the right side of the sleeve, baste, oversew the ends of the cuff, press and stitch the cuff close to all edges. after thus attaching the cuff, baste and stitch the long seam of the sleeve and gather at the top between notches. the cuff is usually cut in the direction of the warp of the goods. the sleeve described is the simplest that can be made. if the sleeve is to open at the back and finished making plain sleeve textiles and clothing box plait with a tape, with a placket, strap or fancy lap, the placket is made first; the seam in the sleeve is then stitched and the cuff afterward adjusted. the box plait is made, if desired, and the under arm and shoulder seams basted when the shirt waist is ready to try on. make any change in the seams neces- sary. the neck band is put on in the same way as the cuffs, sleeves sewed in, fullness arranged at the back to plain sleeve, showing sewing on of bands and a tape placed at the waist line. three hooks or other fastenings should always be placed at the back to attach to corresponding fastenings in the skirt band. the bottom edge of the waist may be finished by over- casting. if it is desired to have the fullness cut away at the waist line in front, determine the length, allowing suf- ficient for a blouse, gather the waist at the bottom and sew the fullness on to a band. sometimes this band is carried entirely around the waist. bottom finish shirt waists fit of oollar the fit of the collar or neck band is very important in any kind of a waist. both the front and the back may be cut higher than the pattern, as it is easy to cut off in adjusting and more goods cannot be added. to the unskilled the simplest garment is sufficiently difficult. it is best to make two or three perfectly plain garments before attempting to make an elaborate one. after the pattern has been tested, fitted and all necessary changes made, cut a pattern from the fitted waist of cambric or cheap new muslin and mark or trace all seams. (never use old, worn-out sheets from which to cut a pattern.) after this permanent pattern has been made do not change a single line. if a plaited or tucked waist is to be made, all plait tucked ing and tucking should be done first, after which the same order of making is to be followed for a plain waist. no waist should draw or strain across the bust. this is especially important in tucked or pleated waists. to guard against this tendency, a graduated tuck can be pinned on either side of the front, beginning with nothing at the shoulders and widening at the waist line. this is done before the pattern is cut and will allow for especially full bust. the fold should be on a thread of the goods. waist fitted linings fortunately for the home dressmaker, the plain, closely fitted lined waist comes into fashion only at intervals, for it is a very difficult waist to make suc- cessfully. fitted linings, however, are used with many types of dresses, giving a firm foundation on textiles and clothing material for lining which to fasten the yoke, the draped waist, the girdle and the skirt. in home dressmaking a well-fitted lin- ing may be put on the dress form, the outside draped on and the trimmings adjusted. with some practice very good results may be obtained in this way. when fashion makes use of thin materials, chiffons and the like, a second and loose lining is put over the fitted one. when the styles are extreme in looseness, the fitted lining is omitted entirely. the material used for the lining will vary with the richness of the gown. white india linon is very satis- factory for a great many kinds of dresses. silk will be substituted in the more expensive one. the mate- rial must be firm enough to stand fitting and not heavy enough to be uncomfortably warm. while white next the skin shows soil more quickly than a color, it seems more desirable; a net slip which is easily washed may be worn inside the lining to take the soil. in making the lining the first requisite is a good pattern. if it is possible, have a pattern drafted to one's own measure, as a good foundation is essential to a well-fitted dress. if one cannot have a drafted pattern, buy a standard pattern with front, under-arm, back and side back pieces as shown in the illustra- tion. for a slender person the back and side back are sometimes cut in one, but this does not fit as perfectly as the two-piece. back. in cutting allow liberal seams and be sure that the warp thread is parallel to the perforations. in a fitted lining this will be perpendicular to the waist line in pattern for waist cutting lined waists basting each piece. all seams and darts should be traced care- fully and all notches put in. careful basting is necessary in all closely-fitted gar- inents. short stitches which will not pull, exactness in putting the pieces together and careful following of the tracings are all essential. the front shoulder typical lining patterns (a) front. ( ) under arm piece. (c) side of back. (d) back. (e) collar. ( ) outside sleeve. ( ) inside sleeve. seam should be a little shorter than the back, and stretched when basting to it, because the front of the shoulder hollows slightly, while the back is full and the waist must follow these curves.' the center back seam of the waist should be basted up, and the center front left open for fitting later. this may be changed if the opening is desired in the back. the seams may be basted on the right side to facilitate fitting and the waist should not be fitted wrong side out, as few peo- ple are exactly symmetrical, and trouble results when the waist is turned. textiles and clothing fitting before trying on, gash the seams at the waist curve to prevent drawing. then put the waist lining on, pin together carefully from neck to waist line, pulling until it fits snugly. smooth the waist down at the waist line and if there seems to be too much length take it up at the shoulder. if the waist is inclined to draw from neck to shoulder, at the base of the neck, slip the front shoulder up on the back; if the neck is too loose, slip the other way at the shoulder. gash the neck and armholes for cutting out. alterations should be made at shoulder and underarm seams, and not on the curved back seam. a tuck may be taken across the top of the corset, or up and down at the waist line in front or back if necessary. always fit the lining up to the neck, even though it may be cut out later for a yoke or low neck. if the waist is to be opened in the back, leave the front pinned securely and open the back seam. take off, baste any places that have been pinned, trim neck and armholes if necessary, and slip on again to be sure all is right. if the seams have been basted on the right side, mark them carefully, pull out bastings and reverse them. if the pattern is drafted to one's measure, it is not necessary to baste seams on the right side, but when much fitting is to be done this is easier. the seams should be stitched in the line of basting, for a tight lining, and just outside it when more freedom is desired. the basting will always give more than the stitching, and this should be considered. the hems in front or back should be so turned as to stitching lined waists make the waist just meet, not lap. a good method is to turn the hem only once, stitch near the edge and then again the width of the hook away. after the hooks and eyes have been sewed on, the edge is turned back and hemmed down over them. this method is simpler than putting an extra strip on to cover the hooks and eyes. the seams may be trimmed even but left rather wide, notched and opened. feather bone is cat- finishing and boning waist lining basted, seams out stitched on each seam to the height of the corset, or just below the fullness of the bust. an inside belt of firm webbing may be caught to back or front and underarm seams, according to where waist opens. the bottom of the lining may be notched, bound or left to be finished with the outside. the sleeves are usu- ally made with the outside sleeves and will be dis- cussed later, as will the finish for neck and armhole. with the completion of such a lining one has an excellent beginning for a successful dress, but the real taste and skill of the dressmaker is shown in the textiles and clothing manner of draping the outside onto the lining and adjusting the trimmings. making lined dress the materials used and the fashions determine the method used in adjusting the outside to the lining. when tight-fitting basques are in vogue, the outside is cut after the lining has been fitted and sewed into the seams with it. careful fitting, basting, pressing and finishing are then all essential for good results. bias strips of crinoline are used to make the bottom of waist and sleeves, and the edges to be fastened firm—and to prevent wrinkling. when two layers of material are put over the lining, the first one usually fits plainly at shoulder and neck, but is gathered in at the waist line, instead of being fitted in this interlining should be carefully adjusted and fastened to the fitted lining at the waist and basted around the arm and neck. with veiled effects, the trimming is also applied to this second lining and finally the outside is put on. the inexperienced dressmaker will need a pattern from which to cut the waist, but the more experienced one, after putting the lining on a form, will drape the outside on, basting and pinning in place, and then cutting it out at the arm, neck and at the waist. if a yoke is to be used, that should be put on first, stretched tight on the fitted lining and sewed fast—the lining afterwards being cut out from under it. the collar should next be adjusted, before the neck has oppor- tunity to stretch. in draping the outside on, folds and gathers are laid draping waist lined dress finishing bottom carefully and caught with as few stitches as may be used to hold them firmly. neck, armhole and waist may be securely stitched, but aside from this no sew- ing should show unless it be of an ornamental nature. whether or not the sleeve is sewed into the armhole of both waist and lining is determined by style of the sleeve. with the waist on the dress form, bands, extra folds, collar pieces and trimming of any sort may be adjusted. if one cannot have a form, a pillow stuffed into the waist is a help, but on the form pin- ning, basting, and even sewing, may be done more easily. the bottom of the waist may be finished in different ways—the outside may be cut off at the waist line and the lining notched, or the two extending below the waist line may be bound or overcast together. clumsiness should be avoided here especially. the skirt may be put directly onto the waist lining without a band of its own. it must be securely stitched into place, with the fastenings corresponding to the waist fastenings. a girdle may then be draped. in making girdles of silk, velvet or any material in the piece, cut on a true bias, making it wide enough to give generous folds, and to turn in an edge at least an inch wide. the folds may be pressed in before the girdle is put on, and the whole caught in place without too many stitches. the edge may be slip- stitched to the waist and lining. it is important that the outside be firmly secured to the lining at the edge of the fastening, extending be- yond enough for a lap—the fastenings may be put textiles and clothing kinds of sleeves on the outside separate from the lining. onlace yoke and collar small hooks and eyes should be set quite close together. a gap detracts very much from the appearance of a dress. sleeve and armhole finishes differ greatly in dif- ferent seasons. when the kimona sleeve, or the very long shoulder effect is used, the sleeve lining will be sewed into the waist lining and the outside left en- tirely free. lace undersleeves may be sewed to this lining, or, if no lining is required throughout the whole length, only a short lap, the depth of the dress shield, may be substituted. a normal sleeve and its lining may be gathered or basted together at the top, and both sewed into the lining and outside of the waist. sometimes the sleeves are both sewed into the lining only, and the outside drapery extends over the sleeve top. the armhole is finished by binding or overcasting. the latter method avoids clumsiness and is neat and strong enough in most cases. in the kimona sleeve the pattern which gives a gore in the sleeve under the arm is less likely to prove troublesome. in any case there must be some freedom in the waist or it will tear. the long shoulder also requires more room under the arm. there are many finishes for the bottoms of sleeves, but, whether the sleeve be long, short or medium length, the finish should correspond with the rest of the waist. the bottom of the sleeve, like the neck, offers many possibilities for individual touches, and may give a note of character to the whole dress. con- kimona sleeves finish of sleeves lined dress trasting colors, relieved by lace, ruching, folds or puffs, bits of hand work, buttons, buckles, bows-an endless variety of detail may be used—the greatest danger being, perhaps, that too much may be attempted and the result be confusing. : when fashion permits of the use of so many fabrics and colors in one gown, it requires taste and judg- ment to choose and combine in such a way that the result may not give the patchwork effect often seen, combining fabrics and colors trying on making bias strips for facings but nevertheless to be avoided. a harmonious whole is difficult to attain with a variety of materials. during the whole process of making a dress it should be tried on as few times as possible-parts be- come stretched, the whole becomes mussed, and much time is wasted by many tryings on. have as many things done as possible, and then try on. the use of the form reduces the number of fittings, but the form cannot entirely take the place of the person. while working on a dress it should be kept as free from wrinkles as possible. have a place to keep it and always put it away carefully. textiles and clothing coat or tight fitting sleeves altering patterns placing of patterns if it is necessary to lengthen the sleeve, say two inches, cut the pattern at right angles to the lines in- dicated by the dots, above and below the elbow. the slashing should be done exactly at the same distance apart in the upper and under portions of the sleeve in order to retain the proper shape and size of the top and bottom. separate the parts, allowing one inch above and one inch below the elbow. to shorten the sleeve, lap the slashed part or lay a fold in the pattern instead of slashing. in either case, care should be taken that the fold or lap is of even width all the way across, so that the original shape of the sleeve will not be lost. too much care cannot be taken in arranging the pattern of the sleeve according to the thread of the goods. especially is this the case in the two-piece or coat sleeve. generally the top part of the outside seam and the lower part of the same side should be placed at the edge or fold of the goods, so that the two run in the same straight line. in all cases, the foundation sleeve or lining should be cut and fitted before the outer portion is adjusted. ample time should be given to the fitting and basting of the sleeve. the "set" of the sleeve is very often unsatisfactory because the cut- ting and original basting was done in a careless man- ner. remember that greater care is required in sleeve making than in any part of the garment. each sleeve is complete in itself and one must not deviate from the coat sleeves other in size, arrangement or ornament, or general ap- pearance. . they should be cut, basted and fitted alike and if the arms differ in size or length the sleeves must be so adjusted as to conceal the inequality. the sleeves should be made at the same time and before the cuffs, then the cuffs, puffs, or whatever spe- cial trimming is to be applied to them should be put on both sleeves at the same time. if the second sleeve is not made or trimmed until after the first is finished, it will be much more difficult to secure exactly the same effect. if it is impossible to complete both sleeves at one time, make the sleeves one day and the cuffs or trimming the next day. in making the coat sleeves the general methods are the same, but each season brings out new styles which the maker will have to understand before proper mak- ing and finishing can be acquired. always master the simple and standard patterns and the minor changes dictated by fashion-new fancies and effects-will not be difficult to acquire after a little experience has been gained. the lining for both sleeves should be fitted and the outside cut by them. after economical cutting, trace the seams carefully, and baste the outside to the lining, basting both uppers before the under sections. join the under and upper parts by pinning and basting, the outside seam first, be- ginning in the middle of the sleeve and working toward each end. the outside seams should be begun at the joining the parts textiles and clothing notch at the elbow, working toward each end. where the sleeve calls for gathering the fullness should be dis- tributed between the notches and the two portions of the sleeve should be secured at this point, before or after basting the upper or lower portions of each sleeve. finishing of seams notched at curves and bound or overcast. stitch the seams just outside the basting, then re- move the line of basting along the seam and press. trim off all rough edges. the inside seam is opened and notched at the bend of the elbow and an inch or two above and below and bound with silk binding ribbon or evenly overcast with twist or mer- cerized cotton. if an elaborate cuff or trimming is to be added to the sleeve, whether full or plain, it should be made sepa- rately and blind stitched to the faced sleeve. in case adding cuffs coat sleeves the sleeve is gathered the fullness can be put into a narrow band, the exact size of the cuff, the cuff then sewed on the band. in putting the sleeve in the armhole, be sure that putting in sleeves both seams are at the same point, that both have the same amount of fullness at the top, and that the plaits or gathers are equally distributed from front to back. the sleeve should be held next to the worker and should lie easy from seam to seam at the under arm. baste with close, even stitches or back stitch with coarse cotton or twist the same color as the waist. stitch in the sleeves on this line of basting, keeping the armholes curved while the stitching is being done. trim off edges and finish with binding or close over- casting. the most careful binding is clumsy compared to the overcast finish. turn the seam toward the shoulder and hem to the lining over the shoulders. this will do away with the stand-up look that sleeves some- times have. for the sleeve finished plainly around the wrist, a finish piece of bias crinoline should be fitted at the hand. to at wrist do this, turn the sleeve right side out and slip the crin- oline in the sleeve over the left hand and adjust by moving the fingers until the crinoline shapes itself to the sleeve perfectly, then pin and baste at the top and bottom. in this way the crinoline will be neither too short nor too loose and all wrinkling will be prevented. turn the sleeve inside out and cut off the crinoline one-fourth of an inch from the edge, keeping a per- textiles and clothing fectly true edge, turn the sleeve over the crinoline, baste the outside part of the sleeve and cat-stitch to the crinoline, then cat-stitch the crinoline to the lining. remove the lower basting and press. a bias strip of silk sufficiently wide to cover the crinoline is hemmed at the lower edge and to the sleeve lining just above the interlining. whenever it is possible to do so use the cat-stitch. it is a neat finish, easily and quickly done, takes less time than hemming, besides being less bulky. if the bottom of a coạt sleeve is to be left open at the back or slashed, an interfacing of light weight can- vas will be necessary. turn the outside portion of the sleeve over the canvas, care being taken to turn all corners at the slash and curves, press and stitch, face after the stitching is done. it may be stitched bet- ter if the back seam is left open. in the coat sleeve, both seams are curved and should be pressed on a curved board. a rocking chair in- verted, with the rocker covered with soft cloth, makes a good board on which to press the curved seams of a sleeve. neck and collar finishes neck fitting and finishing is, perhaps, the most dif- ficult part of waist making, for the appearance of a waist may be ruined by a badly fitting collar. when trimming out the neck, if in doubt how much to cut, put a collar around the neck on the figure and note where it comes on the waist, then cut accordingly. the unlined collar is usually cut on the straight of the material. it may be fitted to the curve of the pressing sleeves collars lace or net collars neck by making darts opposite the shoulder seam. these darts should run off to nothing at top and bot- tom; then the size is regulated at the back. a canvas collar may be cut to fit the neck, then lace or net collars basted and made on this—top fin- ishes, hems, etc., made-then the whole taken off the canvas. in this way the size and shape desired may be obtained in materials difficult to manipulate alone. plain standing collars with canvas interlining are used on lined waists. the interlining is basted to the outside and is made a trifle smaller than the out- side to give a curve. the lining is then hemmed to the two, being left open at the bottom to insert the neck of the waist. or the collar may be finished off and then sewed outside the waist. in sewing collars to the waist, begin to baste at the center front and baste towards the back on each side. with thin yokes, the neck may be stretched a little on the collar, thus making the yoke fit smoothly without stretching the collar. bones should be placed, one at the back, one oppo- site or a little back of the shoulder seam, slanting slightly toward the back, and one about half-way be- tween the shoulder seam and the center front, also slanting back. the sailor collar or other lined collar must have exact corners—the right side of the material and lining are put together and stitched, all extra material is cut off, and then the collar turned. it may be stitched on the right side or not, according to the material used and the effect desired. putting on collars boning textiles and clothing seamless yokes pattern for yoke to make a pattern for a seamless yoke baste to- gether the shoulder seams of the fitted waist pattern, place the upper part of the pattern on cambric or stiff paper, with the front of waist on straight edge or fold of paper, trace the shape of the neck yoke any desired depth below the neck line. the lower edge can be cut in any shape, the neck either high or low, round or square. this perfectly fitted yoke pattern can be used for a foundation for lace, velvet, ribbon, net, or any thin material. the circular yoke made of lace and rib- bon or bias strips can be made to open in front or back. the strips of inserting and ribbon should be basted on the paper pattern and joined by fancy stitches or over sewed. the parts next the neck will need to be held fuller than the outside curve of the inserting. all yokes to be worn under the gown should be made on a well-fitted lining. never trust to pinning, basting, or hooking the yoke to the waist. the finish of collar, cuffs, girdle and placket are hall- marks of good dressmaking. well finished ends and corners, the careful adjustment of fastenings, shields carefully fitted to the arm's eye and caught smoothly to the lining—all these are little things that count for more than money spent in expensive ornament. pressing pressing board the iron the success of the finish of every garment depends prossing upon the pressing, whether the material be heavy or light, cotton or wool. garments are always pressed on the wrong side, when being made. the iron used should neither be too hot nor too heavy and the work should be done on a perfectly smooth, well-covered board. for pressing black or dark cloth, the cover of the board should be dark and free from lint, while a perfectly clean light cover should be substituted when white or light goods are to be pressed. the whole face of an iron should never be put down placing on a seam or any part of a waist, but the side or point should be used, care being taken not to stretch a curved seam. a small rolling pin, a broom stick, a chair rocker, or any rounded stick well covered can be used for pressing curved seams or sleeves. this lessens the danger of marking the seams on the right side. these are only makeshifts; a regular half round sleeve board should be obtained if much work is to be done. in pressing, the iron should never be shoved or pushed, as in ironing. only heavy materials require great strength. it is possible to press too much as well as too little. whatever the material, pressing is work that requires to be done carefully and slowly. allow the iron to touch only the center of the seam, the edges of the seam will not then be outlined upon the goods. piled goods require infinite care. uncut textiles and clothing wet pressing velvet, crape, etc., should never be pressed with the iron flat on the seam. the seam should be opened carefully and over the rounded surface of the board, covered with very soft cotton flannel into which the pile can sink without being flattened. run the iron with the pile, or the iron may be placed on the side or flat end and the seams drawn slowly along the edge of the iron the same way the pile runs—only the edge of the iron touching the edge of the seam. corded seams should be pressed in the same way to avoid flattening the cord. very heavy cloths and chinchilla should have a small stream of water carried along the seam, followed by the iron; or the seam may be dampened by a soft cloth-very wet. this is the “wet pressing" used by tailors, which is adapted to the requirements of mate- rials used by them, such as serge, tweeds, etc. press- ing on the right side under a damp cloth is apt to give marks if the cloth gets too dry or if the iron is too hot, but is necessary on finished wool garments. silk scorches easily and should be pressed very care- fully with a cool iron, light in weight. some light colors fade or change in pressing. try a piece of the goods before pressing the garment. if the color does not come back when cold or when ex- posed to the light, do not use a hot iron on the garment. construction and ornament for dress principles of ornamont many of the principles governing architecture and art apply equally as well to art in dress. both in archi- tecture and dress, construction should be decorated- decoration should never be purposely constructed. it is by the ornament of a building that one can judge more truly of the creative power which the artist has brought to bear upon his work. the general propor- tion may be good, the mouldings accurate, but the in- stant ornament is attempted, the architect or the dress- maker reveals how much of an artist he is. to put ornament in the right place where it serves a pur- pose—is indeed difficult; to render that ornament at the same time an added beauty and an expression of the desired unity is far more difficult. all decoration should be plained to enrich-not to assert. all jewelry or ornament should form a note in the general harmony of color-a decorative touch to add beauty and to be subordinated to the object deco- rated. it should serve the purpose of seeming to strengthen the whole or to protect the parts receiving most wear. ornament is everywhere attempted. we see ornament at every turn-good and bad alike-in our homes, on clothes, linen, and kitchen utensils. carlyle tells us that “the first want of barbarous man is decoration." we have no record of when this need was felt first. primitive man after supplying his ac- tual needs, seemed to develop a longing for the beauti- ful, so he ornamented his own body, scratched rude pat- terns on his tools and weapons and gradually devel- purpose of ornamont textiles and clothing errors in ornamentation oped the artistic sense. this love of ornament dates back to the beginnings of the human race and there are no records of a race or a period devoid of it. we see gowns totally lacking in good results because too much has been attempted. the wearer has not con- sidered the effect as a whole, but has gratified her lik- ing for a multiplicity of ornaments and color which, perhaps would be good in themselves, if applied sep- arately, but which becomes an incongruous mixture when brought together on one garment. garments which seem to have required great effort in the making and which appear complex in construc- tion should be avoided, for the effect is not pleasing. the gown should set off the wearer, not the wearer the gown. to avoid committing errors against good taste it is essential first to consider the use of any garment and see if it answers the purpose for which it was designed. if any part appears meaningless, this is a sure indica- tion that it is wanting in grace and beauty. the orna- ment should harmonize with the materials, use, and construction of the object to which it is applied. the color must be massed with effect and detailed with care. embroidery there can be no ornamentation equal to that which is worked into the material, such as embroidery. the design should be appropriate in form and color and always conventional. flowers are used most fre- quently for embroidery and passementerie and the ornament in dress flowers as ornamont simple, single flowers are the most effective, such as the daisy, the wild rose, and the flowers of the lily family. these simple flowers are the best because they radiate from a central point, have strong forms and decided proportions, can be most fully expressed in a few stitches requiring the fewest shades of color, and ate admirably adapted for amateur workers. old indian stuffs, jewelry, and enamels are rich in suggestions of conventionalized flowers. the simple, single flowers are repeated constantly, the daisy ap- pearing to be the favorite in these beautiful ornaments. the most beautiful of all conventional flower work, jewel studded, is found in samples of work of the fif- teenth century. they simple suggest the forms of na- ture. the repetition of the same flower in all its as- pects is more pleasing and less tiresome to the eye than a variety of flowers or figures. we find upon analysis that the simple forms are the basis of all decorative art work. geometrical designs and arabesques are the most difficult, requiring the most exacting and careful work. narrow bands, braided, outlined, or chain-stitched in simple designs are effective, easily done, and wear well. braids and any of these stitches may be combined, making durable and effective trimming for sleeves and neck. these simple designs are also appropriate for children's frocks. the french knots are ornamental and dura- ble. all embroidery and passementerie should be rich, close, and continuous. it should not be cut up into geomotrical designs textiles and clothing passementerie of good design poor design, weak connection passementerie pieces and sewed on where it does not serve, or appear to serve, a purpose. there is very little passementerie that is at all suit- able for forming edges, as it is not sufficiently substan- tial, but when it can be found firm and of the right shade it is one of the most beautiful ornaments to edge neck and sleeves. it may be allowed to extend beyond ornament in dress the dress material, so that the flesh tints may show through the design, thus gradually softening the out- line. often a narrow passementerie can be found with one strong edge and a good border can be made by joining the two. this cannot be done where the pat- tern is united by a band running through the center of the ornament. a joining narrow passementerie to form a border bands a band of velvet or cloth embroidered in outline stitch and french knots of same shade as the garment is a satisfactory edge. except for yokes, the knots should always be held together with the outline edge. the rich silk braids and passementeries are made of silk wound or woven over cotton and should be used only on dresses which are not intended for hard wear. such trimmings are, of course, inappropriate on serges and homespuns and soon become shabby if given much rough service. laces, like all trimmings, have defined limits within which they should be used, though they are often worn indiscriminately. machine made laces, often good in use of lacos textiles and clothing design of lace placing of decorations make and design, are now very common, but the best machine-made laces are not cheap in price. handsome lace should be applied rather plainly, as the pattern is often lost in the gathers. fine laces are out of harmony with heavy or coarse materials. when lace is desired for flounces that with running patterns which neither advance nor retreat, except in the folds which may be made, will be found most pleasing. dis- tinct objects, such as baskets, crowns, vases, etc., which suggest weight, are unsuitable patterns for so light a fabric as lace. attention to details is essential in the placing of these decorations, as in the selection or making of them. the worker should take into consideration the shape and size of the bands or pieces of trimming and should note carefully the chief characteristics of the design and above all the junction of leaves, flowers, arabesques, especially in the finishing of the corners of collars and cuffs. those at all skillful with the use of the needle can attain the most beautiful and artistic results if right laws in color and design are adhered to, even by the use of the simplest stitches, for the beauty of dress lies not so much in the richness and variety of material used as upon simplicity and harmony-a fact too often disregarded. perhaps no ornament is more abused than the bow. in order not to appear intrusive, ribbons require the most delicate handling. the only excuse for a ribbon simplicity and harmony tho bow ornament in dress fitness of placo as an ornament is when it makes a pretense of tying. when used as a sash where folds or gathers are con- fined, the tone of the ribbon should, in general, vary scarcely from that of the dress. whatever the ornament used, whether embroidered band, a ribbon, a cord that laces, a diamond pin, or a jeweled buckle, though it may possess great intrinsic value and beauty, it cannot be considered of real worth as an ornament unless it fulfills the most important condition-fitness of place. although the art of dress admits of innumerable variations, like all other arts it is subject to the three rules of beauty-order, proportion and harmony. ornaments are appropriate on the hems or edges of garments where it serves the purpose of strengthen- ing and protecting the parts most worn, and not sim- ply where fancy or fashion dictates. the natural fastenings and fold centers should be along the axis or center of the body. any jewelry, buckle, brooch, or ornament used to fasten, secure, or strengthen these centers or to hold bands of embroid- ery, collar, or folds together should be sufficiently strong to serve the purpose. there must be a reason for position and the purpose of its use must be ap- parent to satisfy the eye. the eye is unconsciously and irresistibly drawn to these natural centers and demands some object there on which to rest—some substance from which the fold emanate-some reason for their detention. if this ornament at the throat or waist natural contors textiles and clothing fastening collar or holding folds by a girdle or clasp is omitted, the eye is disappointed. this does not mean that the ornament, jewel, passementerie, or em- ibroidery should always be placed in the axis or central line of the figure—this may be carried too far. slight irregularities often give an effect to hat or gown that is charming passementerie covering facing trimming remember that trimming is not intended to cover up, but to beautify and strengthen. when, for econ- omy's sake, it is used to cover worn places or other de- fects, it must be selected and applied with great care or it will loudly proclaim its mission. trimming should mean something—whether jewelry or passementerie. bands that bind nothing, straps, bows, buckles, or pins that confine nothing offend the taste. a girdle should seem, even if it does not, to belt ornament in dress use of ornament in fullness; it has no use on a close-fitting, plain waist. no draperies should be invisibly held; supply some ap- parent means of confining the gathers. ornament may be used to emphasize the good lines and proportions of a figure or to conceal the poor ones. breadth across the shoulder and chest are given by proper arrangement of folds, placing of orna- ment, or by merely raising or lowering the line of the armhole. the waist may be made to appear shorter or longer by raising or lowering the girdle, or by changing the lines of the trimming in the waist. the extremely short person will look better if the eye is drawn toward up and down lines rather than cross lines. the very tall person may not wear stripes up and down her skirt, but bands around will appar- ently decrease her height. trimming around or even on the hips emphasizes the size of the large woman. extremely close-fitting skirts, especially those which grow smaller at the bot- tom, make some women look positively deformed. to preserve the lines of the figure there should be unity in dress, correspondence in color, in material, in lines or in ornament between the waist and skirt. this is lacking in the combination of shirt waist and skirt, but even then the neck bow or the belt may sug- gest the color of the skirt. for convenience in sports, and in business, appropriateness to need must come first, and the shirt waist fills a great need of the practical woman. unity in dress textiles and clothing ornament of textiles appropriate designs in addition to ornament added to garment, the orna- ment in the textile itself must be considered. textiles may be beautiful in weave, but spoiled by the design. quite as important as intrinsic beauty is appropriateness of pattern. how often do we see woven on our curtains, carpets, and garment materials fans, bunches of roses tied with ribbons—bows with long, fluttering ends—landscapes, snow scenes, etc. nothing is beautiful out of its place. a fan suggests coolness and grace of motion, but woven in our tex- tiles it gives the same impression as a butterfly mounted on a pin—something perverted, imprisoned, or robbed of its natural use. nothing is oor ever can be beauti- ful without use—without harmony. decorations on textiles are not to tell stories. there is a difference between landscape painting and using landscapes as a motive for decorating textiles or pottery. in one case the aim is to annihilate surface by producing the im- pression of distance; in the other, the object is to glor- ify the surface only. for the woman of limited income it is wiser to se- lect plain material of good texture and weave. such material is never conspicuous, can be made over, and is always restful and may be interesting. any good textile must impress itself upon the mind by its sug- gestiveness and beauty of color. there is a difference between what may be called artistic and decorative advantago of plain material ornament of textiles --- stripos embellishment of textiles. each has its place in the world of beauty, but one is the poetry, the other the prose of the art. there is a dignity and restfulness in plain material which is never obtained by varied patterns. when a stripe is used to vary the material, the style of the tex- tile is changed, elongated if the stripe is vertical, and widening if it is horizontal. if the main stripe is cut at right angles with a second stripe, the textile appears more complicated and repose is lost. the same is true of checks, but no pattern is more distracting than large plaids, especially when used for waists, because the regularity of the design renders very conspicuous any inequalities in the shoulders or bust, and the great va- riety of colors detracts from the dignity of the dress. with small checks and narrow, self-colored stripes the effect is different, causing the texture to appear only shaded and not destroying the unity. on garment fabrics the ornamentation should be flat, without shadow or relief. the pattern must en- hance and not mar the figure. if flowers, foliage, or other natural objects are used for the designs, they should be conventionalized—not direct copies of na- ture. a figured textile requires more careful planning than plain material. it may be beautiful when used properly, but it will appear hideous if distorted in the making. a conventional fleur-de-lis pattern, or a long dash which appears and disappears when used in long, conventionalized designs textiles and clothing size of design graceful folds, adds to the apparent height. these same figures wrongly used spread out awkwardly or become distorted. the size of the design should be regulated by the material-small patterns being used for close, thick fabrics and larger designs, with more delicate colors, for thin material of open texture. thick, heavy fab- rics require rich, warm colors and the pattern likewise should be rich and decorative. velvets, velveteens, and heavy cloths for dresses are beautiful in themselves and should not be marred by patterns or trimmings. spirals or curved lines running crosswise on textiles distort the natural curves of the figure by making seem- ing undulations where none should be and accentuat- ing the prominence of hips and bust. such patterns should not be used in folds. color texture and color much is to be considered in choosing colors and it is folly to suggest a particular shade for a person without taking into account texture of the textile. though the color may be good, the weave may destroy what might otherwise have been a success. not only must color in itself be studied, but quality of color in textiles as well. a shade of red, for ex- ample, in dull silk or lusterless material may be most unbecoming for a woman of a certain type, while it may be worn successfully if made in rich velvet or glossy silk. color some women maintain that they cannot wear green, but nearly all can dress becomingly in this color if the shade and texture is selected carefully. the same may be said of other colors for the many variations should be taken into consideration. the average woman in selecting materials for gowns or house furnishings is apt to be influenced too much by details, as she would judge the merits of a fine piece of needlework, hence the value of good, broad color schemes fails to appeal to her. the chenille curtain, perhaps, suits her because it is full of complex decoration. after having determined the prevailing color of a costume, the details should be in harmony, rather than in contrast with it. different tones of one color are more satisfactory than striking contrasts, and even strong patches of light and shade of the same color should be avoided, as well as patches of crude and vivid color. the pleasing contrasts found in nature cease to be happy when attempted in textiles. use few colors, avoid bright shades except in small quantities. all bright colors should be placed near the face, rather than on or near the bottom of skirts or the edge of sleeves. avoid strong contrasts; the brighter the color and the greater the contrast with other colors, the louder and cruder will be the effect. "no color harmony is of a high order unless it involve indescribable tints." harmony not contrast children's clothes infants' clothing plainness, purity, softness of texture rather than elaborate ornament should be the main consideration for infants' clothes. the finest and softest of french and scotch flannels, french linen, dimity, nainsook, and india silk are always dainty and they should be made up very simply with little trimming, but that of the finest. hems and seam: should be small and neatly done with, perhaps, the daintiest beading inset by hand and feather stitched. hemstitching is always beautiful, but makes a weak spot w.hich is apt to give out in the con- stant laundering necessary for children's clothes. the skirt and shirt made in one piece, with sleeves to slip into the little outside garment, both to open down the back so that all may be slipped on at the same time without worry to either nurse or baby, will be found a great convenience. stockinet or webbing, all wool, partly wool, or all cotton, is preferred by may to the plain cloth. the cotton is non-shrinkable, easily made, and finished. this garment fabric has reached such a high degree of perfection that for infants and children of larger growth nothing better can be desired for shirts, skirts, drawers, and tights. it may be had in either light or heavy weight, is easily laundered and elastic, having all the qualities desired in undergarments. garments made of this material in the manner described give per- stockinet undergarments children's clothes children's dresses fect freedom for all organs, besides evenness of cover- ing for the body and lightness of weight—all important considerations in infants' and children's clothing. there should be the same simplicity in construction and material in the garments of children of larger growth. the design should be smaller, more realistic and the color brighter than for grown people. for children's dresses, the pretty ginghams in small checks, chambray, dimity, serge, flannels, cashmere are appropriate and serviceable. in making up these simple materials nothing better can be suggested than the plain, straight waist, fitting easily, to which a full skirt is fastened. the sleeves may be of any fashion to add variety. such a frock is simple and dignified and has a certain archaic beauty and quaintess that the huge, ugly collars and like orna- ment can never give. with the plain body the grace of the childish form is not lost. the body may be short or long, with the trimming at the bottom or edge of the skirt. the gathers fall in long lines or folds, no element of oppo- sition destroying the rythm and grace of the figure contour, when the trimming is placed at the bottom of the frock instead of several bands dividing the skirt. the waist should always be wider in front than in the back. the discomfort and injury caused by ill fitting garments, graded according to age instead of according to size, thus restricting the expansion of the chest and the play of the lungs, cannot be estimated. textiles and clothing with the proper kind of frock a child can indulge in any game without becoming in the least disordered. dresses for little girls may have drawers made of the same material, thus permitting them the same freedom as the boys. the life of the child is play. unfortu- nate is the child whose clothing is too good to play in. of course there should be frocks for gala occasions. children are sensitive to color and receive much inno- cent enjoyment from being prettily dressed. a child may be made unhappy and timid by ugly clothes, but plainness need not mean ugliness. there are many artistic and simple patterns now being put on the mar- ket and many of the ready-made frocks found in the best shops are satisfactory. care of clothing attentions ruskin says, “clothes carefully cared for and rightly worn, show a balance of mind and self respect.” the freshness of gown or wrap may be preserved by littlo the little attentions bestowed upon it each time it is worn, which take but a few minutes and mean so much in all departments of dress. by carefully brushing and shaking into folds, removing all spots, hanging right side out, picking and pulling straight flowers, bows, and ribbons as soon as removed, adding buttons and taking up dropped stitches when needed, -all these little attentions if given promptly will keep a wardrobe fresh and in good order. new braid on the bottom of skirts, sponging and pressing, little alterations and ad- dition of new trimming to collar and cuffs, will help to preserve the original freshness of the gown and cause the wearer to appear well dressed. waists should be turned wrong side out when re- moved and allowed to air near a window. shields should be cleansed with alcohol and water. ribbons should be rolled up immediately when taken off and if treated in this way will last much longer and look much daintier. clothing if moist and dusty and tossed into a dark corner of a closet or trunk can never appear fresh again, and will betray the character of the wearer. it is not the wearing of clothes which tells so sadly upon them, but the manner in which they are cared for. a few garments nicely made, well fitted and properly textiles and clothing ruffled si rts packing away clothing cared for are far preferable to twice the number of inferior quality and make. skirts of thin material having ruffles around the bot- tom should be hung upside down by loops sewed under the ruffles at the seams. by hanging in the opposite di- rection from which they fall when worn, ruffles regain their freshness. all clothing for the season should be put away in perfect order to be ready for any sudden emergency which may arise. no clothing of any kind should be stored for the season without thorough cleaning and repairing where necessary. garments that are out- grown should be disposed of, instead of packing them away. wool garments should be carefully brushed and hung in the sun to remove and destroy any eggs of moths which may be present. they may be hung in tight cotton bags or packed in tight boxes with all openings posted over as a protection against moths. tailors' boxes which come flat are not expensive and are useful for this. they should be plainly labeled with their contents. to fold, lay all articles on the bed or table and fold on the seams if possible. particular attention should be given to sleeves and collars. coat lapels should be turned to lie flat, collars turned up, and the coat folded directly through the center seam. skirts and coats with bias seams are not improved by hanging as the bias parts are apt to stretch out of shape. folding garments cleaning remove pins hangers no clothing should be put away for the night, even, without first removing all steel pins, as the least damp- ness may cause rust spots. clothes forms and hangers are so inexpensive that every gown and coat should have its own. skirts should be hung exactly on the form and no part of the band should be allowed to sag. if fancy waists are put in drawers or boxes, they should have the sleeves filled with tissue paper and the collars and bows should be pulled straight. cleaning fruit and wine stains large garments require the greatest care in hand- ling and in order to be done successfully, they should be sent to the professional cleaner. all stains and spots should be removed as soon as possible. fruit and wine stains may be removed by stretching the fabric over a vessel and pouring boiling water through the cloth from a height of a foot or two. the water must be boiling. ink stains can be taken out of clothing by dipping the cloth in milk, squeezing the blackened milk into one dish and dipping immediately into clear milk until the stain has disappeared. then finish by washing the cloth in warm water and in soapy water to remove the fat in the milk. iron rust may be removed from linen and cotton by using lemon juice and salt. wet the spot with the juice of a lemon, cover with salt and lay in the sun, ink stains iron rust textiles and clothing grease -spots repeating the operation until the stain is removed, then rinse out the lemon and salt thoroughly. this of course cannot be used on colored fabrics, as it fades the color. grease is one of the worst foes to garments and the greatest care is needed to remove such spots from delicate fabrics. if not done at once, the dust and grease together often prove ruinous. when the color and fabric will not be injured by it, warm water and soap is the best agent, otherwise absorbents may be used. french chalk or magnesia, powdered, placed upon the spot, and allowed to remain for a time will often absorb the grease effectually. if the first appli- cation is not effective, brush off, and apply again until the spot disappears. where water can be used without injuring the cloth, the chalk or magnesia can be made into a paste and spread over the spot. when dry, brush off with a soft brush. in removing fresh grease spots, blotting paper with a warm iron may often be used effectively. if the heat changes the color of the cloth, the iron should be held above the goods. blood stains may be removed by making a paste of starch and applying it to the spot. several applica- tions may be necessary. only the best and purest benzine, naphtha, gaso- line, and turpentine should be used for cleaning gar- ments. for removing paints from coarse cloth, pure turpentine is useful, while for silks, velvets and wool- ens, benzine, naptha and gasoline are to be preferred. blood stains bolvents cleaning the secret of success in the use of any of these cleans- ing agents lies ini immersing the garments in large quantities of the liquid. not less than a gallon should be used for a waist and two gallons will do the work far more satisfactorily. an effort should be made to cleaning remove all the worst spots before immersing the whole garments garment. those which have not disappeared should then be marked with white thread, colored thread may leave a mark. it is a good plan to enclose the spot with a line of basting. soak the garment for some time in the liquid, then soap all spots thoroughly and rub gently between the hands until they disappear. finally wash and rinse the garment in clear liquid and hang in the open air until all odor has passed away. soap may be used freely with gasoline with good ef- soap and fect. some professional cleaners use a little of the with gasolino strongest ammonia in their gasoline tanks. the goods should be shaken well and all folds pulled out straight with the threads of the goods. velveteen, corduroy, and like piled fabrics can be cleaned successfully if not too much worn, but no amount of cleaning will restore the pile that is worn off. if allowed to stand until the impurities have settled and the clear liquid poured into clean bottles, it may be used for a number of times. this should always be done in the open air. chloroform may be used for cleaning the most deli- cate silks, though this is rather expensive. whenever any of these liquids are used to remove absorbing spots alone, the spots should be placed upon a soft pad pad of several thicknesses of old cloth or blotting paper to ammonia textiles and clothing cleaning velvet absorb the surplus liquid and the spot should be rubbed from the outside towards the center. a hole may be cut in very soft cloth or blotting paper and placed around the spot to absorb the solvent around the stain and prevent the dark ring being formed. the cloth should be rubbed lightly and briskly until it is dry. if the fabric is light colored, a sponge or a soft piece of light cloth should be used, while for dark fabrics, the cloth used for rubbing the spot should also be dark and free from lint. the rubbing should be done light- ly so as not to wear or injure the texture of the fabric. the blotting paper or cloth underneath should be changed frequently until the spot has entirely disap- peared. velvet hats and bonnets, after all trimming is re- moved, may be cleaned by repeated dippings in benzine or gasoline. the vessel used should be large enough to hold a sufficient quantity of the liquid to completely cover the hat. of course all dust should be carefully brushed off and all folds ripped and loosened before putting the hat into the liquid. the secret of success lies in having the article entirely free from dust and using a large quantity of the benzine or gasoline. before sending out garments to be dyed or cleaned, be sure that they are in good condition. all worn places should be mended carefully and all buttons should be removed. garments that are ripped should have all cut threads pulled out and be free from dust. dust silk fabrics with a piece of clean flannel and woolen material with a brush or broom. before sending to cleaners repairing > repairing fabrics are so much cheaper and so much easier to economical obtain that patching has almost become one of the lost monding arts. the twentieth century woman feels that her time is too valuable to be spent in mending the old clothes and that she can better afford to buy new. however that may be, no one disputes the utility of mending. like so many other duties, mending is half done when well begun. a well made garment of good material should not be discarded when slightly worn, for a patch well put in or a neat piece of darning de- tracts in no way from the value of a garment and may even be a work of art. the children's clothes particu- larly should be kept in good order, for they are made uncomfortable by wearing garments that are out of re- pair, to say nothing of the demoralizing effect upon their characters. laundering is the great ally to tears and not only laundering doubles the size of the hole, but pulls the threads apart and repairs so that it is impossible to make the mended place neat and smooth, therefore all clothing should be mended before washing. stockings and woven underwear are much worn by the rubbing on the washboard and thin places going into the washing frequently come out as holes, so that it is true economy of effort and time to "run" or darn the thin places before they are worn through. it requires much less time and the garments last longer. textiles and clothing boys' trowsers sleeves it is a good plan, especially in knees of stockings and knitted underwear, to baste a piece of fine net over a worn or broken place and darn over it. (see darn- ing.) thread used for darning should be as near as possible the size of the threads in the garment. darn- ing cotton, linen, wool, and silk of all shades can be bought, so that the problem of matching is no longer a difficult one. in mending the knees of boys' trousers a round patch should never be used. the seams should be ripped and the piece set in then, if the seams are pressed well, the patch will scarcely be noticeable. when bodices are worn under the arm, rip the seams and set in a new “under arm” piece. a good plan for one whose dresses are apt to wear through quickly is to have the under arm pieces and the adjacent parts of the front made of two thicknesses of the goods; then, as the outside wears through, the edges can be hemmed down or taken into the seam. when table cloths begin to wear in the middle fold or along the edge of the table, a few inches cut off one end and one side of the cloth will change the fold and the place where it falls over the table and give it a new lease of life. if the hem is turned down once and cat stitched, it will resemble the selvage more than a twice turned hem. in repairing or lengthening garments that have be- come too short, much can be done by adding to the bottom of the skirt and sleeves material of different table cloths lengthening garments repairing extension hem and tucks texture. a cloth or serge skirt may be lengthened by facing with velvet of the same shade, covering the line of sewing with cord, braid, or passementerie of the same shade or black. there should be an under- facing of light-weight crinoline to make the bottom of the skirt firm and to give strength. the same facing and passementerie may be used at neck and sleeves. thin gowns of lawn, dimity, etc., can be lengthened with a faced or extension hem, the line of sewing to be covered with feather stitch or any of the fancy stitches of white or colored thread. if the lawn or dimity has a colored figure, the embroidery silk or cotton may match this. under skirts and drawers may be length- ened in the same way or rows of tucks may be added. in waist repairing, the sewing silk should match the material. set the patch into the seams when possible and trust to careful pressing. if the material begins to wear near the end of the bones, cut off the bones an inch and take in the dart or seam. if the silk wears off around the hooks and eyes, move them along ever so little. make a virtue of worn out seams by taking them in and covering them with fancy stitching. if the garment is lined, the outside should be carefully basted to the lining before stitching to take in the seam. it has been said that silk waists are serviceable as long as the upper parts of the sleeves remain good. if garments have not been well cared for from the first and beyond a certain point, “making over” is poor waist repairing textiles and clothing mending blankets use of tape economy. never attempt cleaning and making over old clothes unless the material is good enough to make it worth while to do the work well. the mending basket is an important adjunct of mending and should be well supplied with darning cot- ton of all colors and sizes, good english tape, black and white, of different widths, linen tape, bias tape, differ- ent kinds and sizes of needles,—sewing, darning, shoe, carpet, and tape needles. for repairing bands and facings, where buttons have been torn off by wringer or iron, and for strengthen- ing weak places, tape is invaluable. it saves the time required to turn in the edges of the cloth and is less clumsy and bungling. the mender should use good judgment as to the amount of work to be applied to each garment. she should substitute the machine needle whenever possible and not put tiny stitches by hand into half worn gar- ments or in unseen places. ripped tucks and bands can be sewed in a few minutes on the machine. serv- iceable darning can be done on the machine. before putting away freshly laundered clothes it is a good plan to take out the clothes already in the draw- ers and lay the ones washed last on the bottom, thus all garments will wear alike, each article in its regular turn. use of judgment in mending textiles and clothing bibliography home and school sewing, frances patton, ($. , postage c). school needlework, olive c. hapgood, ($. , postage c). sewing course for schools, mary schenck woolman, ($ . , postage c). sewing tablets-graded sewing texts with all materials. seven parts, by margaret l. blair, ($. each, postage c each). school garment drafting, jennie m. haner, ($ . , postage c). lessons in garment drafting, mae gingles, ($. , postage c). progressive lessons in needlework, catharine f. johnson, ($. , postage c). dressmaking up-to-date, butterick pub. co., ($. , postage c.) when mother lets us sew, virginia ralston, ($. , postage c). the art of millinery, anna ben yusuf, ($ . , postage c). practical millinery lessons, illustrated milliner co., ($ . , postage c). dressmaking self taught, curens, ($ . , postage foc). household textiles, charlotte m. gibbs, ($ . , postage oc). test questions the following questions constitute the “written reci. tation” which the regular menībers of the a. s. h. e. answer in writing and send in for the correction and comment of the instructor. they are intended to emphasize and fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. textiles and clothing part iii read carefully. to make this test of greatest value to you, write fully from your personal standpoint and experience. try as many methods given in the text as your time will allow so that you may ask for explanation if the descriptions are not clear to you. methods are many; if you do not agree with these given, suggest better ones. . i. (a) what are the requisites for good dress- making ? (b) how does dressmaking dif- fer from white sewing in make, finish, and ornamentation? from your point of view what do you consider a successful garment ? . give methods of altering patterns. . give briefly the method of cutting and making from patterns; (a) a shirt waist, with cuff open opposite seam: (b) a woolen skirt, including method of stitching, pressing, and finishing. . how may pressing be done to give the best re- sults ? what garments require little or no pressing, and why? . (a) state some of the principles and purposes of ornament. (b) what is your idea of orna- ment applied to garments ? (c) give some errors in ornamentation not named in text. textiles and clothing . cut from magazines illustrations showing your idea of good and faulty ornamentation in dress. give reason for your opinion. . illustrate in some way, either by picture, draw- ing, embroidery, braid, or stitching, some de- sign appropriate for ornament work on neck or sleeve. . where should ornament be placed, and why? . (a) give your idea of appropriate design on tex- tiles. (b) the advantage and disadvantage of plain materials. ii. make a color card of silk, wool, paper or raffia showing colors that contrast. (b) colors that harmonize. what colors do you find satisfactory for your own wear, and why? . what materials are best suited for infants' gar- ments ? (b) what can you say in regard to children's clothing? . what is your opinion of the care of clothing? (b) what experience have you had in clean- ing (a) cotton, (b) wool, (c) linen, (d) silk, (e) velvet ? . do you consider it economy to repair garments ? can you suggest better methods than those given in the text? . textiles and clothing . if possible make some garment, shirt waist, skirt, or simple dress while studying this les- son and describe in detail how you went about it, the result, time taken, total cost. tell why you selected the design, the color, the mate- rial. . have you found the ready made garments satis- factory in underwear and dresses ? . tell of some of your failures in dressmaking and give the reasons for your lack of success. . what methods, new to you, have you tried in connection with this lesson? what questions have you to ask? can you add any suggestions that would be help- ful to others in this work? . wherein have the lessons been of practical value to you? . for teachers. draw up an outline for a course in sewing to combine two considerations: (a) adaptability to the child's interests and capaci- ties, (b) orderly sequence in the technica! part. note: after completing the answers, sign your full name. . textiles and clothing references: ornament and design bachelder-principles of design in america. ($ . .) brown-history of decorative art. ($ . .) carter, mrs. h. j.-historic ornament in color. ( . a sheet). prang. clifford-period decoration. ($ . .) crane-claims of decorative art. (out of print.) crane-line and form. ($ . .) daniels—teaching of ornament. ($ . .) day-application of ornament. ($ . .). day-nature in ornament. ($ . .) day-ornamental design. (out of print.) day-planning of ornament. (out of print.) day—decorative design of all ages. ($ . .) day-ornament and its application. ($ . .) day-ornamental design, anatomy of pattern, planning of ornament. ($ . .) day-some principles of everyday art. (out of print.) glazier—manual of historic ornament. (new edition in press.) hulme—birth and development of ornament. (out of print.) jones—grammar of ornament. ($ . .) prang-art and ornament in egypt. ($ . .) note—the books out of print may be found in some public libraries. textiles and clothing references: history of costume earle-costume of colonial times. ($ . .) earle—two centuries of costume in america, vols. ($ . each.) evans—chapters on greek dress. (out of print.) fairholt-costume of england, vols. ($ . each.) hill-history of english dress. (out of print.) mcclellan–historic dress in america. ($ . .) planchet—history in british costume. ($ . .) quegly-what dress makes of us. ($ . .) racinet—costume. ($ . .) rhead-chats on costume. ($ . .) schild-old english peasant costume from boadicea to queen victoria. (out of print.) supplementary program arranged for class study on textiles and clothing meeting i (study pages - ) primitive methods endeavor to obtain a colonial spinning-wheel in working order, and get some one to operate it. if possible, obtain samples of weaving done on a hand loom. examine a hand-loom if possible. they may be seen at the manufacturers of rag and remade carpets. references: woman's share in primitive culture, mason, chapter iii, the weaver. ($ . , postage c.) colonial days in old new england, by earle. ($ . , postage c.) textile fibres collect an exhibit of raw fibres and fibres in process of manu- facture. send to the u. s. department of agriculture, department of botany, washington, d. c., for small sam- ples; to manufacturers of thread; to friends in manufac- turing towns. test the various fibres by burning. examine under a mi- croscope with a small hand-glass, if greater power cannot be obtained. try warm acid-sulphuric, hydrochloric, or oxalic—on the fibres; let the fibres dry also try a solu- tion of caustic soda on the fibres. references: the textile fibres, by matthews. ($ . , postage c.) textile fibres and cotton fibre, pamphlets of the american school of correspondence. ( . each, postage c. each.) program send for all the government bulletins men- tioned in the bibliography, page note that. the free bulletins are obtained simply by addressing the department of agricul. ture, washington, d. c., but the sale bulle- tins only by sending coin or money order to the superintendent of documents, wash- ington, d. c. meeting ii (study pages - ) modern methods visit a textile mill if possible, after studying the text. practice home dyeing. read carefully the directions given by the manufacturers of the dyes. see the booklet “dia- mond dyes,” to be obtained at many drug stores, or send for it to wells richardson, burlington, vermont. references: text-books of the american school of corre- spondence – especially textile chemistry and dyeing. (parts i, ii, iii, and iv, post- age c. each.) the dyeing of textile fabrics, by hummell. ($ . , postage c.) bleaching and calico printing (containing samples), by duerr. ($ . , postage c.) weaves and fabrics show as many different kinds of weaves as possible. separate rate the threads and examine under a hand microscope. get the local dry-goods or department store to co-operate with you in getting up an exhibit of samples of standard goods--cotton, woolen, worsted, linen, and silk. label each cample with the width and price. textiles and clothing test some of the samples of wash goods for fastness to wash- ing and light, by washing in warm water and soap (or boiling in the soap and water) and expose to sunlight all day for three or four days. keep a part of each sample for comparison. (select a composite set of answers to the test questions on part i and send to the school, with report on the supple- mental work done and meetings i and ii.) meeting iii (study pages - ) sewing: plain stitches send to manufacturers for samples showing the process of manufacture of pins, needles, etc. demonstrate different ways of making the same stitches; discuss best methods. embroidery show how all the embroidery stitches are made. get up an exhibit of all kinds of enbroidery, including oriental, japanese, old samplers, etc. have members make model i, first series. references: home and school sewing, by patton. ($ . , postage c.) school needlework, by hapgood. ($ . , post- .? age c.) topic: manual of exercise in hand sewing, by blair. ($ . , postage roc.) educational value of sewing in the public schools. methods. see “a sewing course,”by mary s. woolman, introduction ($ . , post- age c.), and 'the teaching of domestic science in the united states of america," by alice ravenhill, pages - , - . ($ . , postage c.) program meeting iv (study pages - ) hems, seams, fastenings, darning, patching have all members make models ii, iii, iv, and v. previously assign members to furnish models or examples of all other hems, seams, fastenings, patches, darns, etc., illustrated or described in the text, and as many more as possible. machine sewing get the local sewing machine agent to give a demonstration of the workings of the attachments of the machine. (select models and answers to test questions on part ii and send them to the school, with a report of meetings iii and iv.) meeting v (study pages - ) dressmaking get the local dry-goods or department store to lend different kinds of dress forms. collect parterns from different makers. show how patterns are altered to suit the figure. (see text and “dressmaking up to date.") as many as possible cut out and begin making a simple shirt- waist or skirt. show finished garment at next meeting, giving accurate account of cost and time spent. references: dressmaking up to date, the butterick co. ($ . , postage c.) sewing and garment drafting, by margaret l. blair. ($ . , postage c.) index adulteration of linen, alpaca, altering sleeve patterns, angora wool, aniline dyes, arrow heads, aack stitch, basting, bibliography, , . bleaching, bobbin, boning waist, bow, the, burling, bust form, button holes, large, making, buttons, sewing on, cotton goods, home of, nankin, sea island, upland, cross stitch, cuffs, cutting table, darning, on machine, over net decorations, placing, distaff, double cloth, draped waist, drawing tapes, dressmaking, dyeing, home, dyes, aniline, dyestuffs, natural, embroidery, as ornament, eyelet, shadow, stitches, extension hem, eyelet embroidery, eyelets, fabrics, list of, - names of, primitive, width of, facing, bias, skirt, fastening the thread, fastenings, . carding, care of clothing, cassimere twills, , cat stitch, catch stitch, chain stitch, checks, children's clothes, , cleaning, , collars, putting on, color in dress, colors, mordant, combing, conventional designs, costumes, references, cotton, boles, fibers, textiles and clothing feather stitch, fibers, cotton, flax, silk, wool, finishes, finishing skirt, seams, waist, finishing, woolens, fitting, ; sleeves, waists, flax, fibers, hackling, , flocks, folding garments, french hem, knots, seam, fulling, fur, gathering, iii, gathers, whipped, gauging, gigging, gingham, grease spots, hand sewing, harmony in dress, harness, the, heddle, hemp, hem stitch, hems, bias, faced, flannel, french, folding, hems, rolled, herringbone stitch, home dyeing, hook and eyes, hydroscopic moisture, jacquard loom, joining lace, jute, knit goods, lace, design of, laces, use of, laundering, lengthening garments, linen, adulteration of, characteristics of, lining, cutting, loading silk, loons, colonial, , , development of, diagram of, fly shuttle, four harness, hand, jacquard, japanese, modern, , navajo, swedish hand, loop stitch, madder bleach, machine darning, sewing, mending, , mitering embroidery, modern methods, mohair, mordant colors, muslin, nankin cotton, natural dyestuffs, - index repairing, retting flax, roving, running stitch, olona, ornament, embroidery as, fitness of, flowers as, of textiles, ornamental stitches, , ornamentation, errors in, outline stitch, overcasting, , oversewing, packing clothing, passementerie, patching, patterns, altering, cloth, lengthening, pinning, placing, selection of, testing, use of, picking, piled fabrics, plackets, faced, plaids, plain material, plush, pressing, board, , wet, primitive methods, printing, block, machine, sateen weave, satin, stitch, scouring agents, sea island cotton, seams, beaded, felled, flannel, french, lapped, slot, serges, seven-gored skirt, sewing, hand, machine, sewing machines, care of, types of, use of, shadow embroidery, sheep, shirt waists, cutting, plan for making, shuttle, artificial, boiling off, fiber, loading, , production, raw, twilled, silk, wash, silk worm, silks, singeing, skirt, band, silk, warps, ramie, raw silk, reed, reeling silk, textiles and clothing tucked waist, tucking, tucks, unity in dress, • upland cotton, velvet, weave of, velveteen, skirt binding, braid, making, placket, plan of making, stiffening, sleeve making, patterns, sleeves, cutting, , finish of, pressing, putting in, slip-stitching, slot seams, speck dye, spindle, whorl, spinning, , primitive, wheel, with spindle, stains, stitches, ornamental, , plain, stockinet undergarments, stripes, stroking gathers, iii waists, lined, plan for making, repairing, tucked, wash silk, warping, weave, diagrams, plain, basket, double cloth, rib, sateen, twill, velvet, weaving, , wet pressing, wheel spinning, whipping stitch, whori, spindle, widths of fabrics, wool table linen, teazels, textile arts, origin of, textiles, , design of, list of, , ornament of, weaves, texture, trimming, tweeds, harris, twills, cassimere, , uneven, characteristics of, fiber, quality of, scouring, sorting, value for clothing, woolens, worsteds, yokes, study of child life schon solo by marion foster washburne associate editor mother's magazine author "everyday essays" "family secrets, etc. lecturer to chicago froebel association e home chicago american school of home economics copyright, , by american school of household economics copyright, , , by home economics association entered at stationers hall, london su rights reserved contents v an open letter development of the child . faults and their remedies character building play occupations art and literature in child life studies and accomplishments financial training religious training application of principles other people's children . the sex question fathers the unconscious influence answers to questions bibliography supplemental study program . . index ži american school of home economics chioaco january , . my dear madam: in beginning this subject of the "study of child life" there may be lurking doubts in your mind as to whether any reliable rules can really be laid down. they seem to arise mostly from the perception of the great difference bem tween children. what will do for one child will not do for another. some children are easily per- suaded and gentle, others willful, still others suilen or unresponsive. how, then, is it possi- ble that a system of education and training can be devised suitable for their various disposi- tions? we must remember that children are much more alike than they are different. one may have blue eyes, another gray, another black, but they all have two. we are, therefore, in a position to make rules for creatures having two eyes and these rules apply to eyes of all colors. child- ren may be nervous, sanguine, bilious, or pleth- oric, but they all have the same kind of inter- nal organs and the same general rules of health apply to thom all in this series of lessons i have endeavored to set forth principles briefly and to confirm them by instances within the experience of every observer of childhood. . the rules given are such as are held at present by the best educators to be based upon sound philosophy, not at variance with the slight array or scientific facts at our command. perhaps you yourself may be able to add to the number of reliable facts inteiligently re- ported that must be collected before much greater scientific advance is possible. there is, to be sure, an art of application of these rules both in matters of health of body and of health of mind and this art must be worked out by each mother for each individual child. we all recognize that it is a long endeavor before we can apply to our own lives such prin- ciples of conduct as we heartily acknowledge to be right. why, then, expect to be able to apply principles instantly and unerringly to a little child? if a rule fails when you attempt to apply it, before questioning the principle, may it not be well to question your own tact and skills so far as i can advise with you in special instances of difficulty, i shall be very glad to do so; not that i shall always know what to do myself, but that we can get a little more light upon the problems by conferring together. i know well how difficult a matter this of child training is, for every day, in the management of my own t'amily of children, i find such philosophy, science and art as i can command very much put to the test. sincerely yours, marion joshe washburner instructor (copyrighted e. a. perry.) freidrich froebel by courtesy of the perry pictures co.. malden, mass. study of child life part i. the young of the human species is less able to care for itself than the young of any other spe- cies. most other creatures are able to walk, or at any rate stand, within a few hours of birth. but the human baby is absolutely dependent and helpless, unable even to manufacture all the animal heat that he requires. the study of his condition at birth at once suggests a number of practical procedures, some of them quite at variance with the traditional procedures. how the child develops condition at birth let us see, then, exactly what his condition is. in the first place, he is, as virchow, an authority on phy- siological subjects declares, merely a spinal animal. some of the higher brain centers do not yet exist at all, while others are in too incomplete a state for serv- ice. the various sensations which the baby experi- ences-heat, light, contact, motion, etc.—are so many stimuli to the development of these centers. if the stimulus is too great, the development is sometimes unduly hastened, with serious results, which show themselves chiefly in later life. the child who is brought up in a noisy room, is constantly talked to and fondled, is likely to develop prematurely, to talk study of child life. weight at birth and walk at an early age; also to fall into nervous decay at an early age. and even if by reason of an unusually good heredity he escapes these dangers, it is almost certain that his intellectual power is not so great in adult life as it would have been under more favorable conditions. a new baby, like a young plant, requires darkness and quiet for the most part. as he grows older, and shows a spontaneous interest in his surroundings, he may fittingly have more light, more companionship, and experience more sensations. the average boy baby weighs about seven pounds at birth; the average girl, about six and a half pounds. the head is larger in proportion to the body than in after life; the nose is incomplete, the legs short and bowed, with a tendency to fall back upon the body with the knees flexed. this natural tendency should be allowed full play, for the flexed position is said to be favorable to the growth of the bones, permitting the cartilaginous ends of the bones to lie free from pressure at the joints. the plates of the skull are not complete and do not fit together at the edges. great care needs to be taken of the soft spot thus left exposed on the top of the head—the undeveloped place where the edges of these bones come together. any injury here in early life is liable to affect the mind. the bony enclosures of the middle ear are unfin- ished and the eyes also are unfinished. it is a ques- tion yet to be settled, whether a new-born baby is blind state of development how the child develops. and deaf or not. at any rate, he soon acquires a sensitiveness to both light and sound, although it is three years or more before he has amassed sufficient experience to estimate with accuracy the distance of objects seen or heard. he can cry, suck, sneeze, cough, kick, and hold on to a finger. all of these acts, though they do not yet imply personality, or even mind, give evidence of a wonderful organism. they require the co-operation of many delicate nerves and muscles—a co-operation that has as yet baffled the power of scientists to explain. although the young baby is in almost constant motion while he is awake, he is altogether too weak to turn himself in bed or to escape from an uncomforta- ble position, and he remains so for many weeks. this constant motion is necessary to his muscular develop- ment, his control of his own muscles, his circulation, and, very probably, to the free transmission of nerv- ous energy. therefore, it is of the first importance that he has freedom to move, and he should be given time every day to move and stretch before the fire, without clothes on. it is well to rub his back and legs at the same time, thus supplementing his gym- nastics with a gentle massage. by the time he is four or five weeks old it is safe to play with him a little every day, and froebel has made his “play with the limbs” one oi his first educational exercises. in this play the mother lays the baby, un- dressed, upon a pillow and catches the little ankles in educational beginnings study of child life. first efforts her hands. sometimes she prevents the baby from kicking, so that he has to struggle to get his legs free; sometimes she helps him, so that he kicks more freely and regularly; sometimes she lets him push hard against her breast. all the time she laughs and sings to him, and froebel has made a little song for this purpose. since consciousness is roused and deepened by sensations, remembered, experienced, and com- pared, it is evident that this is more than a fanciful play; that it is what froebel claimed for it—a real educational exercise. by means of it the child may gain some consciousness of companionship, and thus, by contrast, a deeper self-consciousness. the baby is at first unable to hold up its head, and in this he is just like all other animals, for no animal, except man, holds up its head constantly. the human baby apparently makes the effort because he desires to see more clearly-he could doubtless see clearly enough for all physical purposes with his head hung down, but not enough to satisfy his awakening men- tality. the effort to hold the head up and to look around is therefore regarded by most psychologists as one of the first tokens of an awakening intellectual life. and this is true, although the first effort seems to arise from an overplus of nervous energy which makes the neck muscles contract, just as it makes other muscles contract. the first slight raisings of the head are like the first kicking movements, merely im- pulsive; but the child soon sees the advantage of this how the child develops. . reflex grasping apparently accidental movement and tries to master it. preyer* considers that the efforts to balance the head are among the first indications that the child's will is taking possession of his muscies. his own boy ar- rived at this point when he was between three and four months old. the grasp of the new-born baby's hand has a sur- prising power, but the baby himself has little to do with it. the muscles act because of a stimulus pre- sented by the touch of the fingers, very much as the muscles of a decapitated frog contract when the cur- rent of electricity passes over them. this is called reflex grasping, and dr. louis robinson, † thinking that this early strength of grasp was an important illustration of and evidence for evolution, tried ex- periments on some sixty new-born babies. he found that they could sustain their whole weight by the arms alone when their hands were clasped about a slender rod. they grasped the rod at once and could be lifted from the bed by it and kept in this position about half a minute. he argued that this early strength of arm, which soon begins to disappear, was a sur- vival from the remote period when the baby's ances- tors were monkeys or monkey-like people who lived in trees. however this may be, during the first week the baby's hands are much about his face. by accide *w. preyer, professor of physiology, of jena, author of "the mind of the child.” d. appleton & co, +dr. robinson, physician and evolutionist, eclectic, vol. . beginnings of will power paper in the study of child life. growth of will they reach the mouth, they are sucked; the child feels himself suck its own fist; he feels his fist being sucked. some day it will occur to him that that fist belongs to the same being who owns the sucking mouth. but at this point, as miss shinn* has ob- served, the baby is often surprised and indignant that he cannot move his arms around and at the same time suck his fist. this discomfort helps him to make an effort to get his fist into his mouth and keep it there, and this effort shows his will beginning to take pos- session of his hands and arms. since any faculty grows by its own exercise, just as muscles grow by exercise, every time the baby suc- ceeds in getting his hands to his mouth as a result of desire, every time that he succeeds in grasping an object as a result of desire, his will power grows. action of this nature brings in new sensations, and the brain centers used for recording such sensations grow. as the sensations multiply, he compares them, and an idea is born. for the beginnings of mental devel- opment no other mechanism is actually needed than a brain and a hand and the nerves connecting them. laura bridgeman and helen keller, both of them deaf and blind, received their education almost entirely through their hands, and yet they were unusually capa- ble of thinking. the child's hands, then, from the beginning, are the servants of his brain-instruments *miss millicent shinn, american psychologist, author of "bi- ography of a baby." how the child develops. intentional grasping by means of which he carries impressions from the outer world to the seat of consciousness, and by which in turn he imprints his consciousness upon the outer world. the average baby does not begin to grasp objects with intention before the fourth month. the first grasping seems to be done by feeling, without the aid of the eye, and is done with the fingers with no at- tempt to oppose the thumb to them. so closely does the use of the thumbs set opposite the fingers in grasping coincide with the first grasping with the aid of sight, that some observers have been led to be- lieve that as soon as the baby learns to use its thumb in this way he proves that he is beginning to grasp with intention. the order of development seems to be, first, automa- tism, the muscles contracting of themselves in response to nervous stimuli; second, instinct, the inherited wis- dom of the race, which discovered ages ago that the hand could be used to greater advantage when the thumb was separated from the fingers; and thirdly, the child's own intelligence and will making use of this natural and inherited machinery. this order holds true of the development, not only of the hand, but of the whole organism. a little earlier than this, during the third month, the baby first looks upon his own hands and notices them. darwin tells us that his boy looked at his own hands and seemed to study them until his eyes crossed. order of development looking io study of child life. tearing about the same time the child notices his foot and uses his hand to carry it to its mouth. it is some time later that he discovers that he can move his feet without his hands. about this time, three or four months old, the child begins to tear paper into pieces, and may be easily taught to let the pieces that have found their way into his mouth be taken out again. now, too, he begins to throw things, or to drop them; then he wants to get them back again, and the patient mother must pick them up and give them back many times. sometimes a baby is punished for this proclivity, but it is really a part of his development, and at least once a day he should be allowed to play in this manner to his heart's content. it is tact, not discipline, that is needed, and the more he is helped the sooner he will live through this stage and come to the next point where he begins to throw things. in this stage, of course, he must be given the proper things to throw-small, bright-colored worsted balls, bean-bags, and other harmless objects. if he is allowed to discover the pleasure there is in smashing glass and china, he will certainly be, for a time, a very destructive little person. when later he is able to creep—to throw his ball and creep after it—he will amuse himself for hours at a time, and so relieve those who have patiently attended him up to this time. in general we may lay down the rule that the more time and attention of the right sort is given to a young throwing how the child develops. ii the grasping instinct child, the less will need to be given as he grows older. it is poor economy to neglect a young child, and try to make it up on the growing boy or girl. this is to substitute a complicated and difficult problem for a simple one. it is some time before a child's will can so overcome his newly-acquired tendency to grasp every possible object that he can keep his hands off of anything that invites him. the many battles between mothers and children on the subject of not touching forbidden gs are at this stage a genuine wrong and injus- tice to the child. so young a child is scarcely more responsible for touching whatever he can reach than is a piece of steel for being drawn toward a powerful magnet. preyer says that it is years before voluntary inhibitions of grasping become possible. the child has not the necessary brain machinery. commands and spatting of the hands create bewilderment and tend to build up a barrier between mother and child. instead of doing such things, simply put high out of reach and sight whatever the child must not touch. another way in which young children are often made to suffer because of the ignorance of parents is the leaving of undesired food on the child's plate. every child, when he does not want his food, pushes the plate away from him, and many mothers push it back and scold. the real truth is that the motor sug- gestion of the food upon the plate is so strong that the child feels as if he were being forced to eat it i study of child life. the three months' baby danger of forcing every time he looks at the plate; to escape from eating it he is obliged to push it out of sight. but this difficulty comes later. now we are con- cerned with a three-months-old baby. at this stage the child is usually able to balance his head, to sit up against pillows, to seize and grasp objects, and to hold out his arms when he wishes to be taken. al- though he may have made a number of efforts to sit erect, and may have succeeded for a few minutes at a time, he still is far from being able to sit alone, unsup- ported. this he does not accomplish until the fifth or sixth month. there is nothing to be gained by trying to make him sit alone sooner; indeed, there is danger in it- danger in forcing young bones and muscles to do work beyond their strength, and danger also to the nerves. it is safe to say that a normal child always exercises all its faculties to the utmost without need of urging, and any exercise beyond the point of natural fatigue, if persisted in, is sure to bring about abnormal results. the first efforts toward creeping often appear in the bath when the child turns over and raises himself upon his hands and knees. this is a sign that he might creep sooner, if he were not impeded by cloth- ing. he should be allowed to spread himself upon a blanket every day for an hour or two, and to get on his knees as frequently as he pleases. often he needs a little help to make him creep forward, for most creeping how the child develops. babies creep backward at first, their arms being stronger than their legs. here the mother may safely interfere, pushing the legs as they ought to go and showing the child how to manage himself; for very often he becomes much excited over his inability to creep forward. climbing the climbing instinct begins to appear by this time —the seventh month—and here the stair-case has its great advantage. it ought not to be shut from him by a gate, but he should be taught how to climb up and down it in safety. to do this, start him at the head of the stairs, and, you yourself being below him, draw first one knee and then the other over the step, thus showing him how to creep backward. two les- sons of about twenty minutes each will be sufficient. the only danger is in creeping down head foremost, but if he once learns thoroughly to go backward, and has not been allowed the other way at all, he will never dream of trying it. in going down backward, if he should slip, he can easily save himself by catching the stairs with his hands as he slips past. the child who creeps is often later in his attempts to walk than the child who does not; and, therefore, when he is ready to walk, his legs will be all the stronger, and the danger of bow-legs will be past. as long as the child remains satisfied with creeping, he is not yet ready either mentally or physically for walking. study of child life. standing walking if the child has been allowed to creep about freely, he will soon be standing. he will pull himself to his feet by means of any chair, table, or indeed anything that he may get hold of. to avoid injuring him, no flimsy chairs or spindle-legged tables should be allowed in his nursery. he will next begin to sidle around a chair, shuffling his feet in a vague fashion, and some- times, needing both of his hands to seize some coveted object, he will stand without clinging, leaning on his stomach. an unhurried child may remain at this stage for weeks. let alone, as he should be, he will walk without knowing how he does it, and will be the stronger for having overcome his difficulties himself. he should not be coaxed to stand or walk. the things in his room actually urge him to come and get them. any further persuasion is forced, and may urge him be- yond his strength. walking-chairs and baby-jumpers are injurious in. this respect. they keep the child from his native free- dom of sprawling, climbing, and pulling himself up. the activity they do permit is less varied and helpful than the normal activity, and the child, restricted from the preparatory motions, begins to walk too soon. a curious fact in the growth of children is that they seem to grow heavier for a certain period, and then to grow taller for a similar period. that is, a very young baby, say, two months old, will grow fatter for about six weeks, and then for the next six weeks will alternate growth how the child child develops. precocity grow longer, while the child of six years changes his manner of growth every three or four months. these periods are variable, or at least their law has not yet been established, but the observant mother can soon make the period out for herself in the case of her own child. for two or three days, when the manner of growth seems to be changing from breadth to length, and vice versa, the children are likely to be unusually nervous and irritable, and these aberrations must, of course, be patiently borne with. in all these things some children develop earlier than others, but too early development is to be re- gretted. precocious children are always of a delicate nervous organization. fiske* has proved to us that the reason why the human young is so far more help- less and dependent than the young of any other species is because the activities of the human race have be- come so many, so widely varied, and so complex, that they could not fix themselves in the nervous struc- ture before birth. there are only a few things that the chick needs to know in order to lead a successful chicken life; as a consequence these few things are well impressed upon the small brain before ever he chips the shell; but the baby needs to learn a great many things—so many that there is no time or room to implant them before birth, or, indeed, in the few years immediately succeeding birth. to hurry the *john fiske, writer on evolutionary philosophy. his theory of infancy is perhaps his most important contribution to science child study of child life. early ripening development, therefore, of certain few of these facul- ties, like the faculties of talking, and walking, of imitation or response, is to crowd out many other fac- ulties perhaps just beginning to grow. such forcing will limit the child's future development to the few faculties whose growth is thus early stimulated. pre- cocity in a child, therefore, is a thing to be deplored. his early ripening foretells an early decay; and a wise mother is she who gives her child ample opportu- nity for growing, but no urging. ample opportunity for growth includes ( ) whole- some surroundings, ( ) sufficient sleep, ( ) proper clothing, ( ) nourishing food. we will take up these topics in order. ample opportunity for growth wholesome surroundings. the whole house in which the child lives ought to be well warmed and equally well aired. sunlight also is necessary to his well-being. if it is impossible to have this in every room, as sometimes happens in city homes, at least the nursery must have it. in the cen- tral states of the union plants and trees exposed to the southern sun put forth their leaves two weeks sooner than those exposed to the north. the infant cannot fail to profit by the same condition, for the young child may be said to lead in part a vegetative as well as an animal life, and to need air and sunshine and warmth as much as plants do. the very best room in the house is not too good for the nursery, for in john fiske study of child life. tempera- ture fresh air no other room is such important and delicate work being done. the temperature is a matter of importance. it should not be decided by guess-work, but a ther- mometer should be hung upon a wall at a place equally removed from draft and from the source of heat. the temperature for children during the first year should be about degrees fahrenheit during the day and not lower than degrees at night. children who sleep with the mother will not be injured by a temperature to degrees lower at night. it is important to provide means for the ingress of fresh air. it is not sufficient to air the room from another room, unless that other room has in it an open window. even then the nursery windows should be opened wide from fifteen minutes to half an hour night and morning, while the child is in another room; and this even when the weather is at zero or below. it does not take long to warm up a room that has been aired. perhaps the best means of obtaining the ingress of fresh air without creating a draft upon the floor, where the baby spends so much of his time, is to raise the window six inches at the top or bot- tom and insert a board cut to fit the aperture. but no matter how well ventilated the nursery may be, all children more than six weeks old need unmodi- fied outside air, and need it every day, no matter what the weather, unless they are sick. daily outing sleep. the daily outing secures them better appetites, quiet sleep, and calmer nerves. let them be properly clothed and protected in their carriages, and all weathers are good for them. children who take their naps in their baby-carriages may with advantage be wheeled into a sheltered spot, covered warmly, and left to sleep in the outer air. they are likely to sleep longer than in the house, and find more refreshment in their sleep. sufficient sleep. few children in america get as much sleep as they really need. preyer gives the record of his own child, and the hours which this child found necessary for his sleep and growth may be taken for a standard. in the first month, sixteen, in full, out of twenty-four hours were spent in sleep. the sleep rarely lasted beyond two hours at a time. in the second month about the same amount was spent in sleep, which lasted from three to six hours at a time. in the sixth month, it lasted from six to eight hours at a time, and began to diminish to fifteen hours in the twenty-four. in the thirteenth month, fourteen hours' sleep daily; in the seventeenth, prolonged sleep began, ten hours without interruption; in the twentieth, prolonged sleep became habitual, and sleep in the day-time was re- duced to two hours. in the third year, the night sleep lasted regularly from eleven to twelve hours, and sleep in the daytime was no longer required. study of child life. naps preyer's record stops here. but it may be added that children from three to eight years still require eleven hours' sleep; and, although the child of three may not need a daily nap, it is well for him, until he is six years old, to lie still for an hour in the middle of the day, amusing himself with a picture book or paper and pencil, but not played with or talked to by any other person. such a rest in the middle of the day favors the relaxation of muscles and nerves and breaks the strain of a long day of intense activity. proper clothing proper clothing for a child includes three things: (a) equal distribution of warmth, (b) freedom from restraint, (c) light weight. equal distribution of warmth is of great impor- tance, and is seldom attained. the ordinary dress for a young baby, for example, leaves the arms and the upper part of the chest unprotected by more than one thickness of flannel and one of cotton—the shirt and the dress. about the child's middle, on the contrary, there are two thicknesses of flannel—a shirt and band —and five of cotton, i. e., the double bands of the white and flannel petticoats, and the dress. over the legs, again, are two thicknesses of flannel and two of cotton, i. e., the pinning blanket, flannel skirt, white skirt, and dress. the child in a comfortably warm house needs two thicknesses of flannel and one of cot- ton all over it, and no more. clothing the gertrude suit the practice of putting extra wrappings about the abdomen is responsible for undue tenderness of those organs. dr. grosvenor, of chicago, who designed a model costume for a baby, which he called the ger- trude suit, says that many cases of rupture are due to bandaging of the abdomen. when the child cries the abdominal walls normally expand; if they are tightly bound, they cannot do this, and the pressure upon one single part, which the bandages may not hold quite firmly, becomes overwhelming, and results in rupture. dr. grosvenor also thinks that many cases of weak lungs, and even of consumption in later life, are due to the tight bands of the skirts pressing upon the soft ribs of the young child, and narrowing the lung space. freedom from restraint. not only should the clothes not bind the child's body in any way, but they should not be so long as to prevent free exercise of the legs. the pinning-blanket is objectionable on this account. it is difficult for the child to kick in it; and as we nave seen before, kicking is necessary to the proper development of the legs. undue length of skirt operates in the same way—the weight of cloth is a check upon activity. the first garment of a young baby should not be more than a yard in length from the neck to the bottom of the hem, and three-quarters of a yard is enough for the inner garment. the sleeves, too, should be large and loose, and the arm-size should be roomy, so as to prevent chafing. objection to the pinning blanket study of child life. the sleeves may be tied in at the wrist with a ribbon to insure warmth. lightness of weight. the underclothing should be made of pure wool, so as to gain the greatest amount of warmth from the least weight. in the few cases where wool would cause irritation, a silk and wool mixture makes a softer, but more expensive garment. under the best conditions, clothes restrict and impede free development somewhat, and the heavier they are the more they impede it. therefore, the effort should be to get the greatest amount of warmth with the least possible weight. knit garments attain this most per- fectly, but the next best thing is all-wool flannel of a fine grade. the weave known as stockinet is best of all, because goods thus made cling to the body and yet restrict its activity very little. the best garments for a baby are made according to the accompanying diagram. they consist of three garments, to be worn one over the other, each one an inch longer in every way than the underlying one. the first is a princess gar- ment, made of white stockinet, which takes the place of shirt, pinning-blanket, and band. before cutting this out, a box-pleat an inch and a half wide should be laid down the middle of the front, and a side pleat three-fourths of an inch wide on either side of the placket in the back. the sleeve should have a tuck an inch wide. these tucks and pleats are better run in by hand, so that they may be easily ripped. as the princess garment clothing baby grows and the flannel shrinks, these tucks and pleats can be let out. the next garment, which goes over this, is made in front sleeve back front waisti half of skirt sleeve diagram of the “gertrude” suit, the same way, only an inch larger in every measure- ment. it is made of baby flannel, and takes the place study of child life. of the flannel petticoat with its cotton band. over these two garments any ordinary dress may be worn. dressed in this suit, the child is evenly covered with two thicknesses of flannel and one of cotton. as the skirts are rather short, however, and he is expected to move his legs about freely, he may well wear long white wool stockings. as the child grows older, the principles underlying this method of clothing should be borne in mind, and clothes should be designed and adapted so as to meet these three requirements. food. natural food the natural food of a young baby is his mother's milk, and no satisfactory substitute for it has yet been found. some manufactured baby foods do well for certain children; to others they are almost poison; and for none of them are they sufficient. the milk of the cow is not designed for the human infant. it contains too much casein, and is too difficult of diges- tion. various preparations of milk and grains are rec- ommended by nurses and physicians, but no conscien- tious nurse or physician pretends that any of them begins to equal the nutritive value of human milk. more women can nurse their babies than now think they can; the advertisements of patent foods lead them to think the matter of little importance, and they do not make the necessary effort to preserve and increase the natural supply of milk. the family phy- food. bottle-fod babies sician can almost always better the condition of the mother who really desires to nurse her own child, and he should be consulted and his directions obeyed. the importance of a really great effort in this direction is shown by the fact that the physical culture records, now so carefully kept in many of our schools and col- leges, prove that bottle-fed babies are more likely to be of small stature, and to have deficient bones, teeth and hair, than children who have been fed on mother's milk. the food question is undoubtedly the most impor- tant problem to the physical welfare of the child, and has, as well, a most profound effect upon his disposi- tion and character. indiscriminate feeding is the cause of much of the trouble and worry of mothers. this subject is taken up at length in other papers of this course, and it will suffice to say here that the table of the family with young children should be regulated largely by the needs of the growing sons and daugh- ters. the simplified diet necessary may well be of benefit to other members of the family. simple diet the child's world and the adult's world faults and their remedies. the child born of perfect parents, brought up per- fectly, in a perfect environment, would probably have no faults. even such a child, however, would be at times inconvenient, and would do and say things at variance with the order of the adult world. therefore he might seem to a hasty, prejudiced observer to be naughty. and, indeed, imperfectly born, imperfectly trained as children now are, many of their so-called faults are no more than such inconvenient crossings of an immature will with an adult will. no grown person, for instance, likes to be inter- rupted, and is likely to regard the child who inter- rupts him wilfully naughty. no young child, on the contrary, objects to being interrupted in his speech, though he may object to being interrupted in his play; and he cannot understand why an adult should set so much store on the quiet listening which is so infre- quent in his own experience. grown persons object to noise; children delight in it. grown persons like to have things kept in their places; to a child, one place is as good as another. grown persons have a preju- dice in favor of cleanliness, children like to swim, but hate to wash, and have no objections whatever to grimy hands and faces. none of these things imply the least degree of obliquity on the child's part; and yet it is safe to say that nine-tenths of the children jean paul richter Študy of child life. real faults who are punished are punished for some of these things. the remedy for these inconveniences is time and patience. the child, if left to himself, without a word of admonishment, would probably change his conduct in these respects, merely by the force of imi- tation, provided that the adults around him set him a persistent example of courtesy, gentleness, and clean- liness. the faults that are real faults, as richter* says, are those faults which increase with age. these it is that need attention rather than those that disappear of themselves as the child grows older. this rule ought to be put in large letters, that every one who has to train children may be daily reminded by it; and not exercise his soul and spend his force in trying to over- come little things which may perhaps be objectionable, but which will vanish to-morrow. concentrate your . energies on the overcoming of such tendencies as may in time develop into permanent evils. to accomplish this, you must, of course, train the child's own will, because no one can force another person into virtue against his will. the chief object of all training is, as we shall see in the next section, to lead the child to love righteousness, to prefer right doing to wrong doing; to make right doing a perma- nent desire. therefore, in all the procedures about training the will *jean paul richter, “der einsige." german writer and philosopher. his rather whimsical and fragmentary book on education, called "levana," contains some rare scraps of wis- dom much used by later writers on educational topics. faults and their remedies. natural punishment breaking the will to be suggested, an effort is made to convince the child of the ugliness and painfulness of wrong doing. punishment, as herbert spencer* agrees with froe- belt in pointing out, should be as nearly as possible a representation of the natural result of the child's action; that is, the fault should be made to punish itself as much as possible without the interference of any outside person; for the object is not to make the child bend his will to the will of another, but to make him see the fault itself as an undesirable thing. the effort to break the child's will has long been recognized as disastrous by all educators. a broken will is a worse misfortune than a broken back. in the latter case the man is physically crippled; in the former, he is morally crippled. it is only a strong, unbroken, persistent will that is adequate to achieve self-mastery, and mastery of the difficulties of life. the child who is too yielding and obedient in his early days is only too likely to be weak and incompetent in his later days. the habit of submission to a more mature judgment is a bad habit to insist upon. the child should be encouraged to think out things for himself; to experiment and discover for himself why his ideas do not work; and to refuse to give them up until he is genuinely convinced of their impractica- bility. *herbert spencer, english philosopher and scientist. his book on "education" is sound and practical. +freidrich froebel, german philosopher and educator, founder of the kindergarten system, and inaugurator of the new education. his two great books are “the education of man" and "the mother play." study of child life. emergencies it is true that there are emergencies in which his immature judgment and undisciplined will must yield to wiser judgment and steadier will; but such yield- ing should not be suffered to become habitual. it is a safety valve merely, to be employed only when the pressure of circumstances threatens to become danger- ous. an engine whose safety valve should be always in operation could never generate much power. nor is there much difficulty in leading even a very strong- willed and obstinate child to give up his own way under extraordinary circumstances. if he is not in the habit of setting up his own will against that of his mother or teacher, he will not set it up when the quick, unfamiliar word of command seems to fit in with the unusual circumstances. many parents practice cry- ing “wolf! wolf !” to their children, and call the practice a drill of self-control; but they meet inevitably with the familiar consequences: when the real wolf comes the hackneyed cry, often proved false, is dis- regarded. when the will is rightly trained, disobedience is a fault that rarely appears, because, of course, where obedience is seldom required, it is seldom refused. the child needs to obey—that is true; but so does his mother need to obey, and all other persons about him. they all need to obey god, to obey the laws of nature, the impulses of kindness, and to follow after the ways of wisdom. where such obedience is a set- tled habit of the entire household, it easily, and, as disobedience herbert spencer study of child life. it were, unconsciously, becomes the habit of the child. where such obedience is not the habit of the house- hold, it is only with great difficulty that it can become the habit of the child. his will must set itself against its instinct of imitativeness, and his small house, not yet quite built, must be divided against itself. probably no child ever rendered entire obe- dience to any adult who did not himself hold his own wishes in subjection. as emerson says: "in dealing with my child, my latin and my greek, my accomplishments and my money, stead me nothing, but as much soul as i have avails. if i am willful, he sets his will against mine, one for one, and leaves me, if i please, the degradation of beating him by my superiority of strength. but, if i renounce my will and act for the soul, setting that up as an umpire between us two, out of his young eyes looks the same soul; he reveres and loves with me.” suppose the child to be brought to such a stage that he is willing to do anything his father or moth- er says; suppose, even, that they never tell him to do anything that he does not afterwards discover to be reasonable and just; still, what has he gained ? for twenty years he has not had the respon- sibility for a single action, for a single decision, right or wrong. what is permitted is right to him; what is forbidden is wrong. when he goes out into the world without his parents, what will happen? at the best he will not lie, or steal, or commit murder. that negative goodness faults and their remedies. real disobedienco is, he will do none of these things in their bald and simple form. but in their beginnings these are hidden under a mask of virtue and he has never been trained to look öeneath that mask; as happened to richard feveril, sin may spring upon him unaware. some one else, all his life, has labeled things for him; he is not in the habit of judging for himself. he is blind, deaf, and helpless—a plaything of circumstances. it is a chance whether he falls into sin or remains blameless. disobedience, then, in a true sense, does not mean failure to do as he is told to do. it means failure to do the things that he knows to be right. he must be taught to listen and obey the voice of his own con- science; and if that voice should ever speak, as it sometimes does, differently from the voice of the con- science of his parents or teachers, its dictates must still be respected by these older and wiser persons, and he must be permitted to do this thing which in itself may be foolish, but which is not foolish to him. and, on the other hand, the child who will have his own way even when he knows it to be wrong should be allowed to have it within reasonable limits. richter says, leave to him the sorry victory, only exercising suf- ficient ingenuity to make sure that it is a sorry one. what he must be taught is that it is not at all a pleasure to have his own way, unless his own way happens to be right; and this he can only be taught by having his own way when the results are plainly disastrous. every time liberty *“the ordeal of richard feveril," by george meredith. study of child life. self- punish- ment that a willful child does wliat he wants to do, and suffers sharply for it, he learns a lesson that nothing but this experience can teach him. but his suffering must be plainly seen to be the re- sult of his deed, and not the result of his mother's anger. for example, a very young child who is deter- mined to play with fire may be allowed to touch the hot lamp or a stove, whenever affairs can be so ar- ranged that he is not likely to burn himself too se- verely. one such lesson is worth all the hand-spat- tings and cries of "no, no!" ever resorted to by anxious parents. if he pulls down the blocks that you have built up for him, they should stay down, while you get out of the room, if possible, in order to evade all responsibility for that unpleasant result. prohibitions are almost useless. in order to con- vince yourself of this, get some one to command you not to move your right arm, or to wink your eye. you will find it almost impossible to obey for even a few moments. the desire to move your arm, which was not at all conscious before, will become overpowering. the prohibition acts like a suggestion, and is an impli- cation that you would do the negative act unless you were commanded not to. miss alcott, in “little men," well illustrates this fact in the story of the children who were told not to put beans up their noses, and who straightway filled their noses with beans. as we shall see in the next section, froebel meets this difficulty by substituting positive commands for faults and their remedies. positivo commands prohibitions; that is, he tells the child to do instead of telling him not to do. tiedemann* says that example is the first great evolutionary teacher, and liberty is the second. in the overcoming of disobedience, no other teachers are needed. the method the method may be tedious; it may be many years before the erratic will is finally led to work in orderly channels; but there is no possibility of abridging the process. there is no short and sudden cure for disobedience, and the only hope for final cure is the steady working of these two great forces, example and liberty. to illustrate the principles already indicated, we will consider some specific problems together with sug- gestive treatment for each. quick temper. this, as well as irritability and nervousness, very often springs from a wrong physical condition. the digestion may be bad, or the child may be overstim- ulated. he may not be sleeping enough, or may not get enough outdoor air and exercise. in some cases the fault appears because the child lacks the discipline of young companionship. even the most exemplary adult cannot make up to the child for the influence of other children. he perceives the difference between himself and these giants about him, and the percep- tion sometimes makes him furious. his struggling individuality finds it difficult to maintain itself under the pressure of so many stronger personalities. he causo of temper *tiedemann, german psychologist. study of child life. remedy solitude and quiet makes, therefore, spasmodic and violent attempts of self-assertion, and these attempts go under the name of fits of temper. the child who is not ordinarily strong enough to assert himself effectively will work himself up into a passion in order to gain strength, much as men some- times stimulate their courage by liquor. in fact, pas- sion is a sort of moral intoxication. but whether the fits of passion are physical or moral, the immediate remedy is the same—his environ- ment must be promptly changed and his audience re- moved. he needs solitude and quiet. this does not mean shutting him into a closet, but leaving him alone in a quiet room, with plenty of pleasant things about. this gives an opportunity for the disturbed organism to right itself, and for the will to recover its normal tone. some occupation should be at hand—blocks or other toys, if he is too young to read; a good book or two, such as miss alcott's “little men” and “little women," when he is old enough to read. if he is destructive in his passion, he must be put in a room where there are very few breakables to tempt him. if he does break anything he must be required to help mend it again. to shout a threat to this effect through the door when the storm of temper is still on, is only to goad him into fresh acts of re- bellion. let him alone while he is in this temporarily insane state, and later, when he is sorry and wants to be good, help him to repair the mischief he has quick temper. wrought. it is as foolish to argue with or to threaten the child in this state as it would be were he a patient in a lunatic asylum. it is sometimes impossible to get an older child to go into retreat. then, since he cannot be carried, and he is not open to remonstrance or commands, go out of the room yourself and leave him alone there. at any cost, loneliness and quiet must be brought to bear upon him. such outbursts are exceedingly exhausting, using up in a few minutes as much energy as would suf- fice for many days of ordinary activity. after the attack the child needs rest, even sleep, and usually seeks it himself. the desire should be encouraged. every reasonable precaution should be taken against the recurrence of the attacks, for every lapse into this excited state makes more certain the next lapse and weakens the nervous control. this does not mean that you should give up any necessary or right regu- lations for fear of the child's temper. if the child sees that you do this, he will on occasion deliberately work himself up into a passion in order to get his own way. but while you do not relax any just regu- lations, you may safely help him to meet them. · give him warning. for instance, do not spring any dis- agreeable commands upon him. have his duties as systematized as possible so that he may know what to expect; and do not under any circumstances nag him nor allow other children to tease him. precautions to be taken study of child life. sullenness. this fault likewise often has a physical cause, seated very frequently in the liver. see that the child's food is not too heavy. give him much fruit, and in- sist upon vigorous exercise out of doors. or he may perhaps not have enough childish pleasures. for while most children are overstimulated, there still remain some children whose lives are unduly color- less and eventless. a sullen child is below the normal level of responsiveness. he needs to be roused, wak- ened, lifted out of himself, and made to take an active interest in other persons and in the outside world in many cases sullenness is an inherited disposition intensified by example. it is unchildlike and morbid to an unusual degree and very difficult to cure. the mother of a sullen child may well look to her own conduct and examine with a searching eye the pecu- liarities of her own family and of her husband's. she may then find the cause of the evil, and by removing the child from the bad example and seeing to it that every day contains a number of childish pleasures, she may win him away from a fault that will other- wise cloud his whole life. taheritance and example lying. all lies are not bad, nor all liars immoral. a young child who cannot yet understand the obligations of truthfulness cannot be held morally accountable for his departure from truth. lying is of three kinds. lying. imaginative "lying" ( .) the imaginative lie. ( .) the evasive lie. ( .) the politic lie. ( .) it is rather hard to call the imaginative lie a lie at all. it is so closely related to the creative in- stinct which makes the poet and novelist and which, common among the peasantry of a nation, is respon- sible for folk-lore and mythology, that it is rather an intellectual activity misdirected than a moral obliquity. very imaginative children often do not know the dif- ference between what they imagine and what they act- ually see. their mind's eye sees as vividly as their bodily eye; and therefore they even believe their own statements. every attempt at contradiction only brings about a fresh assertion of the impossible, which to the child becomes more and more certain as he hears him- self affirming its existence. punishment is of no use at all in the attempt to regulate this exuberance. the child's large statements should be smiled at and passed over. in the meantime, he should be encouraged in every possible way to get a firm grasp of the actual world about him. manual training, if it can be obtained, is of the greatest ad- vantage, and for a very young child, the performance every day of some little act, which demands accuracy and close attention, is necessary. for the rest, wait; this is one of the faults that disappear with age. ( .) the lie of evasion is a form of lying which seldom appears when the relations between child and parents are absolutely friendly and open. however, the lie of evasion study of child life. the child who is very desirous of approval may find it difficult to own up to a fault, even when he is cer- tain that the consequence of his offense will not be at all terrible. this is the more difficult, because the more subtle condition. it is obvious that the child who lies merely to avoid punishment can be cured of that fault by removing from him the fear of punish- ment. to this end, he should be informed that there will be no punishment whatever for any fault that he freely confesses. for the chief object of punishment being to make him face his own fault and to see it as something ugly and disagreeable, that object is ob- viously accomplished by a free and open confession, and no further punishment is required. but when the child in spite of such reassurance still continues to lie, both because he cannot bear to have you think him capable of wrong-doing, and be- cause he is not willing to acknowledge to himself that he is capable of wrong-doing, the situation becomes more complex. all you can do is to urge upon him the superior beauty of frankness; to praise him and love him, especially when he does acknowledge a fault, thus leading him to see that the way to win your ap- proval—that approval which he desires so intensely- is to face his own shortcomings with a steady eye and confess them to you unshrinkingly. ( .) the politic lie is of course the worst form of lying, partly because it is so unchildlike. this is the kind of fault that will grow with age; and grow the politic lie lying. inhorited crookedness with such rapidity that the mother must set herself against it with all the force at her command. the child who lies for policy's sake, in order to achieve some end which is most easily achieved by lying, is a child led into wrong-doing by his ardent desire to get something or do something. discover what this some- thing is, and help him to get it by more legitimate means. if you point out the straight path, and show the goal well in view at the end of it, he may be per- suaded not to take the crooked path. but there are occasionally natures that delight in crookedness and that even in early childhood. they would rather go about getting their heart's desire in some crooked, intricate, underhanded way than by the direct route. such a fault is almost certain to be an inherited one; and here again, a close study of the child's relatives will often help the mother to make a good diagnosis, and even suggest to her the line of treatment. in an extreme case, the family may unite in dis- believing the child who lies, not merely disbelieving him when he is lying, but disbelieving him all the time, no matter what he says. he must be made to see, and that without room for any further doubt, that the crooked paths that he loves do not lead to the goal his heart desires, but away from it. his words, not being true to the facts, have lost their value, and no one around him listens to them. he is, as it were, rendered speechless, and his favorite means of getting extremo cases study of child life. his own way is thus made utterly valueless. such a remedy is in truth a terrible one. while it is being administered, the child suffers to the limit of his en- durance; and it is only justified in an exertme case, and after the failure of all gentler means. jealousy. justice and love too often this deadly evil is encouraged in infancy, instead of being promptly uprooted as it ought to be. it is very amusing, if one does not consider the con- sequences, to see a little child slap and push away the father or the older brother, who attempts to kiss the mother; but this is another fault that grows with years, and a fault so deadly that once firmly rooted it can utterly destroy the beauty and happiness of an otherwise lovely nature. the first step toward over- coming it must be to make the reign of strict justice in the home so obvious as to remove all excuse for the . evil. the second step is to encourage the child's love for those very persons of whom he is most likely to be jealous. if he is jealous of the baby, give him spe- cial care of the baby. jealousy indicates a tempera- ment overbalanced emotionally; therefore, put your force upon the upbuilding of the child's intellect. give him responsibilities, make him think out things for himself. call upon him to assist in the family con- claves. in every way cultivate his power of judg- ment. the whole object of the treatment should be jealousy. to strengthen his intellect and to accustom his emo- tions to find outlet in wholesome, helpful activity. one wise mother made it a rule to pet the next to the baby. the baby, she said, was bound to be petted a good deal because of its helplessness and sweetness, therefore she made a conscious effort to pet the next to the youngest, the one who had just been crowded out of the warm nest of mother's lap by the advent of the newcomer. such a rule would go far to prevent the beginnings of jealousy. selfishness. this is a fault to which strong-willed children are especially liable. the first exercise of will-power af- ter it has passed the stage of taking possession of the child's own organism usually brings him into con- flict with those about him. to succeed in getting hold of a thing against the wish of someone else, and to hold on to it when someone else ants it, is to win a victory. the coveted object becomes dear, not so much for its own sake, as because it is a trophy. such a child knows not the joy of sharing; he knows only the joys of wresting victory against odds. this is in- deed an evil that grows with the years. the child who holds onto his apple, his candy, or toy, fights tooth and nail everyone who wants to take it from him, and resists all coaxing, is liable to become a hard, sordid, grasping man, who stops at no obstacle to ac- complish his purpose. study of child life. the only ild yet in the beginning, this fault often hides itself and escapes attention. the selfish child may be quiet, clean, and under ordinary circumstances, obedient. he may not even be quarrelsome; and may therefore come under a much less degree of discipline than his ob- streperous, impulsive, rebellious little brother.. yet, in reality, his condition calls for much more careful attention than does the condition of the younger brother. however, the child who has no brother at all, either older or younger, nor any sister, is almost invited by the fact of his isolation to fall into this sin. only children may be—indeed, often are-precocious, bright, capable, and well-mannered, but they are sel- dom spontaneously generous. their own small selves occupy an undue proportion of the family horizon, and therefore of their own. this is where the kindergarten has its great value. in the true kindergarten the children live under a dispensation of loving justice, and selfishness betrays itself instantly there, because it is alien to the whole spirit of the place. showing itself, it is promptly condemned, and the child stands convicted by the only tribunal whose verdict really moves him—a jury of his peers. normal children hate selfishness and con- demn it, and the selfish child himself, following the strong, childish impulse of imitation, learns to hate his own fault; and so quick is the forgiveness of chil- kindergarten a remedy selfishness. intimate association & help dren that he needs only to begin to repent before the circle of his mates receives him again. this is one reason why the kindergarten takes chil- dren at such an early age. aiming, as it does, to lay the foundations for right thinking and feeling, it must begin before wrong foundations are too deeply laid. its gentle, searching methods straighten the strong will that is growing crooked, and strengthen the en- feebled one. but if the selfish child is too old for the kindergar- ten, he should belong to a club. consistent selfishness will not long be tolerated here. the tacit or outspoken rebuke of his mates has many times the force of a domestic rebuke; because thereby he sees himself, at least for a time, as his comrades see him, and never thereafter entirely loses his suspicion that they may be right. their individual judgment he may defy, but their collective judgment has in it an almost magi- cal power, and convinces him in spite of himself. whatever strong affections the selfish boy shows must be carefully cultivated. love for another is the only sure cure for selfishness. if he loves animals, let him have pets, and give into his hands the whole re- sponsibility for the care of them. it is better to let the poor animals suffer some neglect, than to take away from the boy the responsibility for their condi- tion. they serve him only so far as he can be in- duced to serve them. the chief rule for the cure of selfishness is, then, to watch every affection, small and cultivate affections study of child life. -- large, encourage it, give it room to grow, and see to it that the child does not merely get delight out of it, but that he works for it, that he sacrifices himself for those whom he loves. laziness. the physical cause this condition is often normal, especially during adolescence. the developing boy or girl wants to lop and to lounge, to lie sprawled over the floor or the sofa. quick movement is distasteful to him, and often has an undue effect upon the heart's action. he is normally dreamy, languid, indifferent, and subject to various moods. these things are merely tokens of the tremendous change that is going on within his organism, and which heavily drains his vitality. cer- tain duties may, of course, be required of him at this stage, but they should be light and steady. he should not be expected to fill up chinks and run errands with joyful alacrity. the six- or eight-year-old may be called upon for these things, and not be harmed, but this is not true of the child between twelve and sey- enteen. he has absorbing business on hand and should not be too often called away from it. laziness ordinarily accompanies rapid growth of any kind. the unusually large child, even if he has not yet reached the period of adolescence, is likely to be lazy. his nervous energies are deflected to keep up his growth, and his intelligence is often temporarily dulled by the rapidity of his increase in size. laziness and rapid growth laziness. hurry not natural moreover, it is not natural for any child to hurry. hurry is in itself both a result of nervous strain and a cause of it; and grown people whose nerves have been permanently wrenched away from normal quietude and steadiness, often form a habit of hurry which makes them both unfriendly toward children and very bad for children. these young creatures ought to go along through their days rather dreamily and alto- gether serenely. every turn of the screw to tighten their nerves makes more certain some form of early nervous breakdown. they ought to have work to do, of course,-enough of it to occupy both mind and body -but it should be quiet, systematic, regular work, much of it performed almost automatically. only occasion- ally should they be required to do things with a con- scious effort to attain speed. however, there is a degree of laziness difficult of definition which is abnormal; the child fails to per- form any work with regularity, and falls behind both at school and at home. this may be the result of ( ) poor assimilation, ( ) of anaemia, or it may be ( ) the first symptom of some disease. ( .) poor assimilation may show itself either by (a) thinness and lack of appetite; (b) fat and ab- normal appetite; (c) retarded growth; or (d) irreg- ular and poorly made teeth and weak bones. ( .) anaemia betrays itself most characteristically by the color of the lips and gums. these, instead of being red, are a pale yellowish pink, and the whole abnormal laziness anaomia study of child life. complexion has a sort of waxy pallor. in extreme cases this pallor even becomes greenish. as the dis- ease is accompanied with little pain, and few if any marked symptoms, beyond sleepiness and weakness, it often exists for some time without being suspected by the parents. ( .) the advent of many other diseases is an- nounced by a languid indifference to surroundings, and a slow response to the customary stimuli. the child's brain seems clouded, and a light form of torpor in- vades the whole body. the child, who is usually active and interested in things about him, but who loses his activity and becomes dull and irresponsive, should be carefully watched. it may be that he is merely chang- ing his form of growth-i. e., is beginning to grow tall after completion of his period of laying on flesh, or vice versa. or he may be entering upon the period of adolescence. but if it is neither of these things, a physician should be consulted. a milder degree of laziness may be induced by a too monotonous round of duties. try changing them. make them as attractive as possible. for, of course, you do not require him to perform these duties for your sake, whatever you allow him to suppose about it, but chiefly for the sake of their influence on his character. therefore, if the influence of any work is bad, you will change it, although the new work may not be nearly so much what you prefer to have him do. whatever the work is, if it is only emptying monotony laziness. helping waste-baskets, don't nag him, merely expect him to do it, and expect it steadily. in their earlier years all children love to help mother. they like any piece of real work even better than play. if this love of activity was properly encour- aged, if the mother permitted the child to help, even when he succeeded only in hindering, he might well become one of those fortunate persons who love to work. this is the real time for preventing laziness. but if this early period has been missed, the next best thing is to take advantage of every spontaneous in- terest as it arises; to hitch the impulse, as it were, to some task that must be steadily performed. for ex- ample, if the child wants to play with tools, help him to make a small water-wheel, or any other interest- ing contrivance, and keep him at it by various devices until he has brought it to a fair degree of comple- tion. your aim is to stretch his will each time he at- tempts to do something a little further than it tends to go of itself; to let him work a little past his first impulse, so that he may learn by degrees to work when work is needed, and not only when he feels like it. untidiness. neatnoss not natural essentially a fault of immaturity as this is, we must beware how we measure it by a too severe adult standard. it is not natural for any young creature to take an interest in cleanliness. even the young ani- mals are cared for in this respect by their parents; the study of child life. remedies cow licks her calf; the cat, her kittens; and neither calf nor kittens seem to take much interest in the pro- cess. the conscious love of cleanliness and order grows with years, and seems to be largely a mat- ter of custom. the child who has always lived in decent surroundings by-and-by finds them necessary to his comfort, and is willing to make a degree of ef- fort to secure them. on the contrary, the street boy who sleeps in his clothes, does not know what it is to desire a well-made bed, and an orderly room. the obvious method of overcoming this difficulty, then, is not to chide the child for the fault, but to make him so accustomed to pleasant surroundings that he cannot help but desire them. the whole process of making the child love order is slow but sure. it con- sists in ( ) patient waiting on nature: first, keep the baby himself sweet and clean, washing the young child yourself, two or three times a day, and showing your delight in his sweetness; dressing him so simply that he keeps in respectable order without the neces- sity of a painful amount of attention. ( ) example: he is to be accustomed to orderly surroundings, and though you ordinarily require him to put away some of his things himself, you do also assist this process by putting away a good deal to which you do not call attention. you make your home not only orderly but pretty, and yourself, also, that his love for you may lead him into a love for daintiness. ( ) habits: a few set observances may be safely and steadfastly de- example habit untidiness. manded, but these should be very few: such as that he should not come to breakfast without brushing his teeth and combing his hair, or sit down to any meal with unwashed hands. make them so few that you can be practically certain that they are attended to, for the whole value of the discipline is not in the su- perior condition of his teeth, but in the habit of mind that is being formed. impudence. laok of porooption impudence is largely due to, ( ) lack of perception; ( ) to bad example and to suggestion; and ( ) to a double standard of morality. ( .) in the first place, too much must not be ex- pected of the young savages in the nursery. remem- ber that the children there are in a state very much more nearly resembling that of a savage or half- civilized nation than resembling your own, and that, therefore, while they will undoubtedly take kindly to showy ceremonial, they are not ripe yet for most of the delicate observances. at best, you can only hope to get the crude material of good manners from them. you can hope that they will be in the main kind in intention, and as courteous under provoca- tion as is consistent with their stage of development. if you secure this, you need not trouble yourself un- duly over occasional lapses into perfectly innocent and wholesome barbarism. study of child life. good manners are in the main dependent upon quick sympathies, because sympathies develop the per- ceptions. a child is much less likely to hurt the feel- ings or shock the sensibilities of a person whom he loves tenderly than of one for whom he cares very little. this is the chief reason why all children are so much more likely to be offensive in speech and ac- tion before strangers than when alone in the bosom of their families. they are so far from caring what a stranger thinks or feels that they cannot even fore- cast his displeasure, nor imagine its reaction upon mother or father. the more, then, that the child's sympathies are broadened, the more he is encouraged to take an interest in all people, even strangers, the better mannered will he become. ( .) bad example is more common than is usual- ly supposed. very few parents are consistently courte- ous toward their children. they permit themselves a sharp tone of voice, and rough and abrupt habits of speech, that would scarcely be tolerated by any adult. even an otherwise gentle and amiable woman is often disagreeable in her manner toward her children, com- manding them to do things in a way well calculated to excite opposition, and rebuking wrong-doing in unmeasured terms. she usually reserves her soft and gentle speeches for her own friends and for her hus- band's, yet discourtesy cannot begin to harm them as it harms her children. bad example impudence. it is true that the children are often under foot when she is busiest, when, indeed, she is so distracted as to not be able to think about manners, but if she would acknowledge to herself that she ought to be polite, and that when she fails to be, it is because she has yielded to temptation; and if, moreover, she would make this acknowledgment openly to her children and beg their pardon for her sharp words, as she ex- pects them to beg hers, the spirit of courtesy, at any rate, would prevail in her house, and would influence her children. children are lovingly ready to forgive an acknowledged fault, but keen-eyed beyond belief in detecting a hidden one. ( .) the most fertile cause of impudence is as- sumption of a double standard of morality, one for the child and another for the adult. impudence is, at bottom, the child's perception of this injustice, and his rebellion against it. when to this double standard, -a standard that measures up gossip, for instance, as right for the adult, and listening to gossip as wrong for the child-when to this is added the assumption of infallibility, it is no wonder that the child fairly rages. for, if we come to analyze them, what are the speeches which we find so objectionable? “do it yourself, if you are so smart.” “maybe i am rude, but i'm not any ruder than you are.” “i think you are just as mean as mean can be; i wouldn't be so mean!" is this last speech any worse in reality than doublo standard study of child life. can if “you are a very naughty little girl, and i am ashamed of you," and all sorts of other expressions of candid adverse opinion ? besides these forms of impudence, there is the peculiarly irritating: "well, you do it yourself; i guess i you can.” in all these cases the child is partly in the right. he is stating the fact as he sees it, and violently as- serting that you are not privileged to demand more of him than of yourself. the evil comes in through the fact that he is doing it in an ugly spirit. he is not only desirous of stating the truth, but of putting you in the wrong and himself in the right, and if this hurts you, so much the better. all this is because he is angry, and therefore, in impudence, the true evil to be overcome is the evil of anger. show him, then, that you are open to correction. admit the justice of the rebuke as far as you can, and set him an example of careful courtesy and for- bearance at the very moment when these traits are inost conspicuously lacking in him. if some special point is involved, some question of privilege, quietly, but very firmly, defer the consideration of it until he is master of himself and can discuss the situation with an open mind and in a courteous manner. example corporal punishment. in all these examples, which are merely suggestive, it is impossible to lay down any absolute moral re- cipe, because circumstances so truly alter cases-in corporal punishment moral confusion all these no mention is made of corporal punishment. this is because corporal punishment is never neces- sary, never right, but is always harmful. there are three principal reasons why it should not be resorted to: first, because it is indiscriminate. to inflict bodily pain as a consequence of widely various faults, leads to moral confusion. the child who is spanked for lying, spanked for disobedience, and spanked again for tearing his clothes, is likely enough to consider these three things as much the same, as, at any rate, of equal importance, because they all lead to the same result. this is to lay the foundation for a permanent moral confusion, and a man who cannot see the nature of a wrong deed, and its relative im- portance, is incapable of guiding himself or others. corporal punishment teaches a child nothing of the reason why what he does is wrong. wrong must seem to him to be dependent upon the will of another, and its disagreeable consequences to be escapable if cnly he can evade the will of that other. second: corporal punishment is wrong because it inculcates fear of pain as the motive for conduct, instead of love of righteousness. it tends directly to cultivate cowardice, deceitfulness, and anger-three faults worse than almost any fault against which it can be employed. true, some persons grow up both gentle and straightforward in spite of the fact that they have been whipped in their youth, but it is in spite of, and not because of it. in their homes other toar versus love study of child life. sensibilities blunted be young good qualities must have counteracted the pernicious effect of this mistaken procedure. third: corporal punishment may, indeed, achieve immediate results such as seem at the moment to be eminently desirable. the child, if he enough, weak enough, and helpless enough, may be made to do almost anything by fear of the rod; and some of the things he may thus be made to do may be exactly the things that he ought to do; and this certainty of result is exactly what prompts many otherwise just and thoughtful persons to the use of corporal punishment. but these good results are ob- tained at the expense of the future. the effect of each spanking is a little less than the effect of the preceding one. the child's sensibilities blunt. as in the case of a man with the drug habit, it requires a larger and larger dose to produce the required effect. that is, if he is a strong child capable of en- during and resisting much. if, on the contrary, he is a weak child, whose slow budding will come only timidly into existence, one or two whippings followed by threats, may suffice to keep him in a permanently cowed condition, incapable of initiative, incapable of spontaneity. the method of discipline here indicated, while it is more searching than any corporal punishment, does not have any of its disadvantages. it is more search- ing, because it never blunts the child's sensibilities, corporal punishment. educativo disciplino but rather tends to refine them, and to make them more responsive. the child thus trained should become more sus- ceptible, day by day, to gentle and elevating in- fluences. this discipline is educative, explaining to the child why what he does is wrong, showing him the painful effects as inherent in the deed itself. he cannot, therefore, conceive of himself as being ever set free from the obligation to do right; for that ob- ligation within his experience does not rest upon his mother's will or ability to inflict punishment, but upon the very nature of the universe of which he is a part. the effects of such discipline are therefore permanent. that which happens to the child in the nursery, also happens to him in the great world when he reaches manhood. his nursery training interprets and orders the world for him. he comes, therefore, into the world not desiring to experiment with evil, but clear-eyed to detect it, and strong-armed to over- come it. we are now ready to consider our subject in some of its larger aspects. permanent results test questions the following questions constitute the "written reci. tation" which the regular members of the a. s. h. e. answer in writing and send in for the correction and comment of the instructor. they are intended to emphasize and fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. study of child lifb. part i. read carefully. in answering these questions you are earnestly requested not to answer according to the text-book where opinions are asked for, but to answer according to conviction. in all cases credit will be given for thought and original observation. place your name and full address at the head of the paper; use your own words so that your in- structor may be sure that you understand the subject. . how does fiske account for the prolonged help- lessness of the human infant ? to what prac- tical conclusions does this lead? . name the four essentials for proper bodily growth. . how does the child's world differ from that of the adult ? . in training a child morally, how do you know which faults are the most important and should have, therefore, the chief attention? . in training the will, what end must be held stead- ily in view ? . what are the advantages or disadvantages of a broken will ? . is obedience important ? obedience to what? how do you train for prompt obedience in emergencies? study of child life. . . what is the object of punishment? does corporal punishment accomplish this object? . what kind of punishment is most effectiv have any faults a physical origin? if so, name some of them and explain. ii. what are the two great teachers according to tiederman ? . what can you say of the fault of untidiness? . what are the dangers of precocity? . what do you consider were the errors your own parents made in training their children? . are there any questions which you would like to ask in regard to the subjects taken up in this lesson? note.—after completing the test, sign your full name. study of child life part ii caritas from a painting in the bosion public library, by abbot h thayer study of child life part ii froebel's philosophy character building although we have taken up the question of pun- ishment and the manner of dealing with various child- ish iniquities before the question of character-build- ing, it has only been done in order to clear the mind of some current misconceptions. in the statements of froebel's simple and positive philosophy of child culture, misconception on the part of the reader must be guarded against, and these misconceptions gener- ally arise from a feeling that, beautiful as his opti-- mistic philosophy may be, there are some children too bad to profit by it-or at least that there are oc- casions when it will not work out in practice. in the preceding section we have endeavored to show in detail how this method applies to a representative list of faults and shortcomings, and having thus, we hope, proved that the method is applicable to a wide range of cases-indeed to all possible cases—we will proceed to recount the fundamental principles which froebel, and before him pestalozzi,* enunciated; which those who adhere to the new education are to- day working out into the detail of school-room prac- tice. * pestalozzi, educator, philosopher, and reformer. author of “how gertrude teaches her children." study of child life. object of moral training. the reason why as previously stated, the object of the moral train- ing of the child is the inculcation of the love of right- cousness. frcebel is not concerned with laying down a mass of observances which the child must follow, and which the parents must insist upon. he thinks rather that the child's nature once turned into the right direction and surrounded by right influences will grow straight without constant yankings and twist- ings. the child who loves to do right is safe. he may make mistakes as to what the right is, but he will learn by these mistakes, and will never go far astray. however, it is well to save him as far as possible from the pain of these mistakes. we need to pre- serve in him what has already been implanted there; the love of understanding the reasons for conduct. when the childi asks "why?" therefore, he should seldom be told “because mother says so.” this is to deny a rightful activity of his young mind; to give him a monotonous and insufficient reason, temporary in its nature, instead of a lasting reason which will remain with him through life. dante says all those who have lost what he calls “the good of the intel- lect” are in the inferno. and when you refuse to give your child satisfactory reasons for the conduct you require of him, you refuse to cultivate in him that very good of the intellect which is necessary for his salvation. character building. advantage of positive commands as soon, however, as your commands become posi- tive instead of negative, the difficulty of meeting the situation begins to disappear. lisappear. it is usually much easier to tell the child why he should do a thing than why he should not do its opposite. for example, it is much easier to make him see that he ought to be a helpful member of the family than to make him understand why he should stop making a loud noise, or refrain from waking up the baby. there is some- thing in the child which in calm moments recognizes that love demands some sacrifice. to this something you must appeal and these calm moments, for the most part, you must choose for making the appeal. the effort is to prevent the appearance of evil by the active presence of good. the child who is busy trying to be good has little time to be naughty. original goodness frobel's most characteristic utterance is perhaps this: “a suppressed or perverted good quality—a good tendency, only repressed, misunderstood, or misguided—lies originally at the bottom of every shortcoming in man. hence the only and infallible remedy for counteracting any shortcoming and even wickedness is to find the originally good source, the originally good side of the human being that has been repressed, disturbed, or misled into the shortcoming, and then to foster, build up, and properly guide this .good side. thus the shortcoming will at last dis- appear, although it may involve a hard struggle study of child life. kindergarten methods against habit, but not against original depravity in man, and this is accomplished so much the more rap- idly and surely because man himself tends to abandon his shortcomings, for man prefers right to wrong." the natural deduction from this is that we should say "do” rather than “don't”; open up the natural way for rightful activity instead of uttering loud warning cries at the entrance to every wrong path. it is for this reason that the kindergarten tries by every means to make right doing delightful. this is one of the reasons for its songs, dances, plays, its bright colors, birds, and flowers. and in this respect it may well be imitated in every home. no one loves that which is disagreeable, ugly, and forbidding; yet many little children are expected to love right doing which is seldom attractively presented to them. the results of such treatment are apparent in the grown people of to-day. most persons have an under- lying conviction that sinners, or at any rate unconscien- tious persons, have a much easier and pleasanter time of it than those who try to do right. to the imagination of the majority of adults sin is dressed in glittering colors and virtue in gray, somber garments. there are few who do not take credit for right doing as if they had chosen a hard and disagreeable part instead of the more alluring ways of wrong. this is because they have been mis-taught in childhood and have come to think of wrongdoing as pleasant and virtue character building. right doing made easy as hard, whereas the real truth is exactly the oppo- site. it is wrongdoing that brings unpleasant conse- quences and virtue that brings happiness. there are those who object that by the kinder- garten method right doing is made too easy. the children do not have to put forth enough effort, they say; they are not called upon to endure sufficient pain; they do not have the discipline which causes them to choose right no matter how painful right may be for the moment. whether this dictum is ever true or not, it certainly is not true in early child- hood. the love of righteousness needs to be firmly rooted in the character before it is strained and pulled upon. we do not start seedlings in the rocky soil or plant out saplings in time of frost. if tests and trials of virtue must come, let them come in later life when the love of virtue is so firmly established that it may be trusted to find a way to its own satisfaction through whatever difficulties may oppose. in the very beginning of any effort to live up to froebel's requirements it is evident that children must not be measured by the way they appear to the neigh- bors. this is to reaffirm the power of that rigid tradition which has warped so many young lives. she who is trying to fix her child's heart upon true and holy things may well disregard her neighbor's com- ments on the child's manners or clothes or even upon momentary ebullitions of temper. she is working neighbors' opinions study of child life. the family republic below the surface of things, is setting eternal forces to work, and she cannot afford to interrupt this work for the sake of shining the child up with any prema- ture outside polish. if she is to have any peace of mind or to allow any to the child, if she is to live in any way a simple and serene life, she must establish a few fundamental principles by which she judges her child's conduct and regulates her own, and stand by these principles through thick and thin. perhaps the most fundamental principle is that enunciated by fichte. “each man,” he says, “is a free being in a world of other free beings." there- fore his freedom is limited only by the freedom of the other free beings. that is, they must "divide the world amongst them.” stated in the form of a com- mand he says again, "restrict your freedom through the freedom of all other persons with whom you come in contact.” this is a rule that even a three-year-old child can be made to understand, and it is astonish- ing with what readiness he will admit its justice. he can do anything he wants to, you explain to him, except bother other people. and, of course, the corollary follows that every one else can do whatever he pleases except to bother the child. this clear and simple doctrine can be driven home with amazing force, if you strictly respect the child's right as you require him to respect yours. you should neither allow any encroachments upon your own proper privileges, except so far as you explain that this is rights of others character building. only a loving permission on your part, and not to be assumed as a precedent or to be demanded as a right; nor should you yourself encroach upon his privileges. if you do not expect him to interrupt you, you must not interrupt him. if you expect him to let you alone when you are busy, you must let him alone when he is busy, that is, when he is hard at work playing. if you must call him away from his playing, give him warning, so that he may have time to put his small affairs in order before obeying your com- iriand. the more carefully yo do this the more willing will be his response on the infrequent occa- sions when you must demand immediate attention. in some such fashion you teach the child to respect the rights of others by scrupulously respecting those rights to which he is most alive, namely, his own. the next step is to require him with you to think out the rights of others, and both of you together should shape your conduct so as to leave these rights uninfringed. as soon as the young child's will has fully taken pos- session of his own organism he will inevitably try to rule yours. the establishment of the law of which i have just spoken will go far toward regulating this new-born desire. but still he must be allowed in some degree to rule others, because power to rule others is likely to be at some time during his life of great importance to him. to thwart him absolutely in this respect, never yielding yourself to his imperious de- mands, is alike impossible and undesirable. his will the child's share in ruling study of child life. must not be shut up to himself and to the things that he can make himself do. in various ways, with due consideration for other people's feelings, with courtesy, with modesty, he may well be encouraged to do his share of ruling. and while, of course, he will not begin his ruling in such restrained and thoughtful fashion as is implied by these limitations, yet he must be suffered to begin; and the rule for the respect of the rights of others should be suffered gradually to work out these modifications. a safe distinction may be made as follows: per- mit him, since he is so helpless, to rule and persuade others to satisfy his legitimate desires, such as the de- sire for food, sleep, affection, and knowledge; but when he demands indulgencies, reserve your own liberty of choice, so as to clearly demonstrate to him that you are exercising choice, and in doing so, are well within your own rights. there is one simple outward observation which greatly assists in the inculcation of these funda- mental truths—that is the habit of using a low voice in speaking, especially when issuing a command or ad- ministering a rebuke. a loud, insistent voice prac- tically insures rebellion. this is because the low voice means that you have command of yourself, the loud voice that you have lost it. the child submits to a controlled will, but not to one as uncontrolled as his in both cases he follows your example. if you are self-controlled, he tends to become so; if you are low voice commands own. character building. limitations of words excited and angry, he also becomes so, or if he is already so, his excitement and anger increases. while most mothers rely altogether too much upon speech as a means of explaining life to the child, yet it must be admitted that speech has a great function to perform in this regard. nevertheless it is well to bear in mind that it is not true that a child will always do what you tell him to do, no matter how plain you may tell him, nor how perfectly you may explain your ret- sons. in the first place, speech means less to children than to grown persons. each word has a smaller content of experience. they cannot get the full force of the most clear and eloquent statement. therefore all speech must be reinforced by example, and by as many forms of concrete illustrations as can be commanded. each necessary truth should enter the child's mind by several channels; hearing, eye-sight, motor activity should all be called upon. many truths may be dramatized. this, where the mother is clever enough to employ it, is the surest method of appeal. but in any case, speech alone must not be relied upon, nor the child considered a hopeless case who does not respond to it. denunciatory speech especially needs wise regulation. as richter says, “what is to followed as a rule of prudence, yea, of justice, toward grown-up people, should be much more observed toward children, name- study of child life. ly, that one should never judgingly declare, for in- stance, “you are a liar,” or even, “you are a bad boy,” instead of saying, “you have told an untruth,” or “you have done wrong." for since the power to command yourself implies at the same time the power of obey- ing, man feels a minute after his fault as free as socra- tes, and the branding mark of his nature, not his deed, must seem to him blameworthy of punishment. "to this must be added that every individual's wrong actions, owing to his inalienable sense of a moral aim and hope, seem to him only short, usurped inter- regnums of the devil, or comets in the uniform solar system. the child, consequently, under such a moral annihilation, feels the wrong-doing of others more than his own; and this all the more because, in him, want of reflection and the general warmth of his feel- ings, represent the injustice of others in a more ugly light than his own.” example if any one desires to prove the superior force of precept example over precept, let him try teaching a baby to say "thank you" or "please,” merely by being scrupu- lously careful to say these things to the baby on all fit occasions. no one has taken the statistics of the num- ber of times every small child is exhorted to perfect himself in this particular observance; but it is safe to say that in the united states alone these injunctions are spoken something like a million times a day and all quite unnecessarily. the child will say "please” and “thank you” without being told to do so, if he versus character building. politeness to children merely has his attention called to the fact that the people around him all use these phrases. the truth is, too many parents forget to speak these agreeable words whenever they ask favors of their own children; so the force of their example is marred. what you do to the child himself, remember, always outweighs anything you do to others before him. this is the reason why it is necessary that you should ac- knowledge your own shortcomings to the child, if you expect him to acknowledge his to you. it is also necessary sometimes to point out clearly the kind and considerate things that you are in the habit of doing to others, lest the untrained mind of the young child may fail to see and so miss the force of your example. but in thus revealing your own good deeds to the child, remember the motive, and reveal them only (a) when he cannot perceive them of himself, (b) when he needs to perceive them in order that his wn con- duct may be influenced by them, and (c) at the time when he is most likely to appreciate them. this latter requirement precludes you from announcing your own righteousness when he is naughty, and compels you, of course, to go directly against your native impulse, which is to mention your deeds of sacrifice and kind- ness only when you are angry and mean to reproach him with them. when you tell him how devoted you have been at some moment when you are both thor- oughly angry, he is in danger of either denying or hating your devotion; but when you refer to it tender- study of child life. law making habit ly, and, as your heart will then prompt you, modestly, at some loving moment, he will give it recognition, and be moved to love goodness more devotedly because you embody it. another important rule is this: do not make too many rules. some women are like legislatures in per- petual session. the child who is confused and tantal- ized by the constant succession of new laws learns presently to disregard them, and to regulate his life according to certain deductions of his own-sometimes surprisingly wise and politic deductions. the way to cure yourself of this law-making habit is to stop think- ing of every little misdeed as the beginning of a great wrong. it is very likely an accident and a combina- tion of circumstances such as may not happen again. to treat misdemeanors which are not habitual nor char- acteristic as evanescent is the best way to make them evanescent. they should not be allowed to enter too deeply into your consciousness or into that of your child. live with your children in order to be able to discriminate between accidental wrong-doing, and that which is the first symptom of wrong-thinking, you must be in close touch with your children. this brings us to froebel's great motto, "come, let us live with our children!” this means that you are not merely to talk with your child, to hear from his lips what he is doing, but to live so closely with him, that in most cases you know what character building. he is doing without any need of his telling you. when, however, he does tell you something which happened in the school play-ground or otherwise out of the range of your knowledge, be careful not to moralize over it. make yourself as agreeable a secret-keeper as his best friend of his own age ; let your moralizing be so rare that it is effective for that very reason. if the occasion needs moral reflection at all and that seldom happens—the wise way is to lead the child to do his own reflecting ; to arrive at his own conclusions, and if you must lead him, by all means do so as invisibly as possible. for the most part it is safe to take the confessions lightly, and well to keep your own mind young by looking at things from the boy's point of view. the subject of sex if, however, there is to be perfect confidence be- tween you, the one subject which is usually kept out of speech between mothers and children must be no forbidden subject between them; you must not refuse to answer questions about the mystery of sex. if you are not the fit person to teach your child these impor- tant facts, who is ? certainly not the school-mates and servants from whom he is likely to learn them if you refuse to furnish the information. usually it is suf- ficient simply to answer the child's honest questions honestly; but any mother who finds herself unable to cope with this simple matter in this simple spirit, will find help in margaret morley's "song of life,” in the study of child life. wood-allen publications, and the books of the rev. sylvanus stall.* in respect to these matters more than in respect to others, but also in respect to all matters, children often do not know that they are doing wrong, even when it it very difficult for parents to believe that they do not intend wrong-doing. as we have seen from our analysis of truthfulness, the child may very often lie without a qualm of conscience, and he may still more readily break the unwritten rules of courtesy, asking abrupt and even cruel questions of strangers, and haul the family skeleton out of its closet at critical moments. such things cannot be wholly guarded against, even by the exercise of the utmost wisdom, but the habit of reasoning things out for himself is the greatest help a child can have. the formation of the bent of the child's nature as a whole is a matter of unconscious education, but as he grows in the power to reason, conscious education must direct his mental activity. it is not enough for him, as it is not enough for any grown person, to do the best that he knows; he must learn to know the best. the word righteousness itself means right-wiseness, i. e., right knowingness. to quote froebel again, “in order, therefore, to im- part true, genuine firmness to the natural will-activity righteous- ness “what a young girl ought to know" and "what a young woman ought to know,' by dr. mary wood allen. “what a young boy ought to know,” “what a young man ought to know," by rev. sylvanus stall. character building. of the boy, all the activities of the boy, his entire will should proceed from and have reference to the develop- ment, cultivation, and representation of the internal. instruction in example and in words, which later on become precept and example, furnishes the means for this. neither example alone, nor words will do; not example alone, for it is particular and special, and the word is needed to give the particular individual exam- ple universal applicability; not words alone, for exam- ple is needed to interpret and explain the word, which is general, spiritual, and of many meanings. "but instruction and example alone and in them- selves are not sufficient; they must meet a good pure heart and this is the outcome of proper educational influences in childhood." lest these directions should seem to demand an al- most superhuman degree of control and wisdom on the part of the mother, remember that moral precocity is as much to be guarded against as mental precocity. remember that you are neither required to be a per- fect mother nor to rear a perfect child. as spencer remarks, a perfect child in this imperfect world would be sadly out of joint with the times, would indeed be a martyr. if your basic principles are right and if your child has before him the daily and hourly spectacle of a mother who is trying to conform herself to high standards, he will grow as fast as it is safe for him to grow. spencer says: “our higher moral faculties like our higher intellectual ones, are comparatively moral precocity study of child life. complex. as a consequence they are both compara- tively late in their evolution, and with the one as with the other, a very early activity produced by stimula- tion will be at the expense of the future character. hence the not uncommon fact that those who during childhood were instanced as models of juvenile good- ness, by and by undergo some disastrous and seemingly inexplicable change, and end by being not above but below par; while relatively exemplary men are often the issue of a childhood not so promising. “be content, therefore, with moderate measures and moderate results, constantly bearing in mind the fact that the higher morality, like the higher intelligence, must be reached by a slow growth; and you will then have more patience with those imperfections of nature which your child hourly displays. you will be less prone to constant scolding, and threatening, and for- bidding, by which many parents induce a chronic irri- tation, in a foolish hope that they will thus make their children what they should be." in conclusion, the rules that may be safely followed in character-building may be summed up thus: ( ) recognize that the object of your training is to help the child to love righteousness. command lit- tle and then use positive commands rather than prohi- bitions. use "do" rather than "don't." ( ) make right-doing delightful. ( ) establish fichte's doctrine of right, see page rules in character building . character building. ( ) teach by example rather than precept. there- fore respect the child's rights as you wish him to re- spect yours. ( ) use a low voice, especially in commanding or rebuking ( ) in chiding, remember richter's rule and re- buke the sin and not the sinner. ( ) confess your own misdeeds, by, this means and others securing the confidence of your children. finally, remember that this is an imperfect world, you are an imperfect mother, and the best results you can hope for are likely to be imperfect. but the results may be so founded upon eternal principles as to tend continually to give place to better and better results, play although froebel is best known as the educator who first took advantage of play as a means of education, he was not, in reality, the first to recoginze the high value of this spontaneous activity. he was indeed the first to put this recognition into practice and to use the force generated during play to help the child to a high- er state of knowledge. but before him plato said that the plays of children have the mightiest influence on the maintenance or the non-maintenance of laws; that during the first three years the child should be made “cheerful” and “kind” by having sorrow and fear and pain kept away from him and by soothing him with music and rhythmic movements. aristotle held that children until they were five years old "should be taught nothing, not even necessary la- bor, lest it hinder growth, but should be accustomed to use so much motion as to avoid an indolent habit of body, and this,” he added, “can be acquired by various means, among others by play, which ought to be neither illiberal, nor laborious, nor lazy." luther rebukes those who despise the plays of chil- dren and says that solomon did not prohibit scholars from play at the proper time. fenelon, locke, schil- ler, and richter all admit the deep significance of this universal instinct of youth. preyer, speaking not as a philosopher or educator, but as a scientist, mentions "the new kinds of pleas- aristotle luther play. urable sensations with some admixture of intellectual elements,” which are gained when the child gradually begins to play. much that is called play he considers true experimenting, especially when the child is seen to be studying the changes produced by his own activity, as when he tears paper into small bits, shakes a bunch of keys, opens and shuts a box, plays with sand, and empties bottles, and throws stones into the water. "the zeal with which these seemingly aimless movements are executed is remarkable. the sense of gratification must be very great, and is principally due to the feeling of his own power, and of being the cause of the various changes.” all these authorities are quoted here in order to show that the practical recognition of play which ob- tains among the advanced educators to-day is not a piece of sentimentalism, as stern critics sometimes de- clare, but the united opinion of some of the wisest minds of this and former ages. as froebel says, “play and speech constitute the element in which the child lives. at this stage (the first three years of childhood) he imparts to everything the virtues of sight, feeling, and speech. he feels the unity between himself and the whole external world." and froebel conceives it to be of the profoundest importance that this sense of unity should not be disturbed. he finds that play is the most spiritual activity of man at this age, "and at the same time typical of human life as a whole of the educational value of play study of child life. freedom inner, hidden, natural life of man and all things; it gives, therefore, joy, freedom, contentment, inner and outer rest, peace with the world; it holds the sources of all that is good. the child that plays thor- oughly until physical fatigue forbids will surely be a thorough, determined man, capable of self-sacrifice for the promotion and welfare of himself and others." but all play does not deserve this high praise. it fits only the play under right conditions. fortunately these are such that every mother can command them. there are three essentials: ( ) freedom, ( ) sym- pathy, ( ) right materials. ( ) freedom is the first essential, and here the child of poverty often has the advantage of the child of wealth. there are few things in the pover- ty-stricken home too good for him to play with ; in its narrow quarters, he becomes, perforce, a part of all domestic activity. he learns the uses of household utensils, and his play merges by imperceptible degrees into true, healthful work. in the home of wealth, however, there is no such freedom, no such richness of opportunity. the child of wealth has plenty of toys, but few real things to play with. he is shut out of the common activity of the family, and shut in to the imitation activity of his nursery. he never gets his small hands on realities, but in his elegant clothes is confined to the narrow conventional round that is falsely supposed to be good for him. play. sympathy froebel insists upon the importance of the child's dress being loose, serviceable, and inconspicuous, so that he may play as much as possible without con- sciousness of the restrictions of dress. the playing child should also have, as we have noticed in the first section, the freedom of the outside world. this does not mean merely that he should go out in his baby- buggy, or take a ride in the park, but that he should be able to play out-of-doors, to creep on the ground, to be a little open-air savage, and play with nature as he finds it. ( ) sympathy is much more likely to rise spon- taneously in the mother's breast for the child's troubles than for the child's joys. she will stop to take him up and pet him when he is hurt, no matter how busy she is, but she too often considers it waste of time to enter into his plays with him; yet he needs sympathy in joy as much as in sorrow. her presence, her inter- est in what he is doing, doubles his delight in it and doubles its value to him. moreover, it offers her op- portunity for that touch and direction now and then, which may transform a rambling play, without much sequence or meaning, into a consciously useful per- formance, a dramatization, perhaps, of some of the child's observations, or an investigation into the na- ture of things. ( ) right material. even given freedom and sympathy, the child needs something more in order to study of child life. mud-pies play well: he needs the right materials. the best ma- terials are those that are common to him and to the rest of the world, far better than expensive toys that mark him apart from the world of less fortunate chil- dren. such toys are not in any way desirable, and they may even be harmful. what he needs are various simple arrangements of the four elements- earth, air, fire, and water. ( ) earth. the child has a noted affinity for it, and he is specially happy when he has plenty of it on hands, face, and clothes. the love of mud-pies is uni- versal; children of all nationalities and of all degrees of civilization delight in it. no activity could be more wholesome. next to mud comes sand. it is cleaner in appear- ance and can be brought into the house. a tray of moistened sand, set upon a low table, should be in every nursery, and the sand pile in every yard. clay is more difficult to manage indoors, because it gets dry and sifts all about the house, but if a corner of the cellar, where there is a good light, can be given up for a strong table and a jar of clay mixed with some water, it will be found a great resource for rainy days. if modeling aprons of strong material, but- toned with one button at the neck, be hung near the jar of clay, the children may work in this material with- out spoiling their clothes. clay-modeling is an excel- lent form of manual training, developing without for- cing the delicate muscles of the fingers and wrists, and sand clay play. digging gyving wide opportunity for the exercise of the imagin- ation. earth may be played with in still another way. chil- dren should dig in it; for all pass through the digging stage and this should be given free swing. it develops their muscles and keeps them busy at helpful and con- au half back front sleeve pattern of a modeling apron. structive work. they may dig a well, make a cave, or a pond, or burrow underground and make tunnels like a mole. give them spades and a piece of ground they can do with as they like, dress them in overalls, and it will be long before you are asked to think of another amusement for them. in still another way the earth may be utilized, for children may make gardens of it. indeed, there are those who say that no child's education is complete gardens study of child life. kites windmills soap-bubbles until he has had a garden of his own and grown in it all sorts of seeds from pansies to potatoes. but a gar- den is too much for a young child to care for all alone. he needs the help, advice, and companionship of some older person. you must be careful, however, to give help only when it is really desired; and careful also not to let him feel that the garden is a task to which he is driven daily, but a joy that draws him. ( ) the air. the next important plaything is the air. the kite and the balloon are only two instru- ments to help the child play with it. little windmilis made of colored paper and stuck by means of a pin at the end of a whittled stick, make satisfactory toys. one of their great advantages is that even a very young child can make them for himself. blowing soap-bub- bles is another means of playing with air. by giving the children woolen mittens the bubbles may be caught and tossed about as well as blown. ( ) water. water. perhaps the very first thing he learns to play with is water. almost before he knows the use of his hands and legs he plays with water in his bath, and sucks his sponge with joy, thus feeling the water with his chief organs of touch, his mouth and tongue. a few months later he will be glad to pour water out of a tin cup. even when he is two or three years old, he may be amused by the hour, by dressing him in a woolen gown, with his sleeves rolled high, and setting him down before a big bowl or his own bath-tub half full of warm water. to this to this may be play. added a sponge, a tin cup, a few bits of wood, and some paper. they should not be given all at once, but one at a time, the child allowed to exhaust the possibilities of each before another is added. still later he may be given the bits of soap left after a cake of soap is used up. give him also a few empty bottles or bowls and let him put them away with a solid mass of soap- suds in them and see what will happen. when he is older-past the period of putting everything in his mouth-he may be given a few bits of bright ribbons, petals of artificial flowers, or any bright colored bits of cloth which can color the water. children love to sprinkle the grass with the hose or to water the flowers with the sprinkling can. they enjoy also the metal fishes, ducks, and boats which may be drawn about in the water by means of a magnet. presently they reach the stage when they must have toy-boats, and next they long to go into real boats and go rowing and sailing. they want to fish, wade, swim, and skate. some of these pastimes are dangerous, but they are sure to be indulged in at some time or other, with or without permission. there never grew a child to sturdy manhood who was successfully kept away from water. the wise mother, then, will not forbid this play, but will do her best to regulate it, to make it safe. she will think out plans for permitting children to go swimming in a safe place with some older per- son. she will let them go wading, and at holiday time dangerous pastimes study of child life. will take them boat-riding. if she permits as much activity in these respects as possible, her refusal when it does come will be respected; and the child will not, unless perhaps in the first bitterness of disappointment, think her unfriendly and fussy. above all, he is not likely to try to deceive her, to run off and take a swim on the sly, and thus fall into true danger. ( ) fire is another inevitable plaything. miss shinn reports that the first act of her little niece that showed the dawn of voluntary control of the muscles was the clinging of her eyes to the flame of a candle, at the end of the second week. the sense of light and the pleasure derived from it is one of the chief in- centives to a baby's intellectual development. but since fire is dangerous the child must be taught this fact as quickly and painlessly as possible. he will probably have to be burned once before he really under- stands it, but by watching you can make this pain very small and slight, barely sufficient to give the child a wholesome fear of playing with unguarded fire. for instance, show that the lamp globe is hot. it is not hot enough to injure him, but quite hot enough to be un- pleasant to his sensitive nerves. put your own hand on the lamp and draw it away with a sharp cry, saying warningly, “hot, hot!" do not put his hand on the lamp, but let him put it there himself and then be very sympathetic over the result. usually one such lesson is sufficient. only do not permit yourself to call every- thing hot which you do not want him to touch. he precaution with fire play. bonfires will soon discover that you are untruthful and will never again trust you so fully. under proper regulations, however, fire may be played with safely. bonfires with some older person in attendance are safe enough and prevent unlawful bonfires in dangerous places. the rule should be that none of the children may play with fire except with permission; and then that permission should be grant- ed as often as possible that the children may be en- couraged to ask for it. a stick smouldering at one end and waved about in circles and ellipses is not dangerous when elders are by, but it is dangerous if played with on the sly. playing with fire on the sly is the most dangerous thing a child can do, and the only way to prevent it is to permit him to play with fire in the open. a beautiful game can be made from a number of christmas tree candles of various colors and a bowl of water. the candles are lighted and the wax dropped into the water, making little colored cir- cles which float about. these can be linked together in such a fashion as to form patterns which may be lifted out on sheets of paper. the magic lantern is an innocent and comparatively cheap means of playing with light. if it is well taken care of and fresh slides added from time to time it can be made a source of pleasure for years. jack-o'-lan- terns are great fun, and when pumpkins are not avail- able, oranges may be used instead. besides these elemental playthings the child gets magic lantern study of child life. rhythmic movements much valuable pleasure out of the rhythmic use of his own muscles. all such plays plato thought should be regulated by music, and with this froebel agreed, but in the household this is often impossible. the chil- dren must indulge in many movements when there is no one about who has leisure to make music for them. still, when they come to the quarrelsome age, a few minutes' ſhythmic play to the sound of music will be found to harmonize the whole group wonderfully. for this purpose the ordinary hippity-hop, fast or slow according to the music, is sufficient. it is as if the regulation of the body to the laws of harmony re- acted upon minds and nerves. such an exercise is particularly valuable just before bed-time. the chil- dren go to sleep then with their minds under the influ- ence of harmony and wake in the morning inclined to be peaceful and happy. a book of kindergarten songs, such as mrs. gay- nor's “songs of the child world” and eleanor smith's "songs for the children,” ought to be in every household, and the mother ought to familiarize herself with a dozen or so of these perfectly simple melodies. of course the children must learn them with her. when once this has been done she has a valuable means of amusing them and bringing them within her control at any time. she may hum one of the songs or play it. the children must guess what it is and then act out their guess in pantomime, so that she can see what they mean. perhaps it is a windmill song; songs play. dramatic plays dancing their arms fly around and around in time to the music, now fast, now slow. perhaps it is a spring song; the children are birds building their nests. other songs turn them into shoemakers, galloping horses, or sol- diers. dramatic plays, whether simple, like this, or elabo- rate, are, as goethe shows in wilhelm meister, of the greatest possible educational advantage. in them the child expresses his ideas of the world about him and becomes master of his own ideas. he acts out whatever he has heard or seen. he acts out also whatever he is puzzling about, and by making the terms of his prob- lem clear to his consciousness usually solves it. as for dancing, richter exclaims: “i know not whether i should most deprecate children's balls or most praise children's dances. for the harmony con- nected with it (dancing) imparts to the affections and the mind that material order which reveals the highest, and regulates the beat of the pulse, the step, and even the thought. music is the meter of this poetic move- ment, and is an invisible dance, as dancing is a silent music. finally, this also ranks among the advantages of his eye and heel pleasure; that children with chil- dren, by no harder canon than the musical, light as sound, may be joined in a rosebud feast without thorns or strife.” the dances may be of the simplest kind, such as “ring around a rosy," "here we go, to and fro," "old dan tucker" and the “virginia reel.” the old-fashioned singing plays, such as "london study of child life. toys bridge," "where oats, peas, beans, and barley grow," and "pop goes the weasel" have their place and value. several collections of them have been made and published, but usually quite enough material may be found for these plays in the memories of the people of any neighborhood. all these plays, it will be noticed, call for very simple and inexpensive apparatus, in most cases for no apparatus at all. nevertheless there is a place for toys. all children ought to have a few, both because of the innocent pleasure they afford and because they need to have certain possessions which are inalienably their own. a simple and inexpensive list of suitable toys adapted to various ages is given at the end of this section. most of them are exactly the toys that parents usually buy. but it will be noticed that none of them are very elaborate or expensive, and that the patrol wagon is not among them. this is because the patrol wagon directly leads to plays that are not only un- educational but positively harmful in their tendencies. the children of a whole neighborhood were once led into the habit of committing various imitation crimes for the sake of being arrested and carried off in a min- iature patrol wagon. if any such expensive and elabo- rate toys are bought, it may well be the plain express wagon or the hook and ladder and fire engine. the first of these leads to plays of industry, the second to those of heroism. play. list of toys suitable for various ages. before year ball, rubber ring, soft animals and rag dolls.... blocks and bells.. year small chair and table. . years noah's ark.... years picture books.. years materials and instruments.. . to years carts, stick-horses, and reins.... . to years boats, ships, engines, tin or wooden animals, dolls, dishes, broom, spade, sand-pile, bucket, etc.. years hoop, games and story-books... Б year occupations home kindergarten there are a number of books designed to teach mothers how to carry the kindergarten occupations over into the home; but while such books may be help- ful in a few cases, in most cases better occupations pre- sent themselves in the course of the day's work. the kindergarten occupations themselves follow increasing- ly the order of domestic routine. for example, many children in the kindergarten make mittens out of eider- down flannel in the fall, when their own mothers are knitting their mittens, and make little hoods either for themselves or for their dolls. at other periods they put up little glasses of preserves or jelly, and study the industry of the bees and the way they put up their tiny jars of jelly. their attention is called also to the preparations that the squirrels and other animals make for winter, and to that of the trees and flowers. in other words, the occupations in the kindergarten are designed to bring the children into conscious sympathy with the life of nature and of the home. that mother who keeps this purpose in mind and applies it to the occupations that come up naturally in the course of a day's work, will thereby bring the kindergarten spirit into her own home much more truly than if she invests in a number of perforated sew- ing cards and colored strips of paper for weaving. not that there is any harm in these bits of apparatus, pro; kindergarten yethods occupations. helping mother vided that the sewing cards are large and so perforated as not to task the eyes and young fingers of the sewer. but unless for some special purpose, such as the mak- ing of a christmas or birthday gift, these devices are unnecessary and better left to the school, which has less richness of material at hand than has the home. in allowing the children to enter as workers into the full life of the home several good things are accom- plished. ( ) the eager interest of the developing mind is utilized to brighten those duties which are likely to remain permanent duties. nor does this ob- servation apply only to girls. domestic obligations are supposed to rest chiefly upon them, but the truth is that boys need to feel these obligations as keenly as the girls, if they are to grow into considerate and helpful husbands and fathers. the usual division of labor into forms falsely called masculine and feminine is, therefore, much to be deplored. moreover, at an early age children are seldom sex-conscious, and any precocity in this direction is especially evil in its re- sults; yet many mothers from the beginning make such a division between what they require of their boys and of their girls as to force this consciousness upon them. all kinds of work, then, should be allowed in the beginning, however it may differentiate later on, and little boys as well as little girls should be taught to take an interest in sewing, dish-washing, sweeping, dusting, and cooking-in all the fornis of domestic activity. study of child life. teaching mother this is so far recognized among educators that the most progressive primary schools now teach cooking to mixed classes of boys and girls, and also sewing. these activities are recognized as highly educational, being, as they are, interwoven with the history of the race and with its daily needs. when they are studied in their full sum of relationship, they increase the child's knowledge of both the past and the living world. ( ) besides the deepening of the child's interest in that work which in some form or other he will have with him always, is the quickening of the mother's own interest in what may have come to seem to her mere daily drudgery. any woman who undertakes to per- form so simple an operation as dish-washing with the help of a bright happy child, asking sixteen questions to the minute, will find that common-place operation full of possibilities; and if she will answer all the questions she will probably find her knowledge strained to the breaking point, and will discover there is more to be known about dish-washing than she ever dreamed of before; while in cooking, if she will make an effort to look up the science, history, and ethics involved in the cooking and serving of a very simple meal, she will not be likely to regard the task as one beneath her, but rather as one beyond her. no one can so lead her away from false conventions and narrow prejudices as a little child whom she permits to help her and teach her. occupations. the love of work to mako "helping" of benefit ( ) the child's spontaneous joy in being active and in doing any service is being utilized, as it should be, in the performance of his daily duties. we have al- ready referred to the fact that all children in the be- ginning love to work, and that there must be some- thing the matter with our education since this love is so early lost and so seldom reacquired. if when young children wish to help mother they are almost invariably permitted to do so, and their efforts greeted lovingly, this delight in helpfulness will remain a blessing to them throughout life. but in order to get these benefits from the domestic activities two or three simple rules must be observed. ( ) do not go silently about your work, expecting your child to be interested and to understand without being talked to. play with him while you work with him and see the realization of youthfulness that comes to yourself while you do it. many tasks fit for child- ish hands are in their nature too monotonous for child- ish minds. here your imagination must come into play to rouse and excite his activity. for instance, you are both shelling peas. when he begins to be tired you suggest to him, “here is a cage full of birds, let us open the door for them;" or you may tell a story while you work, but it should be a story about that very activity, or the child will form the habit of dreaming and dawdling over his work. such stories may be perfectly simple and even rather pointless and yet do good work; the whole object is to keep the child's fly- study of child life. fatigue away imagination turned upon the work at hand, thus lending wings to his thought, and lightness to his fingers. moreover, the mother who talks with her child while working is training in him the habit of bright unconscious conversation, thus giving him a most use- ful accomplishment. making a game or a play out of the work is, of course, conducive to the same good re- sults. when the story or the talk drags, the ganie with its greater dramatic power may be substituted. ( ) children should neither be allowed to work to the point of fatigue nor to stop when they please. fa- tigue, as our latest investigators in physiological psy- chology have conclusively proved, is productive of an actual poison in the blood and as such is peculiarly harmful to young children. but while work-or for that matter play either-must never be pushed past the point of healthful fatigue, it may well be pushed past the point of spontaneous interest and desire: the child may be happily persuaded by various hidden means to do a little more than he is quite ready to do. by this de- vice, which is one of the recognized devices of the kindergarten, mothers increase by imperceptible de- grees that power of attention which makes will power. ( ) set the example of willing industry. neither let the child conceive of you as an impersonal necessary part of the household machinery, nor as an unwilling martyr to household necessities. most mothers err in one or the other of these two directions, an them err in both: they either, (a) perform the in willing industry many of occupations. numerable services of the household so quietly and steadily that the child does not perceive the effort that the performance costs and, therefore, as far as his consciousness is concerned, is deprived of the force of his mother's example, or (b) they groan aloud over their burdens and make their daily martyrdom vocal. either way is wrong, for it is a mistake not to let a child see that your steady performance of tasks, which cannot be always delightful, is a result of self-dis- cipline; and it is equally a mistake to let him think that this discipline is one against which you rebel. for in reality you are so far from being unwilling to bind yourself in his service that if he needed it you would promptly double and quadruple your exertions. it is exactly what you do when he is sick or in danger; and if he dies the sorest ache of your heart is the ache of the love that can no longer be of service to the be- loved. ( ) remember that monotony is the curse of labor for both child and adult, but that monotony cannot exist where new intellectual insights are constantly being given. therefore, while the daily round of labor, shaped by the daily recurring demands for food, warmth, cleanliness, and sleep, goes on without much change, seize every opportunity to deepen the child's perception of the relation of this routine to the order of the larger world. for instance, if a new house is being built near by, visit it with the children, comparing it with your own house, figure out whether it is going monotony study of child life. beautiful work to be easier to keep clean and to warm than your house is and why. if you need to call in the carpenter, the plumber, the paper-hanger, or the stoveman, try to have him come when the children are at home, and let them satisfy their intense curiosity as to his work. this knowledge will sooner or later be of practical value, and it is immediately of spiritual value. ( ) beautify the work as much as possible by let- ting the artistic sense have full play. this rule is so important that the attempt to establish it in the larger world outside of the home has given rise to the move- ment known as the arts and crafts movement, which has its rise in the perception that no great art can come into existence among us until the common things of daily living—the furniture, the books, the carpets, the chinaware—are made to express that creative joy in the maker which distinguishes an artistic product from an inartistic one. this creative joy, in howsoever small degree, may be present in most of the things that the child does. if he sets the table, he may set it beautifully, taking real pleasure in the coloring of the china and the shine of the silver and glass. he ought not to be permitted to set it untidily upon a soiled ta- blecloth. ( ) this is a negative rule, but perhaps the most important of all : do not nag. the child who is driven to his work and kept at it by means of a constant pressure of a stronger will upon his own, is deriving little, if any, benefit from it; and as you are the right spirit occupations. not teaching him to work for the sake of his present usefulness, which is small at the best, but for the sake of his future development, you are more desirous that he should perform a single task in a day in the right spirit, than that he should run a dozen errands in the wrong spirit. ( ) besides a regular time each day for the per- formance of his set share in the household work, give him warning before the arrival of that hour. children have very incomplete notions of time; they become much absorbed in their own play; and therefore no child under nine or ten years of age should be expected to do a given thing at a given time without warning that the time is at hand. besides these occupations which are truly part of the business of life come any number of other occupa- tions—a sort of a cross between real play and steady work, what teachers call "busy work"-and here the suggestions of the kindergarten may be of practical value to the mother. for instance, weaving, already referred to, may keep an active child interested and quiet for considerable periods of time. besides the regular weaving mats of paper, to be had from any kindergarten supply store, wide grasses and rushes may be braided into mats, raffia and rattan may be woven into baskets, and strips of cloth woven into iron- holders. a visit to any neighboring kindergarten will acquaint the mother with a number of useful, simple objects that can be woven by a child. whatever he "busy work" study of child life. sewing weaves or whatever he makes should be applied to some useful purpose, not merely thrown away; and while it is true that a conscientious desire to live up to this rule often results in a considerable clutter of flimsy and rather undesirable objects about the house, still, ways may be devised for slowly retiring the oldest of them from view, and disposing of others among patient relatives. sewing is another occupation much used in the kin- dergarten as well as in the home. beginning with the simple stringing of large wooden beads upon shoe- strings, it passes on to sewing on buttons, and sewing doll clothes to the making of real clothing. this last in its simplest form can be begun sooner than most parents suppose, especially if the child is taught the use of the sewing machine. there is really no reason why a child, say six years old, should not learn to sew upon the machine. his interest in machinery is keen at this period, and two or three lessons are usually sufficient to teach him enough about the mechanism to keep him from injuring it. once he has learned to sew upon the machine, he may be given sheets and towels to hem, and even sew up the seams of larger and more complex articles. he will soon be able to make aprons for himself and his sisters and mother. toy sewing machines are now sold which are really useful playthings, and on which the child can manu- facture a number of small articles. those run by a treadle are preferable to those run by a hand crank, occupations. drawing cutting pasting because they leave the child's hands free to guide the work. drawing, painting, cutting and pasting are excellent occupations for children. a large black-board is a useful addition to the nursery furnishings, but the children should be required to wash it off with a damp cloth, instead of using the eraser furnished for the purpose, as the chalk dust gets into the room and fills the children's lungs. plenty of soft pencils and cray- ons, also large sheets of inexpensive drawing paper, should be at hand upon a low table so that they can draw the large free outlines which best develop their skill, whenever the impulse moves them. if they have also blunt scissors for cutting all sorts of colored papers and a bottle of inocuous library paste, they will be able to amuse themselves at alınost any time. some water colors are now made which are harmless for children so young that they are likely to put the paints in their mouths. paints are on the whole less objectionable than colored chalks, because the crayons drop upon the floor and get trodden into the carpet. if children are properly clothed as they should be in simple washable garments, there is practically no diffi- culty connected with the free use of paints, and their educational value is, of course, very high. painting test questions the following questions constitute the "written reci. tation" which the regular members of the a. s. h. e. answer in writing and send in for the correction and comment of the instructor. they are intended to emphasize and fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. study of child life part ii read carefully. in answering these questions you are earnestly requested not to answer according to the text-book where opinions are asked for, but to answer according to conviction. in all cases credit will be given for thought and original observation. place your name and full address at the head of the paper; use your own words so that your instructor may be sure that you understand the subject. . . state fichte's doctrine of rights and show how it applies to child training. if possible, give an ex- ample from your own experience. what is the aim of moral training ? . what two sayings of froebel most characteristic- ally sum up his philosophy ? . what is the value of play in education? . what are the natural playthings? tell what, in your childhood, you got out of these things, or if you were kept away from them, what the pro- hibition meant to you. . what do you think about children's dancing ? and acting ? . do you agree with those who think that the kin- dergarten makes right doing too easy? state the reasons for your opinion. study of child life. io. . what can you say of commands, reproofs, and rules? . should you let the children help you about the house, even when they are so little as to be troublesome? why? if they are unwilling to help, how do you induce them to help? what would you suggest as regular duties for children of to years ? of to years ? ii. which do you consider the more important, the housework or the child? . wherein may the mother learn from the child ? . what is the difference between amusing children and playing with them? which is the proper method ? . mention some good rules in character building. . from your own experience as a child what can you say of teaching the mysteries of sex? . are there any questions you would like to ask, or subjects which you wish to discuss in connec- tion with this lesson? note. after completing the test sign your full name. study of child life part iii madonna and child by murillo, spauish painter of the seventeenth century study of child life part iii art and literature in child life influence of art the influence of art upon the life of a young child is difficult of measurement. it may freely be said, however, that there is little or no danger in exaggerat- ing its influence, and considerable danger in underrat- ing it. it is difficult of measurement because the in- fluence is largely an unconscious one. indeed, it may be questioned whether that form of art which give him the most conscious and outspoken pleasure is the form that in reality is the most beneficial; for, unques- tionably, he will get great satisfaction from circus posters, and the poorly printed, abominably illustrated cheap picture books afford him undeniable joy. he is far less likely to be expressive of his pleasure in a sun- shiny nursery, whose walls, rugs, white beds, and sun- shiny windows are all well designed and well adapted to his needs. nevertheless, in the end the influence of this room is likely to be the greater influence and to permanently shape his ideas of the beautiful; while he is entirely certain, if allowed to develop artistically at all, to grow past the circus poster period. this fact—the fact that the highest influence of art is a secret influence, exercised not only by those decora- tions and pictures which flaunt themselves for the pur- pose, but also by those quiet, necessary, every-day study of child life. color things, which nevertheless may most truly express the art spirit—this fact makes it difficult to tell what art and what kind of art is really influencing the child, and whether it is influencing him in the right directions. until he is three years old, for example, and often until he is past that'age, he is unable to distinguish clearly between green, gray, and blue; and hence these cool colors in the decorations around him, or in his pictures, have practically no meaning for him. he has a right, one might suppose, to the gratification of his love for clear reds and yellows, for the sharp, well- defined lines and flat surfaces, whose meaning is plain to his groping little mind. some of the best illus- trators of children's books have seemed to recognize this. for example, boutet de monvil in his admirable illustrations of joan of arc meets these requirements perfectly, and yet in a manner which must satisfy any adult lover of good art. the caldecott picture books, and walter crane's are also good in this respect, and the perkins pictures issued by the prang educational co. have gained a just recognition as excellent pictures for hanging on the nursery wall. many of the illustra- tions in color in the standard magazines are well worth cutting out, mounting and framing. this is especially true of howard pyle's work and that of elizabeth shippen green. since photogravures and photographs of the master- pieces can be had in this country very inexpensively, there is no reason why children should not be made classic art mcman sheetster dairy when boeing mwing from mortypanerin axa de spinning wito mam singing qon my born "my mary" buw. woolen antil.co that mesurma uhsin are trend antrostati ags sche hot in the hen “blow, wind blow » perkins' pictures study of child life. plastic art acquainted at an early age with the art classics, but there is danger in giving too much space to black and white, especially in the nursery where the children live. their natural love of color should be appealed to do deepen their interest in really good pictures. nevertheless, it is a matter of considerable difficulty still to find colored pictures which are inexpensive and yet really good. the detaille prints, while not yet cheap, are not expensive either, and are excellent for this purpose; but the insipid little pictures of fairies, flowers, and birds may be really harmful, as helping to form in the young child's mind too low an ideal of beauty—of cultivating in him what someone has called “the lust of the eye.” what holds true of the pictorial art holds equally true of the plastic art. as prof. veblin of the uni- versity of chicago has scathingly declared, our ideals of the beautiful are so mingled with worship of ex- pense that few of us can see the genuine beauty in any object apart from its expensiveness. for this reason as well as, perhaps, because of a remnant of barbarism in us, we love gold and glitter, and a great deal of elaboration in our vases, and are far from being over- critical of any piece of statuary which costs a respect- able sum. a certain appreciation, however, of the real value of a good plaster-cast has been gaining among us of late years, and many public schools, especially in the large cities, have been establishing standards of good taste relief medallion by andrea della robbia, in foundling hospital, florence the drama. old-fashioned nonsense songs, such as "billy boy,” “mary had a little lamb” and “hey diddle diddle, the cat and the fiddle," may also have a pleasant and harmless place of their own. instrumental music should be on the same general order, not loud and showy, but clear, simple, sweet, and free from startling effects. dashing pieces, rag-time pieces, marches, two-steps, and familiar tunes with va- riations, instead of bringing about a spirit of gentle- ness and harmony, actually tend to produce self-assert- iveness and quarrelsomeness. let any mother who does not believe this try the effect of an hour of the one kind of music on one evening, and an hour of the other kind on another evening. the difference will be immediately apparent. the influence of the drama must not be forgotten. this form of art, fallen so low among us since the time of the puritans that it can scarceiy be called an art at all, is, nevertheless, the art which perhaps above all others has an immediate and yet lasting influence. children are themselves instinctively dramatic. they like to compose and act out all sorts of dramas of their own, from playing house (which is nothing but a drama prolonged from day to day), to such dramatic games as statue-posing and dumb crambo. all chil- dren like to dress up, to wear masks, and to imitate the peculiarities of persons about them; to try on, as it were, the world as they see it, and discover thereby how the actors in it feel. goethe's wilhelm meister tho drama study of child life. has already been referred to. in this—his great book on education-he practically bases all education upon the drama, and even throws the treatise itself into dramatic form. this does not mean, however, that all children should be permitted to go to the theater as freely as they like. no; the plays which they compose and act for themselves have a far higher value educationally than most of the spectacular presentations of the old fairy tales with which they are usually regaled, and certainly more than the sensational melodramas which give them false ideas of art and morality. they should go sometimes to the theater to see really good and simple plays, but they should be oftener' encouraged to get up for themselves plays at home. if, as they grow older, they are helped to think out their costumes with something of historical accuracy, to be true to the spirit and scenery of the times in which the representa- tions are laid, the activity can be made to increase in value to them as the years go by. there is ilo other art, perhaps, by which the child so intimately links the world spirit with his own spirit. it is for this reason that the school of education in the university of chi- cago is equipped with small theaters in which the children act. as for the art of literature, not all children love read- ing, perhaps, but certainly all children love to hear stories told, and the skilful mother will direct this spontaneous affection into a love for reading. no literature literature. fairy tales other single love, except perhaps the love of nature, so emancipates the child from the thrall of circum- stances. if he can escape from the small ills of life into fairy-land merely by opening the covers of a book, be sure that these ills will not have power to crush him, unless they be very great ills indeed. there are those who still believe that fairy tales and fiction of all sorts are nothing but lies. poor souls, with their faces against the stone wall of hard facts, they can never look up into the sky and see the winged and beautiful thoughts freely disporting there. they make no distinction between truth and fact, yet truth is of the spirit and fact of the flesh; and truth, because it is of the spirit, may appear under many forms, even under the form of play. all rightly told and rightly conceived fairy-tales are true just as a good picture is true. the painter uses oil, turpentine, and pigment to represent the wool of a sheep, the water of a pond, the green spears of grass. some literal-minded per- son might say that he was lying because he pretented that his little square of canvas truthfully represented grazing sheep at the brook-side, but most of us recog- nize that he is really telling the truth only in another than an every day form. in the same way the writer of fairy-tales tells the truth, using the pigments of the imagination. if children ask whether a given story is true or not, answer without hesitation, "yes." it is true, but it is a fairy kind of truth; it is inside truth. there is magic iio study of child life. imagination and sympathy in it and a mystery. the child who is never allowed to read fairy tales, the man or the woman who pre- fers the newspaper to a good book of fiction, misses much in life. it is not only that the imagination—the divinest quality of man, because the quality that makes man in his degree a creator--does not receive culture, and that he misses the indescribable intellectual ecstasy that comes only with the setting free of the wings of the mind, but that also he is inevitably shorn of his sympathy and shut up to a narrow circle of interests. for sympathy, above all moral qualities, is dependent upon imagination. if you cannot imagine how you would feel under your neighbor's conditions, you can- not deeply sympathize with him. the person of un- imaginative mind sympathizes only with those whose experience and habits are similar to his own. he never escapes from the narrow circle of his own per- sonality. but the man whose imagination has been kept flexible and ready from earliest childhood has within him the power of sympathizing with what- ever is human-yes! even with creatures and things below the human level. without imagination, there- fore, it is not possible for a man to be a great scientist, for science demands sympathy with processes and ob- jects which are not yet human. it is not possible, ob- viously, for him to be a great artist of any kind, for all art is interpretation of the world by means of the imagination. it is not possible for him, even, to be a good man in any broad sense, for the man whose literature. iii books sympathies are narrow is often found to be guilty of injustice towards those who lie outside the pale of those sympathies. by all means, then, encourage the love of reading in your children, and get them the best of story-books to read, and subscribe to the best magazines. read with them. let some reading enter into every day's life; talk over what has been read at the dinner-table, and so avoid harmful personalities and disagreeable criti- cisms. as to the books to choose, choose the best. gen- erally speaking, the best are those that have some dignity of age upon them. as in music you chose the folksongs, so in children's literature also choose the old fashioned fairy stories, such as those collected by the brothers grimm and by andrew lang. hans christian andersen's fairy stories of course are clas- sics. hawthorne's tanglewood tales give excellent suggestions as to the right use to be rnade of the old mythologies. many of the supplementary readers now being so widely used in the public schools are good, simple versions of these old stories which helped to make the world what it should be. for the rest there are two standard children's magazines which help to form a good taste in literature and which are continually sug- gestive of the right sort of reading material. these are the youth's companion and st. nicholas. finally, all appreciation of literature and art depends upon a love of and some knowledge of nature. fairy naturo study ii study of child life. art and nature stories and mythology especially are so dependent upon nature for their inner meaning and significance as scarcely to be intelligible without some knowledge of natural processes and laws. of course, it is true that art in its turn idealizes nature and fills her beauti- ful form with a beautiful soul; so that the child who is being developed on all sides needs to take his books and his pictures out of doors in order to get the full good of them. no amount of music, art, and literature can make up. for the free life in the fields and under the sky which all these arts describe and interpret. if he should be so unhappy as to have to choose between nature and art, it would be better for him to choose nature, be- cause then, perhaps, art might be born in his own soul. but there is happily no need for such a painful choice. he can sing his little song out of doors with the birds and notice how they join in the chorus. he can paint evening sunsets with the pine-trees against it far better out of doors than indoors with copy perched before him. he can look down the aisles of the real woods to watch for the enchanted princess, or for the chivalrous knight whose story he is reading. art and nature belong together in the unified soul of the child. well for him and for the world in which he lives if they are never divorced, but he goes on to the end loving them both and seeing them both as one. children's associates the kindergarten if the child was intended to grow into a man of fam- ily, merely, family training might be sufficient for him, but since he must grow into a member of society, so- cial training is as necessary for him as family training. failure to recognize this truth is at the bottom of the current misconceptions of the kindergarten. there are still thousands of persons who suppose it is only a superior sort of day-nursery where children may be safely kept and innocently employed while the mother gets the housework done. while this might be a laudable enough function to perform, it is by no means the function of the kinder- garten. this method of instruction aims at much more. it aims to lay foundations for a complete later education, and especially to make firm in the child those virtues and aptitudes which, when they are held by the majority of men, constitute the safety and wel- • fare of society. for this reason, no home, however well ordered, can supply to the child what the kinder- garten supplies. for the home is necessarily limited to the members of one family, while the kindergarten, on the contrary, makes plain to the child the claims upon him of society not made up of his kinsfolk. it is the wide world in miniature, and if it is a properly organized kindergarten, it will contain within itself a wide variety of children-children of wealth and of study of child life. poverty, of ignorance and of gentle breeding—and will bring them all under one just rule. for only by this commingling of many characters upon a common level and under the strict reign of justice can the child be fitted practically, and by means of a series of pro- gressive experiments, for citizenship in a genuine democracy. lusivo uciates parents sometimes so far miss the aim of the kin- dergarten as to desire that instead of such a com- mingling there shall be a narrow limit set; that in the kindergarten shall be only such children as the child is accustomed to associatė with. but if the kinder- garten acceded to this demand, as it seldom does, it would lose much of its usefulness, for every one knows that children cannot be permanently sheltered from contact with the outside world, nor can they be al- ways reared in an atmosphere of exclusiveness. a wisdom greater than the mother's has ordered that no child shall be so narrowly nourished. if he has any freedom whatever, any naturalness of life, he must and will enlarge his circle of acquaintances beyond the limit of his mother's calling list. indeed, even those kindergartens which are pro- fessedly exclusive, and which confine their ministra- tions to the children of one particular neighborhood, are obliged by the nature of things to contain nascent individualities of almost every type. for no neigh- borhood, however equal in wealth and fashion, ever produced children of an unvarying quality. in any childrens associates. evil example circle, no matter how exclusive, there are mischievous children, children who use bad language, children who have sly, mean tricks, children who do not speak the truth, and who are in other ways quite as undesirable as the children of the poor and ignorant. it is often asserted, indeed, that the children of exclusive neigh- borhoods very often show more varieties of badness than the children of the open street. the records of the private kindergarten as compared with the public kindergarten amply prove this statement. since, then, whether you confine your child to the limits of your own circle or not, you cannot success- fully keep him from playing with children who are more or less objectionable, what are you going to do to keep him from the harm of such association? you have to make him strong enough to withstand temp- tation and resist the force of evil example. of course, he must have as little of the wrong example, especially in his younger and tenderer years, as can be managed without too greatly checking his activity and curtail- ing his freedom. yet after all he is to be taught a positive and not a negative righteousness, and if his home training is not sufficient to enable him to stand against a certain downward pull from the outside, there is something the matter with it. while he must not be strained too hard, nor too constantly associate with children whose manners put his manners to the test, still he ought by degrees, al- most imperceptibly, to be accustomed to holding to the childrens associates. sharing the child's play social training of her child, and this means that she must know his playmates, not only through his report of them, but through her own observation of them, and that they must be sufficiently at home with her to betray their true characters in her presence. and this means, of course, that she must become her child's playmate. there are few women who think that they have time for this, but there are also few who would not be benefited by it. if anywhere there is a fountain of youth, it gushes up invisibly wherever playing chil- dren are, and she who plays with them gets sprinkled by it. if there be no time during the busy day when she can justly enter into the children's free play, at least there is a little while in the iate afternoon or in the early evening when she can do so, if she will. an hour or two a week spent in active association with children at their games will make her intimately acquainted with all their playmates, and, moreover, constitute her a power of first magnitude among them. her mother- hood thus extends itself, and she blesses not only her own children, but all those who come near her chil- dren. in this respect no kindergarten can take the place of the mother's own companionship with the child in his social life. in an ideal condition the child las his kindergar- ten in the morning; his quiet hours, one of them en- tirely solitary, in the afternoon; his social time, when he, his brothers and sisters and mother, are joined study of child life. the children's hour with the other children and mothers in the neighbor- hood, in the late afternoon, and his family time, with both father and mother, in the evening before going to bed. in thus sharing her child's social life the mother admits the claim upon her of social responsibility; she sees that her duty is not to her own home alone, but to the other homes with which hers is linked—not to her own child alone, but to all children whose lives touch her child's life. her own nature widens with the perception, and she enhances her direct teaching with the force of a beautiful example. studies and accomplishments abstract studies there may easily be too many studies and too many as complishments in the life of any child. as our schools are constituted there are certainly too many studies of the wrong kind being carried on every day. but there are also too few studies of the right kind. in one of our large cities a test was once made as to how much the children who left school at the fifth grade, as per cent of them do, had actually learned in a way that would be of practical value to them, and the results were most discouraging. these city chil- dren who could recite their tables of measurements with glibness, and who performed with a fair degree of success several hundred examples dealing with units of measure, could not tell whether their school-room floor contained one acre or two hundred and forty! none of them suspected that it contained less than an although they could bound the states of the union, and give the principal exports and imports, they knew next to nothing of their own city and of its actual relation to the countries which they studied in their geography lessons. the teachers, in ex- planation, laid much of the blame for this state of af- fairs upon the parents, saying that they took but little interest in their children's studies, and never attempt- ed to link them to the things of every-day life. but while this claim might be justified to some extent, it acre. study of child life. have noticed; or in the geographical laboratory, with streams of water try to reproduce in miniature the action of the brook upon the soil through which it flows. for their arithmetic lesson they estimate the num- ber of years the brook must have been flowing to have cut its valley to its present depth. they make a full report and description of their day's work for their reading and writing lesson. they have thus gained an immense amount of information, and have done a great deal of hard work; but instead of being nervously exhausted, they are bright and exhilarated. such fatigue as they know is wholesome and fits them for a sound night's sleep. when it is impossible to send the child to such a school as this, something may be done by supplement- ing the ordinary school by some of these procedures. the clay jar, the crayons, and the paints have already been suggested, and with the parents' interest in the child's studies, helping him to model and paint things which he studies at school, he will instantly show the good effect of the home training and encouragement. as for field trips, the regular sunday walk, or evening stroll, may be made to take its place. if you think that you do not know enough to teach your child on these walks, give him then the privilege of teaching you. he will work the harder in order to rise to the occa- home expedients sion. study of child life. natural talent of course, if she is naturally musical some kind of help and sympathy must be given her in her attempt to master the piano or violin or to manage her own voice. but while she should be allowed to learn as much as her unurged energies permit her to learn, she should not be required to practice more than a very small amount, say half an hour a day. the bulk of her musical education should be acquired in the vacation time, when she can give two hours a day without overstraining the same general rules hold good of dancing, paint- ing, the acquirements of foreign languages, a special course of reading, or any other work undertaken in addition to the regular school work. this latter, as it is now constituted, is quite as severe a nervous and intellectual strain as most young people can undergo with safety. there is one characteristic in young people which needs to be noted in this connection :the desire to take up some form of work, to strive with it furiously for a brief while, to drop it unfinished; take up an- other with equal eagerness, drop that in turn and go on to a third. this performance is peculiarly irritat- ing to all systematic and ambitious parents. some- times they rigidly insist that each task shall be finished before a new one is assumed. but in reality, is this necessary? it seems to be as natural for a young mind to set eagerly to work for a short time at each new bit of knowledge, as it is for a nursing child to "enthusiasms" studies and accomplishments. require refreshments every two or three hours. it is an adult trait to stick to a task, even though a very long one, until it is accomplished. the youthful trait is to take kindly to a clutter of unfinished tasks. the youthful consciousness is of a world full of jostling interests. why not let the children alone, and allow them to spring lightly from one enthusiasm to another? of course you will help them to finish, either at the first sitting or at the second or at the third, the task that was undertaken when that particular enthu- siasm was at its height. the drawing which has re- mained on the easel during the foot-ball season may be suggestively brought to notice again in the quiet times between thanksgiving and christmas. the boat be- gun last summer may well be finished in the days of the succeeding spring when all the earth is full of the sound of running water. thus each task, though not completed at once, gets done in the end; and the youthful capacity for many sympathies and many de- sires has not been narrowed. such a line of conduct presupposes, of course, that the parent considers only the child's best welfare, and not his own parental vanity. he is not desirous that his son shall do anything so well as to attract the at- tention and admiration of the neighbors. he is de- sirous merely that the boy shall grow up wholesomely and happily, showing such superiority as there may be in him when the fitting time and opportunity present themselves. he will not attempt to make a musician parental vanity study of child life. development of intellect of an unmusical child, nor a mechanic of an artistic child. he will not object to the brilliant and im- practical dreams of the young inventor, but will help to make them practicable; and though he may squirm at some of the investigations of the budding scientist, he will not forbid them. for such a parent recognizes that the important thing, educationally, is to secure the reaction of ex- pression upon thought and feeling. that is, he is not trying to secure at this time—at any time during youth-perfect expression of any thought or feeling, but only to deepen feeling and clarify thought by encouraging all attempts at expression. he does not wish his child to make a finished picture or a perfect statue, but to acquire a greater sensitiveness to color and form by each attempt to express that color and form which he already knows. thus whatever studies and accomplishments his child may be in the act of acquiring are seen to be nothing as acquisitions, but the child himself is seen to be growing stage by stage within the clumsy scaffolding. financial training the financial training of children ought really to be considered under the head of moral training, but in some respects it can come equally well under the head of intellectual training; for to spend money well re- quires both self-control and intelligence. some persons seem to think that all that a child can be taught in this financial training. regular allowance regard is to save money, and they meet the situation by purchasing various shapes and styles of savings banks. but it is entirely possible to teach the child too thor- oughly in this respect and to make him so fond of his jingling pennies safe within a yellow crockery pig or iron cupolaed mansion that he will not spend them for any object, however laudable. others evade the issue as long as possible by giving the child no money at all; while most of us pursue an uncertain and wabbly course, sometimes giving money, sometimes withhold- ing it, sometimes exhorting the child to spend, and sometimes to save. in truth spending wisely is a difficult problem. as a rule the child may safely be induced to lay by for a season and then encouraged to spend for some gen- erous purpose. christmas and other festivals offer ex- cellent opportunities for proper disbursement of the hoarded funds. these may be supposed to have accu- mulated from irregular gifts; but as the child grows older he should come into receipt of a regular definite allowance, perhaps conditioned upon his performance of some stated duty. a certain part of his allowance he may be permitted to spend upon such frivolities as are naturally dear to his young heart; another part of it he should be encouraged--not commanded—to put aside for larger purposes. the giving of this allowance must not be confused with the pernicious habit of bribing the child to the per- formance of those little daily courtesies and duties study of child life. which he ought to be willing to perform out of love and a sense of right. a certain part of his daily work, such as seeing that the match-boxes all over the house are filled, or some similar share of the general labor of the household, may be regarded as that for which he is paid wages; and any extra task which does not justly belong to him, he may sometimes be paid for perform- ing; but not always. for instance, he ought to be will- ing to run to the grocery for mother withoạt demand- ing that he be paid a penny for the job; yet sometimes the penny may be forthcoming. the point is that he should be ready to work, even to work hard, without pay, and yet that he should never feel that his mother withholds pay from him when she can give it and he receive it without injury. when the money is once his, he should be allowed to feel the full happiness and responsibility of posses- sion, and if he insists upon spending it foulishly, should be allowed to do it and to suffer to the full the un- comfortable consequer!ces. if, on the contrary, he will not spend it at all, his mother must use every means in her power to lessen the desire for ownership and to increase his love for others and his eagerness to please them. as judgment develops the allowance may well be increased to provide for necessities in tire way of inci- dentals and clothing until at the "age of discretion" he is in full charge of the funds for his personal expenses. he should be encouraged to apply his knowledge of spending foolishly financial training. commercial arithmetic in the keeping of personal ac- counts. experience in spending a fixed amount of money is especially needful for the daughters. most young men have the value of money and financial responsibility forced upon them in the natural course of events, but too often the young wife has not had the training qual- ifying her for the equal financial partnership which should exist in the ideal marriage, unpo the infant galahad- first sight of the grail from the mural paintings by edwin a. abbey in the boston public library religious training sunday school teachers if the common school is not sufficient for the secular education of the child, certainly the sunday school is not sufficient for his religious education. in the common schools the teachers are more or less trained for their work. it is a life occupation with them; by means of it they earn their living, and their daily success with their pupils marks their rate of progress toward higher fields of endeavor. nothing of this sort is true in the sunday school. while occasionally it happens that a day school teacher becomes a sunday school teacher, this is seldom true, for most teachers who teach during the week feel that they need the sunday for rest; and while some sunday school teachers betray a commendable earnestness and zeal for their work, and associations and conventions have latterly added somewhat to the joint effort to better the conditions, still it remains true that the teaching in the sunday schools is far below the pedagogic level of the common schools. yet the subject which is deaſt with in the sunday schools, instead of being of less importance than that dealt with in the common schools, is of pre-eminently greater importance. because of its subtlety, its intimacy with the hidden springs of con- duct, it calls for the exercise of the very highest teach- ing skill. study of child life. some sort of recognition of these two facts-that sunday school teachers are in most cases very inade- quately trained for their work, and that the work itself is of great importance, and of equally great dif- ficulty—has led to the issuing of many quarterlies, international lesson leaflets, and other sunday school aids. necessary as such help may be under present conditions, they cannot possibly meet the many diffi- culties of the case. if the central committees, who issue these leaflets, were composed wholly of the wisest men and women on earth, it would still be impossible for them to give lessons to the millions of children in their various denominations which should meet the personal needs, and daily interests of these young people. as a consequence, sunday school teaching is and must be largely theoretical and still more largely ex- egetical, and with neither theory nor exegesis is the young mind of the developing child very much con- cerned. what he needs is not the historical side of religion or of that great body of religious literature which we call the bible, but a living faith which links all that was taught by the prophets and apostles, cen- turies ago, with what is happening in the child's own town and family at that very moment. it is a wide gap to bridge, and it cannot be bridged by a semi- historical review backed by picture cards, golden texts, and stars for good behavior. these things are merely the marks of an endeavor to fitly accomplish a great sunday school teaching religious training. task, an endeavor almost absurdly out of proportion to this aim, rendered significant, however, because it is the earnest of a great faith and a great hope. so far as sunday schools help children, it is because of this spirit of faithfulness, and not because of the form which it has assumed. in choosing, then, whether you shall send your child to a sunday school, choose by the presence or absence of this spirit. if you know the teachers of the sunday school to be earnest, loving, and de- voted, you may with safety assume that their per- sonal influence will make up for what is archaic in their method of teaching. where the spirit is present only in a few, or where it manifests itself only occa- sionally, as at seasons of revival, you may well hesi- tate to let your child attend. a great improvement would come about if parents would show a greater interest and encourage proper teachers to take charge of classes. it is a thankless task at present. there is one great danger in the teaching of any sunday school-one which the best of them cannot wholly escape—and that is, that, in the very nature of things, they teach theory and not practice. harm- ful as this may be, indeed as it surely is in adult life, it does not begin to be so harmful as it does in youth, for the young child, as we have seen, is and should remain a unit in consciousness. his life, his intellect, and his will are one-an undivided trinity. the divorce of these three is at any time a regrettable oc- theory not practice study of child life. useless truths currence; the divorce of them in early life is an almost irreparable disaster. the current theory is that children will learn many truths in the sunday school which they will not put into practice then, perhaps, but which they will find useful in later life. this fallacy underlies, of course, almost all conventional education and has only been overthrown by the dictum of modern psychology, that there is but small storage accommodation in the brain for facts which have no immediate relation to life. what may be termed the saturating power of the brain is limited, and after it has soaked up a rather small number of truths, it can contain no more until it has in some way disposed of those that it still has--either by making them part of its own living structure, which is done only by making immediate application of them; or by dropping them below the threshold of conscious- ness, that is, in common language, forgetting them. moreover, the brain may form the habit of easily dropping all that relates to a given subject into the limbo where unused things lie disregarded, and when this becomes the habitual method of disposing of re- ligious instruction, the results are particularly deplor- able. feeble as her own knowledge may be, a mother has certain advantages as a teacher of her children over any but the exceptional sunday school teacher. for, first, she knows the children, and, knowing them, knows their needs. secondly, she knows their daily lives and con- the mother as teacher religious training. tinually during the week can point out wherein they fail to live up to their sunday's lesson. and again and most important, she loves them tenderly, and from love flows wisdom. usually the mother gives her own chil- dren a love far beyond that given by anyone else, and this deeper love sharpens her intellectual faculties and makes her both a keen observer and a good tactician. giving her children some simple lesson on sunday aft- ernoon, she finds a hundred opportunities to make the lesson living and vital to them during the succeeding week. in the early years of the child's life, the mother is usually the one to decide whether he shall attend sunday school or not, but as he approaches adolescence he is likely to take the matter in his own hands, and if it happens that some revivalist or a new stirring preacher comes in contact with his life at this time, he is very likely to be swept off his feet with a sudden zeal of religious enthusiasm, which his mother fears to check. the reports of memberships, baptisms, etc., show that a large number become converted and join the church during adolescence. while this does not in the least argue that the conclusions that they reach at that time are therefore unsound—for adolescence is not a disease, nor a form of insanity, but a normal, if excitable, condition—still it does prove, when coupled with the further fact that in adult life these young converts often relapse into their previous con- dition, that a more lastinig basis for religion must be religious enthusiasm study of child life. found than the emotional intensity of this period of life. a religion to be lasting must be coldly reaffirmed by the intellect: the dictum of the heart alone is not suf- ficient. religious enthusiasm, like all other forms of enthusiasm, tends of itself to bring about the oppo- site condition, and to be succeeded by fits of despond- ency and bitterness as intense and severe as the en- thusiasm itself was brilliant and ecstatic. the history of all great religious leaders amply proves this. they had their bitter hours of wrestling with the powers of darkness, hours which almost counter-balanced the hours of uplift. only clearly thought-out intellectual convictions reinforced by the habit of daily righteous living can secure the soul against such emotional aberrations. therefore, although the religious excitability of adolescence must not be thwarted lest it be turned into less helpful channels, and lest religion lose all the beauty and compelling power lent to it by the glow of youthful feelings, yet it must be so balanced and ordered by a clear reason, and especially by the habit of putting each enthusiasm to the test of conduct, that the young mind may remain true to its law of growth, developing harmoniously on all three sides at once. the danger of permitting a young boy or girl while under the influence of this emotional instability to enter into any special form of religious service is the danger of reaction. he will discover that all is not as his early vision led him to suppose—because that danger of reaction religious training. a difioult period early vision was of things too high and holy for any earthly realization—and he may turn against what seems to him to be hypocrisy and pretense with a bit- terness proportioned to his former love. many honest, faithful men and women remain in this state of re- action for the rest of their lives. nevertheless, it will not do to thwart these young beginnings. they must neither be nipped in the bud nor forced to a premature ripening. above all they must not be suffered to endure the killing frost of ridicule. the period is a difficult one, but, as dr. stanley hall points out, it is supremely the mother's oppor- tunity. if she can hold her boy's or her girl's con- fidence now, can ease their eager young hearts with an intelligent sympathy, she can probably keep them from any public commitment. perhaps they may desire to confide in the minister; if so, let the mother confide in him first. perhaps they have bosom friends, passing through the same stirring experience; then let the mother win over these friends. her object should be to shelter this beautiful senti- ment; to keep it safe from exposure; above all, to utilize it as a motive-power—as an incentive to noble action. the kindergarten rule is a good one: as quick as a love springs in a child's breast, give it something to do. when the love of god awakes there, give it much to do. usually, the only way open is to join the church, to make a public profession. the wise mother will see to it that there are other ways, study of child life. bible study urging the young knight to serve his king by going forth into the world immediately about him and fight-, ing against all forms of evil, giving him a practical, definite quest. the result of such restriction of public speech, and stimulation of private deed, will be a sin- cere, lowly-minded religion, so inwoven with the truest activities as to be inseparable from them. such a religion knows no reaction. now is supremely the time for a study of the bible. interesting as a divine story book to the young chil- dren, it becomes the book of life to these older ones. in teaching it at home, a few simple rules need to be borne in mind. the first is that the bible must be thought of not as a series of disconnected texts and thoughts, but as a connected wliole. the division of king james' bible into verses and chapters is but poorly adapted to this purpose. the illogical, strange character of the paragraphing, as measured by the standards of modern english, is apparent at a glance, for often a verse will end in the middle of sentence, and the sentence be concluded in the next verse. the chapters in the same way often fail to finish the sub- ject with which they deal, and sometimes include sey- eral subjects. therefore, the mother who undertakes to read the bible to her children needs first to go through the lesson herself, and to decide what sub- ject, not what chapter, she will take up that day. there is a reader's edition of the bible, and one called the "children's bible," both of which aim to leave out all religious training. children's bible repetition and references and to arrange the bible narrative in a simple, consecutive order, nevertheless employing the beautiful bible ianguage. these edi- tions might prove of considerable help to mothers who feel unequal to doing the work by themselves. second, comparable to this in importance is the reading of the bible and talking about it in a perfectly ordinary tone of voice; for what you want is to make the bible teachings live in to-day. you must not, therefore, suggest by your tone or manner that they belong to another day, and that they are, in some sense, to be shut out from common life and speech. this does not mean such common use of biblical phrases in every day conversation as to cause it to grow into that form of irreverence known as cant, but it does mean simple usage of bible thought, and the effort to fit it to the conditions of daily life. such a habit in itself will force any family to discriminate as to what things in the bible are living and eternal, and what things belong rightly to that far away time and place of which the bible narrative treats, thus practicing both teacher and pupils—that is, both parents and children—in the art of finding the universal spirit of truth under all temporal disguises. without this art the bible is a closed book, even to the closest student. again, every effort should be made to help the home bible class to understand the period studied in that week's lesson, and to this end secular literature and art should be freely called upon, not only such stories, making lessons real study of child life. for example, as “ben hur," but other stories not necessarily religious, which deal with the same time and place; they are of great help in putting vividly before the children and parents the temporal setting of the eternal stories. cannon farrar's “life of christ” is a very great help to the realization of the new testament scenes, as is also tissot's “pictorial life of christ." in short every art should be made to deepen and clarify the conceptions roused by the study of the bible. conclusion the mother who undertakes the tremendous task of rightly training her children, will need to exercise herself daily in all the christian virtues—and if there are any pagan ones not included under faith, hope, charity, patience, and humility, to exercise those also. with these virtues to support her, she will be able to use whatever knowledge she may acquire. without them she can do nothing. study of child life part iii read carefrilly. in answering these questions you are earnestly requested not to answer according to the text-book where opinions are asked for, but to answer according to conviction. in all cases credit will be given for thought and original observation. place your name and full address at the head of the paper; use your own words so that your instructor may be sure that you understand the subject. . i. how can you bring the influence of art to bear upon your child ? what is the influence of music? how can you employ it? . do you believe in fairy tales for children? state your reasons. . how would you encourage the love of nature in your child? . what is it that the kindergarten can do better than the home? . suppose that your child had some undesirable acquaintances, how would you meet the situa- tion ? . what can you say of accomplishments for chil- dren ? study of child life. . . . if manual training, physical culture, domestic science, etc., are not taught in your schools and you wish your children to get some of the ad- vantages of these studies, how will you set about it? . what do you understand to be the correlation of studies ? io. should parents become acquainted with the teach- ers of their children and their methods ? why? how may children be taught the use of money? state the advantages and disadvantages of sunday schools. what have they meant in your own experience ? . how will you train your child religiously? can anyone take this task from you? . what rules must be borne in mind in teaching the bible at home? . give some experience of your own (or of a friend) in the training of a child wherein a success has been achieved. . are there any questions you would like to ask or subjects which you wish to discuss in con- nection with the lessons on the study of child life? note. after completing the test sign it with your full name. supplementary notes on study of child life by marion foster washburn application of principles. in this "study of child life" we have considered some of the fundamental principles of education. when we think of the complex inheritance of the american people it is, perhaps, no wonder that many families contain individuals varying so widely from each other as to seem to require each a complete system of edu- cation all to himself. we are a people born late in the history of the race, and our blood is mingled of the norseman's, the celt's, and the latin's. advancing civilization alone would tend to make us more complex, our problems more subtle; but in addition to this we are mixed of all races, and born in times so strenuous that, sooner or later, every abre of our weaving is strained and brought into prominence. in the letters from my students this fact, with which i was already familiar in a general sort of way, has been brought more particularly to my attention. in all cases, the situation has been responsible for much confusion and difficulty. in a good many, it has led to family tragedies, varying in magnitude from the unhappiness of the misunderstood child to that of the lonely woman, suffering in adult life from the faults of her upbringing, and the failure of the family ties whose need she felt the more as the duties of moth- study of child life erhood pressed upon her. if it were possible for me to violate the confidence of my pupils i could prove very conclusively that the old-fashioned system of bringing up children on the three r's and a spanking did not work so well as some persons seem to think. i could prove that the problem has grown past the point where instinct and tradition may be held as suffi- cient to solve it. everyone, seeing these letters, would be obliged to confess, "yes, indeed, here is plain need of training for parents." yet, at the same time, these same persons would be tempted to inquire, “but can any training meet such a difficult situation ?” here is despair; and some cause for it. when one's own mother has not understood one; when one has lived lonely in the midst of brothers and sisters who are more strange than strangers; when one's childhood is full of the memory of obscure but intense sufferings, one flies for relief, perhaps, to any one who offers it hopefully enough; but one does not really expect to get it. can training, especially by correspondence, meet the need? not wholly, of course, let us be frank to admit. no amount of theory, however excellent, can take the place of the drill given only in the hard school of experience. but when the theory is not merely theory, but sound principle, based on scientific observation, confirmed by the wide experience of many persons, it is as valuable in practical life as any rule of mathematics to the prac- tical engineer. we all know that the technical cor- respondence schools really do fit young mechanics to application of principles move on and up in the trade. by correspondence he is given what froebel cails the interpreting word. the experience in application the student has to sup- ply himself. so in the matter of education. there are genuine principles which underlie the development of every child that lives—even the feeble-minded, deaf, and blind. read helen keller's wonderful life, if you want to see the proof of it. just as surely as a child has two legs and has to learn to walk on them by a series of prolonged experiments, just so surely he has (a) a sense of justice, (b) an instinct for freedom, (c) a love of play. every kind of child has all these in- stincts, as much as he has love for food and drink; and to educate him consists in developing these instincts into (a) the habit of dealing justly by others, (b) the right use of freedom, (c) love of work. the particu- lar methods may differ. the principles do not and cannot differ. she who would succeed in child training must hold to these truths with all her might and main-making them, in fact, her religion, for they are the doctrines of the christian religion as applied to motherhood. to hold them lightly, or even experimentally, will not do. one must walk in faith. and that the faith may not be blind, but may be based on experience and un- derstanding, let me suggest this means of proof: in- stead of asking yourself how the laws laid down in these little books would fit this or that particular child, your own or another's, ask how they would have fitted study of child life you, if they had been applied to you by your own mother. take the chapter on faults, pick out the one which was yours, in childhood -oh, of course, you've got over it now !—think of some bitter trouble into which that fault hurried you, and conceive that, instead of the punishment you did receive, you had been treated as the lesson suggests—what, do you think, would have been the result? and so with the other chapters-even with that much-mooted question of companionship. test the truth of them all by their imaginary application to the child you know best. when you can, find the principles that your own mother did employ in your education, and examine the result of what she did. some of the principles will suddenly become luminous to you, i am sure; and some things that happened in the past receive an expla- nation. such a self-examination, to be of any value, must be rigidly honest. there is too much at stake here for you to permit any remnants of bitter feeling to influence your judgment—and you will surely be sur- prised to find how many bitter resentments will show that they yet have life. the past is dead, as far as your power to change it is concerned; but it lives, as a thing that you can use. here is your own child, to be helped or hindered by what you may have endured. it will all have been worth while, if by means of it you can save him from some bruises and falls. every bit- terness will be sweetened if you can look through it other people's children and find the truth which shall serve this dearer little self who looks to you for guidance. then, when you have found the principles true—and not one minute before put them rigidly into prac- tice. i say, not one minute before you are convinced, because it is better to hold the truth lightly in the mem- ory as a mere interesting theory you have never had time to test, than to swallow it, half assimilated. truth is a real and living power, once it is applied to life; and to half-use it in doubt, and fear, is to invite indiges- tion and consequent disgust. take of these teachings that which you are sure is sound and right, and use it faithfully, and unremittingly. be careful that no plea of expediency, no hurry of the moment, makes you false. if you are thus faithful in small things, one after the other, in a series fitted to your own peculiar constitution, the others will prove themselves to you; for they are coherent truths, and not one lives to itself alone, but joins hands with all the rest. being truths, they fit all human minds—yours and mine, and those of our children, no matter how diverse we may be. other people's children isn't it ridiculously true that, as soon as we get enlightened ourselves, we burn to enlighten the rest of the world? we do not seem to remember our own feelings during the years of darkness, and the con- tentment of those who remain as we were surpasses our power of comprehension. it is really comforting to my own sense of impatience and balked zeal to find study of child life how many of my pupils are dreadfully concerned about other people's children. this one's heart burns over the little boy next door who is shamefully mismanaged and who already begins to show the ill effects of his treatment. that one has a sister-in-law who refuses to listen to a word spoken in season. between my smiles—those comfortable smiles with which we recognize our own shortcomings—i, too, am really concerned about the sister-in-law's children. it is true that their mother ought to be taught better, and that, if she isn't, those innocent lambs are going to suffer for it. off at this distance, without the ties of kindred to draw me too close for clear judgment, i see, though, that we have to walk very cautious- ly here, for fear of doing more harm than good. bet- ter that those benighted women never heard the name of child-study, than to hear it only to greet it with rebellion and hatred. yet to force any of our principles upon her attention when she is in a hostile mood—or to force them, indeed, in any mood-is to invite just this attitude. most of us, by the time that we are sufficiently grown up to undertake the study of child life, have outgrown the habit of plainly telling our friends to their faces just what we think of their faults; yet this is a safe and pleasant pastime beside that other of try- ing to tell them how to bring up their children. you stand it from me, because you have invited it, and per- haps still more because you never see me, and the per- other people's children sonal element enters only slightly and pleasantly into our relationship. i sometimes think that students pour out their hearts to me, much as we used to talk to our girl friends in the dark. i'm very sure i should never dare to say to their faces what i write so freely on the backs of their papers ! you see, the adult, too, has his love of freedom; and while he can stand an indirect, impersonal preach- ment, which he may reject if he likes without apology, he will not stand the insistence of a personal appeal. i've let “little women” shame me into better conduct, when i was a girl, at times when no direct speech from a living soul would have brought me to anything but defiance—haven't you? we have to apply our prin- ciples to the adult world about us, as well as to the child-world, and teach, when we permit ourselves to teach at all, chiefly by example, by cheerful confession of fallibility, by open-mindedness. above all things, we have to respect the freedom of these others, about whom we are so inconveniently anxious. it is fair, though, that the spoken word should in- terpret what we do. it is fair enough to tell your sister-in-law what you think and ask her judgment upon it, if you can trust yourself not to rub your own judgment in too hard. if you are unmarried, and a teacher, you will have to concede to her preposterous marital conceit a humble and inquiring attitude, and console your flustered soul by setting it to the ingeni- ous task of teaching by means of a graduated series of study of child life artful inquiries. don't, oh don't! seek for an out- spoken victory. be content if some day you hear her proclaim your truth as her own discovery. it never was yours, anyway, any more than it is hers or than it is mine. be glad that, while she claims it, she at least holds it close. if you are a mother, you are in an easier case. you can do to your own children just what she ought to do to hers, and tell about it softly, as if sure of her sym- pathy. if you are very sincere in your desire for the welfare of her child, you may even ask her advice about yours, and so gain the right to offer a little in exchange -say one-tenth of what she gives. all these warnings apply to unsought advice-a dangerous thing to offer under any circumstances. except there is a real emergency, you had better avoid it. if your nephew or little neighbor is winning along through his troubles fairly well, best keep hands off. but if you absolutely must interfere, guard yourself as i suggest, and remember that, even then, you will assuredly get burned, if you play long with that dan- gerous fire of maternal pride! when your advice is sought, you are in a different position. then you have a right to speak out, though if you are wise and loving you will temper that right with charity. no one can be too gentle in dealing with a soul that honestly asks for help; but one can easily be too timid. think, under these circumstances, of yourself not at all; but put yourself as much as the sex question possible in her place; be led by her questions; and an. swer fearlessly from the depths of the best truth you hold. then leave it. you can do no more. what becomes of that truth, once you have lovingly spoken it, is no more of your concern. the sex question always convinced of the importance of this subject, my convictions have deepened to the point of dismay since learning, through this school, of the many women who have suffered and who continue to suffer, both mentally and physically, because, in early girlhood, they were not taught those finer physiological facts upon which the very life of the race depends. yet, strangely enough, these very victims find it almost impossible to give their children the knowledge neces- sary to save them from a similar fate. it is as if the lack of early training in themselves leaves them help- less before a situation from which they suffer but which they have never mastered. of course such feelings, in themselves morbid, are not to be trusted. faced with a task like this we have only to ask ourselves not "is it hard ?" but "is it in truth my task?" if it is, we may be sure that we shall be given strength to do it, provided only that we are sincere in our willingness to do it and do not count our feelings at all. it is preposterous to have such feelings, in the first place. they are wholly the product of false teaching. for we have no right—as we recognize when we stop study of child life to think about it in calmness of spirit, and apart from our special difficulty—to sit in scornful judgment upon any of the laws of nature. when we find ourselves in rebellion against them, what we have to do is to change the state of our minds, for change the laws we cannot. if we women could inaugurate a gigantic strike against the present method of bearing children -and i imagine that millions would join such a strike if it held out any promise of success we still could accomplish nothing. to fret ourselves into a frazzle over it, is to accomplish less than nothing ;—it is to enter upon the pathway to destruction. in teaching our children, then, we have first to con- quer ourselves—that painful, reiterated, primal neces- sity, which must underlie all teaching. having done so, we shall find our task easier than we supposed. the children's own questions will lead us; and if we simply make it a rule never to answer a question falsely no matter how far it may probe, we shall find ourselves not only enlightening but receiving enlight- enment. for nothing is so sure an antidote to morbid- ness as the unspoiled mind of a child. he looks at the facts with such a calm, level gaze that proportions are restored to us as we follow his look. many of my letters show that adult women, wives and mothers, still grope for the truth that lies plain to the eyes of any simple child-the truth that there is no such thing as clean and unclean, only use and misuse. others, through love, and the splendid reve- the sex question lations that it makes, have risen so far above their former misconceptions that they fear to tell a child the facts before he has experienced the love. i can imagine that in an ideal world some such reticence might be good and right—but this is far from an ideal world. we have to train our children relatively, not absolutely, in the knowledge that we do not control all their environment. i think the solution of the diffi- culty is to teach the facts of sex in a perfectly calm, unemotional, matter-of-fact manner, just as one teaches the laws of digestion. when knowledge of evil is thrust upon our child let us be sorry with him that those other children have never been taught, and that they are doing their bodies such sad mischief. but don't exaggerate it; don't be too shocked ; don't con- demn the poor little sinners, who are also victims, too severely. charity toward wrong-doing is the best prophylactic against imitation. we never feel the lure of a sin which grieves us in another; but often the call of a sin which we too strongly condemn. be- cause the very strength of the condemnation rouses our imaginations, is in itself an emotion, and, since it is certainly not a loving one, must necessarily be linked with all other unloving and therefore evil emo- tions. as far as possible, let us keep feeling out of this subject, until such time as the true and beautiful feeling of love between husband and wife arises and uplifts it. study of child life fathers and now comes the editor of these lessons and ac- cuses me of neglecting the fathers ! nothing in this world could be farther from my thoughts. not only do i agree with him that “all ordinary children have fathers, and it might be well to put in a paragraph;" but i am cheerfully willing to write a whole book on the subject, provided that a mere modicum of readers can be assured me. i fairly ache to talk to fathers, having a really great ideal of them, and whenever a class of them can be induced to take up a correspond- ence course i shall be glad to conduct it. joking aside, however, i truly feel that the saddest lack many of our children have to suffer is the lack of fathers; and the saddest lack our men have to suffer is the lack of children. so little are most men awake to this subject that i am perfectly convinced that much of the prevalent “race suicide” is due to their objec- tions to a large family, rather than to their wives'. upon them comes the burden of support. they get few of the joys which belong to children, and nearly all of the woes. seldom do they share the games of their offspring, or their happy times; and almost al- ways the worst difficulties are thrust upon them for solution. not that they often solve them! how can we expect it? there is edgar growing very untruthful and defiant. we have concealed all the first stages of the disease for fear of bothering poor tired papa. at last it fathers reaches such a height that we can conceal it no longer. we aling the desperate boy at the very head of the bewildered father, and then have turns of bitter dis- appointment because the remedies that are applied may be so much cruder, even, than our own. here is a boy who gets close to his father only to find the prox- imity very uncomfortable; and a father who becomes acquainted with his son only through the ugly revela- tions of his worst faults. not but that the fathers are somewhat to blame, too. without urging by us, they ought, of course, to take a spontaneous interest in the lives for which they are responsible. they ought to, and they often do; but their interest is sometimes ill-advised, and conse- quently unwelcome. there are fathers whose interest is a most inconvenient thing. when they are at home, they run everything, growl at everything, upset, as like as not, all that the mother has been trying to do during the day. i know wives who are distinctly glad to encourage their husbands in the habit of lunch- ing down-town, so that they can have a little room for their own peculiar form of activity. and maybe we all have times of sympathizing with the woman in this familiar story: there was a man once who never left the house without a list of directions to his wife as to how she should manage things during his absence. “better have the children carry umbrellas this morn- ing; it's going to rain," said he, as he went out of the door. "be sure to put on their rubbers. and since study of child life the baby is so croupy i'd get out his winter flannels, if i were you." "yes, dear," said the patient wife. "make your mind easy. i'll take just as good care of them as if they were my own children.” of course this is an extreme case. there are other fathers whose whole idea of the parental relation seems to be indulgence. no system of discipline, however mild, can be carried out when such a man wins the children's hearts and ruins their dispositions. it is he, isn't it? (i don't quite recol- lect the tale) who was sent, after death, to the warm regions, there to expiate his many sins of omission. and his adoring children, who had been hauled to heaven by the main strength, let us say, of their mother, found that the only thing they could do for him was to call out celestial hose company number one and ask them to play awhile upon the overheated apart- ments of poor tired papa. the truth is-sit close and let no man hear what we say !—that these fathers are much what we, the mothers, make them. if, under the mistaken idea of saving father from all the worries of the children, we hurry the youngsters off to bed before he comes home in the evening, conceal our heart-burnings over them, do our correspondence-school work in secret and soli- tude, meditate in the same fashion over plans for their upbringing, talk to our neighbors but never to him about the daily troubles, how can we expect any man fathers on earth, no matter how susceptible of later angelic growth, to become a wise and devoted father? tired or not, he is a father, not a mere bread-winner. whether he likes it at the moment or not, it is for his soul's health for him to enter into the full life of his family, including those problems which are at the very heart of it, after his day of grinding, and very likely unloving, work at the office. here love enters to in- terpret, to soften, to make all principles live. here alone he can give himself to those gentler forms of judgment which are necessary as much to the com- pletion of his own character as to the happiness and welfare of his wife and children. someone has said that we wrong our friends when we ask nothing of them; and certainly it is true that we wrong our hus- bands when we do not demand big and splendid things of them. that word demand troubles me a little. women demand-and demand terribly! but what they demand is indulgence, sympathy, interest-i think sometimes that they crave a man's utter absorption in themselves much as a man craves strong drink. it is their form of intoxication. such demanding is not, of course, what i mean. demand nothing for yourself, beyond simple justice. not love, for that flies at the very sound of demand, and dies before nagging. but demand for the man himself, call upon his nobler qual- ities, and don't let him palm off on you his second-best. many a man is loved and honored by his business asso- so many study of child life ciates whose wife and children never catch a glimpse of the finer side of him. demand the exercise of these fine traits in the home. demand that he be a fine man in the eyes of his children as in the eyes of his friends. be sure that he will rise to the occasion with a splendid sense of having, now, a home that is a home, of having a wife who is wived to the man he likes best to be. this bids fair to be as i knew it would, if once i permitted myself to write at all on the subject--not a paragraph, but a whole essay-or perhaps, if i did not check myself, a whole volume! but after all, what i want to say is merely that as no child can be born with- out a father, so he cannot be properly trained without a father's daily assistance. and that, since most fathers come to the task even more untrained than the mothers, some training must be undertaken. by whom? by the mother. it is, i solemnly believe, your duty to go ahead a little on this part of the jour- ney, find out what ought to be done, and teach, coax, induce your husband to co-operate with you in these things. no one knows better than you do that he is only a boy at heart after all—perhaps the very dearest boy of them all. this boy you have to help while yet the other children are little—but be sure that, as you teach him, so, all the time, will he teach you. every principle laid down in this book, above all others the principle of freedom, will apply to him. he will take the lessons a trifle more reluctantly but more lastingly than the younger boys; and in a little while you will the unconscious influence be envied of all your women friends because of the competency, the reliability, the contentment of your children's father. the unconscious influence when all is said and done, it remains true that the finest, the most subtle and penetrating influence in education is precisely that education for which no rules can be laid down. it is the silent influence of the mo- tives which impel the persons who constantly surround us. if we examine for a little our own childhood we see at once that this is so. what are those canons of conduct by which we judge others and even occasion- ally ourselves? whence came that list of impossible chings, those things that are so closed to us that we cannot, even under great stress, of temptation, con- ceive ourselves as yielding to them? there is an enlightening story of a young man, born and bred a gentleman, who, by the way of fast living falls upon poverty. in the hard pressure of his finan- cial affairs he is about to commit suicide, when sud- denly he finds, in an empty cab, a roll of bills amount- ing to some thousands of dollars. the circumstances are such that he knows that he can, if he will, discover the owner; or, he can, without fear of detection, keep the money himself. he makes up his mind, deliberate- ly, to keep it, and then, almost against his will, sub- consciously as it were, walks to the office of the man who lost the money and restores it to him. _ study of child life now, doubtless, in his downward career he had done many things which judged by any absolute stand- ard of morality were quite as wrong as the keeping of that money would have been, but the fact remained that he could not do that deed. others, yes, but not that. he was a gentleman, and gentlemen do not steal private property, whatever they may do about public property. yet probably, in all his life he had not once been told not to steal_not one word had he been taught, openly, on the subject. no one whom he knew stole. he was never expected to steal. stealing was a sin beyond the pale. so strong was this unconscious, but unvarying influence, that by it he was saved, in the hour of extreme need, from even feeling the force of a temptation that to a boy born and reared, say, in the slums, would have been overwhelming. now, considering such things, i take it that it be- hooves us, as parents, to look closely at the sort of per- sons that we are, clear inside of us. to examine, as if with the clear eyes of our own children, waiting to be clouded by our sophistries, the motives from which we habitually act in the small affairs of everyday life. are we influenced by fear of what the neighbors will say? have we one standard of courtesy for company times, and another for private moments? if so, why? are we self-indulgent about trifles ? are we truthful in spirit as well as in letter? do we permit ourselves to cheat the street-car and the railroad company, teach- ing the child at our side to sit low that he may ride the unconscious influence for half-fare? do we seek justice in our bargaining, or are we sharp and self-considerate? do we practice democracy, or only talk it and wave the flag at it? and so on with a hundred other questions as to those small repeated acts, which, springing from base mo- tives, may put our unconscious influence with our chil- dren in the already over-weighted down-side of the scale; or met bravely and nobly, at some expense of convenience, may help to enlighten the weight of in- herited evil. sometimes i wonder how much of what we call inherited evil is the result not of heredity at all, but of this sort of unconscious education. answers to questions the self-distrustful child. “your question is an excellent one. the answer to it is really contained in your answer to the question about obedience. if a child obeys laws not persons, and is steadily shown the reasonableness of what is required of him, he comes to trust those laws and to trust himself when he is conscious of obeying. but in addition to this general training, it might be well to give a self-distrustful child easy work to do—work well within his ability—then to praise him for per- forming it; give him something a little harder, but still within his reach, and so on, steadily calling on him for greater and greater effort, but seeing to it that the effort is not too great and that it bears visible fruit. he should never be allowed to be discouraged; and when he droops over his work, some strong, friendly help may well be given him. sensitive, con- scientious children, such as i imagine you were, are sometimes overwhelmed in this way by parents, quite unconscious of the pain they are giving by assigning tasks that are beyond the strength and courage of the young toilers. "at the same time, much might be done by training the child's attention from product to process. you know the st. louis fair does not aim to show what has been done, but how things are done. so a child -so you-can find happiness and intellectual uplift in answers to questions studying the laws at work under the simplest em- ployment instead of counting the number of things finished." company ways "a boy who is visiting us is so beset with rules and 'nagged' even by glances and nudges, that i wonder that he is not bewildered and rebellious. he seems good and pleasant and obedient ( years old), but i keep wondering why ?” "perhaps these were company ways inspired by an over-anxiety on his mother's part that he should appear well. oh, i have been so tempted in this direction ! for of course people look at my children to see if they prove the truth of my teachings, and as they are vigor- ous, free and active youngsters, with decided char- acteristics they often do the most unexpected and un- comfortable things! there must be good points both in the boy himself—the boy you mention and in his training which offset the bad effects of the ‘nagging' you notice—and possibly the nagging itself may not be customary when he is at home. and perhaps the mother knows that you are a close observer of chil- dren.” theory before practice “there is only one danger in learning about the training of children in advance of their advent, and that is the danger of being too sure of ourselves too systematic. the best training is that which is study of child life most invisible-which leaves the child most in free- dom. almost the whole duty of mothers is to provide the right environment and then just love and enjoy the child as he moves and grows in it. but to do this apparently easy thing requires so much simplicity and directness of vision and most of us are so complex and confused that considerable training and consider- able effort are required to put us into the right atti- tude. “for myself, soon after i took my kindergarten training, which i did with three babies creeping and playing about the school-room, i read george mere- dith's "ordeal of richard feveril" (referred to on p. , part i) and felt that that book was an excellent counter-balance, saving me, in the nick of time, from imposing any system, however perfect, upon my chil- dren. perhaps you will enjoy reading it, too." the emotional appeal “doing right from love of parent may easily be- come too strong a factor and too much reliance may be placed upon it. there are few dangers in child training more real than the danger of over working the emotional appeal. you do not wish your child to form the habit of working for approval, do you? the food question "the food question can be met in less direct ways with your young baby. no food but that which is good for him need be seen. it is seldom good to have so young a child come to the family table. it is better answers to questions he would have his own meals, so that he is satisfied with proper foods before the other appears. or, if he must eat when you do, let him have a little low table to himself, spread with his own pretty little dishes and his own chair, with perhaps a doll for com- panion or playmate. from this level he can not see or be tempted by the viands on the large table; yet, if his table is near your chair you can easily reach and serve him. it is a real torment to a young child to see things he must not touch or eat, and it is a perfectly unnecessary source of trouble. "my four children ate at such a low table till the oldest was eight years old, when he was promoted to our table, and the others followed in due order.” air castles "what a wonderful reader you were as a child! and certainly the books you mention were far beyond you. yet i can not quite agree that the habit of air- castle building is pernicious. indeed i believe in it. it needs only to be balanced by practical effort, di- rected towards furnishing an earthly foundation for the castle. build, then, as high and splendid as you like, and love them so hard that you are moved to lay a few stones on the solid earth as a beginning of a more substantial structure; and some day you may wake to find some of your castles coming true. those practical foundation stones underlying a tremendous tower of idealism have a genuine inagic power. build study of child life all you like about your baby, for instance. think what things mary pondered in her heart. “no, i'm never worried about idealism except when it is contented with itself and makes but little effort at outward realization. but the fact that you are taking this course proves that you will work to realize your ideals. “i don't think it very bad either to read to “kill time." though if you go on having a family, you won't have any time to kill in a very little while. but do read on when you can, otherwise you may be shut in, first you know, to too small a world, and a mother needs to draw her own nourishment from all the world, past and present." duty to oneself "yes, i should say you were distinctly precocious, and that you are almost certainly suffering from the effects of that early brilliancy. but the degree was not so great as to permanently injure you, especially if you see what is the matter, and guard against re- peating the mistakes of your parents. i mean that you can now treat your own body and mind and nerves as you wish they had treated them. pretend that you are your own little child, and deal with yourself ten- derly and gently, making allowances for the early sirain to which you were subjected. so few of us american women, with our alert minds, and our puri. tanic consciences, have the good sense and self-con- answers to questions trol to refrain from driving ourselves; and if, as often happens, we have formed the bad habit early in life, reform is truly difficult, but not impossible. we can get the good of our disability by conscientiously driv- ing home the principle that in order to 'love others as ourselves' we must learn to love ourselves as we love others. we have literally no right to be unrea- sonably exacting toward ourselves,—but perhaps i am taking too much upon myself by preaching outside the realm of child study.” the mother and the teacher "your paper has been intensely interesting to me. i have always held that a true teacher was really a mother, though of a very large flock, just as a true mother is really a teacher, though of a very small school. the two points of view complete each other and i doubt if either mother or teacher can see truly without the other. they tell us, you know, that our two eyes, with their slight divergence of position, are necessary to make us see things as having more than one side; and the mother and the teacher, one seeing the individual child, the other the child as the member of the race, need each other to see the child as the complex, many-sided individual he really is. "in your school, do you manage to get the mothers to co-operate? here, i am trying to get near my chil- dren's teachers. they try, too; but it is not altogether easy for any of us. we need some common meeting study of child life ground-some neutral activity which we could share. if you have any suggestions, i shall be glad to have them. of course, i visit school and the teachers visit me, and we are friendly in an arm's length sort of fashion. that is largely because they believe in cor- poral punishment and practice it freely and it is hard for us to look straight at each other over this dis- agreement." corporal punishment. to the matron of a girls' orphan asylum “now to the specific questions you ask. my an- swers must, of course, be based upon general princi- ples—the special application, often so very difficult a matter, must be left to you. to begin with corporal punishment. you say you are 'personally opposed, but that your early training and the literal interpre- tation of solomon's rod keep you undecided.' surely your own comment later shows that part, at least, of the influence of your early training was against cor- poral punishment, because you saw and felt its evils in yourself. such early training may have made you un- apt in thinking of other means of discipline; but it can hardly have made you think of corporal punish- ment as right. “and how can anyone take solomon's rod any more literally than she does the savior's cross? we are bid, on a higher authority than solomon's proverbs, to take up our cross and follow him. this we all answers to questions in any interpret figuratively. would you dream, for instance, of binding heavy crosses of wood upon the backs of your children because you felt yourselves so enjoined in the literal sense of the scriptures? why, then, take the rod literally? it is as clearly used to desig- nate any form of orderly discipline as the cross is used to designate endurance of necessary sorrows. "the letter killeth, but the spirit maketh alive.' “as to your next question about quick results, i must recognize that you are in a most difficult posi- tion. for not the best conceivable intentions, nor the highest wisdom, can make the unnatural conditions you have to meet, as good as natural ones. asylum many purely artificial requirements must be made to meet the artificial situation. time and space, those temporal appearances, grow to be menacing monsters, take to themselves the chief realities. never- theless, so far as you are able, you surely want to do the natural, right, unforced thing. and with each successful effort will come fresh wisdom and fresh strength for the next. “let me suggest, in the case you mention, of inso- lence, that three practical courses are open to you: one to send or lead the child quietly from the room, with the least aggressiveness possible, so as not fur- ther to excite her opposition, and to keep her apart from the rest until she is sufficiently anxious for soci- ety to be willing to make an effort to deserve it; or study of child life two, to do nothing, permitting a large and eloquent silence to accentuate the rebellious words; or three, to call for the condemnation of the child's mates. speaking to one or two whose response you are sure of first, ask each one present for an expression of opinion. this is so severe a punishment that it ought not often to be invoked; but it is deadly sure. stealing “the question of honesty is, indeed, most difficult. i do not think it would lower the standard of morality to assume honesty, as the thing you expected to find, to accept almost any other explanation, to agree with the whole body of children that dishonesty was so much the fault of dreadfuily poor people who had nothing unless they stole it, that it could not be their fault, who had so much—couldn't be the fault of any- one who was well brought up, as they were. empha- size, in story and side allusion, at all sorts of odd mo- ments when no concrete desire called away the chil- dren's minds, the fact that honesty is to be expected everywhere, except among terribly unfortunate people -of course assuming that they with their good shelter and good schooling are among the fortunate ones. then you will give to each child not only plenty of everything, but things individualized, easily distin- guished, and a place to put them in. i've often thought that the habit of buying things wholesale—so many dolls, all exactly alike, so many yards of calico for answers to questions dresses, all exactly alike, leads, in institutions like yours, to a vague conception of private property, and even of individuality itself. if some room could be allowed for free choice the children be allowed to buy their own calicoes, within a given price, or to choose the trimmings or style, etc. i feel sure the re- sult would be a sturdier self-respect and a greater sense of that difference between individuals which needs emphasizing just as much as does the solidarity of individuals." bibliography books for mothers fundamental books (philosophy of education---pedagogy) the science of rights ($ . , postage c), j. g. fichte. education of man ($ . , postage c), friedrich froebel. mottoes and commentaries of froebel's mother play ($ . , postage c), translated by susan e. blow. the part played by infancy in the evolution of man ($ . , postage c), from "a century of science,” article by john fiske. how gertrude teaches her children ($ . , postage c), pestalozzi. levana, bohn library ($ . , postage c), jean paul rich- ter. education ($ . , postage c), herbert spencer. general books on education household · education ($ . , postage ioc), harriet mar- tineau. bits of talk about home matters ($ . , postage roc), h. h. jackson. biography of a baby ($ . , postage c), millicent shinn. study of child nature ($ . , postage ioc), elizabeth har- rison. two children of the foot hills ($ . , postage oc), eliza- beth harrison. the moral instruction of children ($ . , postage c), felix adler. the children of the future ($ . , postage roc), nora a. smith. children's rights ($ . , postage roc), kate douglas wiggin and nora a. smith. . republic of childhood ( vols., each $ . ; postage noc), kate douglas wiggin and nora a. smith. educational reformers ($ . , postage c), quick. bibliography lectures to kindergartners - ($ . , postage roc), elizabeth peabody. the place of the story in early education ($ . , postage c), sara e. wiltse. children's ways ($ . , postage roc), sully. kindergarten and child culture papers ($ . , postage c), barnard. adolescence ( vols., $ . ; postage c), g. stanley hall. psychology and advanced the mind of the child ( vols., each $ . , postage roc), w. preyer. the intellectual and moral development of the child ($ . , postage c), g. compayre. child study ($ . , postage c), amy tanner. the story of the mind ($ . , postage c), j. mark bald- win. psychology (briefer course, $ . ; postage c. advanced course, vols., $ . ; postage c), james. school and society ($ . , postage roc), john dewey. emile ($ . , postage c), rousseau. pedagogics of the kindergarten ($ . , postage c), froebel. education by development ($ . , postage c), froebel. kindergarten and child culture papers, henry barnard. letters to a mother on the philosophy of froebel ($ . . postage c), blow. studies of childhood ($ . , postage c), sully. mental development ($ . , postage c), baldwin. education of central nervous system ($ . , postage c), halleck. child observations, imitative symbolic education $ . , post- age c), blow. interest as related to will ($ . , postage c), dewey. religious training christian nurture ($ . , postage c), horace bushnell. study of child life on holy ground ($ . , postage ), w. l. worcester. the psychology of religion ($ . , postage c), e. d. star- buck. the sex question the song of life ($ . , postage c), margaret morley. what a young boy ought to know ($ . , postage c), rev. sylvanus stall. what a young girl ought to know ($ . , postage roc), rev. sylvanus stall. duties of parents to children in regard to sex ($ . , postage ), rev. wm. l. worcester. how to tell the story of reproduction to children, pamphlet c; order from mothers' union, harrison street, kan- sas city, mo. of general interest to mothers wilhelm meister ($ . , postage c), goethe. story of my life ($ . , postage c), helen keller. the ordeal of richard feveril ($ . , postage c), george meredith. up from slavery ($ . , postage c), booker t. wash- ington. emmy lou ($ . , postage c), mrs. george madden mar. ten. the golden age ($ . , postage roc), kenneth grahame, dream days ($ . , postage roc), kenneth grahame. in the morning glow ($ . , postage c), roy rolf gil- son. man and his handiwork, wood. primitive industry ($ . , postage c), abbott. every day essays ($ . , postage roc), marion foster wash- burne. family secrets $ . , postage roc), marion foster wash- burne. bibliography books for children fairy tales grimm's fairy tales ($ . , postage c). andrew lang's green, yellow, blue and red fairy books (each $ . , postage c). hans christian andersen's fairy tales ($ . , postage c). tanglewood tales ($ . , postage c), hawthorne. the wonder book ($ . , postage c), hawthorne old fashioned fairy tales by tom hood, retold by marion foster washburne. (in press.) adventures of a brownie, by dinah maria mulock craik. edited by marion foster washburne. (in press.) a few books for various agos water babies ($ . , postage c), charles kingsley. at the back of the north wind ($ . , postage c), george mcdonald little lame prince ($ . , postage c), dinah maria mulock craik. in the child world ($ . , postage c), emilie poulson. nature myths ($ . , postage c), flora j. cooke. sharp eyes ($ . , postage c), gibson. stories mother nature told ($ . , postage c), jane an- drew. jungle books ( vols, each $ . ; postage c), kipling. just-so stories ($ . , postage c), kipling. music for children finger plays ($ . , postage c), emilie poulson. fifty children's songs, reinecke. songs of the child world ( vols., each $ . ; postage c), gaynor. songs for the children ( vols., each $ . ; postage c), eleanor smith. selected studies (instrumental), ($ . , postage c), heller. study of child life pictures for children detaille prints, boutet de monvil, joan of are. caldecott: picture books ( vols., each $ . ; postage c). walter crane: picture books ($ . , postage roc). colored illustrations cut from magazines, notably those drawn by howard pyle, elizabeth shippen greene, and jessie wil- cox smith. see articles in “craftsman” for december, , february and april, , “decorations for school room and nursery." note.-books in the above list may be purchased through the american school of home economics at the prices given. members of the school will receive students' discount. program for supplemental work on the study of child life by marion foster washburn. meeting i infancy. (study pages - ) (a) its meaning. see fiske on "the part played by infancy in the evolution of man" in "a century of science” ( ). (b) general laws of progression. see millicent shinn's "biography of a baby" ( ), and w. preyer's “the mind of the child” ( ). give resumés of these two books. (c) practical conclusions. hold experience meeting to conclude afternoon. meeting ii faults and their remedies. (study pages - ) (a) general principles of moral training. read herbert spencer on "education" ( c), chapter on "punishment”; also call for quotations from h. h. jack- son's "bits of talk about home matters” ( c). (b) corporal punishment. why it is wrong. (c) positive versus negative moral training. read extracts from froebel's “education of man" ( c), and richter's "levana" ( c), kate douglas wiggin's "chil- dren's rights” ( c), and elizabeth harrison's “study of child nature” ( c), are easier and pleasanter reading, sound, but less fundamental. choice may be made between these two sets of books, according to conditions. (select answer to test questions on part i and send them to the school.) study of child life meeting iii character building. (study pages - ) read extracts from froebel, pestalozzi, and harriet mar- tineau. (a) from froebel to show general principles ( c). (b) from pestalozzi ( ) or if that is not available, from “mottoes and commentaries on froebel's mother- play” ( c), to show ideal application of these general prin- ciples. (c) from harriet martineau's "household education” ( c), or “children's rights” ( c), to show actual applica- tion of these general principles. experience meeting. meeting iv educational value of play and occupations. (study pages - ) (a) general principles-quote authorities from past to present. read from "education of man" ( ) and “mother play” ( c). (b) representative and symbolic plays. see “education of man" ( ) and “letters to a mother on the philosophy of froebel” ( ). dancing and drama from richter's "levana" ( ). (c) nature's playthings (earth, air, fire, and water). ask members of class to describe plays of their own child- hood and tell what they meant to them. (select answer to test questions on part ii.) meeting v art and literature in child life. (study pages - ) ask members to bring good pictures and story-books, thus making exhibit. (a) place of pictures in children's lives. of color. of modeling. influence of artistic surroundings. if anyone knows of a model nursery or schoolroom, let her describe it. class study program are drawing and modeling at school "fads" or living bases for educational processes? see dewey on "the school and society” ( c). (b) place of fiction in education. see “the place of the story in early education” ( c). (c) accomplishments. practical discussion of the ad- vantages and disadvantages of music lessons, the languages, and other work out of school. see “adolescence," by g. stanley hall. meeting vi social and religious training. (study pages - and supplement) (a) the question of associations. see dewey's “the school and society” ( c), “the republic of childhood" ( ). quote "up from slavery" ( ) and "story of my life” ( c), to show that the humblest com- panions may sometimes be the most desirable. (b) the new education. see catalogues of the francis w. parker school, chicago, ill., ( c); the elementary school, university of chicago, ( ); state normal school, hyannis, mass., ( ); "school gardens," bulletin no. , office of experiment stations, department of agriculture, washington, d. c., ( c). (c) the sex question. where are the foundations of morality laid-in church, school, home, or street? read entire, “duties of parents to children in regard to sex" (pamphlet, c). (d) religious training. read from "christian nurture" ( ) and "psychology of religion" ( ). (select answer to test questions on part iii.) for more extended program, book lists for mothers, children's book list, loan papers, send to the national con- study of child life gress of mothers, mrs. e. c. grice, corresponding secretary, arch street, philadelphia, pa. price, cents each. see also “the child in home, school, and state," with address by president roosevelt.-report of the n. c. m. for . price, c. note.—when reference books mentioned in the foregoing program are not available from public libraries, they may be borrowed of the a. s. h. e. for the cost of postage indi- cated in parentheses. three books may be borrowed at one time by a class, one by an individual. for class work, a book may be kept for two weeks, or longer, if there is no other call for it. send stamps with requests, which should be made several weeks in advance to avoid disappointment. index abnormal laziness, bible lessons made real, abstract studies, study, accomplishments and stud bonfires, ies, books for children, , showy, bottle-fed babies, accounts, personal, breaking the will, adolescence, religious exci busy work, tability of, adult's world, care of pets, advantage of positive com cause of impudence, mands, of iritability and nervous- affections, cultivation of, ness, aims of kindergarten, of rupture, air as a plaything, of temper, . castles, character building, rules in, allowance, regular, children, other people's, alternate growth of children, children's associates, bible, anæmia, clubs, value of, answer honest questions, hour, the, answers to questions, child's share in family re- application of principles, public, aristotle's teachings, world, art and literature in child classic art, life, clay modeling, and nature, climbing, classic, clothing, proper, influence of, color, plastic, colored pictures, associates, children's, commands, disagreeable, exclusive, positive, useless, ii baby-jumpers, company ways, bandaging the abdomen, conclusion, beginnings of will, condition at birth, bible, children's, consciousness of self, study of child life corporal punishment, , emergencies, correlation of studies, enthusiasm, religious, correspondence training, enthusiasms,” costume, model, essentials of play, creeping, evasive lying, cultivate affections, evils, permanent, cutting and pasting, resulting from corporal pun- ishment, daily outing, example, bad, dancing for children, courteous, danger of forcing, evil, dangerous pastimes, versus precept, , darwin's observations, exclusive associates, depravity, original, development of intellect, fairy tales, premature, family republic, diagram of gertrude suit, fathers, , diet, simple, responsibilities of, disadvantages of sunday fatigue harmful to children, schools, disagreeable commands, faults and their remedies, discipline, educative, real, disobedience, temporary, real, fear versus love, double standard of morality feeding, indiscriminate, financial training, double standards, fire as a plaything, drama, first grasping, dramatic games, fiske's doctrine of right, plays, teachings, drawing and painting, food, natural, dress for play, question, dress, proper, . undesired, duties, systematized, forcing, danger of, duty to one's self, fresh air, frobel's great motto, education, the new, philosophy, scientific, fundamental principles of the educational beginnings, the new education, exercises, value of play, games, drmatic, educative discipline, gardens for children, effect of sunday school teach gertrude suit, ing, goodness, original, index iio goodness, negative, liberty, , grasping, , limitations of words, growth of children, literature, of will, and art, looking, helping, love of work, mother, versus fear, home kindergarten, low voice commands, how the child develops, lungs, weak, luther's teachings, imagination and sympathy, lying, evasive, imaginative, imitativeness, instinct of, kinds of, imaginative lying, politic, immature judgment, impudence, cause of, magazines for children, : incomplete development at magic lantern, birth, massage, . indiscriminate feeding, meaning of righteousness, punishment, model costume, industry, willing, modeling apron, influence of art, clay, inherited crookedness, monotony undesirable, disposition, moral precocity, instinct, training, object of, of imitativeness, mother and teacher, insrumental music, mother, teaching, intellect, development of, mothers as teachers, irritability, cause of, mud pies, muscular development, jealousy, music for children, justice and love in the family, instrumental, study of, mystery of sex, kindergarten, aims of, as a remedy for selfishness, nagging, naps, methods, natural food, methods in the home, punishment, social advantages of, talent, knit garments, nature study, negative goodness, law-making habit, neighbors' opinions, laziness, nervousness, cause of, : is study of child life self, new education, the, premature development, principles of, preyer's record, , normal child, principles, application of, nursery requisites, prohibitions, useless, punishment, corporal, object of moral training, indiscriminate, of punishment, natural, objection to pinning blank object of, et, obligation of truthfulness, occupations, questions, answers to, only child, the, quick temper, opportunity for growth, ośder of development, real disobedience, other people's children, faults, quting, daily, reflex grasping, regular allowance, painting and drawing, religious enthusiasm, parental indulgence, excitability of adolescence, vanity, pasting and cutting, training, permanent evils, remedy for fits of temper, personal accounts, responsibilities of fathers, pets, care of, restrictions of dress, physical cause of laziness, rhythmic movements, culture, richter's views, , culture records, right doing, philosophy, froebel's made easy, pictures, colored, righteousness, meaning of, pinning blanket, objection to right material for play, rights of others, plastic art, rules in character building, play, rupture, cause of, educational value of, essentials of, sand piles, with the limbs, scientific education, i politeness to children, self-distrustful child, politic lie, the, selfishness, positive commands, , self-mastery, precautions to prevent at punishment, tacks of temper, sewing, with fire, sex, precocity, mystery of, moral, question, the, index showy accomplishments, temporary faults, simple diet, theater, sleep, sufficient, theory before practice, social advantages of kinder thermometer in nursery, garten, throwing, soft spot in head, tiedmann's teachings, solitude remedy for temper, touching forbidden things, ii songs for children, toys, , , spencer's views, training, financial, spending foolishly, for parents, wisely, religious, standard of morality, double, truthfulness, obligations of, . standing, . unconscious influence, stanley hall's views, underclothing, stealing, undesired food, ii stockinet for undergarments, undisciplined will, unresponsiveness, story telling, unsought advice, studies, abstract, untidiness, its remedy,. and accomplishments, useless commands, ii correlation of, prohibitions, success in child training, sullenness, value of children's clubs, sunday school, disadvantage vanity, parental, of, variable periods of growth, effect of, teachers, ventilation, means of, sunlight necessary for growth, walking, sympathy and imagination, water as a plaything, colors, in play, weak lungs, symptoms of anæmia, weight at birth, systematized duties, wholesome surroundings, will, beginnings of, talent, natural, breaking, the, teaching mother, growth of, telling stories, . willful child, temperament, emotional, willing industry, temperature of nursery, will, undisciplined, temper, cause of, work, beautiful, precautions to prevent at- love of, tacks of, wrappings, extra, iio lessons in cooking, through preparation of meals by eva roberta robinson and helen gunn hammel. new correspondence course, in parts, each containing a week's menu, with detailed recipes and full directions for preparing all meals; also menus for all occasions, special articles, etc. american school of home economics, chicago. synopsis. part . september menus; tables and definitions; processes in cooking ; general directions ; setting the table; helpful suggestions; cost of food and the food value of the meals served. part ii. october menus; waiting on table, with and with- out maid ; saturday baking; helpful suggestions; detailed cost of food and food value for each day, and summary. part iii. november menus; dish washing, with and without running water, with dish washing apparatus; thanksgiving dinner menu, recipes, table decoration and serving ; dressing and trussing of fowls ; care of fish; methods of cooking in fats, tests of temperature, etc. ; cake baking, temperatures for oven and tests; cost of food and food value of each meal, and summary. part iv. december menus : candy making, classes, methods, and recipes : christmas dinner menu, recipes, table decoration and serving ; cost of food and food value; suggestions for reducing the cost of the food served. part v. january menus : fuels and fuel economy, coal, coke, wood, gas, gasoline, kerosene, alcohol, electricity, reading gas and elec- tric meters; informal luncheon menu, recipes, table decoration and method of serving; fireless cookers and their use; cost of food and food value; reducing the cost. part vi. february menus : planning of meals ; a balanced dietary; suitable combinations ; economy; suggestive menu chart; school luncheons; the worker's lunch ; cost of food and food value; reduction of cost. part vii. march menus; marketing and cuts of meat; chafing dish supper. menu, recipes, table arrangement and decoration, serving ; carving at table ; amounts to serve for various numbers; helpful sug- gestions ; cost of food and food value ; reducing the cost. part viii. april menus; kitchen conveniences and appliances ; formal easter luncheon menu. recipes, table decoration, serving; help- ful suggestions, how to seal moulds, shape croquettes, etc. ; cost of food and food value; reduction of cost. part ix. may menus; care of food in the home; care and use of the refrigerator ; what to do without ice; care of left-overs; buy- ing supplies ; emergency meals; may breakfast_menu, recipes, table decoration, serving; invalid cookery ; cost of food and food value; reducing the cost. part x. june menus: canning, preserving, jelly making recipes, full details of various successful methods and appliances ; wedding breakfast table decoration, menu, recipes, seating of guests, etc.; help- ful suggestions ; cost of food and food value; redyction of cost. part xi. july menus; pickling fruits and vegetables ; canning vegetables, recipes ; picnic dinner menu, suggestions for packing, c.'; children's party menu, recipes, table decoration, methods for serving ; cost of food and food value; reducing the cost. part xii. august menus; household tests and food adultera- tions; a foraml dinner menu, recipes, table decoration, service, etc.; final suggestions ; complete index, alphabetical with cross references ; classified reprint of monthly menus ; glossary; bibliography. send cents for part , september lessons, or ask for free bul- letin of sample pages. a. s. h. e., w. th st., chicago. care of children by alfred cleveland cotton, a. m., m. d), professor diseases of children rush medical college, university of chicago attending physician diseases of children presbyterian hospital school # homes chicago american school of home economics copyright, by home economics association entered at stationer's hall, london aii rights reserved contents v i ) . letter to students hygiene of the baby new born baby care of the new baby baby's clothes clothing for older children surroundings and care. sleep exercise bathing regulation development and growth teething development of special senses nutrition of the child . natural food weaning and substitute feeding artificial feeding modified milk foods other than milk food disorders food after the first year food recipes . the sick child the cry colic constipation summer diarrheas apnormal passages rickets, malnutrition, scurvy colds . i . iii iv contents . sore throat croup temperature nervous disorders convulsions, spasms, fits, cramps contagious diseases measles scarlet fever chicken pox diphtheria whooping cough foreign bodies earache the medicine chest hygiene of the child and youth education pubescence bibliography sodium citrate in infant feeding the soother . program for supplemental study index . . american school of home economics chicado january , . my dear madam: in my private practice i meet so many mothers, well educated otherwise, who are profoundly ignorant of the care of children that it is a pleasure to find one who is willing to study something of the subject in a systemat- ic way. the feeding of children, especially of bottle babies, calls for the utmost skill of the trained physician, while the responsibility of a sick child is too great for any mother or nurse. it goes without saying that a subject which oft tines taxes the knowledge of exper- ienced physicians cannot be mastered in a few short lessons by the average mother. it is only in the hope that some of the fundamental prin- ciples embodied herein may be impressed upon the student mother's mind and lead to a better appre- ciation of the importance of details in the man- agement of the child that these lessons are of- fered. children are not alike, nor can they be classified according to their peculiarities with a view to successful care or treatment of their varying disorders. each child has his particular individuality, study and appreciation of which marks the highest type of the succe - ful physician. the name of the disease or dis- order is usually of less importance than the in- dividuality or peculiarity of the child. the dosing of children according to any stereotyped formula for real or imaginary ail- iments cannot be too vigorously condemned and the wise mother will rarely administer medi- cines except under the advice of the physician. prevention is always much easier than cure and a mother's greatest opportunity comes in caring for her child that he may seldom re- quire the services of the physician. i regret that i shall not be able to give the time to look over your answers personally, but my assistant will call upon me preely and i shall be glad to give any personal assistance that i can. very truly yours, oltoo the following are a few pages from the lessons one of dr. cotton's babies in the “baby rag" care of children hygiene of the baby care of the baby before birth the care of the infant should begin from the moment of conception. so much does the normal development of the unborn child depend upon the physical vigor and mental balance of the mother that her health during pregnancy is of the highest importance. everything that tends to im- prove the mental and physical condition, such as wholesome food, pleasant surroundings, congenial associates, exercise, fresh air and sunshine should be secured for the expectant mother. under favorable hygiene even the very delicate woman may bear and nourish healthy children. during pregnancy, especially in the advanced stage, laborious occupation and violent exercise must be avoided. the exercise involved in walking and in the duties of light housework is beneficial while the exertion incident to laundry work, pro- longed use of the sewing machine, hill climbing and driving over rough roads may be positively injurious or even dangerous. corsets should be discarded upon the first evi- dence of conception and loose clothing suspended from the shoulders should be adopted, thus reliev- ing the hips and abdomen of all weight and com- pression. the ideal dress for this period is the union are of the mother dress care of children a princess maternity gown ladies' home journal pattern. care of children the breasts gentle massage of the abdomen with olive oil, cocoa butter or goose fat should be practiced daily, not only for its nutritious effect but to facilitate stretching of the tense skin. if the womb drags heavily upon the abdomen great relief may be ob- tained by a properly adjusted supporter so arranged as to support the lower part of the abdomen. the breasts so essential to the future sustenance of the child, should be treated daily to the same gentle massage while the nipples should be gradu- ally toughened by the ap- plication of dilute alcohol or equal parts of brandy and water. if flat or de- an abdominal supporter. pressed the nipples should be developed by moulding with the fingers or drawing out with a cupping glass or breast pump. swelled feet and distended veins of the legs may be due to pressure of the heavy womb and require frequent rest in the horizontal position with the feet elevated, while the limbs are gently stroked towards the body. in severe cases bandaging may be necessary which, however, should always be done under the advice of the physician. a specimen of the urine should be furnished the doctor from time to time for examination, especially during the later months of pregnancy, as dangerous from griffith. the urino before the baby comes . the teeth mental conditions kidney complications may be thereby discovered and relieved by timely treatment. the teeth, which frequently soften and decay dur- ing pregnancy, should be put in first class condition by the dentist during the early months, thus pre- venting much suffering and maybe serious shock. the expectant mother should regard the coming of her baby with feelings of happy anticipation while dread of the ordeal should be kept sedulously in the background. all means for promoting happi- ness and contentment should be cultivated as de- spondency, dread and discontent not only interfere with the mother's physical well-being but may tend to arrest or pervert development of the unborn child. the popular belief in birth marks as a result of disagreeable or unusual occurrences or sights is not well founded, but the hygiene of this period requires that the mother be protected from undue mental strain or intense emotional disturbances. all preparation for the advent of the little one should be simple, rational and complete long before the last weeks of pregnancy thereby avoiding the undue work and worry of hasty preparation. the pregnant woman should be under the care of a competent physician during the entire period of gestation. since not only the life of the infant but his entire preparations importanco of early care care of children immortance of infant hygiene future health is dependent upon the nature of his early care, intelligent study of all that pertains to the hygiene of this little being is the highest duty of the young mother. the belief that instinct en- dows motherhood with knowledge requisite to her new responsibilities is not only erroneous but pro- ductive of great mischief, as the lost or ruined lives of thousands of mismanaged infants will attest. viewed in this light a knowledge of the slightest details of the infant's anatomy, physiology and hygiene assumes a new significance and may prove of inestimable value in conserving his health and insuring his normal development. the startling death rate in early infancy calls loudly for a more thorough study of the causes of poor development and disease most of which might be prevented by a better understanding of the infant and his re- quirements. it is evident that the simplest method of studying the new born infant is to become famil- iar with the details of his normal form and propor- tions, for in this way only may departures from the normal be recognized. the new born baby the infant's skin at birth is usually covered with à thick whitish substance (vernix caseosa) which is most abundant in the creases and depressions and upon the scalp. at birth the color is a dusky hue, which after a few full inspirations changes to the skin two new born babies back front fold- inches long inches wide pattern for a simple muslin slip. draw -inch squares on a paper over in. x in. and sketch the pattern as indicated. the gown is gathered at the neck and wrists on very narrow bands. the back is like the front except at the neck. (only the top and bottom of the pattern is shown.) the neiv born baby weight proportions “boiled lobster" red. about the third day a scaling of the skin begins, which continues for a week or ten days. the texture of the skin is very delicate and is usually covered with a downy growth, called lanugo. the average weight at birth is about pounds for boys and pounds for girls. the average length is from to inches. to anyone seeing a new-born infant for the first time, the large head, small chest, enormous abdo- men and insignificant extremities seem out of all . proportion. a constant proportional relationship exists be- tween the different members of the normal infant at birth. the following simple rule will aid the student in remembering this relationship. rule.---add inches to half the baby's length for the chest circumference; the head is one inch larger than the chest. the abdomen is / to inch larger than the head, e. g.: length..... inches circumference of thorax.. . inches circumference of head. . inches circumference of abdomen.. . inches the head, being plastic, shows the pressure effects of recent birth. if labor has been prolonged it sometimes presents a great elongation and not in- frequently there is a soft doughy swelling as large as half an orange near the crown caused by the the head ΙΟ care of children recent pressure. by the end of the first week the head should have resumed its normal shape. adjacent margins of the bones of the head are separated by fibrous tissue continuous with the lin- fontanelles skull of an infant, showing fontanelles. ing internally and the covering externally. at the places where three or more bones should come to- gether are soft spaces called fontanelles. the larg- est and most important of these is situated at the top of the head well to the front, and is often called the “soft spot”. in this space there is a regular pulsation corresponding in frequency with the heart the neiv born baby ii bones sucking cushions beats. the fontanelles should be carefully guarded against injury. the softness and elasticity of the bones of infancy are due to their vascularity, the sponginess of their texture, and from the layers of cartilage and mem- brane not yet ossified. the true bony structure of the new born baby corresponds to the needs of the infant, e. g., the bones of the lower jaw and ribs and collar bone which renders possible respiration and suction from birth, are well developed. over the cheek muscles, in addition to the ordi- nary layer of fat, there is an arrangement of fatty lobules on either side, called "sucking cushions" because they prevent the cheeks being pressed in- ward between the jaws when nursing. the eye at birth is anatomically incomplete, which would prevent perfect sight even if the brain were ready to receive and interpret impressions. the color of the iris is a bluish gray and the pupils are large and sensitive to light. the lachrymal glands are not fully developed, hence no tears before the third month. the nose is relatively small, and the respiratory portion is very small. the tongue is rarely the seat of congenital defect and tongue tied babies are not often seen. the spine of the infant is extremely flexible. it is, in fact, almost wholly cartilaginous at birth, the the eyos the spine care of children the lungs blood supply centers of ossification being present but the process only slightly advanced. the collar bone is the first bone of the skeleton to ossify and is more frequently fractured during delivery and in early childhood than is any other bone. rapid and remarkable changes occur in the lungs after birth. during the first inspiration compara- tively little air is taken into the lungs but as one full inspiration follows another, inflation increases more and more until full distension is accomplished after which the lungs are never completely emptied of air during life. growth and action of all the organs are entirely dependant on the blood supply. as the blood sup- ply not infrequently depends upon the muscular activity of the parts, it is plain that restrained activity or interference with circulation by any means retards both function and growth. in the care of the young infant too much stress can not be laid upon the importance of freedom of motion for all the members, and avoidance of anything that tends to compress the vessels, such as long con- tinued lying in one position, with possibly the addi- tion of blood stagnation in the dependent parts. in this respect, also, the clothing requires that no bands nor seams may press upon the vessels of ditribution or the return supply of blood. from birth to death the oxygen necessary for the vitality of the body is supplied through the air respiration the neiv born baby vesicles of the lungs. if any vital process is pre- eminent in its importance, it is that of respiration. young children inhale more oxygen and exhale more carbon dioxide, relatively, than adults. this is a result of the more rapid tissue change in the growing organism. as respiration begins only after birth it is prob- ably the least developed of the vital functions. its want of vigor is partly due to compressibility of the chest walls, to the lack of full development of the respiratory muscles and partly to the narrow- ness of the upper air passages. care of the nose and throat is necessary to prevent accumulations or growths which interfere with the free entrance of air. the average rate of respiration is from to per minute and during the early months may be very irregular. the yielding character of the chest renders the baby very susceptible to disturbances by compres- sion, so that great care should be exercised not only in the handling of the infant but also in the clothing so that no constriction of the chest be allowed. the glands of the mouth of the new born secrete mucus which serves for protection. the salivary secretion is established but feebly and possesses little, if any, power of changing starch to sugar. the stomach at birth secretes pepsin in very · small quantity and at this early age is more of a chest digestive organs care of children receptacle for food than a digestive organ. coagu- lation of milk by the rennet ferment represents nearly the whole extent of its digestive function. shortly after birth meconium (a viscid, tarry, odorless substance) is discharged from the bowels. this continues until the feces are changed to a canary yellow by the taking of milk. urine is normally present in the bladder at birth and is usually voided within a short time, any delay beyond twelve hours causing some anxiety. the urine should be pale and odorless but it may con- tain uric acid crystals which stain the diaper like iron rust and are sometimes so abundant as to completely obstruct the small tubes of the kidneys. this uric acid is a frequent cause of colic in the new born. the delicate skin of the infant demands constant care to prevent irritation and excoriations especially about the buttocks, from the urine and feces. it seems hardly necessary to remark that the diaper should always be removed as soon as it is wet or soiled and should never be used the second time without thorough washing. in regard to the functions of the nervous system it may be said that at birth the infant is merely a bundle of reflexes. such reflex action however as respiration, swallowing, winking, coughing, sneez- ing, clinging, etc., shows a remarkable pre-natal development of mechanism. care of the skin nervous system care of the new baby special sensos the sense of hearing is probably not present at birth, but is established within the first day or two, as the middle ear fills with air and the congestion of its mucous membrane subsides. in all probability smell is the last of the special senses to develop. the sense of taste is evidently well developed from birth, the young infant readily distinguishing milk from water. tactile sensation is very acute in the lips, tongue and eyes, although feebly developed in other areas. care of the new baby the newborn is entirely at the mercy of his sur- roundings. in fact, of all the mammalia, the human infant is the most helpless. immediately upon delivery the baby should be wrapped in a warm soft shawl or blanket. the eyes, mouth and nose should be thoroughly cleansed of se- cretions by the gentle application of sterilized gauze or cheesecloth dipped in tepid boric acid solution. a saturated solution of boric acid in boiling water, care- fully strained, cooled and bottled should be a part of the equipment of the confinement room and nursery; also a supply of sterilized gauze or cheesecloth cut in three-inch squares and kept in sterilized wrapping. to sterilize the cheesecloth or gauze it should be kept in boiling water for forty minutes, dried in an oven and at once wrapped in a sterilized cloth or wrapping. first cleansing care of children care of eyes gentleness the eyes should be cleansed with separate pieces of gauze moistened with the boric solution by pouring from the bottle. if a few drops of the solution find their way between the lids so much the better. the mouth may be freed of mucus by wrapping the finger in dry sterilized gauze and gently wiping out the secretion, after which the mouth should be washed with the boric acid solution. then it is well to give the baby a teaspoonful or two of pure tepid water. if necessary to free the nose from secretions it may be done by gently squeezing it between the thumb and finger from the top down, after which the solution should be applied on a piece of twisted gauze. ex- treme gentleness must be observed in these manipula- tions so as to leave no wound or abrasion upon the delicate tissues which may give entrance to infective germs. the nurse's hands and nails should be cleansed beyond suspicion the cord may be freely dusted with pulverized boric acid and covered with dry absorbent cotton. placing the baby on the right side favors the new course of blood through the heart. the vernix caseosa with which the new born baby is usually covered is best removed by a thorough rub- bing with warm olive oil, or fresh lard, which forms with it a soft lather and is easily removed by gentle wiping with dry soft gauze. the next day's oiling and wiping will remove from the creases and folds what care of the cord care of the new baby first bath little of the substance may have escaped the first cleansing on the question of the first bath there is a decided difference of opinion. considering the temperature from which the new comer has emerged ( ° f.), the transition to room temperature even, ° f. would seem to be sufficiently stimulating. there is a growing opinion in favor of delaying the bath, and the writer believes with others that this first water bath should not be given for several days after birth. a daily rubbing with warm olive oil is to be preferred as affording less danger of shock. the baby's brief toilet completed, the dressed navel supported by a light flannel band, he should be wrapped in a fresh dry blanket and allowed to sleep in a warm, dark, quiet place for three hours, after which he may be given another drink of pure water. it is advisable to place the infant at the breast within a few hours after birth as it is believed that the colostrum or first milk secreted is adapted to the needs of the infant's digestive tract. the mother's nipples and the baby's mouth should be previously cleansed with boric acid solution. an infant's needs are few but imperative. they are warmth, food and repose. it should be disturbed only when necessary for drink, for its daily baths, change of clothing, or for fresh diapers. it should be nursed every two hours during the day and once at night. first nursing imperative needs care of children shock the child should not sleep with the mother or nurse, but in its own crib or basket from the first. too much stress cannot be laid upon the avoidance of all that tends to shock or fatigue, and the observance of absolutely antiseptic details. could nurses and mothers realize the need of absolute rest for the new born, the advent of the baby would not be the signal for the "rough house" procedures so frequently seen, a rubber bath tub. first general water bath in the bath attended by admiring relatives, the dressing in unsuitable garments, and the frequent exhibitions of the baby to delighted neighbors and caressing friends. the first general water bath may be given to vigor- ous babies the fifth or sixth day, after which it may be a part of the daily toilet. in cases of premature or very feeble infants the tub bath should be postponed until there is no danger from shock or chill. the early care of the new baby a double ewer for hot and cold water. bathing should be done with the baby on the nurse's lap, protected from drafts by a soft blanket. each part should be gently bathed with a cheese cloth sponge and quickly dried by patting with a dry, warm towel of the same material. new cheese cloth for this purpose may be rendered absorbent by thorough boiling in soda water, fol- lowed by careful rinsing. the animal sponges should not be used as they can- not be properly cleansed and quickly become breeding places for germs of many kinds. a full tub bath should not be given until the cord has come off. a good quality of castile soap is probably the best to use, for many of the so-called "baby soaps" are too irritating for the infant's delicate skin. after drying the creases may be lightly dusted with a reliable baby powder, using a box with a finely perforated top for this purpose. the ordinary puff ball and powder box should not be used because they are so easily con- taminated with dust laden with bacteria. unremittent care is required to prevent accumula- tions on the scalp. if crusts are once formed they must be softened by frequent applications of warm oil. soap care of the scalp care of children temperature they should never be removed by use of the fine tooth comb, in fact a comb should not touch the baby's scalp during the early months and strong soap and friction must be avoided in the removal of the accumulations. the sensitiveness of infants to heat and cold is not surprising when we consider the conditions, viz., the relatively large radiating surface of the body ( per cent more than the adult), the thinness of the skin, the distensibility of its blood vessels, and the undeveloped state of the heat regulating centers. the normal body heat is highest in the afternoon and the lowest from to a. m. rectal temper- ature, as a rule, is the only reliable one, as in the young infant the mouth can not be utilized for that purpose, and the surface of the body, for reasons above stated, shows a temperature two or three degrees lower than that of the blood. the baby's clothes weight and texture in the care of the baby uniformity of the sur- rounding temperature should be maintained and the child protected from excessive radiation by cloth- ing. nothing is more appropriate for this purpose than wool and as lightness is desired two thick- nesses are better than one containing the same amount of material. simply made clothing without elaborate ornamentation and trimming designed for the baby's comfort shows better taste in the mother. baby's clothes the clothing should not interfere with freedom of muscular movement or blood circulation. this means that it should permit unrestrained freedom of move- freedom from restraint baby clothed in a sleeveless sack or "baby bag.” ment of all the muscular structures, whether toes, fingers, feet, hands, legs, arms, abdomen, back or chest. the evils of the old fashioned pinning blanket, the tightly drawn diaper, as well as bands about the chest care of children and abdomen, and any tapes or strings which re- strict the circulation should be apparent. since the object of clothing for the infant is to se- cure uniform temperature the writer can conceive of no reason why one portion of the body requires heavier clothing than another, hence material of uniform thick- ness is required for trunk and limbs. outer and inner garment of the sleeveless sack. inner garment shown closed at bottom with the draw string; outer garment opens. both garments are fastened at the neck in front with safety pins. the baby bag the ideal protection would seem to be afforded by a sack of light, flexible, nonconducting material, so con- structed that it envelops loosely the entire body, closed baby's clothes front lack inches wol cut inches long pattern of dr. cotton's "baby bag." to make pattern, draw parallel lines making inch squares on a piece of paper over inches in length and inches wide. then draw the outline as above. the pattern for the back is the same as for the front except at the neck a. the cloth is folded and cut double, the seams being at the side. it is gathered along the curved lines to give room for the arms. the opening is in front. care of children above by safety pins, below by a draw string. such an arrangement was designed by the author and has been successfully used in a number of hospitals in this coun- try and abroad as well as in private homes. there is good reason for including the hands in the covering as a prevention of the habit of putting the fingers in the mouth. this is a most unhygienic practice, first because it favors introduction of infections; second, be- cause the subsequent chilling of the parts from rapid evaporation of moisture induces local congestions, causing symptoms of indigestion, colic, etc. the author believes that the hands should be included in the outer garment for the first five or six weeks of life after which time the bag may be replaced by the usual white nainsook or muslin slip. the bag will then serve as an ideal night garment for the first six months, and then the combination night drawers with feet are recommended because with these the lower extremities cannot be entirely un- covered. an entire change of clothing should always be made for the night. when necessary under the sack, additional protec- tion against cold is afforded by separate under gar- ments, as a light knitted shirt of silk and wool and a sleeveless slip of baby flannel. the best under garment for a baby is the knitted long sleeved shirt of mixed lamb's wool and silk. this shrinks less and is less apt to be irritating to the skin than all wool, and is warmer than the all silk. the same material, or a mixture of wool and cotton, is suit- night garment under clothes baby's clothes able for the stockings, which should be long enough to pin to the diaper, which in turn is pinned to the shirt, thus leaving no portion of the child uncovered. no socks or bootees are needed. over this the baby bag as described furnishes all the clothing necessary for moderately warm weather. a knitwear infant shirt. in winter in winter, or where the baby cannot be protected from drafts, an additional garment without sleeves, reaching from the neck to ten or twelve inches below the feet, may be used next the shirt. some mothers prefer to close this garment with a draw string, leav- ing the outer garment open and long enough to conceal the draw string effect of the skirt. scotch flannel in its various dainty shades and pat- terns is excellent unshrinkable material for the bag, while soft, white baby flannel is suitable for the inter- mediate garment. no other clothing is necessary for material care of children the first few weeks, unless a light shawl or quilt for carrying the baby from room to room, and a light silk scarf for occasional use to protect the head from pos- sible drafts. “ the first layer." diaper fastened to the shirt, and stockings with safety pins. the diaper the diaper should be light with no more material than is absolutely necessary for the absorption of the discharges. absorbent cotton, loose or in pads, pref- erably the latter, retained by a loose cheesecloth diaper, which is secured to the shirt by safety pins in care of children waist and drawers foot covering when diapers are no longer necessary short knitted drawers are substituted, which, with the stocking sup- porters, are attached to a waist. in winter the waist should be of flannel, with or without sleeves, and the drawers of wool extending to the ankle. the shortening of the skirts necessitates extra pro- tection for the feet. before the creeping time the knitted shoes. without soles should be used. later the more durable kid or chamois moccasins are neces- sary. unwittingly, great cruelty is practiced in the conventional baby foot covering. most of the prevailing deformities seen in the civ- ilized foot have their origin in inſancy at a time when the rapid growth of this plastic member is easily re- tarded or perverted by the slightest degree of persist- ent pressure, as from a too short or too narrow stock- ing. chalk the sole of the baby's foot and press it against a damp slate or hard black surface and com- pare the impression with the outline of the ordinary baby shoes sold in the shops. the rapid growth necessitates frequent renewal of the moccasin shoe, which should be made for the feet, respectively, rights and lefts. they should fit the foot firmly only about the ankle and instep leaving ample room for the elongation and spreading of the toes. to secure proper adjustment shoes should be laced rather than buttoned. in learning to walk all the separate muscles must be educated to act in unison, hence every part of the foot moccasin shoe baby's clothes and its toes must be allowed the utmost freedom. a snug shoe deprives some of these muscles of their op- portunity for education by binding the parts together to act as a unit instead of in unison. a stiff, unyield- ing sole interferes with the foot grasp of the ground. shape of child's foot and properly shaped shoe. as well might the child be taught to play the piano with hands encased in husking gloves as to attempt to gain perfect control of locomotion in the modern shoe. hard shoe soles, like ancient sandals, are merely the outgrowth of the necessities of travel and have no place in the hygiene of infancy. care of children, no bands since vital capacity is best measured by lung expan- sion anything that interferes in the slightest degree with the movements of the ribs or diaphragm limits by so much vital capacity. a tight band around the abdomen interferes with the normal muscular move- ments of the stomach and bowels, weakens the ab- dominal walls and is frequently the cause of rupture both at the navel and groin. a constriction around the hips, as from a tight diaper, retards the growth of the pelvis at a time when its substance is mostly cartilaginous and is undoubt- edly one of the causes of the prolonged travail so common to american mothers. no constrictions clothing for older children proper protection as the child grows older its style of dressing neces- sarily changes but certain facts must still be borne in mind. in the adult more than three-fourths of the heat produced in the body is given off from the surface of the skin. in children the per cent of loss is probably still greater because the proportional surface of the body exposed is larger. one of the important func- tions of clothing is to regulate the movement of air streaming to and from the surface of the skin so as to retard the exchange of the warm air surrounding the body with the outer atmosphere without preventing it. the material, form and cut of the clothing all have to do with the proper performance of this function. all vital processes require a certain uniform tem- clothing matorials perature and interference with these is especially dis- astrous during the period of rapid growth. allen- deavor is made to maintain this for the infant, but it is often overlooked for the child, where the need still re- mains as great. clothing may become the cause of disease, either be- cause of permitting sudden chilling of the body or be- cause of checking the circulation, respiration or per- spiration. the material should be selected with spe- cial consideration for the constitution, sex and age of the child; its power of heat regulation, and should be suited to the child's skin as well as so designed that it may permit liberty of movement. a word of caution should be given against the prevailing fad of bare legged children. the bare footed country boy, living out of doors all the time, clad only in shirt and trousers, may resist the ex- posure; but there is danger to the otherwise warmly clad city child. when the stockings are left off and socks and low shoes substituted, for the sake of coolness near home, the custom is permissible; but in our fickle climate, when a change of weather or a thunder storm may lower the temperature from to degrees, there is grave danger of a chill. this disturbs the circulation and may induce digest- ive disturbances, colds, or serious illness. a child's health should not be endangered by fad or fashion. bare legs surroundings and care protection the absolute wants of the infant are few and simple, and may be expressed in the two words-protection and food the infant must be protected from shock to which he is peculiarly susceptible. normal function, as di- gestion, may be arrested by shock alone. shock may occur from sudden changes of temperature, from noise, from blows or jars, from unaccustomed motion, from fear or anger, from intense light, and from excessive or prolonged pain. protection should be secured from infectious or ir- ritating substances, either internal or external. the baby should not be subjected to rough handling or rough clothing; it should be protected from liability to falls, or from blows especially on the head, and from wounds, scratches, bites or abrasions of any kind. its surroundings should be as sanitary and antiseptic as possible in all particulars. the nursery the multiplicity of these needs, not to mention the necessity of regularity in feeding, bathing, sleeping and so forth demands a systematic regime. obviously this can best be se ured through a separate nursery in which the means to the end are under full control. the rooms selected for this purpose should be in a quiet part of the house and should receive direct sun- light during as much of the day as possible. it should the room the nursery furnishing temperature be of sufficient size to secure ventilation without notice- able drafts, and furnished with special reference to an- tisepsis, hence carpetless, except for rugs which may be aired often; curtainless, except for light wash ma- terials; devoid of moldings, pictures or fixtures which invite the lodgment of dust. the walls should be hard finished, preferably painted to permit of thorough cleansing with water or antiseptic applications. double windows should protect against drafts and diminish direct radiation, and the system of heating and ventila- tion be under absolute control. the temperature should be from ° to ° f. during the first week after which time until the child is three months old about ° is recommended. after that it may be gradually lowered to ° or even ° at night. if the sleeping room be too hot and the rarified air fails to furnish the necessary amount of oxygen the child's vitality is low- ered by copious perspiration and his susceptibility to cold taking is increased. the nursery should preferably not be upon the ground floor, or on a level with the ground. plumbing of any kind, even the best stationary washstand, should find no place in this room, and it is even better to se- lect a room not having direct connection with the fam- ily bathroom, as being more free from possible impure gases. in fact the room should contain nothing save the furniture necessary for the care of the infant. the metal crib should have a mattress filled with selected furniture sleep regularity its comfort is thus increased is ridiculous and not conducive to the best good of the baby. the sleep during the first few days is profound, but during the rest of the year it is easily disturbed. the position of the child should be changed during the longest sleep of the night. during the time when the bones of the head are hardening it is necessary to change the position of the baby, putting it first on one side, then on the other, that its head may not exhibit a flattening on one side. it is important to preserve great regularity in the hours of sleeping. no child under six years can afford to forego the daily nap, for which the shoes and outer clothing at least should be removed. a normal healthy baby with wants satisfied will sleep if comfortable and left alone. the fussy nurse or mother too frequently interferes with this function by over solicitude or mistaken notion that the baby wants companionship. it is better to put it in its crib and if possible go into an adjoining room, to accustom the child from the very beginning to sleep- ing alone. a few experiences will establish the habit and thus save the mother much time and strength as well as give the child better and more regular sleep. if the habit is fixed early no difficulty will be experienced. the custom of quieting the baby by the use of a blank nipple-"soother"-is not only extremely un- sanitary, but is positively injurious. no more effi- cient means for introducing the ever present disease the soother care of children thumb sucking germs into the system could be devised and many a mysterious infection may be explained by this practice. the habit of thumbsucking, if long continued; very commonly induces changes in the shape of the mouth, teeth and jaws which amount in some cases to a de- formity. it is sometimes difficult to secure the necessary amount of sleep for children of active mentality or nervous temperament. insufficient rest increases this vicious circle deformities caused by prolonged thumb sucking. (talbot.) natural nervousness, which in turn, tends to prevent sleep, thus establishing a "vicious circle" which robs growth, arrests development and finally destroys the child or wrecks his future life. the causes of disturbed sleep are so numerous and intricate that a brief enumeration of those most ap- parent must suffice. disturbed sleep care of children fore taking the baby out of doors, that he be gradually accustomed to the outside air by opening the windows of the nursery for a short period each day, keeping in mind the need of additional clothing in cold weather. as a rule, the child should go out daily after the first month. the more weakly the child the greater the need. one caution should always be observed in his outing, protection from disturbance in securing his re- quisite amount of sleep. in fact, he may spend the greater part of the day in the open air, if properly pro- tected from wind and sun. bathing temperature after the first week, the strong, healthy baby should be bathed daily. the temperature of the first baths should be about blood heat, ° f. this may be re- duced gradually so that at the end of the month the temperature will be °, at six months ° and by the end of the year ° to °. it is well to finish bathing and drying the head before undressing the baby. little soap is required and if the skin is unusu- ally delicate, that known as "superfatty" is advised. the convenience of the double ewer is seen in having a supply of water free from soap for rinsing. unless some irritation is present no powder need be used. the addition of the bran bag to the bath for children with a tendency to eczema, and of salt for its stimulat- ing properties to the infants needing it, is recom- mended. the daily bath should be given midway be- tween feedings and should not last longer than five bran and salt bath bathing minutes. the toweling, though thorough, must be lightly and quickly done. the special care of the eyes, nostrils and mouth special must never be omitted. as soon as the temporary care teeth have appeared, they should receive as faithful at- tention as the permanent, since they are as subject to decay, and effects of digestive disturbances are greater in the child. nothing should ever be introduced into the external ear with the exception of a twisted bit of gauze, gently applied for the purpose of drying. not only are the genitals subject to local disorders but general mal-nutrition, obstinate reflex nervous dis- turbances and injurious habits are too often the result of their neglect. the daily bath should ensure thorough gentle cleansing of the delicate parts, which with the boy baby, should include the complete retrac- tion of the foreskin. if this is not accomplished by the end of the first month the physician should be con- sulted. in hot weather a rapid sponging with tepid water at night will secure for the baby a more restful sleep. the duration, as well as the frequency of the bath, duration and should depend entirely upon the reaction; blueness or frequency chilliness of the surface, or signs of exhaustion are always indications of too frequent or too prolonged bathing. regulation the structure of the rectum and lower bowel in in- fancy, with the weakness of the abdominal walls, makes regulation permanent distension of the lower bowel with loss of evacuative power. t giving an enema. the lower end of the rubber sheet is placed in a pail. the bag of the fountain syringe should not be hung too high. development and growth importance the importance of a familiarity with the rate of growth during infancy and childhood can not be over estimated, as the irregularities in the growth ratio are frequently the first intimations of disturbed nutrition or developing disease. the following table shows the average heights and weights from birth to fourteen years : table of height and weight boys. age. girls. height. weight. height. weight. inches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , birth. months. year. years. years. years. years. years. years. years. years. years. years. years. years. years. inches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . increase in body weight, length and the measure- ments of the different members bear normally a cer- tain constant relation at different periods of life. no period compares in rapidity of growth with that of the first three months. development and growth first loss in . weight the loss of weight in the first three days is about ten per cent. this is usually regained by the end of the first week. the reason for this early loss is due partly to the loss of fluids from the interior as well as from the surface of the body, and partly to the con- daily weight chart (holt) lbs. % % *** o *** x % sumption of the stored body material before the first feeding takes place. the loss of weight is several ounces but at the end of the first week the baby has usually regained most rate of increase care of children of the loss. after this the gain should be steady. dur- ing the last three weeks of the first month and the en- tire second, this gain is about an ounce a day. during the third and fourth months about three-fourths of an monthly weight chart (holt) lbs. month of age. ounce a day, hence the normal infant has doubled its birth weight by the end of the fifth or sixth month. the gain decreases after this from two-thirds of an ounce to one-half an ounce a day as the infant grows older, until the weight has trebled at the end of the first year. gain in length the length of the average baby at birth is nineteen inches; this he doubles in four years. the increase development and growth during the first year (about half of the initial length) being nearly double that of any succeeding year. the average increase of the second year is about four inches, and from that time on to the age of eleven or twelve years from two to three inches annually. as the weight and height increase there is also a rel- ative value of dimension of the various parts of the body. the legs grow much more rapidly than the trunk but the girth of head and chest are of the great- est moment in determining the normal growth. the circumference of the chest, though smaller at birth, should exceed that of the head before the end of the relative growth second year. on account of its compressibility the shape of the the chest depends largely upon the continous action of the chest muscles, hence the deformities so frequently seen as the result of retarded bone development. any pro- longed pressure from improper position or constrict- ing clothing may add greatly to chest deformity. the increase in the circumference of the head in the early life is remarkable and like that of the body weight head is more rapid during the first year, increasing three inches during the first six months, a little more than one inch the second six months, three-fourths of an inch the second year and less than half an inch the third year. by the seventh year the head has attained nearly its full size. the fontanel diminishes in size towards the end care of children development of powers of the first year and is ordinarily completely closed before the end of the second year. this period of growth also shows a constant de- velopment of acquisitions. the ability to shed tears generally comes at the age of three or four months. the new hair has begun to grow and increased pow- ers of digestion are developed. this is the time when the child begins to "drool," a sign not of irritation caused by the cutting of teeth but merely an evidence of the increased flow of saliva due to development of digestive secretions. the characteristic coating of the baby tongue per- sists during the greater part of the nursing period. the roof of the mouth gradually becomes more arched with the development of the gums and teeth. the soft palate becomes ampler as it descends to its more verticle position, and the tonsils increase in size. the growth of the stomach is most rapid in the first half of the first year, of which the first three months exhibit by far the greater rate of increase. it maintains a very constant ratio of increase with that of body weight in the first year of life. the following table represents fairly the average capacity of the stomach at different ages: at birth end of st month ounces. end of nd month ounces. end of rd month ounces. end of th month ounces. end of th month end of th month capacity of the stomach ounce. ounces. ounces. teething teething miik teeth the development of the temporary teeth begins with the first formation of the jaws, about the sixth week of intra-uterine life. at the time of birth the crowns of all the temporary incisors and canines are fairly advanced in calcification. the gums at first are smooth and firm and of a light pinkish color. the edges are rather sharp but grow broader after a few months, as the time of teething draws near. of the temporary or milk teeth as they are called there are twenty, ten in each jaw; two central incisors, two lateral incisors, two canines and four molars. the lower canines are called the stomach teeth. the teeth have a certain order of eruption, but variation is not uncommon. it is not a contin- uous process, but occurs in gro ps, with intervals of repose between successive groups. the lower cen- tral incisors appear from the sixth to the ninth month, their coming being completed in about ten days; then follows a resting period of two or three months, after which the upper incisors appear, both central and lat- eral. after an interval of a few months come the lower lateral incisors and first molars, four or five months later the canines and finally, about the second year, the second molars. order of eruption care of children order of the eruption of the temporary teeth lower central incisors th to th month. upper incisors th to th month. lower lateral incisors and first molars th to st month. canines th to th month. second molars th to th month. - permanent teeth scarcely a year elapses after complete eruption of the milk teeth before absorption begins at the root and advances towards the crown which either falls off or is pushed out by the growth of the permanent tooth below. the permanent teeth, of which there are , may be divided into two sets, the ten anterior which suc- ceed the milk teeth and six others that are added farther back in the jaw. during the growth of the teeth the jaw increases in depth and length and under- goes changes in form. order of eruption of permanent teeth first molars central incisors lateral incisors first bicuspids second bicuspids canines th to th year. second molars - th to th year. third molars (wisdom teeth) th to th year. the lower teeth usually precede the upper. the prevalent notion that the eruption of the teeth is responsible for many of the disorders of infancy is not only fallacious but is productive of considerable th year. th year. th year. th year. th year. teething falacies teething ha. n. the terms "teething fits," "teething diarrhoea," "teething fever," etc., have no foundation in fact. many infants have been lost for want of professional aid because of a mistaken notion that the acute dis- order was a necessary accompaniment of teething. occasionally, however, the gum over the advancing incisors: canine-- bicuspids-- incisorse- canine-- molars: molarsa- permanent teeth milk teeth diagram showing usual order of eruption of the teeth, upper figures representing the upper jaw, lower figures the lower jaw. tooth shows some swelling and the finger biting and the general peevishness of the child finds relief with the appearance of the tooth. as a rule, the so-called symptoms of teething are the appearance of teeth. the fact that the teeth make their appearance at a time when the transitional condition of infant develop- coniusiai of ideas care of children ment predisposes to a variety of disorders has led to a confusion of ideas. the universal dread of the second summer” (teething summer) is the outgrowth of the frequency of digestive disturbances at this time to which the eruption of the teeth bear little or no causa- tive relationship no tooth eruption is ever retarded by the toighness of the gum. its advance may be arrested by a tem- porary cessation in its growth due to nutritional dis- turbances, which of themselves produce the symptoms frequently ascribed to the slow coming tooth. retarded teething development of special senses motor development schiller's observations on the motor nerves of the eye show the perfection not only of its mechanism, but also of its function, at an early period of infancy. this illustrates the method of growth in so much that this mechanism furnishes one of the channels of in- formation before the higher centers are capable of utilizing it, the process being an educational one. as the power and control of motion increases there is a development of senses which are the pathways to the mind. the nervous system of the infant shows well developed sensory and motor tracts, but the con- trol power of the higher centers is tardier in its growth. taste and touch, especially of the lips and tongue, are fortunately the first of the special senses to show taste and touch development of special senses hearing vision activity, as these are necessary in the instinctive efforts of the young to obtain sustenance. hearing, although demonstrated as present in the first twenty-four hours, is not developed sufficiently to differentiate between sounds before the end of the third month. contemporary with the function of hearing is that of vision. although sensitiveness to light and blinking on the near approach of objects has been observed from the first weeks, still it is not until the end of the second month that the infant may recognize his mother by sight. at first the infant's movements are automatic or instinctive, the voluntary muscles showing only the purposeless, irregular, and unsymmetrical movements suggestive of the mere continuance of the intra-uterine existence. co-ordinate, voluntary movements are first seen in the face and upper extremities, the hands in addition to grasping showing prehensile tendencies by the end of the third month. objects are carried to the mouth at about this time. the many ineffectual at- tempts to locate the mouth indicate the vast amount of energy necessary to develop co-ordination. although the apparatus including muscles and nerves is fairly complete, it requires multiple repetitions of sensations, impressions, volitions, and efforts at volition, before the establishment of such co-ordination as will ensure the performance of the most simple voluntary motion. care of children expression of emotion sitting about the end of the third month the voice is recog- nized as expressing emotions such as anger, fear or pleasure. about this time tears are observed to accom- pany the crying. it is interesting to note that perspira- tion is not common before the end of the third month. following the development of the senses of sight and hearing to the extent of differentiating as to the color and size of subjects and the quality and direction of sound, we find co-operation of the muscles of the neck to a degree that the infant's head is held erect, balanced and turned at will. after the eighth month the infant should be able to sit for a short time without support and shortly after he begins to creep, roll or hitch towards desired ob- jects. about the tenth month he usually utters a few indefinite syllables, singly or repeated, as da da, ma ma, goo, etc. between the tenth and twelfth months he shows a disposition to pull himself up on his feet, is usually able to stand by a chair and, exceptionally, may walk alone at the end of the first year. infants exhibit a marked variation as to the time of these acquirements, dependent largely upon mus- cular vigor and education. a child left much alone will learn to develop his resources earlier. on the other hand, he will talk earlier if associated with other children. the subject of infant hygiene should not be dis- missed without reference to a practice that is as per- standing walking dei'elopment and growth the baby not a plaything nicious as it is common, viz., the custom of regarding the baby as a plaything, an animated toy for the enter- tainment of the family as well as a large circle of admiring friends. children are fond of babies and never tire of stimulating their funny performances. the same is, unfortunately, true of parents and friends, but from a purely economic point of view, such amuse- ment is exceedingly expensive, and the mortality statistics are constantly increased for the amusement of the elders. nervous and mental wrecks too fre- quently owe the origin of their disorders to want of repose in early infancy, due to injudicious stimulation. in this connection let it be understood that all evi- dences of mental precocity, called "smartness," should be regarded as danger signals and call for repression, rather than encouragement. axiom-an infant dur- ing the first year should neither be amusing nor amused. test questions the following questions constitute the "written reci. tation" which the regular members of the a. s. h. e. answer in writing and send in for the correction and comment of the instructor. they are intended to emphasize and fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. care of children read carefully. place your name and address on the first sheet of the test. use a light grade of paper and write on one side of the sheet only. leave space between the answers for the notes of the instructor. use your own words and answer fully. read the lesson paper a uumber of times before attempting to answer the questions. . what special precautions should the expectant mother take? . what are fontanelles and why should they be guarded . what can you say of the bony development of a young baby? give a brief outline of the first three days' care of the new born babe ? . how would you sterilize gauze? why is this necessary? . why is the baby so susceptible to temperature changes ? . in clothing an infant what principles are to be observed? . describe the clothing suitable for baby's first six weeks. . what may be the effects of tight clothing about the chest ? abdomen? hips? . how should a baby be put to sleep? u. name some of the commonest causes of dis- turbed sleep. care of children . what objections are there to the “soother”? . give your ideas of a nursery. . what can you say of the effects of teething upon the infant's health ? . during what period is growth most rapid ? . why is familiarity with the rate of growth im- portant? . name the milk teeth and give their order of eruption. . why should the temporary teeth be cared for and how ? . how do you interpret the statement “the senses are the pathways to the mind"? what objections are there to playing unduly with with the baby? . is any point not clear or are there any questions? note.-after completing the test sign your full name. . care of children part ii care of children part ii nutrition of the child importance diet and infant mortality the subject of nutrition will always be of para- mount importance in the care of infants and children. as important as food is to supply energy for the mani- fold functions of adult life, it is doubly important during infancy, as during this period the demands for material for growth are most imperative. since, therefore, the necessity for food is a double one dur- ing the developing period the importance of a thor- ough knowledge of all that pertains to foods and feeding cannot be exaggerated. errors in diet, especially in infancy, are respon- sible for more deaths and cases of imperfect develop- ment than all other causes combined. in fact, the highest degree of infant mortality, especially during the summer months, is admittedly due to mismanage- ment of the feeding. for this reason infants nursed at the breast are fortunate, as they escape many of the dangers to which artificially-fed infants are sub- jected. children, as well as infants, require the best of nutrition, not only to meet the demands for material for growth, but also to furnish energy for the enor- mous work of training and educating the muscles, as well as for the development of the mind. the school pupil is a machine which not only converts raw mate- requirements of the child care of children rial (food) into ideas, but also utilizes the food to construct the machine itself. what wonder, then, that many failures in the educational scheme must be attributed to the improper food supply. because of imperfect nutrition, the imperfect machine not only furnishes unsatisfactory products, but is liable to mis- hap from its inherent weakness, as in the case of children who fall an easy prey to the various in- fections against which a well-nourished constitution would have proved a safeguard. nature's supply natural food for the second "want" of the infant, namely, food, ample provision has been made by nature in an ap- paratus admirably adapted to its requirements. it is evident from the anatomy of the infant that he is especially adapted for the act of nursing. this the infant does instinctively. that no fully-developed milk is found in the breasts at the time of birth has been generally ac- cepted as conclusive evidence that the new-born child is in no immediate need of food. in fact, his deport- ment, if undisturbed, suggests the need of rest during the first forty-eight hours after birth. this belief is so universal that attempts at feeding before nature has furnished the supply have not met with general approval. however, it is recommended that the child be put to the breast early for two reasons : first, to stimu- late milk secretion; and, second, in the belief that the early nursing advisable natural food weight first secretion (colostrum) promotes early evacua- tion of the bowel. probably, by so doing, the child secures a little of the water so much needed at this time. · the infant's habitual loss in body weight during the first days, as shown by tables on growth, has been regarded by some as unnecessary. in fact, it is claimed to be unfortunate, as interfering with the rate of subsequent growth. on this account some physi- cians recommend that nourishment be supplied during the first two days. this is usually unnecessary, how- ever. if the milk is slow in coming the baby may be given on the second day, every four hours, a tablespoonful of boiled water slightly sweetened with milk sugar. caution: if this procedure lessens his eagerness for the breast, it should be discontinued, as much depends upon his early learning to nurse. intelligent control or supervision of the act of suck- ling averts or corrects many evil effects of its abuse when left entirely to instinct. a few rules may be formulated, the observation of which is manifestly important in the hygiene of nutrition. ( ) asepsis must be observed, since one of the commonest causes of infantile disorders is infections introduced into the stomach. to this end the nipple, as well as the infant's mouth, for the first few weeks, must be cleansed before and after nursing. milk re- maining exposed to the air shortly swarms with micro- rules for control of nursing care of children frequency organisms, many of which cause disease when intro- duced into the digestive tract of the infant. even the milk in the orifices of the ducts often becomes in- fected, hence the expression of a few drops is recom- mended before each nursing. in this connection it should be remembered that little or no hydrochloric acid is secreted in the stom- ach of the infant for several months. this acid in the gastric juices of the adult kills almost all the germs introduced with food. the absence of such a safeguard necessitates special care to exclude the germs of decomposition and disease from the intes- tinal tract of the infant. ( ) the infant should be put to the breast every two hours during the day and once or twice at night during the first six weeks. from six weeks to three months the interval between feedings should be in- creased to two and one-half hours. between the third and sixth month the interval should be increased to three hours, giving seven feedings from a. m. to ii p. m., inclusive. night feeding may be discontinued. six feedings a day should be sufficient for a child at six months. by the end of the year he may be accus- tomed to five. if sleeping, he should be wakened at the proper time for nursing until the habit becomes established. if the milk is abundant the breasts should be used alternately at first; later, the child may need both breasts at a feeding. care of children time of nursing ( ) the time occupied in nursing and the quan- tity taken should be controlled by the mother. the differences in the formation of the nipple and in the supply of milk in different mothers affects nursing more or less. there is a difference, too, in the nurs- ing energy of different infants, so that one infant will occupy half an hour in securing his dinner, while another may gorge himself in ten minutes. the act of nursing in its perfection is the result of the mutual co-operation of mother and child. a child can not properly nurse the passive breast of a sleeping or even inattentive mother. in breasts where the nipple formation is imperfect, making the nursing laborious to the infant or painful to the mother, or when milk secretion is tardy or in- sufficient, the mother should aid and encourage the babe by placing herself in full harmony with the pleasurable duty of the moment, and endeavor to secure a full response to the stimulating appeal of the tiny solicitor for a better supply. when the milk flows too freely, or in case of in- fants who nurse with such avidity that the process from beginning to end resembles a struggle against suffocation, the mother should control the outflow. this may be done by dexterous manipulation of the nipple between the fingers, by withdrawing from the mouth, or by diverting the baby's attention. it is safe to say that twenty minutes should be given to each nursing. toc rapid feeding throws into the mother to oontrol natural food overfooding water stomach a large quantity of food, with the result of over-distention, and hasty feeding invariably means overfeeding. not infrequently the stomach resents this abuse by immediate regurgitation of a portion of its contents, which has led to the erroneous belief that the stomach is endowed with some quality which enables it to re- ject superfluous food. that this is a pernicious error, the frequent occurrence of gastric dilatation and intes- tinal indigestion is ample evidence. a little sterilized water given before nursing frequently prevents the over-ingestion of milk. instinct is not always a guide as to the amount a child should nurse. ( ) give water systematically and freely. the baby's food, as will be shown when we consider the composition of milk, is made up of several widely different constituents. although all of them are essential for perfect nutrition, one or more may be temporarily omitted without any immediate percep- tible interference with vital processes. in fact, one only must be present under all circumstances, and this is water. without water no digestion, absorption or elimination is possible. water enters largely into the composition of the infant's food, milk containing about per cent. water is essential to peptone ab- sorption, and many diseased conditions result from an insufficient supply. the restlessness of an infant is frequently only an expression of his thirst. often unrequired and inju- thirst care of children uric acid rious food is forced upon an unwilling stomach in response to the infant's appeal for water. evidences of pain, usually ascribed to intestinal colic, are too frequently indicative of uric acid irri- tation and point to a need for more water. fortu- nately the doping of the baby with carminative "teas" for the supposed intestinal spasm occasionally fulfills the needs of the child through the water of the de- coction. there is very little danger of giving a baby too much sterilized water, as it passes quickly out of the stomach and is absorbed. the water should be given at blood heat, either with a spoon or from a nursing bottle. composition of mother's milk milk is an emulsion of innumerable minute globules of fat floating in plasma. among the globules are smaller particles of proteid matter. all the five principal classes of foods are found in milk, viz.: water, fats, proteids, carbo-hydrates, (milk- sugar), and salts. a symmetrical development requires not only the presence of all the constituents, but that they should maintain a certain definite quantitative ratio. although perfect nutrition is dependent upon the presence of all these food principles, life may be main- tained for a longer or shorter time if one or more be omitted from the diet, always excepting water. thus an infant may exist for a time on water and sugar, as a solution of sugar of milk, or on water and proteids, or on water and salts; the result, however, in each importance of water natural food protoid fats case invariably showing the deficiency of the constit- uents in impaired nutrition. (this is so well recog- nized that the absence of one or more of these essen- tial constituents is not infrequently determined by the condition of the infant.) the proteids furnish the only source from which the tissues obtain nitrogen, without which no proto- plasm can exist, nor cell life be possible. insufficient nitrogen means interrupted gain in body weight, les- sened muscular force, anaemia with the weakened heart's action, arrested secretions and all the evi- dences of lowered nutrition. the fats are necessary, not only to maintain the body heat, but to aid in the formation of bone and nerve tissue. fat also maintains the healthy function of the lower bowel by promoting the passage of the faeces. a deficiency of fat produces results distinctly characteristic of impaired nutrition so uniform as to have been classified under the one term, rachitis. sugar furnishes muscular energy and heat and in- creases the formation and deposition of fat, sugar- fed babies frequently showing a remarkable plump- ness, even though fat and proteids are low in the food. the fourth group—the salts-principally those of lime, phosphorus, potash, soda and a trace of iron, forms a small but fairly uniform and very important percentage of the total constituents. a deficiency in any of these salts shows quickly in the impairment of the child's bony, nervous, muscular, circulatory or digestive system. sugar saltt care of children water absolutely necessary variation in quality were all the other ingredients present in noirnal mother's milk in proper proportions, the absence of water would render them valueless for food. only in a state of solution that these substances can undergo digestion in the intestines of the infant. the normal secretions of the digestive tract are relatively scant in proportion to the enormous work accom- plished during the growing period. hence, the neces- sity for water at all stages. attention is again called to what has been said in the preceding pages, as the importance of the demand for water can hardly be overestimated. as before stated, normal mother's milk is made up of these five constituents; moreover, they maintain a fairly constant percentage relationship. frequent variations, however, are observed in normal milk, as in different mothers, or in the same mother at different times, or in the same mother in the different breasts, or in the same breast at the same nursing drawn at different times, as fore, middle and last milk. of these constituents the percentage of fat is sub- ject to the widest variation; next, the proteids; the milk sugar and salts showing little change. nor would these variations be considered as indications of abnormality, the only criterion being its effect upon the child. an infant at the breast, digesting well. gaining steadily in weight and strength, is getting good milk, regardless of what the analysis may show. it is a fact of common observation that the breast at est of food changing quality of food which one infant thrives may not meet the require- ments of another child of the same age. changing the quantity and quality of the milk milk secretion is subject to variations in quantity variations in quantity as well as in quality. in the majority of mothers it is regulated to meet the requirements of the infant, although instances are not uncommon in which the quantity is insufficient. on the other hand, it fre- quently occurs that the mother may successfully nurse two infants, as in cases of twins, or in wet-nursing in foundlings' homes. from this it may be inferred that in some mysterious way, and to a limited extent, the supply is regulated by the demand. the growth of large babies is relatively more rapid than that of smaller ones, and it would appear that to a certain degree there is an automatic adjustment of the quan- tity of milk to the needs of the child. it is a question whether the daily quantity of milk can be increased by any medical agent. however, the milk secretion is quite sensitive to many influences, both as to its quantity and composition. a so-called "dry diet" in which there is a deficiency of water, usually diminishes the secretion, while, on the other hand, it may be increased by a liberal allow- ance of water, milk and other auids. the secretion of milk, when scanty, may be ic. increasing quantity creased by any agency that increases normal meta- bolism (digestion and assimilation); as diet, exercise, massage, electricity, fresh air, sunlight, congenia! care of children mental attitude surroundings, freedom from physical discomfort and an equable temperament. sudden emotion, as grief, anxiety, anger, fear, or anything that produces shock or profoundly impresses the nervous system, may not only diminish the secre- tion, but occasionally cause total suppression. regularity should be observed in putting the child to the breast, even though there be little evidence of milk as the secretion is undoubtedly promoted by the act of nursing attention is again called to the mental attitude of the mother during nursing, as influencing the quan- tity of milk. it must not be forgotten, however, that over-anxiety to produce defeats its very object. loss of fluids from any cause, as copious perspira- tion, menstruation or diarrhoea, may lessen the amount of the milk. the relative proportion of the constituents of the milk may be influenced by variations in the hygiene of the mother, especially in the diet. the former be- lief that the fat of the milk was increased by the fat eaten has been repeatedly disproved by actual experi- ment. it is believed to-day that the proportion of fat in the milk depends largely upon the amount of pro- teiď in the mother's food, increase or decrease in the latter causing a like change in the former. the mere eating of proteid food, however, is not sufficient to produce a “rich milk,” since thorough digestion and assimilation are essential to fat production. changing the fats changing quality of food fat may be scanty in the milk, not only from an in- sufficiently nitrogenous diet, but also as a result of excess of fats in the food. examples are not wanting of mothers who in their efforts to enrich their milk defeat this object by drinking too much rich milk or cream. a poorly nourished or rachitic infant is frequently seen at the breast of the mother whose diet consists largely of starchy foods. the substitution in this case of a diet of eggs for breakfast, meat for dinner and supper, with a cup of beef broth between times, and a limited supply of vegetables and sweets will almost invariably show an increased percentage of fat in the milk, with subsequent improvement in the nutrition of the child. it occasionally occurs that the infant shows the effects of excessive fat in the so-called “fatty diar- rhoeas," in which fat is seen in the diapers in glisten- ing masses or floating on the surface of the washing water. again, in the "spitting babies," who regurgi- tate their food shortly after nursing, analysis of moth- er's milk shows sometimes as high as seven or even nine per cent fat. in such cases meats should be re- stricted and vegetables and breadstuffs substituted in the mother's diet. the proteids are rarely low except in cases of ex- haustion or debility, as from sickness or insufficient food. in this condition the milk is poor and watery, there being a deficiency in all the solids. in such too much fat changing the proteids care of children excessive proteids cases the hygiene of the mother requires a liberal diet with all the accessories for the improvement of her general nutrition. here nitrogenous foods are neces- sary to increase proteids in the milk. it may happen that the mother's milk in cases of debility shows an excess of proteids with a deficiency of other constitu- ents, the debilitated infant exhibiting evidences of in- digestion, in constipation or in diarrhoea and vomit- ing excessive proteids may appear, also, in the milk of the overfed mother of sedentary habits for whom ex- ercise in the open air with reduction of diet is re- quired. idleness and discontent may be replaced by congenial occupation, to the improvement of the milk in this respect. the relief of constipation or the alle- viation of any bodily discomfort may alone be suffi- cient. violent agitation of the nervous system of the mother may change the quality of the milk almost in- stantly. quite frequently, under these circumstances, it resembles colostrum in its changed proteids, low fat and colostrum corpuscles. instances are known where convulsions and even death to the nursling have followed. the secretion of the colostrum milk sometimes fol- iows undue fatigue, excitement, anger, grief, also menstruation and conception. disturbances of diges- tion in the infant are frequently the first intimation of colostrum milk changing quality of food pregnancy in the mother. in the event of the above disturbances, the child should be removed from the breast and artificially fed until the milk approaches the normal as shown by analysis. meanwhile, the breasts should be emptied regularly by the breast pump. suction breast pump. effect frequency of nursing both quantity and quality of the milk are influenced by the frequency of nursing. poor milk usually re- sults from irregular intervals in nursing. the more frequently the breasts are emptied, the higher will be the percentage of solids, especially the proteids. the infant, restless from indigestion induced by excess of proteids, often is unfortunately given the nipple at short intervals to quiet him. the result is increased indigestibility of the milk from greater excess of pro- teids. what is needed is water for his thirst, rest for his stomach and rest for the mammary glands. care of children in conclusion, a table may best express a summary of the means at our command for regulating the com- position of mother's milk. the percentages of sugar and salts vary but little. the percentage of proteid may be increased by increased frequency of nursing. increased liberality of proteid food. insufficient exercise. the percentage of proteid may be diminished by diminished frequency in suckling. diminished proteid food. increased exercise. the percentage of fat is increased by increased proteid diet. the percentage of fat is diminished by deficiency of proteid food. excess of fatty foods. fasting. the percentage of water is increased by increased fluid diet. the percentage of water is diminished by saline cathartics. diminished fuid diet. care of the mother the nursing mother must keep herself in the best possible physical condition if she would have a healthy, contented baby. she should take daily exercise in the open air, simple food, and plenty of sleep. she should keep free from worry, avoid too much excitement, un- due fatigue and late hours. constipation should be remedied. natural food vomiting engineer.' vomiting should never be regarded as trivial. it should be to the baby feeder as the red light is to the a careful consideration of all the condi- tions may determine the cause, which should always be sought, and when found removed. with rare ex- ception, this cause will be found in the non-observ- ance of the rules of hygiene outlined in these lessons. although almost invariably the vomiting of infancy is due to dietetic errors, it occasionally ushers in some of the graver diseases, such as scarlet fever, measles, meningitis, cholera infantum, etc. whatever be the cause, no mistake will be made if the food is diminished in quantity or withheld entirely for a time. the regurgitation of a small quantity of milk directly after a feeding is not always an indication of serious trouble, but may result from overfeed- ing and careless handling. diminish the food weaning and substitute feeding the question of substitute feeding is of secondary importance only to that of lactation. conditions may develop at any time which render breast feeding im- practicable. progressive changes occur in the con- stituents of breast milk which render it, after a time, insufficient to furnish the material demanded by the rapid growth of the infant. moreover, the presence of several teeth, the changes in the salivary secretion, care of children period of lactation do not wean for cause as well as in those of the stomach and pancreas, indi- cates preparation for digestion of a different class of foods. the changes in breast milk show considerable vari- ation as to the time of their occurrence in different women. thus, one mother may have exhausted her power to produce good milk by the end of the seventh month; while another woman may continue to furnish good milk until the fifteenth month. the growing tendency to recommend weaning upon slight the slightest pretext suggests the need of more em- phasis upon the injunction not to substitute artificial for breast feeding until it is clearly proven that the latter can not be made to agree. however, the infant should not be deprived of his right to a fair start in life by being confined to the breast which fails to fur- nish all the requisites for normal nutrition. aside from the normal time of weaning, which should rarely be deferred beyond the twelfth month, occasions may arise during the first year when the decision must be made as to whether the child can thrive on the milk of his nurse. transient disturb- ances due to the milk should not be considered suffi- cient cause for rejecting the breast, since many tem- porary disagreements may be corrected by attention to the hygiene of the mother or child. early the indications for early weaning, so far as the weaning infant is concerned, are evidences of deficiency in normal development, which is frequently best shown weaning by a failure to gain in weight. however, weight gain is not always evidence of normal nutrition, as many rachitic babies make fat rapidly. the process of weaning should be gradual, the in- fant having been accustomed to supplemental feeding commencing with one a day and increasing the num- ber through a period of several weeks. the food selected for the supplemental feeding should at first be weaker than that for an artificially- first substitute food breast pump with bulb. fed infant of the same age and development. this is particularly important in the proteids, which in cows' milk are much more difficult to digest. as the skimmed milk contains most of the proteids, about one-half of this constituent may be replaced with water in the food formula for an infant of the same age. if the new diet is tolerated, the skimmed milk may be increased cautiously from day to day until the regular formula is used. the season or time of year must be considered in the weaning, as radical food changes should not be time of the year care of children made at the commencement of or during the heated term, at which time infants are especially susceptible to digestive disorders. the cutting of an unusually troublesome tooth might well delay the change in food. a child should be immediately removed from the breast upon the appearance of acute infectious dis- ease in the mother or upon well- grounded suspicion of the exist- ence of syphilis or tuberculosis. a suitable wet nurse should be se- cured if possible, in case the infant is free from syphilitic infection. the development of abscess ren- ders the affected breast unfit for artificial nipple for nursing while suppuration con- tinues. menstruation frequently disturbs lactation. its early appearance may not require weaning, but its regular return should suggest its advisability. it is usually best to give substitute feedings during the first day of a period. the occurrence of conception is an indication for the immediate removal of the child from the breast, as this condition renders the milk insufficient, if not positively injurious. when it becomes evident tha substitute feeding is necessary, the question what shall be substituted is of use with sore breasts menstruation substitute feeding the wet nurse the greatest importance. errors in the management of substitute feeding are probably responsible to a greater extent than any other cause for the high infant mortality. the best substitute is the wet nurse. the draw- backs to wet-nursing are many and extremely trying, and it is probably on account of these that this substi- tution is not more frequently resorted to in this coun- try. the wet nurse should be chosen with reference to her temperament, the quality and quantity of her milk and her freedom from syphilis or tuberculosis. she should be examined by the family physician and accepted only upon his recommendation. should the first wet nurse's milk fail to agree, it need be no cause for discouragement, as in some cases repeated trials are necessary. in case a wet nurse is not available it will become necessary to adopt arti- ficial feeding artificial feeding gastric digestion more has been written and said concerning artificial feeding during the past ten years than all other pedia- tric subjects combined. having studied natural feeding, we should have a fairly practical knowledge of the quantity and quality of food required at different ages, and also the time and method of feeding. that we should keep close to nature, both in the composition and physical proper- ties of the food, seems hardly necessary to state. yet we see infants fed (?) on compounds differing so widely from those which their organs are prepared to digest that it is surprising so many survive. the stomach of the infant at birth was found to be little more than a receptacle for food in which the action of rennet coagulating the milk, prepares it for the first step in the digestive process. as the infant grows the capacity of the stomach in- creases rapidly, its walls thicken, the glands develop and pepsin and hydrochloric acid secretions gradually become more abundant. it is not, however, until after the sixth month that the salivary and pancreatic secre- tions develop to any great extent the power of con- verting the starch into sugar. this conversion is necessary before cereals may 'en- ter largely into the food, as nature has made little or no other provision for the digestion of starch. during the latter half of the first year the stomach empties itself of a digested meal in two or three hours, covered milk pail in use at connecticut agricultural college the first jets from each quarter of the udder are drawn into a cup and discarded modern sanitary dairy barn from report of office of experiment stations, artificial feeding complotoness of digestion the time depending upon the quality of the food taken, cow's milk requiring the longer time. that a very large percentage of the food is ab- sorbed in the normal infant normally fed, is shown by analysis of the faeces. as a result of observations upon infants fed wholly upon milk, it is stated that the faeces consist of to per cent water; that digestion and absorption of proteids in the alimen- tary canal are so efficient that but little is lost; that the whitish flakes and clots, nearly always seen, are composed largely of fat, fatty and lactic acids in com- bination with lime. milk acids are always found and to their presence are attributed the slightly acid smell and reaction. fermentation of milk sugar leads to the development of carbon-dioxide and hydrogen, which are the prin- cipal gases in the intestinal tract of a healthy infant fed purely on milk, foul-smelling gases being absent. though the amount of faeces varies much in in- fants, yet three per cent of the milk taken is the aver- age proportion. the fecal discharges after the first few days are an orange yellow, frequently turning to green on exposure to air, are of the consistency of batter and homogeneous throughout. they average from three to five movements daily. these character- istics vary somewhat with the quality of food taken and the completeness of the digestive process. the urine increases from about six ounces at the end of the first week to eight or sixteen ounces at six fecal dischargos care of children essentials in substitute feeding composition months. there is considerable variation, however, de- pendent upon the secretions from the skin and bowels and the amount of fluids taken. the marked tend- ency to urination is variable, occurring sometimes every hour during the day and twice or thrice at night, while at other times several hours may elapse without urination. the urine is usually light in color, of low specific gravity, . to . , and in health rarely stains the diaper. a few “essentials” from cheadle may be of value in assisting the student to a practical application of ome of the principles already indicated. first-the food must contain the different ele- ments in the same proportions as found in human milk, viz.: proteids, to per cent; fats, to per cent; milk sugar, to per cent; salts, * per cent; water, per cent. second-it must possess the anti-scorbutic prop- erty. infants at the breast very rarely suffer from scurvy, that disease being found among those fed upon condensed or sterilized milk, or upon dried or evaporated preparations. prompt recovery usually occurs with the food unchanged, except the discon tinuance of sterilization. fresh milk possesses this anti-scorbutic element, but not in large proportion, for milk in extreme dilution will not prevent the de- velopment of scurvy. third-the total quantity in twenty-four hours must represent the equivalent in nutritive value of anti-scorbutic quantity artificial feeding animal origin from one to three pints of human milk, according to age. no fixed arbitrary rule can be given for all chil- dren. careful observation of the infant as to whether he rejects some of his food soon after taking it or seems hungry half an hour after feeding, may prove a guide. the best indication that he is receiving his full equivalent is a steady weekly gain of two or three ounces or more in the early months. fourth-it must not be purely vegetable, but must contain a large proportion of animal matter. most vegetable substances are deficient in proteids and yield but a small quantity of fat. moreover, it is known that the infant does not assimilate them as easily and fully as those derived from animal sources, even though these ingredients be supplied in the proper percentages. fifth-it must be in a form suited to infantile digestion. the digestive organs, it will be remembered, have only recently assumed their function and are de- signed to deal solely with the bland, dilute and easily- dissolved nutriment of mother's milk. in the natural method of feeding, the infant gets his nourishment in the same form at every meal; so in artificial feeding variety is not desirable. as the walls of the stomach are lacking in muscular power and the glands produce but little secretion, it is evident that it is not right to ask this organ to deal fluid care of children sterile cow's milk with large masses of solid or semi-solid matter. sol- ids can be digested only in a state of minute subdivi- sion. sixth-it must be as nearly sterile as possible. infants are extremely susceptible to stomach and in- testinal disorders, having little resistance to bacteria and their poisons. the products of fermentation are highly irritating and the sensitive, unstable nervous system of the infant may be profoundly affected there- by. the gastric secretions of the infant do not con- tain the protecting hydrochloric acid of the adult. cow's milk, on account of its cheapness and the abundant supply, is the most available substitute for mother's milk. the proneness to stomach disorders and the great mortality among the bottle-fed babies has led to a systematic study of cow's milk. as a re- sult of this study, some of the reasons why cow's milk does not meet all the requirements of the infant may be shown. the results of recent analyses give the con- stituents of cow's and mother's milk as follows: composition of milk average composition. cori's. mother's. per cent. per cent. specific gravity . . . total solids - - proteids . . . fat . . . sugar . . . salts . .. . reaction acid*. alkaline bacteria swarming with* none *this refers to cow's milk as it reaches the consumer. artificial feeding differences from mother's milk it will be seen at a glance that the milks differ but little in specific gravity, in the quantity of their total solids and water, and in their percentage of fat; more widely in their salts, sugar and proteids; most widely in regard to chemical reaction and presence of bac- teria. the sugar in cow's milk is identical with that in breast milk. the fats are nearly the same, although those in breast milk are in more finely divided par- ticles and more easily digested. it is in the proteids that the greatest difference comes, the percentage be- ing much higher in cow's milk and the composition different. the proteids of both cow's and mother's milk are made up chiefly of casein and albumen (lac albumen), but the relative porportion of the casein to the albumen in cow's milk is about to , and in breast milk is about i to . even the casein in the two milks is not of identical composition; that in cow's milk coagulates in much denser and less digestible clots. the nitrogenous substances called "extractives" differ in the two milks and the mineral parts—the salts—are not the same. thus it is apparent that cow's milk can not be so modified as to be identical with mother's milk. the best we can do is to approximate nature's supply as nearly as possible. most of the disturbances of infants' digestion are traceable directly to proteids; their excess in cow's milk being the principal factor in its disagreement. it is usual to reduce the percentage of proteids by the addition of water. proteids cause of trouble care of children modified milk laboratories in this dilution, however, the nutritive value of the milk suffers from a diminution of fats and sugars. consequently it is necessary that the percentage of sugar and fats be maintained by the addition of sugar of milk and cream. laboratories for this modification, like those of the walker-gordon co.,* have been established in the leading american cities, to which orders are sent for definite percentages of modified milk, as drugs are ordered by prescription from a pharmacy. the physi- cian may, at will, control the amount of different in- gredients, varying their percentages to meet the vary- ing requirements of the little patient. that many disorders of infancy are due to the presence of bacteria in cow's milk is no longer a mat- ter of doubt. in addition to infection from the pos- sible presence of such germs as those of tuberculosis, typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, etc., it should be emphasized that the proneness of cow's milk to decomposition with its effects upon the nursling is one of the greatest dangers of milk feeding. hence, the hygienic dairy management becomes a question of the highest importance. it has been proved that milk production may be so guarded as to furnish a product comparatively free from bacteria. as an example of what scrupulous bacteria the cause of disorders safe milk * the walker-gordon co. have laboratories or stations in the follow. •ing cities: new york, boston, chicago, philadelphia, washington, baltimore, buffalo, cincinnati, cleveland, detroit, grand rapids, milwaukee, pittsburg, st. louis, atlantic city, princeton, newark, elizabeth, montreal, can., ottawa, can., london, eng. artificial feeding care and cold can accomplish in producing bacteria- free milk, may be mentioned the exhibits of a number of american dairies at the paris exposition in . milk and cream were shown that remained sweet for several days after the journey of ten days or more. the officials found it hard to believe that no preserva- a microscopic appearance of milk. a. pure milk. b. after standing in a dirty dish for some hours in a warm room, showing many varieties of bacteria. tives had been added or treatment given until con- vinced by analysis and by proof. the same care in the selection of the cow is rec selection and care ommended as in the selection of the wet nurse; the of cows same details in her hygiene as well as in the antiseptic care of the milk will insure milk that is practically... sterile. in the choice of the family cow three requisites at least should be kept in view. first: the quality of the milk. second: the constitution of the animal, care of children her hardihood and freedom from disorders and her adaptability to variations in climate and food. third: her temperament and freedom from disturbances due to accidental causes. of many types distributed throughout the country we will discuss but three, viz., the jersey, the hol- stein and the durham. the jersey gives a fair quantity of milk, exceed- ingly rich in cream. in-breeding, however, has made jorseys variation in percentage of cream in one cow's milk. holstoins her delicate and quite susceptible to diseases, as tuber- culosis, etc., and though quite gentle she is nervous and sensitive. the fats of jersey milk differ some- what from those in other milks and the globules of fat are larger, thus making it less digestible. the holstein is docile, hardy and the greatest of all milkers, but the milk is low in the percentage of cream and proteids. the third type, the durham, undoubtedly is the best, as she is a good feeder, of placid temperament, and yields a large quantity of very good milk. in the best of cows, however, the milk varies from time to time in quantity and quality under the chang- durhams o wo fat globules in human milk storrs agricultural experiment station, bulletin no. . ထ ဝ or သို့ ဝ ဝ } ဝ ထ ဒီ ထိ ဝ ro % ao . or } ဝင် d ? 'd oh fat globules in holstein milk fat globules in jersey milk artificial feeding ing influences of food, care and surroundings, so that the popular idea of the great value of a "one cow's milk" supply for the baby is erroneous. the mixed product of a herd secures a greater uniformity in the quality and the percentage of constituents. the selection of the dairyman should depend upon · his known methods of handling his herd and its prod- tho baby's milkman the cuvered milk pail. ucts. does he select his cows upon the principles above enumerated ? is his herd regularly inspected by a competent veterinarian for evidences of tuber- culosis or other disease? are the animals properly fed, watered and pastured? are they comfortably housed in stables that may be cleaned daily and regu- larly whitewashed? are the milkers kind, intelligent, cleanly and conscientious ? is the cow cleaned and her udder washed before each milking? is the first teat full of milk discarded and the remainder received care of children in a sterilized pail through a cover of cheesecloth? is the milk immediately strained, bottled and placed in a cooler which rapidly reduces its temperature to ° f? rapid cooling and refrigeration are fully as impor- tant as cleanliness in the production of safe milk, for importance of refrigeration al b diagram showing the rate of increase of bacteria in milk. a. single bacteria. c. increase in b. increase in hours at f. hours at ° f. the few bacteria which are present in even the most carefully-cared-for milk multiply with enormous ra- pidity at ° f., while they increase only about five- fold in hours in milk kept at ° f. the above enumeration includes most of the prin- ciples, the observation of which is absolutely neces- sary in the production of milk suitable for baby feed- ing. the source of supply should be investigated by certifed milk covered milk pails, showing strainer in place sixty-three per cent of the dirt that would fall in an open pail kept out by the cover covered milk pails, showing covers removed storrs agricultural experiment station, storrs, connecticut artificial feeding home care of milk personal visit if possible. some dairies in the larger cities furnish milk especially for babies, called "certi- fied milk," at advanced price- to cents a quart. it will be found economy to pay the advanced price necessary for the extra care, but it may be well to make sure that the extra care is given. the cold sealed bottle when received at home must be placed at once in a clean refrigerator (free from taint or odor of other food or vegetables), and kept stoppered. the refrigerator should be kept at least as low as ° f. this point should be tested with a thermometer. milk received in good condition is not infre- quently rendered unfit for infants' food by careless handling in the home. the bacteria which by their growth render the milk unsafe are present everywhere in the air with dust, the freeman pasteurizer. in every particle of dirt, in water, on the hands and clothes, on all utensils and vessels. (see household bacteriology.) no utensil, spoon or receptacle should be used which has not been sterilized. milk once poured out should never be re- turned to the bottle, nor should remnants ever be used. flies (common carriers of infections) must be reli- giously excluded. care of children treatment of unsafe milk pasteurizing where doubt exists as to the safety of the milk, or during hot weather, it may be freed from germs by pasteurization or sterilization. the first is accom- plished by subjecting the milk for minutes to a temperature of ° f. a pasteurizer is on the market in which the bottles of milk are placed and sufficient boiling water added to bring the temperature of the whole to ° f.* in the absence of a spe- cial pasteurizing apparatus, a small jar or cup about the height of a nursing bottle is filled with boiling water. into this the bottle containing one feeding of milk is immersed, the projecting neck stoppered with sterilized unabsorbent cotton. the whole is then cov- ered with a cozy or another jar to retard radiation and allowed to stand minutes. the temperature should be tested in an extra bottle with a thermometer until the correct amount of boiling water to be added is determined. if preferred, the entire day's supply may be pas- teurized at once, either in bulk or, better, in a number of separate feeding bottles, which should then be cooled rapidly and kept on ice until used. it is im- portant to cool the milk as soon as possible, for the spores not killed by pasteurizing will develop if the milk is kept warm for some time. the quickest way to do this is to place the bottles in running water. sterilization, i. e., the destruction of both bacteria and spores, is accomplished by heating the milk to a sterilizing * the freeman pasteurizer. price, $ . . artificial feeding temperature of ° f. (boiling temperature) for about an hour. this may be done in an ordinary double boiler or farina kettle. thus treated the milk will keep unchanged for hours or so. if necessary to protect it for a longer period, as for traveling, ship- ping, etc., the process must be twice repeated after intervals of hours each, when, if properly sealed, it will remain bacteria free indefinitely. ari ste pril mon cas depot the arnold steam sterilizing and pasteurizing apparatus. price, $ . to $ . . milk must be fresh it must be borne in mind that no amount of pasteur- ization or sterilization can make bad milk good. it merely destroys the bacteria, which by their growth render the milk unfit for infant food. the chemical changes in the milk which, through age, has begun to deteriorate, are beyond retrieve. milk should be at first hand, like caesar's wife, “above suspicion,” in which case pasteurization is un- necessary and sterilization is unwise, as the high tem- perature changes it somewhat and renders it more care of children difficult of digestion. a child fed continuously on cooked or sterilized milk is liable to develop nutri- tional disorders, as scurvy, etc. the practice of keeping the baby's food warm for emergencies is entirely wrong, as it favors the devel- opment of any bacteria present and spores which are not destroyed by pasteurization. because of the limited field of operation of the milk laboratory home modification is of great impor- tance in artificial feeding. in this connection, the protection of the supply will ever continue to be the most important consideration. supply most important modified milk apparatus and supplies to modify milk satisfactorily in the home the mother or nurse must be equipped with all necessary utensils. these include a good ice box, two syphons (made by heating and bending glass tubing), a ster- ilizer or pasteurizer thermometer registering to ° f., a dozen graduated feeding tubes (large mouth without shoulder with small lip), bottle brushes, ab- sorbent cotton, straining gauze, non-absorbent cotton for stoppers, mixing pitcher, -ounce graduate, tall cup for warming bottle, three to six black rubber nipples (to fit mouth of tubes, reversible for clean- ing), bicarbonate of soda and boric acid. lime water should be kept in well-corked bottles, as it is soon changed by the carbon dioxide in the air to carbonate of lime, which is deposited on the sides modified milk timo of preparation p of the bottle. milk sugar solution should be prepared fresh for each day's supply. the supply of food may be prepared once or twice in the twenty-four hours, depending upon the time of milk delivery and number of tubes to be used. the milk should always be kept on ice before and after preparation. all bottles and utensils should be washed with hot soapsuds, then rinsed and boiled or steril- ized. nipples must be scrubbed inside and out with soap and water, rinsed and kept in a solu- tion of soda or boric acid until needed again. milk tubes when filled should be stoppered with non-absorbent cotton so that in cooling the air may pass through. after warming to about °f. ( ° c.) by standing the bottle in a cup of an eight ounce warm water the cotton is re- graduate. placed by the nipple. after nursing, any food remaining in the bottle must be thrown away. no alies should ever touch food, utensils or baby. of course, the nurse will never touch the nipple with her lips. the temperature of the milk may be tested by allowing a few drops to fall upon the back of the hand. eternal vigilance is the price of sterility. warming care of children feeding the bottle should be held inverted in the hand dur- ing the feeding so that the babe will not suck air. if the milk flow is too free the nipple may be with- drawn from time to time so that about twenty minutes is consumed in the feeding, during which the babe apparatus and materials for modifying milk. walker-gordon co. follow nature would better be on the arm or lap of the nurse. if the milk does not drop freely enough more holes should be made in the nipple by means of a hot needle. the rules of feeding as to regularity, number and length of intervals should be about the same as those given for infants at the breast. water between feed- ings is generally required, and to a ravenous infant should be freely given. the water should be boiled and cooled and may be given from either bottle or spoon. modified milk composition as a rule, artificial feeding in the normal vigorous babies should be begun with formulae representing low percentages. especially is this true of the pro- feeding the baby, showing proper position of infant. teids. taking average mother's milk as a standard, the percentage of sugar may be about the same, the fats about half, and the proteids about one-third, for the first weeks, remembering that temporary error modified milk increase amount gradually in considering increase in the amount of food, we must be governed by age, size for age, stomach ca- pacity for age and the infant's hunger, but largely by the daily weight gain which should be manifest from week to week. the increase in the amount of food, like that of the percentage of its constituents should never be made suddenly. an ounce added to the total day's food in breast early infancy means an increase of from to per cent. this one ounce increase should be distrib- uted among the different tubes, i. e., if there are ten tubes, about one-tenth of an ounce should be cell added to each. if tolerated for pat. june lot- several days another advance may be made in quantity. four the hygeia nurs. ing bottle. consecutive weeks should be the outside limit for an increase of an ounce at a feed- ing, as the tendency will be to far exceed the infant's stomach capacity by flooding him with a too diluted food. (see “capacity of the stomach," page .) both the amount at a feeding and the strength should not be increased at the same time. the acid reaction of cow's milk renders the addi- tion of an alkali necessary. for this purpose bicar- bonate of sodium (baking soda) or lime water may noutralizing acidity care of children se od was obrat be used (preferably the latter, of which to per cent may be necessary). the lime water also has the important property of making the curds more floc- culent and therefore. more easily digested. of the so- dium bicarbonate, one or two grains to the ounce will be sufficient. a solution of one drachm of sodium bicarbon- ate in a quart of water has the same alkaline strength as lime water. if the food is to be steril- ized, sodium bicarbonate should be used or the lime water should be added to the tube afterwards. heating with lime water brings about certain undesirable changes in the milk. the following formulæ fairly express the com- position, amount and frequency of feeding, with the length of intervals, for normal, healthy infants of average weight and development: food warmer and alcohol lamp. modified milk formula . or proteids; % fats; . % sugar; . % cream-( %) ounce first days milk sugar. lime water.. premature. boiled water.. salt .. small pinch total ounces feedings, to ; quantity of each, to ounce; inter- vals, hrs. formula . st week. proteids; . % fats; . % sugar; % cream-( %) ounce skimmed milk milk sugar.. lime water. boiled water. salt..... a pinch total ounces feedings, ; quantity of each, to ounces; intervals, hrs. formula . proteids; . % fats; . % sugar; % cream-( %) ounces skimmed milk milk sugar. nd week. lime water. boiled water. salt..... pinches total ounces feedings, ; quantity of each, to ounces; intervals, hrs. as care of children formula . rd week. proteids; . % fats; . % sugar; . % cream-( %) ounces skimmed milk milk sugar.. lime water. boiled water. salt.. pinches total ounces feedings, ; quantity of each, to ounces; intervals, hrs. formula . proteids; . % fats; . % sugar; . % cream-( %) ounces skimmed milk th & th milk sugar. weeks. lime water. boiled water salt... pinches total ounces feedings, ; quantity of each, to ounces; intervals, hrs. formula . th, th, th weeks. proteids; . % fats; . % sugar; . % cream-( %). ounces skimmed milk milk sugar. lime water boiled water salt.. pinches total ounces feedings, ; quantity of each, to ounces; intervals, hrs. modified milk formula . rd month. proteids; . % fats; . % sugar; . % cream-( %) ounces skimmed milk milk sugar.. lime water. boiled water. salt.... pinches total ounces feedings, : quantity of each, to ounces; intervals, hrs. formula . th & th months. proteids; . % fats; . % sugar; . % cream-( %). ounces skimmed milk milk sugar.. lime water. boiled water. salt.... pinches total ounces feedings, ; quantity of each, to ; intervals, hrs. formula . proteids; . % fats; . % sugar; . % cream-( %) ounces skimmed milk th, th, th milk sugar. months. lime water. boiled water salt ..... pinches total ounces feedings, ; quantity of each, to ounces; intervals, hrs. care of children formula . th & th months. proteids; . % fats; . % sugar; . % cream-( %). ounces skimmed milk milk sugar. lime water. boiled water. salt.... pinch total ounces feedings, ; quantity of each, to ounces; intervals, hrs. formula . th month. proteids; . % fats; . % sugar; . % cream-( %). ounces. skimmed milk milk sugar. lime water. boiled water salt... pinch total ounces feedings, ; quantity of each, to ounces; intervals, hrs. formula . th month. proteids; . % fats; . % sugar; . % cream-( %). ounces skimmed milk milk sugar.. lime water. boiled water. total ounces دهم feedings, ; quantity of each, to ounces; intervals, hrs. modified milk ioi formula proteids; . % fats; . % sugar; . % whole milk. ounces th month. milk sugar ounce bicarbonate of soda... grains total ounces feedings, ; quantity, to ounces; intervals, hrs. these formulae are intended only as a suggestive formulae for normal guide in the feeding of normal infants according to infants only ages specified. delicate babies, or those of impaired digestion, should be given the formula for younger infants. these mixtures may be prepared from per cent cream, skimmed milk, milk sugar, salt, lime water and boiled water. six ounces of per cent cream may be obtained sixteen per cent from a quart bottle of good milk which has stood un cream disturbed for six hours by siphoning away the lower four-fifths. this per cent cream may also be obtained from a reliable dairyman. milk sugаr may be bought from the druggist by the pound, or more cheaply at wholesale in five-pound packages. accurate scales not being available in most house measuring milk sugar holds, the milk sugar must be measured. as different brands vary a little in weight for bulk, it is always advisable to have the druggisi weigh accurately por- tions of one, one and one-hzif, and two ounces, which may be kept as standards. one of the most convenient care of children and accurate ways of measuring the amount for a formula is to put the required weighed portion into the graduate, tap a few times, and mark the level by scratching the glass with a file. this mark will show the amount to be used each time the formula is made up. tablespoons vary so greatly in size that it is not safe to use them for measuring the sugar. two and one- half large size tablespoons leveled with a knife will measure about an ounce, but if an ordinary kitchen tablespoon is used, it may take three and one-half leveled to give an ounce. as the milk sugar is the largest constituent of the baby's food, it is necessary that it be measured accurately. milk sugar is used because it is more easily digested than cane sugar, and is not so liable to fermentation. although only about one-half as sweet to the taste, it has about the same nutritive value as cane sugar. in the later months of the first year cane sugar may be substituted for milk sugar, if economy demands it, a smaller amount being used. salt is added to promote digestion and to make up the deficiency occasioned by dilution. milk containing per cent of fat should be used in the formulae given. a good milk will have this amount, but the legal standard in many localities is per cent or less, so that it is best to have the milk supply analyzed occasionally. the board of health or the milk commission in many cities will make an- milk should be analized modified milk for mixing alyses free, and in the country the dairies will per- form the same service for a small charge. if there is per cent of fats present, it is safe to conclude that the proteids are up to standard. for making up a formula the following directions may not be amiss: as soon as the baby's special bottle of milk is delivered to the house, it should be taken in and placed in the coldest part of the re- frigerator. if it is delivered very early in the morn- ing (during hot weather), a small ice box should be provided in which the milkman may place the bottle. in the country, if the milk is received while warm, it should be strained through absorbent cotton or cheesecloth into a clean quart milk bottle or preserve jar, stoppered, and placed in cold running water for about half an hour, and then put on ice for six hours, or until the cream has risen. it will be found convenient to keep the vessels, lime water, milk sugar, etc., together on a tray. the one to do the mixing should wash her hands carefully and put on a clean apron. the mixing should be done in a clean place. a copy of the formula to be made up should be at hand. to siphon off the milk, a glass tube should be used, as shown in the illustration.* to start the siphon, fill it full of boiling water by pouring water in, place the thumb over the end of the long arm and invert the siphon, lowering the short arm gently to the bottom of the bottle of milk. remove the thumb and the milk will * a milk syphon may be obtained through the school for cents. siphoning off the skimmod milk modified milk keep the miik cool bent cotton, which is kept in some receptacle away from the dust. after stoppering the tubes are placed in a rack and put in the coldest part of the refrigera- tor. the whole operation should be accomplished as oz. cream . shimmed milk siphoning skimmed milk from the cream. if there is a difference in level of about % inches between the two milk bottles, the siphon will stop running with approximately oz. of cream left in the upper bottle, and oz. of skimmed milk in the receiving bottle. quickly as possible, so that the milk will not have time to become warm. it should be borne in mind that there is always dust laden with bacteria in the air of the cleanest room. the bacteria we are endeavor- ing to exclude. all the utensils used should now be rinsed first in cold water, then washed in hot soap and water, put washing vossols modified milk oz. of changing from formula to formula , add oz. of water the first day, and i oz. less every two days. changing from formula to formula , add / oz. of water the first day, oz. the second day, oz. the third and fourth days. changing from formula to formula , add water the first day, and i oz. less during succeeding days. changing from formula to formula , add oz. of water the first day and i oz. less during succeeding days. changing from formula to formula ii, add oz. of water the first day and i oz. less during succeeding days. changing from formula ii to formula , add oz. of water the first day and i oz. less during succeeding days changing from formula to formula , add oz. of water the first day and i oz. less during each succeeding day. in case the new formula does not seem to agree, the number of ounces of water added should be reduced more slowly. carefully written notes should be kept of all changes. cream containing per cent of fat also contains a certain percentage of proteids and milk sugar. roach gives the following composition : composition of per cent cream per cent water .. . proteids . fats . . milk sugar . composition of skimmed milk per cent water .. proteids fats trace milk sugar koop notes . . care of children use of whey where proteids are not tolerated whey (see recipe) may be substituted for the skimmed milk and for the whole or part of the boiled water. the whey contains the lac albumen (but no casein), the sugar and the salts of the milk. the walker- gordon co. gives the following analysis for the whey which they furnish. it is made from skimmed milk and contains practically no fat. composition of whey water proteids milk sugar mineral matter per cent. .. . i.o . . egg albumen if the intolerance for milk proteids persists, the pro- teid of egg white (see recipe) may be substituted. the white of one egg has the proteid value of eight ounces of skimmed milk. composition of white of egg water proteids fats mineral matter per cent. . . . .. . . . foods other than milk foods other than milk starch fruit juicos other foods than milk may be utilized, to a limited extent, in the dietary of the infant. of these there are three general classes. first: farinaceous substances ; such as barley, oat- meal, arrowroot, farina, rice, wheat and bread, pref- erably in the form of water gruels, and jellies. second: albuminoids or proteids, of which class beef juice and egg white are the best representatives. third: fruit juices, as orange, prune and unfer- mented grape. the first class have, before the sixth month of in- fancy, but a limited food value, because of the indi- gestibility of their starchy contents. a partial con- version into sugаr may be secured, however, by thor- ough and prolonged cooking, as in the preparation of gruels and jellies. a still further conversion may be secured by the addition of diatase, as malt and malt extracts, a few minutes before feeding. this changes a certain amount of the starch into dextrin. cereal gruels, in some cases, promote digestion of cow's milk by mechanically preventing the formation of dense curds in the stomach. they may be used to replace all or a part of the water of a formula. when the proteid of cow's milk is not well borne that most essential constituent may be supplied from raw beef juice or egg white. (see recipes.) orange juice, prune juice and unfermented grape juice are very valuable food adjuncts in cases of nutri- gruols iio .care of children patent baby foods tional depravity. these are especially needed where the infant has been subject to the prolonged use of cooked and pasteurized foods. many of the so-called baby foods contain little more than starch, and on that account not be too severely condemned for young children; but the prac- tice, somewhat in vogue, of denouncing all patent foods on that account is thoughtless and unjust. there can percentage composition of infant foods food moisture proteids fat carbo- hydrates mineral matter remarks horlick's malted milk . . . . a mixture of desic- cated milk ( %) and malted wheat and bar- ley. no unaltered starch. mellin's food * . . . . . a completely malt- ed food. all the carbo- hydrates in soluble form. nestle's food * . . . . . eskay's food * . . . . . a mixture of desic- cated milk, partially malted wheat flour and cane sugar ( %). starch %. a mixture of par- tially malted wheat, egg albumin and milk sugar ( %). starch %, especially treated. unsweetened whole cow's milk. part di- luted with parts wa- ter gives ordinary milk. sweetened con- densed milk contains about % cane sugar. condensed milk . . . . . dried human milk . . . . analysis by hutchison * latest analyses, viven by the manufacturers. medical supervision iii is much to recommend in some of these preparations, since intelligent modification by supplying a deficiency, may convert it into a most valuable adjunct in sub- stitute feeding. food which would not meet the re- quirements of nutrition for a long-continued period, because deficient in some essential constituent, may be used temporarily, as in weaning, traveling or tem- porary removal from the breast. among the objections to many of the patent foods may be mentioned: small amount of fats; insolu- bility of their proteids when present; excess of sugar, especially cane sugar; the high percentage of uncon- verted starch and the fact that all have been cooked. the writer believes that the artificially fed infant should always be under the supervision of a competent physician. some one has said that it is twice as dan- gerous to be a baby as it is to have smallpox. the mortality in untreated typhoid is less than half that of artificially fed babies, yet no one questions the necessity for a physician in typhoid. few regard the physician as out of place at the birth of the infant, yet the mortality during birth is slight compared with that of bottle feeding. the most active function of a physician's life is remedying errors, in attempting to patch up the evil results of mistakes. his highest function is to ward off the error and to prevent the mistakes. the infant at the breast is in normal relation with his most imperative need and is seldom under the physician's care. he who substitutes artificial for medical supervision in artificial feeding bottlo fod babies not in normal condition food disorders food disorders overfeeding is responsible for many of the diges- ovorfooding tive disturbances of infancy. among the causes of overfeeding may be mentioned irregularity as to time; thirst; perverted taste; improperly balanced or too concentrated a food; too rapid feeding, and general ignorance or carelessness on the part of the nurse. the usual result of occasional overfeeding is acute indigestion, with or without vomiting, belching, colic, diarrhoea, curds in stool, restlessness, broken sleep, fever or loss of weight. habitual overfeeding may cause dilatation of the stomach with loss of digestive power and all the symp- toms of chronic dyspepsia, such as flatulence, colic. constipation or diarrhoea, loss of weight or general mal-nutrition. occasional colic or loose stools or even vomiting colic may call for nothing more than a temporary diminu- tion of food and a dose of castor oil. in mild cases, the food may be diluted with about a fourth the vol- ume of water, either in the nursing bottle before feed- ing or when the day's supply is made up. the quan- tity given may also be reduced somewhat. in return- ing to the original formulae the change should always be made gradually. persistent colic may be an indication of excessive proteids, the percentage of which should be reduced to the relief of both colic and diarrhoea, with the dis- appearance of curds from the stools. vomiting, or "spitting up,” with or without diar vomiting care of children hot weathor diet rhoea, may be caused by an excess of fat and yield promptly to a reduction of this constituent. if food is not digested fermentation occurs in the bowels, with the formation of poisons, which cause restlessness and fever. this "auto-intoxication" is of frequent occur- rence in infancy, but is usually relieved by the cor- rection of the dietetic errors. a common mistake is the neglect to modify the food with due regard to the season. hot weather re- quires diminution in the fats and proteids (from one- eighth to one-half), so that what constituted a well- balanced food for the winter months is not suitable for the heated term. in hot weather infants need more water and frequently cry from thirst rather than hunger. the long-continued use of food deficient in fat is often productive of rickets. scurvy may be de- veloped by the habitual use of cooked food, while mal-nutrition is the result of chronic indigestion. the prevention and correction of these disorders lies in proper feeding (see "essentials.") their symptoms will be discussed in the section on chil- dren's ailments. the practice of experimenting on the baby with all kinds of food-patent and otherwise—is a most per- nicious one. nature takes some time to rectify diges- tive disturbances, and a slight improvement at each feeding is all that can be expected. if the simple changes suggested do not give relief after a day or two, the physician should be consulted. do not experiment food after the first year taking away the bottle bom/- solids bottle feeding is rarely necessary after the twelfth month. the child may be gradually taught to drink from a spoon or cup. where the baby is delicate the bottle may be used until the fifteenth month. the eruption of teeth, the increase in the salivary, gastric and pancreatic secretions give not only greater power of starch and proteid digestion, but also the ability to masticate some solid food. semi-solids must be introduced gradually into the dietary,“ milk remaining the principal food. cream is required particularly where there is a tendency to constipation. until the eighteenth eighteenth month little change should be made except the addition of gruels, meat broths and cracker or stale bread soaked in milk. five feedings in the hours during the second year are sufficient for a healthy child. the following dietary is intended only as a sugges- tive guide. variety at this age is not necessary, but a choice is designated by the letters a, b, c. dietary from to months first meal. to a. m. a-glass of warm milk containing a little stale bread or rolled cracker. -b—a porridge of well cooked (at least two hours) cereal with milk. -a little soft egg (poached or boiled) with stale bread crumbs and a glass of milk. care of children second meal. a. m. glass of warm milk. third meal. to p. m. a-stale bread soaked in gravy from the roast or steak. milk. b—soft egg, a little zwieback, glass of milk. (_toast soaked with beef juice (see recipe), glass of milk. fourth meal. to p. m. glass of milk or milk with cereal jelly. (see recipe). fifth meal. (if necessary late in the evening or night.) glass of warm milk. dietary from the th to th month. a- first meal. a. m. -warm milk with stale bread or buttered cracker. b--cereal porridge with milk and cream. (_glass of milk, soft boiled egg with bread and butter. second meal. io a. m. a—bread and milk. b—milk from oyster stew and cracker. (--milk toast. third meal. p. m. a—mashed potatoes with dish gravy and a glass of milk b-mutton, beet or chicken broth thickened with rice or barley, bread or cracker and milk. -beef juice on toast, rice or tapioca pudding. with this meal may be given a little well baked apple pulp or stewed prune pulp and juice. fourth meal. to p. m. bread and milk, or bread with butter and milk. milk may be given during the night if the baby seems hungry. *care of children foods not advisable accept the food suitable to his age and condition. in planning the meals for a family containing several young children consideration should certainly be given to their requirements. the following articles are best avoided during early childhood: condiments or highly sea cake. soned food. hot breads. pork. cucumbers. fried meats. corn. all fried foods. doughnuts. griddle cakes. doughey puddings. cabbage. rich puddings. tomatoes. over or under ripe fruits. pastry. raw celery. dumplings. turnips. it goes without saying that children should never be allowed tea, coffee, beer or other stimulants. nuts and confections should never be allowed on an empty stomach. general rules -regularity as to meals is of prime importance. —thorough mastication is absolutely essential to perfect digestion. —rapid eating invariably induces dyspepsia. -fluids are essential to good digestion, but the food should never be "washed down.” -a judicious balance must always be maintained between the five food constituents, viz. : pro- teids, fats, sugar, salts and water. stimulants food recipes beef juice salt and slightly broil small pieces of thick, lean, round steak and while hot express the juice with a meat press or a lemon squeezer. the juice may be given cold or with the addition of a little warm water. hot water coagulates the albumin. made in this way the juice contains from to per cent of coagulatable proteids and from to per cent of “extractives"- nitrogenous substances without nutritive value, but stimulating to the digestive organs. beef tea to i pound of lean chopped or minced beef add i pint of cold water. stir and let stand for hours; then let simmer for minutes. do not boil. strain and when cool remove all fat. when ready to use warm and season. best prepared in double boiler. mutton broth over pound of lean meat, cut in small pieces, pour i quart of cold water, let stand in cold place for hours, then cook slowly down to i pint. cool, skim off fat, and strain. veal, chicken or beef broths may be made in the same way. meat pulp by scraping with a dull knife separate the meat pulp from the fiber. season pulp, make in small cake and slightly broil, or may be salted and eaten raw. care of children whey heat i quart of fresh milk luke warm; into this gently stir teaspoonfuls of fairchild's essence of pepsin ; let stand about twenty minutes or until firmly coagulated, then with a fork break up the clot and strain through fine muslin without pressure. bring the whey thus obtained to a boil to kill the ferment, then cool and keep on ice. albumin water add i cup put the white of one egg in a saucer and cut (do not beat) until fine with knife and fork. cold boiled water and strain through cheesecloth. keep on ice until ready to use. if desired a tiny pinch of salt may be added. lime water drop a piece of unslaked lime as large as a walnut into a vessel containing quarts of pure filtered water, stir thoroughly and allow to settle. pour off the clear solution into bottles, which should be kept corked. oat jelly soak half a cup of coarse oatmeal in a quart of cold water for hours. boil down so as to make a pint and while hot strain through fine cheesecloth. a jelly is formed when cold. it should be kept on ice until needed. wheat and rice jelly can be prepared in the same way. - food recipes i barley water put tablespoonful of washed pearl barley in a saucepan with a quart of water; boil slowly down to i pint; strain. barley jelly boil slowly down to a pint, i quart of water and tablespoonfuls of pearl barley; strain and let stand until jellied. peptonized milk in ounces of boiled cold water, dissolve a tablet containing grains of bicarbonate of soda and grains of pancreatine, to which add ounces of milk. set vessel containing this mixture in a pan of water at a temperature of °f for from to minutes. cool quickly by placing in running water and keep on ice until used. use double boiler for making. to completely peptonize the milk heat for two hours. it then has a bitter taste. dropped egg drop a fresh egg into enough boiling milk to cover; remove from milk as soon as the white is set; salt and serve hot with cracker or bread crumbs. dried bread cut bread at least hours old in thick slices; put in slow oven and bake until thoroughly dried. ( to min.) care of children kumyss-(holt) i quart of fresh milk, half an ounce of sugar, ounces of water, a piece of yeast cake at least half an inch square; put into wired bottles, keep at a tem- perature between and f. for week, shaking or times a day; put on ice. care of children . state general objections to the patent baby- foods. . what is safe milk? how should the baby's milk be cared for in the home? . what governs the quantity given at a feed- ing? the strength of the food ? . give the causes and effects of over feeding. . what are the principal dangers in feeding a baby cow's milk? . what is meant by a balanced food? . why are special precautions necessary to keep the baby's food as nearly sterile as possible? . what can you say in regard to feeding during the second year? . how would you alter the food of a young baby in very hot weather? . what may the mother or nurse safely do if the baby has indigestion ? . mention new facts you have learned from this lesson. . what questions have you to ask? note. after completing the test, sign your full name. care of children part iii jan. feb. mar. apl. may jun jul. aug. sep oct nov dec d. children under [ yr. - yr. - yr. - yr. over yrs. chart showing mortality in large cities by months and ages from circular of illinois state board of health on infant feeding - care of children part iii the sick child symptoms in šoulth symptoms of disease the sick child should, of course, always be under the physician's care, but the mother can aid greatly by giving him an intelligent account of symptoms. the mother knows (or should know) her child much more thoroughly than can any outsider and it is on her carrying out of directions faithfully and intelligently that the recovery of the sick child must depend. in order to recognize the symptoms of disease it is necessary to become thoroughly familiar with the nor- mal, healthy infant. this is accomplished only by careful, conscious observation. attitude, both sleep- ing and waking; facial expression, movements of ex- tremities, trunk, head and eyes; sounds, both articu- late and inarticulate; respiration, frequency and regu- larity; color of the skin and condition as to tempera- ture and moisture, are all significant of sickness or health. restlessness or apathy, if but slight, may be esti- mated only by comparison with the baby's normal con- dition. a few of the most easily recognized indications of acute disorder may be mentioned, such as sudden loss of appetite, excessive thirst, unusual drowsiness, lan- uor or fretfulness, all of which may indicate intoxi- cation. the cry ing during sleep, especially about the head, is always suggestive of rachitic malnutrition. disinclination or inability to move a limb should never be overlooked as it may mean a grave disorder, either in the affected limb or in the central nervous system. refusal to nurse may be due to trouble in the mouth, throat or nose which parts should be frequently examined. no moaninglos. crying the cry there is no such thing as a meaningless cry. it is only a question of interpretation. the cry is the in- fant's only means of making his wants known. most welcome is the baby's first cry induced by the discomfort of his new surroundings and its vigor and volume may indicate vital capacity. a little lusty cry- ing in the first days is good for the baby as thereby deep inspiration is induced which more fully inflates the lungs and establishes more completely the new function of respiration. some babies never entirely overcome the adhesions of the bronchial tubes and air cells, a part of the lung remaining unused. the cry should be clear and distinct and any devi- ation from its normal tone is an indication of disorder. whatever the cause of crying it is usually tearless be- fore the third month. hunger is usually expressed by crying, but it is a great mistake to conclude that because the child was quieted by the nipple he was therefore hungry. he may have been thirsty, or the warm milk may have hungry ory colic causes put into the mouth, while cry after swallowing sug- gests sore throat. the baby may cry when passing urine due to tight foreskin or the passage of brown uric acid sand, which may be found staining the diaper. if the child frowns while crying.or fretting and avoids the strong light, headache is probably the cause. colic colic is usually due to the pressure of gas in the bowels, one of the results of indigestion. sudden and violent crying, distended abdomen, alternate drawing up and straightening of the legs, which ceases with the expulsion of gas by mouth or anus, usually indi- cate colic. this colic is often due to too frequent or too copious feeding, hence the great mistake in quiet- ing the cries of the colicky baby by more feeding. some babies are especially prone to colic and must be fed with extreme care. again babies are colicky while showing no other evidence of dietetic error. in these cases the attacks may be due to chilling of the surface of extreinities. great care, therefore, is necessary in maintaining proper warmth by suitable clothing, especially of the hands and feet. (see baby bag, page .) another form of colic is caused, as before men- cioned, by sharp uric acid crystals in the kidneys and urinary tubes. simply changing the position, as holding the baby over the shoulder, is often effective in expelling the uric acid colio diarrheas age, hence mother's well-known dread of the baby's second summer. in children of all ages a transient form may occur at any season, with decided predilection, however, for the heated term. in midwinter occasional attacks of severe, although usually transcient, diarrhea without fatal tendency are seen, but it is in the summer months that intestinal disorders, with diarrhea as a common symptom, are most fatal. the high rate of mortality among infants and children during the summer months, resulting from disorders of which diarrhea is an ac- companiment, exceeds that of all other diseases dur- mortality bulb infant syringe ing the same period. nearly per cent of the deaths from this cause are among artificially fed babies. the immediate cause of summer diarrhea is thought to be the presence of great numbers of certain bacte- ria found in unclean and improperly cared for milk. the onset is sometimes sudden, being ushered in by a convulsion, vomiting and diarrhea. there is usually high temperature, thirst and nausea which makes the infant snatch at food but push it quickly aside as soon as a few mouthfuls have been swallowed. restlessness onset of diarrhea care of children vomiting is nearly always present. the stools may change sud- denly or may be two or three days in changing from the normal in frequency and character. there may be a great deal of coiicky pain. the infant while apparently in perfect health may develop vomiting, the matter ejected being at first the contents of the stomach but little changed-highly acid or in dense curds; this is soon followed, however, by a watery, slimy and rarely by a biled-stained fluid, less acid or even alkaline in reaction. diarrhea frequently accompanies and invariably follows the onset of the disturbance. the first stools may be nearly normal but they quickly change, showing evidence of fermen- tation and later on putrefaction. finally they become watery and may be of a brownish or greenish color. the odor of the stool varies from the normal sour to intensely putrid and later to a sickening musty smell. the infant, apparently well nourished and playful, quickly shows signs of systemic disturbance in fretful, peevish irritability and restlessness, with head rocking, anxious facial expression, persistent whining cry, fever, dry mouth and softened flabby tissues. the depressed fontanel, sunken, lusterless eyes, sharply de- fined temples, drawn features with the intense thirst all give evidence of the great drain of fluids. the abdomen, at first distended with gas, may soon be- come flabby and depressed and the extremities cold, although the rectal temperature may be from ° to drain of fluids diarrheas acuto poisoning ° f. convulsions may usher in the attack, follow the initial vomiting by a few hours, appear only at the final stage or occasionally they may not develop. within twenty-four hours from the onset, and fre- quently earlier, the stage of collapse is reached, with pallor and coldness of the surface, though the internal temperature may be high. the restlessness soon sub- sides into stupor with shallow breathing, collapsed veins, failure of pulse, half closed filmy eyes and death occurs in convulsions or from exhaustion. this picture presents symptoms of acute poisoning from the stomach or intestinal tract occurring in a state of apparent health and terminating fatally in from twenty-four to forty-eight hours. though the well-nourished infant is not exempt from this form of acute poisoning it occurs with much greater frequency among those who show evidence of malnutrition. acute summer diarrhea is frequently but improperly called cholera infantum. fortunately the true cholera infantum (caused by a specific germ) with its almost invariably fatal termination is by no means common. the commonest form of summer diarrhea is the re- sult of acute indigestion usually caused by improper or impure food or overfeeding. not infrequently these attacks of vomiting and diarrhea are relieved by the giving of one or more doses of castor oil and the withdrawal of food for twenty-four hours. in such cases the diet should be resumed very gradually, be- cholore infantum yild casos care of children after effects ginning with small quantities of white of egg water, barley water, strained broth or weak malted milk. a prolonged attack of summer complaint rarely leaves the child free from evidence of retarded devel- opment, which in many instances is never fully com- pensated. perhaps the most important effect of severe summer complaint upon the survivors is the feeble resistance to infection from lowered vitality, so that the danger from contagious diseases is greatly in- creased. it is needless to say that the mother's immediate duty is to summon her physician upon the appearance of the first symptom of summer diarrheas. abnormal passages the normal passages of the infant have been de- scribed on page , and various abnormal stools have been mentioned in connection with other disorders, but it may be well to summarize here. like vomiting, any divergence from the normal in the appearance of the stool is a sign of warning. they should be kept for the inspection of the physician. stools may be abnormal in frequency, consistency, color and odor. during the suckling period the baby's stools may vary in frequency from one to 'six daily without apparent departure from health, the average probably being three movements in the twenty-four hours. variations in the quantity and quality of food in- abnormal passages gested may cause variations in the quantity and fre- quency of the discharges which, if normal in color and consistency, need occasion no anxiety. breast or exclusive milk feeding gives a light color to the evacuations, varying from a canary to a cream. as before stated, the normal consistency of the suck- color jointless bulb syringe. ling's stool is about that of thin batter and is smooth and homogeneous throughout. but little gas is pres- ent and the normal odor when freshly voided is slightly sour and not especially offensive. if cereals, starch, sugar or proprietary foods enter largely into the dietary the stools will be darker, rang- ing from orange to brown with a greater tendency to gas formation and a disagreeable odor. stools are abnormal when they have a putrid odor suggestive of decomposition; when they are bubbly or yeasty, suggestive of fermentation ; when they are watery or contain blood or mucus ; when they are odor care of children mucus heterogeneous in character; when they are acrid and irritate the anus and skin of the buttocks; when they are green or variegated in color or gray and tough or putty like; when they are hard and lumpy like mar- bles coated with slime or when they are dry and crumbly, either dark brown, pale gray or white. mucus is normally present in the discharges, but it is only when irritation of some part of the mucous membrane of the digestive tract has caused an extra abundant flow that it becomes visible. curds in the passages indicate incomplete digestion, the causes of which are many and sometimes hard to determine. the quantity of food may be too great, or it may be too strong, it may be taken too rapidly, too often, too cold, there may have been chilling of the baby or too much excitement, and so on. although some of these conditions may be remedied by the judicious use of castor oil and slight changes in diet, or manner of feeding, they all suggest the advice of the physician, before the underlying causes lead to disorders which may become obstinate. rickets malnutrition and scurvy rickets (rachitis), malnutrition (marasmus) and scurvy (scorbutus) are essentially nutritional disor- ders, and as such depend both for their treatment and cure largely upon proper feeding. the rickety child shows a constitutional perversion of development which, if not arrested, may lead to ac- rickets nervous symptoms tual deformities. there is lessened resistance to dis- orders of an infectious nature, hence a marked tend- ency to catarrhal conditions of all the mucous tracts. early deaths from acute diseases are frequently due to the feeble resistance of the rickety constitution. rickets is oftenest seen in children between the ages of six months and four years, though some of its effects are visible throughout life. three groups of symptoms and signs stand out pre- eminently as rachitic. first. the nervous system shows instability; there is fretfulness, irritability and intellectual precocity. tendency to spasmodic seizures is sometimes marked. a form of general spasm, known as "tetany" being peculiar to the rachitic infant. so, also, the crowing spasms so frequently mistaken for croup are essen- tially rachitic. the bright, fidgety child who runs on his toes and the head-sweating, restless, cover kicking, sleep moaning infant suggest the same rachitic disturb- ance of nerve function. second. the muscular system shows tardy devel- opment in strength and remains flabby, so that the in- fant is late in learning to stand or walk and does not sit erect. curvatures of the spine frequently show the inefficiency of the muscles to support the trunk. the child, meanwhile, may appear to the uninformed as well nourished; in fact, may be fat or overfat with pin-cushiony pads on the top of his feet and the back of his hands. his inability to stand is frequently at- tributed to his great weight. kuscular development malnutrition malnutrition since a paucity of fat in the food is largely responsi- ble for this disorder that constituent should be freely, though judiciously, supplied, while the inert starchy constituents and the excessive fattening and gas form- ing sugars should be reduced. meanwhile the physi- cian may endeavor to secure a better supply of earthy salts for the deficient bone forming constituents. marasmus is a special term applied to that general form of malnutrition which seems to be seated upon an inherited or inherent vice of nutrition. it goes without saying that if the feeding of a normal baby requires judgment that of the marantic infant will ex- ercise the highest skill of the ablest physician. “weakly from birth" is the common expression applied to these babies whose death could be ascribed to no definite disease. of course, malnutrition may result from mal- hygiene in what would otherwise prove to be a nor- mal infant, and rachitis, one of the results, not only of improper feeding but also of bad environment as to pure air, sunlight and warmth, plays no small part in the production of marasmus. no one may prescribe the exact line of feeding or treatment for an unseen case of malnutrition. since no two marantic children present the same specific disturbances. there is usually the extreme emacia- tion which gives the infant the appearance of senility. the rheumy lack luster eye, the weazened face, feeble wail and voracious hunger, presents a vivid picture of starvation, while the large abdomen and frequent foul feeding care of children scurvy smelling stools with or without vomiting emphasizes the need of most careful feeding. how to do this is the special problem for the doctor in each individual case. that any intercurrent infection should speedily terminate the existence of the marantic infant is not surprising scorbutus is a disease occurring only in infants fed continuously on cooked food and is never seen in the baby fed exclusively at the breast. the modern tend- ency or fad for artificial baby foods and sterilized milk is largely responsible for the increasing frequency of this disorder in recent years. scorbutus is so eminently a food disorder that no treatment is necessary other than the proper change in diet. the earliest symptom is crying when the in- fant is handled as in bathing, changing, dressing, etc., and the nurse may discover that it is the legs, espe- cially the thighs, that are tender to the touch. some- times a swelling is observed about the inner or back part of the thigh, above the knee, with a red or blue discoloration as from a bruise. frequently the swell- ing is marked and the limb so tender that rheumatism is suspected. black and blue spots are occasionally seen on different parts of the body or limbs, the re- sult of ordinary handling. the absence of fever (the temperature is usually subnormal) excludes rheuma- tism and ordinary inflammations. later the skin shows purple spots due to "blood settling," and sometimes bright red spots, the size of a pin head, under the skin as though a little artery had leaked. colds the baby takes nourishment poorly and may have indigestion with diarrhea. the inside of the mouth is dark red, the swollen, spongy gums bleed readily upon pressure. occasionally blood is vomited which had previously been swallowed from the mouth. later still, hemorrhages may occur from any mucous tract and the stools show blood in clots like liver or changed to the appearance of coffee grounds. without relief death soon follows. for treatment cooked food must be replaced by something raw. a teaspoonful of orange juice, di- luted, may be given or times a day. raw milk properly modified, raw beef juice; the white of egg will, if not too late in its administration, bring about a remarkable change. troatmont colds no gorms no colds ordinary colds are the infections from the ever present micro-organisms which cause catarrhal in- flammation of some mucous tract when normal resist- ance is lessened. lessened resistance may be due to lowered temperature from exposure, from over fa- tigue, excitement, loss of sleep, mal-nutrition or indi- gestion. also from over-feeding, occasional or ha- bitual. impure air, also, lowers vitality and invites infection. acute catarrh (acute cold) may affect the mucous membrane of the nose (rhinitis); mouth (stomati- care of children common cold tis); the middle ear (otitis); the eyes (conjuncti- vitis); the pharynx (pharyngitis); tonsils (tonsilli- tis) ; larynx (laryngitis); bronchial tubes (bron- chitis); stomach (gastritis); bowels (enteritis); large bowel (colititis or dysentery); bladder (cys- titis); or the genitals (urethritis, vaginitis or vul- vitis). catarrh rarely is confined to a single area but shows a tendency to extend along the continuous mucous lin- ing to adjacent tracts. repeated acute attacks tend to become chronic under neglect and low vitality. the secretions or discharges from any catarrhal tract will positively infect another which is susceptible, hence their prevalence and the term “common cold.” no cold is trivial. all colds, with discharges, are con- tagious. sore throat frequent symptom sore throat is always due to infection, and though it may prove trivial it should never be so regarded, as it is frequently the forerunner of a most grave dis- ease. no physician ever fails to examine the throat of a sick child, and the mother should always do so. the tonsils are very commonly the seat of disease from which infection readily gains access to the blood and system. recurrent attacks of acute tonsillitis re- sult in permanent enlargement of these structures with increased tendency to acute attacks, and absorption of poison which causes enlargement of the neck glands. sore throat the throat may become nearly closed, breathing in- terfered with, voice is changed and relief is found only in removal of the tonsil by the surgeon. the space above the tonsils, behind the soft palate anarchlot's and at the top of the pharynx, is most important. it don may well be called the anarchist's den, for here hidden raplie of palate uvula posterior jalatine arch pharyngeal isthmus tonsil anterior palatine arch tongue diagram of the mouth. the "anarchist's den" is above the "pharyngeal isthmus" from sight more dangerous infections are cultivated than in any other part of the body. it is called the "post nasal space." into it open from in front the passages from the nose; from the sides, the tubes from care of children thë middle ears; and from below, the upper end of the pharynx. it is warm, moist, dark and ventilated, an ideal place for the growth of micro-organisms which find in the catarrhal secretions of its mucous lining their ideal food. all nasal catarrhs extend to this space, and the hawking and spitting is due to ac- cumulations here. repeated attacks of catarrh (cold in the head) cause soft warty growths, called adenoids, or "the adenoids an oil atomizer third tonsil," which sometimes fill this space, blocking the ear tubes, causing ear disease and deafness, shut- ting off the air and forcing the child to breathe through the mouth with snoring in sleep. these adenoids give to the voice a nasal tone, change the shape of the face, raise the roof of the mouth which gives the child a stupid expression and ultimately af- fects both mind and body. the only cure when well advanced is in removal by the surgeon. the early habitual care of the nose, naso-pharynx and throat by sprays and washes will do much to pre- care of the nose croup vent the numerous ills due to the neglect of this im- portant area. with a child subject to colds, the oil atomizer should be used daily, night and morning. alboline with some oil atomizer giving a nasal douch. medication such as menthol will be prescribed by a physician. the formula may need to be weakened at first by adding plain alboline until the child becomes accustomed to the treatment kinds of croup croup there are two forms of croup, spasmodic and diph- theritic. the first form occurs usually at night. the child may or may not have shown signs of illness be- fore going to sleep. frequently he has been troubled nervous disorders exciting causes an excitable condition called nervousness is usually due to unbalanced nutrition or insufficient rest. in- heritance may exert an influence as a remote or pre- disposing cause and the "nervous temperament" has long been recognized. among the exciting causes may be mentioned fa- tigue, indigestion, foreign bodies in the digestive tract, as worms; local irritations which by reflex action dis- turb nerve equilibrium, as disorders of the genitals, irritable bladder, constipation, seat worms; inflamma- tion of the middle ear; growths in the naso-pharynx; eye strain; skin eruption as eczema, etc. also im- proper clothing which occasions unequal temperature or discomfort. some of the manifestations are seen in disturbed sleep, grinding of teeth, bad dreams, night terrors, muscular twitchings, chorea (saint vitus's dance), convulsions or epilepsy. some of the minor symptoms appear as fidgeting, squirming, grimacing, blinking, chewing, nail biting, head scratching, picking at the nose, bed wetting and ready crying, which to the experienced eye proclaim some nerve irritation. children should rarely be punished but rather fed for the correction of these involuntary manifestations of nervousness. the wise parent will always consult the physician in these cases. symptoms of nervousness - nervous disorders convulsions, spasms, fits, cramps the cause of convulsions in the category of infantile disorders nothing is more dreaded and no childhood ailment demands great- er presence of mind on the part of the mother. it has frequently been stated that children rarely die of spasms, that is, the convulsion of itself rarely kills. spasms do not constitute the disease, but are only symptoms of some disorder which disturbs equilibrium of the nervous system. we have seen that reflex action was highly devel- oped at birth and that inhibition (control) was a func- tion of later development. the younger the infant the greater the likelihood of muscular contractions heing excited beyond control of the feeble inhibition. therefore anything which powerfully excites mus- cular contraction may induce convulsions in infants and young children. hyper-excitability and feeble inhibition are also to a certain extent hereditary. the so-called nervous constitution finds its best expression in this want of balance between excitability and inhibition. nutri- tion also plays an important part in determining the balance between these two functions of the nervous system (see rickets). what might be a very trilling disturbance in the adult may induce convulsions in the infant. again spasms may be one of the symp- toms of a very grave disease. it is the cause of the fits, then, that is of paramount importance. convulsions treatment sometimes occurs with the breathing and the free flow of saliva may be churned into a froth which clings to the lip. the jerking then becomes less marked and finally ceases and the child soon recovers consciousness and cries or falls asleep from exhaustion. this cycle is usually completed in from one to three minutes, though to the watching parents it may seem many times that. the attacks may recur at intervals for many hours if the cause is not removed and death has been known to occur apparently from exhaustion. since in infancy one of the commonest causes of convulsions is indigestion or the presence of some irri- tant in the digestive tract the first thing to be done is to clean out the stomach and bowels. a prompt emetic should be given at once, followed by a dose of castor oil. a copious enema of warm salt solution (teaspoonful of salt to a pint of warm water) should also be given. for the relief of the immediate spasm the child should be quickly immersed in a hot bath (temperature ° f. or test with the whole arm) containing a tea- spoonful of strong mustard to the gallon, with ice cold cloths to the head. a simpler method of applying moist heat is to wrap the baby in a small blanket or turkish towel wrung out of hot water. a physician should be at once summoned, but if he is not in reach anıl the convulsions recur an enema of five grain tablet of sodium bromide dissolved in an care of children ounce of tepid water may be administered and retained by pressure upon the anus, or half this dose may be given by mouth to a child of months, every two hours if necessary. a night light. after effects although as stated, death is rarely due to a convul- sive seizure, it is none the less to be dreaded, and all means should be employed to ward off its recurrence, for the reason that severe spasms, from whatever cause, may result in permanent injury to the delicate tissues of the brain, among the results of which may be paralysis, with mental impairment. contagious diseases sourco of infoction contagious diseases are those due to germs carried to the individual from some other person suffering from that disease. these germs may come through direct contact or may be brought by air, water, food, clothing, books, papers, letters, etc., so that the source from which the child is exposed is often difficult to trace. of the contagious diseases we will consider only those most commonly found in infancy and childhood, viz., measles, scarlet fever, chicken-pox, diphtheria and whooping cough. they have a common resem- blance in that they have a stage of incubation (the interval from exposure to the first symptoms), all are self limiting diseases (run out their course), all are accompanied by more or less fever, one attack usually immunes from a second (except in diphtheria), each has the characteristic skin eruptions (except diph- theria and whooping cough), and each has its stage of invasion (the interval between the first symptoms and the appearance of the characteristic symptom). eruptivo fevers measles measles, german measles, scarlet fever and chicken- pox are called the "eruptive fevers." measles is the most frequent and most contagious, attacking all ages and is most prevalent in the winter season. it is contagious during stages of incubation, probably from the breath of the patient, and is rarely carried by a third person. though lightly regarded care of children symptoms of measles by most people, measles is a very serious disease, espe- cially in delicate children, where it may prove fatal from the broncho-pneumonia or tuberculosis which frequently follows it. the attack begins with the symptoms of a bad cold; eyes red, nose wet, fever, hoarseness, sneezing and cough, with slight sore throat, coated tongue and fe- verish breath. about the fourth day the rash appears, first on the face, gradually spreading downward over the trunk and limbs, which it usually covers in twenty- four hours. this consists of dusky red, slightly ele- vated, flattened papules, from wheat grain to split pea in size. on the face and trunk, especially, they run together, giving a blotchy look to the dark red with little spaces of normal skin between. the rash period is less than a week and fades away gradually. the eyes may be very troublesome and permanent im- pairment often follows. the cough may increase with symptoms of pneumonia. the fever, in uncompli- cated cases, subsides with the rash, which is followed by a falling off of fine branny scales continuing dur- ing the week of convalescence. treatment: call a doctor, avoid bright light and put child to bed in a warm room. german measles (roetheln) a milder disease than measles, for which it is fre- quently mistaken. it generally comes in epidemic form in the winter season. the rash appears on the second day, first on the face in pale rose spots slightly scarlet fever elevated, size of pin head, which usually remain sepa- rate. when they do run together they do not form blotches like measles but rather a continuous redness like scarlet fever, for which it is sometimes mistaken. the rash spreads downward rapidly over the body, at the same time beginning to fade from the face so that in three days it has disappeared. the fever is slight, with a little sore throat and wet eyes and nose. usually small scales from the outer skin fall off a few days after the rash. treatment: protect from broncho-pneumonia by keeping in bed on light diet. scarlet fever (scarletina) scarlet fever is very common at all ages above six months. occurs most frequently in autumn (after schools open) and is very contagious. the germs may be carried in clothing and may live for a year stowed away in clothes and bedding. the disease may be so mild as to be overlooked or so severe as to destroy life in hours. the mildest case may furnish germs for one of the severest type, hence the importance of recognizing and isolating every case. it usually comes on suddenly with vomit- ing. high fever appears on the first day and rash on the second. eruption first appears on the neck and spreads rapidly over the body and limbs but usually spares the face. the color is uniformly scarlet in typ- ical cases with pin points of intense red showing through. the throat is red and sore from the begin- virulence care of children earache earache may be the first intimation of an inflamma- tion of the middle ear. the screaming infant may sometimes pull his hair or put his hand to the affected side of the head. gentle pressure with the thumb in front of or behind the ear may cause flinching from tenderness. after pus has formed its pressure will usually rupture the drum membrane and allow a dis- charge through the external passage. inflammation of the middle ear is usually due to infection from the throat or naso-pharynx through the tube (eustachian) which connects the two cavities. acute congestion of rubber ear syringe. the ear with intense pain is sometimes the result of ex- posure to cold or drafts and may be relieved by hot applications as salt or water bag. the infected ear may be gently filled with hot water or warm sweet oil, care being taken not to burn. so great harm results from neglected ear trouble that the best medical advice should be obtained upon the appearance of the first symptoms. aside from pain and danger of impaired hearing from formation of pus in the middle ear it should be remembered that danger of meningitis table of contagious diseases. disease from exposure to first symp- toms day of charac- characteristic symp- teristic toms by which the disease is recog- symp- nized. toms other principal symptoms duration of disease from important after first effects symptoms measles (bubeola to days german measles (rotheln) to days and scarlet fever (scarletina) to days broncho - pneu- dusky red spots, starts with red monia, tuberculo- th slightly elevated be eyes, wet nose, and to sis, diarrhoea di. ginning on face and cough with hoarse- day days seases, eye disease spreading over body. ness. ear disease. bright pink spots slight fever and st to or papules beginning but little indisposi- on face and extend- rarely any. day days ing rapidly over body tion, starts with sore continuous bright throat, vomiting (or ear disease, nd to red rash, extending convulsions) heart disease, from neck down- gland disease, day wards over trunk itching and feeling high fever, later days or longer anarmia, bright's and limbs. of skin. disease. scattered blisters st to on face and body, a very little fever. nothing but from grain of wheat days pock marks. to split pea in size. ear, nose, or greyish white slight fever, debi. throat diseases. st or nd membrane on throat lity, sore throat, to kidney disease. or bidden behind the croupy cough, or dis- paralysis of soft day weeks palate or in the charge from the nose palate and sudden larynx. enlarged neck glands death. recurrent pro- longed paroxysms of bronchitis, nd cough (with or with vomiting after to broncho-pneumo- week out whoop) fermin- | cough. weeks nia, pulmonary, ating in gagging or phthisis, vomiting. chicken pox (varicella) to days day to diphthers. days whooping. cough (pertussis) to days care of children ipecac, syrup of.--as an emetic give a year old baby / tea- spoonful, followed by drink of warm water. repeat dosė every minutes until vomiting. lime water. mustard. peppermint, essence of. sweet oil. vaseline. absorbent cotton, antiseptic. adhesive plaster. alboline atomizer (constructed to spray oils). ear and nose syringe. (soft rubber.) fountain springe. flexible rubber catheter, number (for rectal tube). gauze, antiseptic. hot water bottle. hygiene of the child and youth moro caro not loss getting the baby out of arms should not diminish the mother's care, but the same protection as given in the nursery should extend throughout childhood, with such modifications as the changing anatomy and physiology demand. in fact, the child of two or three years should receive more of her time and thought than the younger babe, for it is now that his training in personal hygiene should begin and habits of per- sonal cleanliness be established. after infancy, the danger from death may be lessened but not of per- verted development. the fact that a child is able to dress himself does not relieve the mother of the responsibility of seeing that he is properly clothed, and even though he is old enough to sit at the family table, especial attention must still be given to his diet and manner of eating. thorough mastication is a most important feature of the child's early training and he should not be allowed to “wash down” his food. he should eat some foods requiring vigorous mastication, such as toast and hard cracker, to help in developing strong teeth. too frequently the temporary teeth are neglected both as to personal and dental care under the mistaken impression that their early loss renders them of little importance. even were this true (which it is not) the health and comfort of the child would suggest that they be kept clean and in perfect condition as long care of the toeth care of children care of the throat as they remain. to accomplish this end the teeth should be thoroughly brushed and the mouth cleansed with a pleasant antiseptic, such as dilute listerine, boro- lyptol or glyco-thymoline, night and morning (especi- ally at night) and the slightest decay of the teeth should be referred to the dentist. after a child is taught to properly cleanse his mouth it is but a short step to teach him to garzlé and this mastered a little tact and patience on the part of the mother or nurse will soon initiate him into the use of the atomizer and nasal douche, accomplishments which may prove of inestimable value at some critical time. every night and morning (oftener if necessary) the nasal passages should be freed from excessive secre- tion, not only so that the child can breathe through his nose but to get rid of material which harbors in- fections. the child should early be taught the use of the handkerchief and required to carry his own and impressed with the danger of contact with those soiled by others. any tendency to mouth breathing should be immedi- ately corrected and if necessary the advice of a physi- cian sought. deep breathing should be early taught and insisted upon until it becomes a firmly established habit. this cannot be accomplished with unsuitable clothing or without correct postures in standing, sitting and walk- ing. frequent exercise in the open air, such as taking a deep inspiration while five, ten or even fifteen sec- deep broathing hygiene of the child sleep bathing onds are being counted, may be made a game of com- petition. the need of plenty of sleep throughout the entire developing period can not be unduly emphasized and to this end quiet, well ventilated chambers and indi- vidual beds are necessary. young children should retire soon after the light supper. studying, playing or reading by artificial light may interfere with the rest and recuperation required after the fatigue of the day. the frequency, duration and temperature of the bath should depend upon the reactionary effects upon the child. a cold tonic shower bath is best given in the morning and should not last more than half a minute. the child should stand in warm water which covers his feet and be gently sprayed with warm water before turning on the cold shower. if a shower bath is not available, a quick sponge with tepid to cold water with a brisk toweling may be given. the advisability of the cold baths should be decided by the family physician, as all children should not take them. the warm bath may be given before retiring if suffi- cient time be allowed for the digestion of the supper. general bathing should never immediately follow a meal. education childhood is recognized as the p.aytime of life and most of the plays of children are educational in their tendency. that physical development and training care of children games for girls should take precedence of the mental is self-evident to all who witness the sad spectacle of an over-trained mind in a feeble body. in childhood, at least, girls should share the outdoor sports of their brothers. there is no reason why the pleasurable and useful exercise of running, jumping, swimming, rowing, skating, riding, cycling and most games should be confined to boys. the cry of "tom- boy” has deprived many a girl of the physical founda- tion for the duties and responsibilities of mature womanhood. rousseau says, and truly, the weaker the body is, the more it commands; the stronger it is, the more it obeys. “a well-trained nervous system is the greatest friend that the mind can have.”-halleck. the country affords special advantages for the nor- mal development of the child, for here it is that he comes close to nature which furnishes innumerable object lessons and problems which his inherent curi- osity impels him to solve. thus he is led to develop himself through a symmetrical training of muscles and brain. for the city child, these conditions should be approximated as nearly as possible. the brain, relatively large, even at birth, is suscepti- ble of very rapid development. if, however, this be allowed to exceed that of the muscles, irreparable dam- age may result and mediocrity take the place of early precocity through early exhaustion of the brain cells from over stimulation. it must never be forgotten development of the brain - hygiene of the youth poriod of woak heart that young nerve cells tire quickly, not yet having the stored energy of maturity. the younger the child the more should the early educational efforts be restricted to the larger groups of muscles,-leg, arm and body exercise rather than those of the fingers and smaller groups of muscles which require concentrated efforts at finer co-ordina- tion. the use of the needle, pencil, brush and scissors may well be deferred and replaced by romping games, efforts at house building with large blocks or shovel and sand pile. the proverbial laziness of the boy of eight years is based upon a physiological fact which is too frequently overlooked. his heart at this time has not kept up with the rapid growth in body length and is barely able to maintain the circulation of the blood for ordinary mental and muscular exertion. he is least fitted at this time for the extra demands made upon him for running errands and doing all sorts of chores which he usually does clumsily and tardily because of ex- cessive fatigue. many boys and girls are stunted for life or succumb to infectious disease from excessive burdens imposed during this period of weak heart, namely, from the eighth to the twelfth year. it has been shown often that the purpose of our so- called educational systems has been defeated by ig- norance of the child's capacity for concentrative atten- tion to a given subject. fifteen minutes is about the limit for a child between five and seven years of age limit of attontion care of children and the grammar school pupils rarely show a ca- pacity for more than thirty minutes of uninterrupted study. this power may be even further reduced by debilitating conditions, such as improper food, im- paired digestion, physical fatigue, insufficient sleep or vitiated air of the school room. year . boys girls time eyo and ear strain krohn's diagram representing relative time of fatigue at different ages. early exhaustion of nerve force is frequently in- creased by eye strain from defective vision and pupils often appear dull at school because they can not see distinctly maps, charts or blackboard exercises. in the same category as a cause of apparent mental dull- ness is defective hearing,—the words of the teacher failing to make a definite impression upon the child's sensorium, with resultant confusion of ideas. in this respect a grave responsibility rests upon parents and teachers. the oculist and aurist should be frequently pubescence schoo hygiene consulted and any defects in these "avenues to the mind" corrected. the subject of school-room hygiene is too broad to receive more than passing mention here. the parent should visit the schools and satisfy himself as to the heating and ventilation of the rooms in which his chil- dren spend so many hours. the seating with refer- ence to light and vision, adaptation of seat and desk to the size of the child so that undue fatigue or actual deformity may be obviated, should also be given con- sideration. is there a judicious alternation between mental concentration and free-limbed exercise suitable to the child's age? pubescence pubescence is a period of the greatest importance in the development of the child, not only physically but mentally and morally. the rounding out of the girl's physique with broad- ening of the hips and rapid growth of the breasts sug- gests the approach of menstral function. this should never be allowed to take the little maiden by surprise, but the mother should have prepared her daughter's mind for this sign of womanhood. unfortunate is the girl whose mother has not had the tact and courage to instruct her beforehand concerning the true meaning of conception, gestation and motherhood. many lives have been lost or ruined because the mother has failed in her duty in this respect. probably the best argument for the early study of changes in the girl care of children oaro biology, including botany, is the natural introduction thus afforded to the great mysteries of ovulation, fruc- tification, conception, gestation and parturition and the true physical relation of the sexes in the great plan of life. there is nothing to shock the modesty of the normal girl if these subjects are properly approached along the lines of comparative biology. the pubescent girl's periodical indisposition should be recognized and guarded from undue burdens and responsibilities, as the foundation for future suffering and disease is often laid at this time. the woman is fortunate whose pubescent life escaped the crippling effect of tight or high-heeled shoes, whose anatomy has not been distorted and generative organs disar- ranged by the corset, and whose moral and social edu- cation has followed natural family and domestic lines rather than the artificialities of the so-called modern society. wholesome companions and literature, out-of-door exercises and amusements with reasonable domestic responsibilities should alternate with judicious selec- tion of musical, physical and literary curriculum in well-selected schools. the judicious parent will endeavor to teach the pu- bescent boy manliness rather than mannishness, and to inculcate early reverence and respect for pure womanhood. he should have the companionship of pure-minded girls. the boy ought to be taught by a senior whom he re- the boy pubescence veres (preferably his father) the true meaning of sex differentiation and sexual passion. it should be clearly shown him that venereal disease with its far-reaching baneful effects lurks ever as the penalty for licentious- ness. he should be given to understand that an oc- casional seminal emission while sleeping is no more sinful than a transient hemorrhage from overcharged blood vessels or vomiting for an overloaded stomach. above all, he should be taught to respect his own body. here again competitive athletic sports, good litera- ture, the study of natural sciences with abundance of out-door life will lead the boy away from tendencies toward immorality and dissipation. close confinement to books and literature too fre- quently causes physical and mental collapse during pubescence, for which the prizes for scholarship are not infrequently responsible. plenty of fresh air both day and night and the daily cold bath are items of tre- mendous value in the hygiene of pubescence. empha- sis and encouragement to physical development should be given by the parent at this time (and at all times). better take the boy or girl out of school for a term or two, if necessary, than to harm his body for life. book learning can easily be made up, but perverted physical development often can never be rectified. physical dovolopment most important . care of children bibliography care of the baby ($ . , postage . ). j. p. crozer griffith, m. d. care of a child in health ($ . , postage . ). n. oppenheim, m. d. care and feeding of children ($. , postage . ). l. e. holt, m. d. century book for mothers ($ . , postage . ). yale and pol- lock. development of the child ($ . , postage . ). n. oppenheim, m. d. hygiene of the nursery ($ . , postage . ). louis starr. theory and practice of infant feeding ($ . , postage . ). henry dwight chapin, m. d. food and principles of dietetics ($ . , postage . ). robt. hutchison, m. d. chapters , , . school hygiene (for teachers) ($ . , postage . ). edward r. shaw. medical books diseases of children ($ . ). a. c. cotton, m. d. pediatrics—hygiene and medical treatment of children ($ . ). t. m. rotch, m. d. diseases of infancy and childhood ($ . ). l. e. holt, m. d. test questions the following questions constitute the "written reci. tation" which the regular menībers of the a. s. h. e. answer in writing and send in for the correction and comment of the instructor. they are intended to emphasize and fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. care of children part ii read carefully. place your name and address on the first sheet of the test. use a light grade of paper and write on one side of the sheet only. leave space between the answers for the notes of the instructor. answer every question fully. read the lesson paper a number of times before attempting to answer the questions. . . does crying benefit the baby? if so, how? . describe different cries and give their interpre- tation. . what do you understand by nervousness in a child? name some causes for nervousness and the symptoms. . (a) what does fever indicate in an infant? (b) what may be done for its relief? . (a) what is an ordinary cold? (b) why is no cold trivial ? . give the cause of sore throat. . (a) what is the "anarchist's den"? (b) how may it be cared for? . what contagious diseases are the most danger- ous and why? mention the possible after effects of measles. of scarlet fever. . what causes convulsions? why are they to be dreaded? . what should be done for their immediate re- lief? what for their prevention ? io. sodium citrate in infant feeding * by a. c. cotton, m. d. the infant deprived of the breast must, in relation to his feeding, be regarded as a pathologic problem. that this statement is axiomatic is shown by the fact that more earnest work has been bestowed on infant feeding during the past twenty years than on all other pediatric subjects combined. that the problem is still unsolved the high relative mortality and later morbidity (illness) of artificially fed infants bear constant witness. the six essentials of cheadle, enunciated by that observer some time in the ' o's, bear witness that the essential requirements of an artificial food for babies were broadly understood twenty years ago. quoting from memory, they are briefly as follows: . steril- ity. . antiscorbutic property. . quantity. . some animal constituents. . form suitable. . constituency. much has been learned since cheadle by amassing clinical results and observations. mean- while the deductions from a priori reasoning have proven unsatisfactory for the simple reason that so little was known of the physiology of infant digestion. latterly the premises from which we reasoned have been proven, almost without exception, to be incor- rect. * read in the section on diseases of children of the american medical association, at the fifty-seventh annual session. june, . reprinted from the journal of the american medical association of octcber , . care of children thus the great american experiment known as the exact percentage method of feeding required that the baby's diet should consist wholly of cow products and water, so modified in its five gross constituents as to coincide quantitatively with simi- larly named constituents of average breast milk. one other ingredient only was allowable in this feeding mixture, viz., some alkalin solution, as lime water, sodium bicarbonate, or magnesia. this dogma, which in connection with laboratories established throughout the country had almost become a cult in infant feeding, was practically based on seven assumptions, which have recently been proven erroneous, to wit: . the qualitative similarity in breast and cow's milk of the lactose, fats, albuminoids, proteids and their chemical combination with the milk salts. . the claimed alkalinity of breast milk in contra- distinction to the acidity of cow's milk. . the possibility of a synthetical substitute for breast milk from cow products alone. . the claim that cereals were not allowable because indigestible in the infant's secretions and that they induced dyspepsia and intoxication by acting as decomposing foreign matter. . that cereal gruels were no more efficient in the prevention of dense milk coagula than dilution with plain water. . that hci played no part in the digestive process until later infancy. care of children acidulated milk has been tried; admixture with gruels has been tried; koumiss, matzoon, and kephir milk have been tried; the addition of various alka- lies is much in vogue; all with varying degrees of success, and each measure has its ardent advocates. that the question is not yet settled this diversity of opinion amply indicates. it is still an open field, and the cry that no chemical tampering with the milk should be encouraged need deter no one, since it is proven beyond dispute that cow's milk, however modified, is not a natural food for the human infant. the more orthodox observers of the original labora- tory percentage modification have from the first chemically tampered with the milk in the addition of lime water, sodium bicarbonate, etc., in the mistaken notion of humanizing the mixture by rendering it alkalin. that we reached further than we intended in our administration of alkalies and secured tolera- tion of the curds through neutralization of the normal gastric acids does not lessen the evils of inhibition of those digestive processes which can occur only in an acid medium. since deductive methods from a priori reasoning have thus far failed of a satisfactory solution of this problem, let us welcome inductive methods conducted along rational lines, since massed clinical evidence must ever be the tribunal before which all method must come to trial. whether secundus artem or secundus scientiam, it is the greatest number of babies care of children its effects for a considerable time, also, by the courtesy of dr. vanderslice, a history of cases reported by him at different times to the chicago pediatric society. in addition to this i have read carefully dr. shaw's report of cases, making a total of cases embrac- ing nearly all conditions from simple dyspepsia to marasmus and ranging in age from the new born to adults who have suffered from milk dyspepsia. sodium citrate being very soluble in water, the method of employment is simple, as follows: an aqueous solution is ordered containing from to gr. to the dram. a quantity of this solution is furnished the mother or nurse with instructions to add to the baby's bottle immediately before feeding enough of the solution to represent , , or even gr. of the citrate to each ounce of milk in the feeding mixture, accord- ing to the prescriber's idea of the requirements. the feeding mixture may consist of varying dilutions of milk with water or gruel, with the addition of cane or milk sugar, with or without cream. no alkalies are added, the sodium citrate used being a neutral salt. a most noticeable feature in this method of feeding is the large proportion of milk in the feeding mixture that the infant will tolerate without evidence of gastric disturbance or the appearance of any considerable amount of undigested casein in the stools. in fact, the stools of babies fed on citrated milk have come to be regarded by drs. merrill, vanderslice, and myself as positively characteristic, being firm enough care of children bring the baby's feeding up toward whole milk as rapidly as possible. as toleration is established the amount of citrate is reduced to one, to one half and to one fourth of a grain per ounce of milk until it can be discontinued. it happens not infrequently that the citrate is profitably resumed on the recurrence of signs of indigestion. in but cases have i felt obliged to discontinue the citrated milk and adopt other methods of feeding. some of these were among my early cases which, if occurring later, would pos- sibly have received a more persistent treatment with citrated milk. in consideration of this subject three questions naturally arise: i. is the employment of sodium citrate any better than other methods of rendering cow proteids tolerable and digestible? . is its employment harmful? . in what manner does it act? in answer to the first i would say that this method seems to allow a more rapid increase in the propor- tion of milk ingested than any other known to me. moreover, the frequency of relief from milk indi- gestion on the addition of the citrate and the favor- able reports from all whom i have known to give it a thorough trial are not without significance. in regard to its harmfulness, no case of citrated milk feeding has been brought to my attention in which there appeared to be cause for regret because of the employment of this method. care of children milk (to one of which sodium citrate has been added) drop a given quantity of liquid rennet and dilute hydrochloric acid. in both milks coagulation occurs, with this difference, that the citrated milk clots less promptly and the resultant curd is softer, less dense, more nearly resembling the curd of breast milk. my assistant, dr. f. w. allin, as the result of more than a hundred careful comparisons, has obtained the following results: materials used.—ordinary dairy milk was used in these experiments. wyeth's liquid rennet was used for curdling agent, which was always added last. a i per cent hydrochloric acid solution and per cent sodium citrate solution were used. two drops of hcl in c.c. milk equals . per cent. five drops of sodium citrate solution equals . per cent. one grain of sodium citrate to the ounce of milk would be . per cent. the gruels were stand- ardized to one ounce of flour or oatmeal to the quart of water and cooked three hours in a double boiler. conditions.—the experiments were all performed at c. in glass test tubes. the milk was used as whole milk or diluted with water, flour gruel, or oat- meal gruel. the dilutions made were two thirds, one half, one third, one fourth, one eighth milk. conclusions sodium citrate in . per cent, or more, retards, and very high percentages will inhibit coagulation. i. the soother milk supply and methods of handling the same, also in the means of protection from germs which might prove detrimental to the quality of the milk or injurious to the digestive apparatus of the infant. pasteur- ization, and even sterilization, though undoubted- ly depreciating the food value of the milk as well as its digestibility, are advocated by many who would minimize the danger from the introduction of path- ogenic micro-organisms with the food. for the same reason, the improved hygiene, including the care of the nursing bottle, the sterilization of the nip- ple, the antiseptic care of the baby's mouth, and everything pertaining to the act or process of feed- ing, is widely practiced. the unanimity of the profession in regard to these details leads the writer to call attention to a glaring inconsistency in infant hygiene, which is so wide- spread as to come under the daily observation of every baby feeder. the long-tube nursing bottle is practically obsolete; indeed, some municipalities have enacted laws against the sale or use, for the evident reason which has been amply demonstrated – that the apparatus can not be kept germ-free. great cedit is due to doctor ernest mende, of buffalo, for his vigorous and successful crusade against this death-dealing tube. as though the nursling had not enough to contend with in securing his right to protection in our unhygienic homes, it would seem care of children formation, the writer does not believe, though he accepts the deformity or any other condition which interferes with free nasal respiration as prolific in the causation of naso-pharyngeal catarrhs, with hyper- trophy of adenoid tissue. the direct current in- spired in the mouth-breather incites tonsilar hy- peremia and hypertrophy, so that the familiar type of this deformity may prove the starting point to the lesions of the mucosa above mentioned. in the absence of heredity it may be questioned whether intrauterine conditions or pressure at the time of delivery, with or without forceps, may not influence the peculiar conformation known as con- genital adenoid facies." be that as it may, the fact is well known that an infant apparently normal at birth may gradually develop this oro-naso-facial deformity between the sixth month and the third year of its life. the not uncommon dental deform- ity produced by thumb sucking has been thoroughly exploited. little, however, so far as the writer knows, has been said in regard to the effect of the continuous use of the 'soother” in this connection. when we recall the plastic condition of the structures that make up the oral and nasal cavities, giving form to the infant face, and remember that ossification is incomplete at birth, proceeding only from numer- ous ossific centers with intervening areas of plastic tissue, it is not difficult to perceive that persistent, library of home economics complete home study course volumes, , pages, , illustrations; bound in green and gold; price, $ . per vol. food subjects chemistry of the household, food and dietetics, by prof. by margaret e. s. b., mass. in alice p. norton, un versity of chi- stitute of technology. cago. "a day's chemistry"—the unseen food economy, composition, nutri- forces in the common things met in a tive value and digestibility of foods; day's work-water, air, fire, fuel; how the body makes use of food; bal- chemistry of food, of digestion, of anced ration; healthful diet for the cookery, of cleaning, of laundry, of sedentary, the aged, the children, and stains, of lighting; home tests, etc. so on; food adulterations, "food val- ues,” etc. principles of cookery, by anna household management, barrows, by columbia university and prof. bertha m. terrill of university chautauqua school of cookery. of vermont. "a key to the cook books''-ana household finance; economy in lyzing and explaining the principles spending; division of income; house- on which success rests, particular ar hold accounting; system in house- tention being paid to economy of time work; the servant problem; buying and materials, menus, making a fire supplies and furnishings; marketing; less cooker, "directions for wait cuts of meat; season of vegetables; resses," "free hand cooking," etc. “co-operative housekeeping,” etc health subjects household bacteriology, by personal hygiene, by m. le- s. maria elliott, simmons college. bosquet, s. b., director of a. s. h. e. the microscopic forms of life and the human machine; running the their relation for good and evil to the machine; care of the machine-suffi- household; how to make "dust gar cient physiology to show the reasons dens''; disease germs and how to for the directions for maintaining avoid them; the protecting agencies health; emphasis placed on do rather of the body and how to keep them than don't; "ethics of health," "use active; sanitation, etc. and abuse of drugs," etc. home care of the sick, by amy household hygiene, by s. maria e. pope, presbyterian hospital, new elliott, simmons college, boston. york city. the healthful home; the best situa essentials of trained nursing; han- tion; the cellar; drainage, heating, dling and caring for the patient; lighting, disposal of wastes, plumbing nursing in contagious diseases; ob- tests, water supply; sanitary furnish stetrics; food for the sick; emergen- ings and care; hygienic housekeeping, cies; poisons and their antidotes; ban- etc. daging; communicable diseases, etc. household arts the house: its plan, decora textiles and clothing, by kate tion and care, by prof. isabel h. watson, formerly lewis institute bevier, university of illinois. and university of chicago. the development of the modern fully illustrated descriptions of home and the american house, plan- primitive and modern methods; tex- ning convenient houses, construction, tile fibres and fabrics; plain and or- floors, decoration and furnishing, sug- namental stitches; machine sewing; gestions for changes, repairs, house- cutting and fitting; color and orna- hold conveniences, "the cost of ment; children's clothes; repairs, etc. building," etc. children care of children, by dr. a. c. study of child life, by marion cotton, prof. children's diseases, rush foster washburne, editor "mothers' medical college, university of chi magazine." • cago. sensible and practical directions for care of the baby before and after the treatment of children; faults and hirth: healthful clothing; develop their remedies; character building; tient and growth; specific directions home occupations; play; associates; for feeding; food disorders; food for studies and accomplishments; relig- older children, treatment of children's ious training; the sex question, an- ailments; hygiene of the child, etc. swers to questions, etc. bulletins: free hand cooking, cts.; food values, cts.; the up-to-date home, cts. supplemental program arranged for classes on care of children meeting i (study pages - ) before baby comes. care of the child in health, oppenheim, pages - . ($ . , postage c.) century book for mothers, yale and pollock, pages – . ($ . , postage c.) care of the baby, griffith, pages – . ($ . , postage c.) the new born baby and his care. care of the baby, pages - ; century book for mothers, pages - . clothing century book for mothers, pages - . care of the baby, pages – . exhibit. ( ) make pattern, cut and finish a baby bag," as shown on page contrast this with a typical pinning blanket. ( ) show simple and tasteful baby's dresses and over elaborate dresses, ( ) trace the outline of a child's bare foot. ( ) show good and bad shoes. meeting ii (study pages - ) the nursery, sleep, bathing. care of the baby, pages - , – . century book for mothers, pages – . care of children see article on the soother in the supplement. development and growth century book for mothers, pages – . care of the baby, pages – . if possible, show a weight chart for some baby. (select answers to the test questions on part i and send them to the school. report on supplemental reading, etc. for the first two meetings.) meeting iii (study pages – ) natural food. food and dietetics, hutchison, pages - . ($ . , postage c.) care of the baby, griffith, pages - . if not familiar with food principles and their use in the body, read food and dietetics, norton (volume vi, library of home economics), or send to the department of agriculture, washington, d. c., for some of the free bulletins called farmers' bulletins: no. , principles of nutrition and nutritive value of food; no. , facts about milk; no. , milk as food; no. , sugar as food; no. , eggs and their use as food, etc. meeting iv (study pages – ) artificial feeding care and feeding of infants, holt. ( . postage c.) food and dietetics, hutchison, pages - . ($ . . postage c.) see article in the supplement on citrate of soda in infant feeding. see farmer's bulletin, no. , the covered milk pail; no. , clean milk. have a report on the local milk supply as to sanitary condi- tion of dairies, age of milk when delivered, enforcement of local regulations. . program visit a model dairy. send for the booklets of the manufacturers of the various “infant foods.” weigh the evidence. food for the second-year and older children. see food and dietetics, norton (vol. vi of the library) pages - . how to feed children, hogan. ($ . , postage roc.) (send in answers to the test questions on part ii and give a report of meetings iii and iv.) meeting v (study pages – .) food disorders. care and feeding of infants, part iii. century book for mothers, pages - ; – . minor troubles. send cent stamp to the state board of health, spring- field, ill., for their bulletin on “infant feeding." see article on "soothing syrups” in collier's weekly, april , . century book for mothers, pages - ; - . children's diseases. care of the baby, pages - . send to the state board of health, lansing, michigan, for their bulletin on diphtheria, scarlet fever, whooping cough, measles, meningitis, and teachers' bulletin no. , “ the milk problem." also send to the secretary of your own state board of health (to the capital city) for any bulletins on conta- gious diseases. meeting vi (study pages - .) hygiene of the child and youth. report on the ventilation, heating, lighting, and sanitary care of local schools. what attention is given to physical education. care of children read extracts from “the medical inspection of schools," lewis s. somers, m. d. prize essay, free from the publish- ers, the maltine company, brooklyn, n. y. ( c. of the school.) (send answers to the text questions on part iii and give a report of meetings v and vi.) care of children croup treatment for, cry, the, crying, persistent, daily outing, . diaper, material of, , diarrhea, summer, dietaries for children, digestion, completeness of, gastric, digestive organs, secretions, development of, diphtheria, cause of, symptoms of, diseases, contagious, nervous, symptoms of, table of contagious, drawers, dress of mother, i dressing, care in, drugs, use of, earache, ear strain, education, emotion, expression of, exercise, eye strain, eyes, care of, , fats, feeding, artificial, – , irregular, substitute, fever, scarlet, . fevers, eruptive, fluids, drain of, fontanelles, food, artificial, coarse, disorders, first substitute, for mother, food for older children, natural, other than milk, patent, recipes, semi-solid, test of, unadvisable, foreign bodies, formula, making up a,, formulæ, changing, fruit juices, furnishing of nursery, games for girls, genitals, care of, growth, relative, gruels, head, development of, shape of, health, symptoms in, hearing, development of, height, table of, hot weather diet, infant feeding, sodium citrate hgyiene, importance of, kicking, kumyss, lactation, period of, length, gain in, lime water, lungs, malnutrition, cause of, treatment for, marasnius, massage, maternity gown, ? materials for children's clothes measles, german, medicine chest, meningitis, mental attitude of mother, , in, care of children soother, the, , sore throat, spasms, cause of, special senses at birth, spine, condition at birth, ii standing, starch as food, sterilizing milk, stimulants, stomach, capacity of, stools, color of, substitute feeding, essentials in, sucking cushions, ii thumb, sugar, , summer complaint, after effects, surroundings and care, symptoms in health, syringe, use of, taste, development of, teeth, care of, , examination of, temperature of nursery, variations in, thirst, throat, care of, thumb sucking, under clothes, unsafe milk, uric acid, urine, examination of, viscous circle, vision, development of, vomiting, , cause of, walking, water bath, first general, water, importance of, weak heart, period of, weaning, early, time of year, weight at birth, chart, loss of, rate of increase in, table of, wet nurse whey, whining, whooping cough, winter clothes, milk, order of eruption, permanent, teething, retarded, temperature, , of baths, albert r. mann library new york state colleges of agriculture and home economics cornell university the problem cf seam strength and thread durability introduction the clothing manufacturers association of the united states of america has prepared this production research report with the cooperation of singer sewing machine company, the in on special sewing machine company, and the american thread company. the report is based upon data supplied by these companies, and the practical experience of prominent factory managers in our industry. this report details and analyzes the problems that are encountered in the clothing factory on matters referring to thread strength, the durability of seams, and the proper needles that might well be used so as to acquire a maximum of seam strength with a minimum of possible damage to the fabric. the problem of proper sewing has become increasingly important to all in view of the many new man-made fabrics being introduced in clothing. this report is one of a series that is being prepared for the benefit of the clothing industry in order to increase productive efficiency in all phases of manufacturing men's and boys' clothing. harry a. cobrin executive secretary page – l which is most evident when the garment is being sewn. now, the initial strength or pull of the seam is easy to determine in the shop from practical experience during the sewing process, but seam durability can only be tested when the consumer has worn the garment for considerable time. the problem of stitched seams has always been a matter of great consideration to the manufacturers in the men's and boys' clothing industry, but today it is of greater importance than ever before. as new fabrics are daily introduced into the clothing in- dustry and as these fabrics contain new fibers with new finishes, the problem of proper seams becomes complex and complicated. the old standards and methods that were of practical use when men's and boys' clothing were made of only the standard wool fabrics must necessarily now be reconsidered in view of the changing times; and this report endeavors to show how these new problems may be met in the average clothing plant in view of new fabric finishes, new synthetic fabrics, and new synthetic sewing threads. the new fabric ftntshes one of the prime causes for this reconsideration of seam strength and durability, is the large variety of new fabric fin- ishes which have increased in great numbers in recent years. it can be truly said that in the past few years, the textile industry has been revolutionized by the introduction of these new finishes. we now have finishes to increase strength, to repel water, to re- sist wrinkling, shrinking, flame soiling and mildew. this trend toward new finishes has been helped by extensive advertising cam- *- page – some attachments for overcom ing need le heat in sew ing fig. — needle cooler body fig. – needle cooler nozzle fig. — needle lubricafor fig. — thread lubricators cº- -: !-- *i;" |mar library bureau cat. no. cornell university library tt .b milli ruction... |||||| ng c mann clothing construction revised edition by clara. m. brown associate professor of home economics, the university of minnesota ethel. r. gorham instructor in home economics, the university of minnesota and aura. i. keever supervisor of home economics education, state of minnesota abcd efgh ijkl mn & º º ºw. thenzeus: ginn and company boston - new york • chicago • london - atlanta - dallas . columbus san francisco copyright, , by clara. m. brown, ethel. r. gorham and aura. i. keever all rights reserved printed in the united states of america . w --> - - ** - wº copyright, , by ginn and company qi be , the n at um regg ginn and company . pro- prietors - boston u.s.a. preface the use of this book in both high-school and college classes for a period of six years indicated that certain portions needed to be modified or amplified. the book as a whole has been thoroughly revised; some new topics have been included, such as children's clothes, draping and modification of pat- terns, and remodeling; many sections have been greatly amplified, such as those dealing with the alteration of pat- terns, fasteners, fitting, and sleeves. considerable material on tailoring has been added. the illustrations used in the first edition proved so valu- able that in the revision the number of diagrammatic draw- ings has been greatly increased. photographs have been used sparingly, but they have been included when needed to illustrate points which did not lend themselves to dia- grammatic representation. - the book provides a source of accurate information on the various aspects of clothing construction and should be of value to students in secondary schools and colleges and to home-makers. the organization of the book in terms of processes rather than in terms of directions for constructing different gar- ments has proved satisfactory; hence it has not been altered in the revision. content so organized does not go out of date rapidly, since construction processes are fundamental and are used year after year, although their application varies with changing fashions. in the construction of clothing one must make frequent decisions involving the choice of possible methods; in this revision special attention has been given to the relative iv clothing construction desirability and limitations of the different methods of han- dling various construction processes in specific situations. no attempt has been made to organize the content for teaching. the selection and organization of the subject mat- ter is the responsibility of the teacher, and will be deter- mined by the age, experience, and interests of the students. the alphabetic sequence and the encyclopedic treatment of the content have been planned to facilitate the use of the book and should not be interpreted as being a suggested order for class work. originally the book grew out of a seminar which was or- ganized in the division of home economics at the univer- sity of minnesota in an effort to obtain agreement between the clothing instructors and the members of the teacher- training staff on the techniques of construction. adella eppel ginter, muriel g. mcfarland, and iva i. sell, who were at that time on the staff of the university of minnesota, col- laborated with the present authors in the first edition. the composite experience of the authors included teaching in junior and senior high schools, in colleges, and in adult classes, as well as some trade experience, city and state supervision of home economics, and the training of home- economics teachers. . b. g. k. ; . m . r. . i. comtentſ page . order of the construction processes for a garment . . steps used in making a dress . bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . noncontinuous bands • continuous bands . belling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... when garment has no placket . when garment has a placket. attaching belting to skirts . belts and sashes . . . . . - - double belt or sash . single belt or sash . holding belt or sash in place . bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . marking bias strips • cutting and joining bias strips • fold- ing bias strips . bindings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bias binding methods of attaching a single bias binding . attaching a double bias binding (french bias). straight binding . blocking simple garments . . . . . . . . . . . . blocking kimono garments • measurements needed . amount of fabric required blocking a nightgown from ; widths of -inch fabric • blocking a slip . measurements needed . two- piece gored slip . collars . . . . . . - - - - . blocking collar patterns • convertible collars • making convert- ible collars • attaching convertible collars • detachable collars • nonconvertible collars • checking collar patterns • making col- lars • attaching nonconvertible collars • making and attaching nonconvertible coat collars v v clothing construction page . commercial trimmings and braids . . . . . . bias tape - used as bindings or facings . used as bands and folds • rickrack - applied to the wrong side • applied to the right side • military braid . used as a binding . stitched flat . soutache braid . applied flat . applied on edge - stickerei - ap- plied with one row of stitching on the right side • applied with two rows of stitching on the right side . darts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . placing of darts - making stitched darts . finishing darts on the wrong side . decorative stitches . . . . . arrowheads • bar tack • cable stitch . single cable • double cable • chain stitch - blanket stitch . lazy daisy - ladder . magic chain • open chain - zigzag chain • couching plain couching . puffy couching brick couching - interlacing stitch . machine couching crewel, or outline, stitch - cross-stitch . method a • method b . crow’s foot - darning - fagoting . ber- muda fagoting : variation of bermuda fagoting . diagonal fagoting straight fagoting - featherstitch - fishbone stitches • catstitch (catch stitch) . herringbone stitch . oriental stitch . french knots - method a • method b . hemstitching. plain hem- stitching . diagonal hemstitching . double hemstitching . italian hemstitching salin stitch . seed stitch . shell edge • smocking - plain smocking (honeycomb) . variations of plain smocking . draping . . . . . . - . preparation of dress form for draping - making the tight- fitting lining fitting the lining . padding the dress form . preparation of sleeve forms for draping - long fitted and padded sleeve • short upper-arm sleeve form of paper - general directions for draping . specific directions for draping - draping a kimono dress - draping a one-piece dress - draping circular skirts - draping collars • draping sleeves • draping coats . facings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bias facing - fitted facing . fitted facing for a coat front • straight facing contents vii . fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . buckles • buttons • marking the location for buttons • sewing buttons to the garment. linking buttons together. covering buttons • bound buttonholes • marking the location for the buttonhole • making bound buttonholes • finishing a slash - strip buttonholes • worked buttonholes • marking location - making worked buttonholes • eyelets - hooks and eyes • metal hooks and eyes • thread eyes and loops • lingerie guards • loops • making . attaching . snaps • marking location • sew- ing on snaps - zippers • attaching fitting - - - - - - - - - - - - - - preparation for fitting - standards for properly fitted gar- ments • specific fitting problems • one-piece dress or blouse - skirt • kimono garments gathering and shirring gathering - hand gathering - machine gathering without the attachment • machine gathering with the attachment • shirring. hand shirring. machine shirring. tucked shirring . corded shirring - rečnforcing shirring godets hems . plain hem • plain hem on a straight edge - narrow hems on curved edges. wide hems on curved edges. damask hem • french hem - rolled hem • hems on skirts, dresses, or coats - establishing the hem line . putting in the hem • caring for fullness in a hem • finishing the hem at the upper edge lace and embroidery - - - - - - - - attaching lace to an edge - inserting lace . attaching em- broidery • joining lace and embroidery linings dress linings - design of lining . edge finishes for linings • methods of attaching skirts to linings • coat interlinings • cutting - making and attaching - coat linings • cutting - making and attaching page viii clothing construction . . . . . . . machine hemstitching and picoting . . . machine hemstitching preparation for machine hemstitch- ing - picoting . preparation for picoting markings matching plaids, stripes, and figures . measurements mending darning . darning by hand on woven fabrics • darning by machine on woven fabrics • darning on knitted fabrics - mending leather gloves • patching hemmed patch - varia- tions of the hemmed patch . glued patch mitering patterns . selection of patterns - use of patterns • testing patterns . . methods . alterations in size of patterns • modification of the . . design of patterns • collars • skirts - sleeves • foundation pat- tern - making - preparation of fabric for cutting . placing pat- tern on fabric • cutting the garment • marking piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . plain piping combination piping and facing . piping set between two thicknesses of fabric plackets uses for different types of plackets. continuous-bound plackets. continuous-bound placket made in a slash with a lengthwise strip of fabric • continuous-bound placket made in a slash with a bias strip of fabric • continuous-bound placket in a seam - bound and faced placket - bound-buttonhole plackets . bound-buttonhole placket without a fly . bound-buttonhole placket with a fly . extension placket . fly placket . hemmed plackets hemmed placket in a slash - hemmed placket in a seam • lap placket . picoted placket - rolled placket - shirt- front placket - tailored placket - two-piece tailored placket - tuck placket - welt placket page contents . . . . . . plaits . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - plaited sections • plaited section cut as a part of the gar- ment • sections inserted in either a slash or a seam . plaited skirts - side plaits - box plaits inverted plaits. plaited trim- ming . preparation of fabric for commercial plaiting - making plaiting at home • cartridge plaits - plaits for draperies pockets - - - - - - - - - - - - - - patch pockets - making a pocket with a hem • set-in, or slash, pockets - bound pocket . lap pocket . welt pocket . flap pocket pocket set in lengthwise seams or under tucks • pocket combined with placket opening pressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pressing and shrinking cotton and linen - pressing silk • to steam-press silk • to steam silk before cutting . pressing rayon - pressing wool. to press wool . to shrink wool before cutting . suggestions for handling specific problems. wool • silk . rečnforcements . . . . . . gussets rečnforcing a corner . fitted facing corner stay . re- enforcing ends of machine stitching square knot - retracing machine stitching rečnforcing tailored garments - interfac- ings • taping remodeling seams. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - plain seams • seam finishes • cord seam . single cord seam • double cord seam • corded seam • fell seams - flat fell seam • standing fell seam • french seam . imitation french seam . lap seam . narrow lap seam - wide lap, or tuck, seam . rolled seam • slot seam . welt seam sleeves • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - set-in sleeves • establishing the normal armseye line • sleeves without visible fullness throughout the cap . sleeves without visible fullness at the armseye - sleeves with fullness at the armseye dolman sleeves • epaulet sleeves • testing the pat- tern . altering the pattern - cutting the sleeve • setting in the sleeve. fitting the sleeve. kimono sleeves • raglan sleeves • testing the pattern . setting in the sleeve . bottom finishes for sleeves • cuffs for blouses and dresses • cuffs for coats page x clothing construction . stitches . e - - - - - - - - - basting - backstitch - combination stitch - darning hemming . overcasting . overhand stitch . running stitch - slip stitch . supplies and equipment for sewing . sewing machine . additional supplies and equipment . swing tacks . . tucks . weights . index . page list of illustrations figure page . gathered fabric pinned to band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . band stitched to gathered fabric so that ends can be “locked” . . methods of finishing ends of belting and attaching to garment .. . marking bias on an irregularly shaped piece of fabric . . . . . . marking bias strips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joining bias strips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bias gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bias joined so that it may be cut in a continuous strip . . . . . . attaching bias binding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . attaching bias facing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . single bias binding attached so that nostitching shows on right side . finishing armseye with bias binding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . single bias binding attached so that stitching shows on right side . kimono garment without shoulder seam . . . . . . . . . . . . kimono garment with shoulder seam . . . . . . . . . ‘. . . . sleeveless gown cut from % widths of fabric . . . . . . . . . . slip with gored underarm seam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . blocking a flat collar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . blocking a rolling collar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . convertible collars differing in shape . . . . . . . . . . . . , . attaching convertible collar (method a) . . . . . . . , . ways of stitching around the end of a slash . . . . . . . . . . attaching a notched collar to a coat . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . attaching convertible collar (method b) . . . . . . . , . attaching convertible collar (method c) . . . . . . . . . . . . method of clipping curved edge and corner of double collar . . . attaching nonconvertible collar with bias facing . . . . . . . . method of attaching collar to blouse, in which closing is finished with wide hem or facing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . collar and facing cut separately from garment . . . . . . . . . collar cut as part of front facing or front of garment . . . . . . front section of collar cut as part of garment and back section cut separately . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . commercial trimmings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bias tape fagoted together to form a design . . . . . . . . . , . attaching rickrack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . soutache braid stitched to the garment by machine . . . . . . , . stitched darts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , x clothing construction figure , . arrowhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . cable stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cable stitching combined with smocking . . . . . . . . . . . chain stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . blanket stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lazy-daisy stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ladder stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . magic-chain stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zigzag chain stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . couching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . crewel, or outline, stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . cross-stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . crow's foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . bermuda fagoting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . variation of bermuda fagoting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . diagonal fagoting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . variation of diagonal fagoting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . straight fagoting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . featherstitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . catstitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . herringbone stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oriental stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . french knot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . plain hemstitching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . italian hemstitching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . satin stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . seed stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . shell edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . plain smocking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . smocking which holds little fullness in place . . . . . . . . . . gathering for smocking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . method of making smocking stitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . smocking with thread floating between units . . . . . . . . . variations of plain smocking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . draping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . draping collars and sleeves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . facings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . applying a facing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . attaching facings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . methods of attaching buckles to belts . . . . . . . . . . . , . sewing on buttons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . bound buttonhole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . strip buttonholes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . worked buttonholes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . list of illustrations xiii figure page . marking location of buttonholes with pins . . . . . . . . . . magnified buttonhole stitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . location of button and buttonhole on ends of a band . . . . . sewing on hooks and eyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lingerie guard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . making cord for loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . series of loops stitched together by machine . . . . . . . . . methods of attaching loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . attaching loops to a front opening finished with a binding . . . sewing on snaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . usual position of warp and filling yarns in a properly fitted plain garment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . blouse that draws across the back at the bottom of the armseye . gussets for kimono garments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sloping shoulders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square shoulders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . too small a neck line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . fitting garment that is too full at the neck line . . . . . . . . stretched neck line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . one-piece dress that sags at the underarm . . . . . . . . . . one-piece dress that pokes out in front . . . . . . . . . . . round shoulders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . underarm seam slants toward the front at the waistline . . . . skirt that swings to the front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . skirt with bisymmetric flare showing fullness unequally dis- , tributed on the two sides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . machine shirring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . corded shirring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gauge for marking a hem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . damask hem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . french hem with lace overhanded on as the hem is made . . . rolled hem held in place with whipping . . . . . . . . . . . using gauge to mark a hem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hem finished with an applied facing tape; fullness cared for by darts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hem with bias strip inserted and held in place with catstitching . entre deux set into a seam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lining, showing location of darts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lining set in a coat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lining pinned to coat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tailor's tacks . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . location on figure of measurements for misses' and women's garments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . location on figure of measurements for children's garments . xiv clothing construction figure page . darning a straight tear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . darning a three-cornered tear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . darning a diagonal tear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . darning a hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hemmed patch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . catstitched patch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . darned patch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mitered corner in a hem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . increasing bust measure and width of shoulder . . . . . . . . decreasing bust measure and width of shoulder . . . . . . . . increasing bust measure without increasing width of shoulder . increasing width of shoulder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . altering for narrow chest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . altering for round shoulders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . increasing hip measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . changing length of a dress pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . changing length of a skirt with a yoke . . . . . . . . . . . changing length or width of collar pattern . . . . . . . . . . changing amount of roll in a nonconvertible-collar pattern . modifying skirt patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . modifying sleeve patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cutting notches so that they will not interfere with seam. . . , . applying piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . continuous-bound placket in a slash . . . . . . . , . continuous-bound placket in a seam . . . . . . . . . . . . bound and faced placket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bound-buttonhole placket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . extension placket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . fly placket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hemmed placket in a slash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hemmed placket in an open stitched fell seam . . . . . . . . lap placket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . shirt-front plackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tailored placket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tuck placket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . welt placket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inverted plait inserted in a seam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . laying side plaits in a skirt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cartridge plaits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pinch plaits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , . patch pockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . bound pocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . lap pocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . welt pocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . list of illustrations xv figure page . pocket set in a lengthwise seam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pocket combined with placket opening . . . . . . . . . . . . pressing a sleeve seam on a padded roll . . . . . . . . . . . shrinking out fullness at the top of a hem . . . . . . . . . . double triangular gusset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rečnforcing a corner with a fitted facing . . . . . . . . . . . rečnforcing a corner with a stay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square knot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . interfacings for coats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . taping interfaced coat front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . intersecting seams, with leg seam turned toward the front and crotch seam turned toward the left . . . . . . . . . . . , . plain seam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘. . . . , . cord seam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . corded seam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hemmed fell seam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . stitched fell seam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . standing fell seam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . french seam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . imitation french seam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lap seams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . slot seam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . welt seam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . one-piece set-in sleeve without visible fullness in upper half . . two-piece sleeve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . measurements of sleeve length and width . . . . . . . . . . measurements of width and depth of cap . . . . . . . . . . changing the sleeve length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . changing the sleeve width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . altering the cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . two-piece sleeve basted together, showing fullness at elbow . . armseye divided into quarters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sleeve pinned into armseye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . shirt sleeve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . epaulet sleeve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , . raglan sleeve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . basting stitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . seam stitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hemming stitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . overcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . overhand stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . running stitch, showing position of fabric, hands, needle, and thimble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . covering for lead weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . clothing construction i. order of the construction processes for a garment the following list includes the steps ordinarily needed in making a dress, but certain variations will be necessary for a given garment. if one is making a blouse or a skirt, one can select the processes that are applicable to that garment. in any case, especially for the amateur, time will be saved and the final product will probably be more satis- factory if a definite working plan is made before the con- struction of the garment is begun. such a plan should include types as well as sequence of processes to be used. pressing should follow each stitching operation and should be used at any time when it will aid in construction. fasteners must be attached at the proper time; for example, bound buttonholes must be made before the edge is finished, while snaps are sewed on as one of the final steps. throughout the rest of the book the various construction processes will be found in alphabetic order, and one should consult the index for the page location of any desired process. in most cases several methods for handling a problem are suggested, and that one should be selected which seems best suited to the particular situation. steps used in making a dress . study pattern and accompanying instructions. . fit and alter pattern. . plan layout of entire pattern and cut garment. clothing construction . baste or pin garment together, including any darts, tucks, or plaits. . fit garment the first time and alter as needed. . stitch darts, tucks, or plaits. . rebaste altered parts. . refit garment. . stitch and finish shoulder and lengthwise seams. . finish neck line. . establish armseye and test sleeve pattern. . cut and seam sleeves. . set in sleeves, fit, pin, and stitch. . make sleeve plackets and finish lower edge of sleeve. . join waist and skirt, making placket if needed. . make and attach belt. . hang dress and put in hem. . press entire garment. . bands bands are used as cuffs, as belts which join garments together at the waistline, and for other similar purposes. gather, plait, or dart the material which is to be finished with a band. in case gathering is used, there should be two or more rows of gathers # inch apart. gathering may be done by machine, after lengthening the stitch slightly, or by hand. the method used will depend upon the material and the garment. the band should be cut lengthwise of the fabric, and it should be the desired length and twice the desired width, with allowance for seams on all four sides. sometimes it is desirable to distribute the fullness evenly when attaching the band to the garment, but often it is not; for example, in the case of cuffs on sleeves or bloomer legs little, if any, fullness is located for a short distance on each side of the sleeve seam or the crotch seam. bands noncontinuous bands noncontinuous bands are used on skirts and bloomers and may or may not have machine stitching visible on the right side, depending upon the effect desired and whether the garment warrants the handwork. the band is stitched in place by machine when the gar- ment is likely to have hard wear and frequent laundering. this method is generally used on under- wear and children's play clothes. place the wrong side of the garment to the right side of the band, being sure that the center of the band is at the center of the garment. at both ends the band should extend the width of the seam allowance (or more if reënforcement is desired) beyond the edge of the gathered or plaited section (fig. ). if the fabric is gathered, pin it to the band at the center and at the ends; pull up the gathering threads to fit the band and wrap them around one of the pins. distribute gathers along the band and pin them in place. use small basting stitches to hold the gathers in place, being careful not to bunch them. baste along either the top or the second row of gathers, depending upon the effect desired. if the fabric is plaited, pin it to the band at the center and at each end, and arrange the plaits evenly. stitch the gathered or plaited section to the band and then remove the bastings. turn under the ends of the band on the seam allowance, and then turn under the other edge. fold the band through the center and “lock” the ends by slipping the folded seam allowance at a over that at b (fig. ). see that the ma- chine stitching is entirely covered by the band. pin and baste it in place, and stitch close to the edge. the stitching fig. i. gathered fab- ric pinned to band clothing construction may be around the entire band or only along the one edge; in the latter case the ends are finished by overhanding or slip stitching. - the band is held in place with hand hemming when it is desired to have no machine stitching show on the garment. attach the band in the same way as when it is to be stitched in place by machine, except that the right side of the band is placed to the right side of the garment, and after the band is stitched to the garment and turned to the wrong side, it is hemmed in place instead of being stitched by machine. fig. . band stitched in either of the foregoing methods to gathered fabric with it may be desirable to make the band raw edges of ends and before it is attached. fold the band º: lengthwise through the center, right can be “locked” sides together, and stitch across the ends before attaching it to the gar- ment. crease the seams open, attach the garment to one edge of the band, and then turn the band right side out and hem or stitch the other edge in place. continuous bands a continuous band is used on the bottom of bloomers and of children's rompers and on the cuffs of sleeves which have no placket. join the ends of the band and press the seam open before attaching the band to the garment. attach as in either of the methods described, depending upon whether or not it is desired to have machine stitching show on the right side. belting . belting it is usually necessary to use belting when the garment is fitted at the waistline. the type of belting will depend upon the weight of the fabric, the design of the garment, the placing of the waistline, and the degree of snugness with which the garment fits at the waistline. belting may be a double lengthwise strip of fabric (unless selvage is used), a grosgrain ribbon, or commercial belting which may be boned or starched. the boned or stiff belting is used only in garments in which the belting fits snugly. there are occasionally fashions requiring the use of shaped belting, which may be purchased shaped or may be darted to conform to the desired shape. darts on each side of the center back are usually necessary if the garment is heavy or the person is sway-backed. shaping is almost essential when wide belting is used. when garment has no placket in a slip-over garment without a placket, a soft belting is ordinarily used. cut the belting the desired length plus seam allowances. join the ends of the belting, press the seam open, and insert the belting in the dress, with the joining seam next the dress and near the underarm seam. adjust the fullness when the garment is on the person. pin, baste, refit, and stitch or tack at intervals, either near the upper edge or along the center of the belting. if a double thickness of material is used for the belting, join the ends, then fold, stitch the edges together, and attach to the dress as already described. it is seldom satisfactory to use the garment fabric for the belting unless it is very firm and light-weight. wool should not be used for this purpose. clothing construction =- – t -º- c .* re------g mº- \ a ; - > n. / i (i) e ### $ (.) | `y - ‘. Ž \ i k- k / \ | $ . > z n |- +. § . . . z-------->|-jerſ.here a af i fig. . methods of finishing ends of belting and attaching to garment a, end finishes for stiff belting: ( ) blanket stitching, ( ) catstitching, ( ) overhanding; b, end finish for soft belting, showing reënforcement, with arrows indicating direction of stitching; c, belting attached to skirt, with stitching showing on the outside of the garment; d, belting attached to skirt, with no stitching showing on the outside of the garment; e, belting attached to dress, with no stitching showing on the outside of the garment when garment has a placket when stiff belting is used, the ends should meet and a hem of about inch should be turned back at each end. finish the raw edge by blanket stitching or hold it in place with catstitching (fig. , a); then overhand along the top belting and bottom edges of the belting. make a stay-belt before the garment is fitted. use at least two hooks and round eyes, but do not sew on the top hook and eye until after the belting is attached to the garment. when soft belting is used, the ends may either meet or lap. if they meet, handle like stiff belting, except that the hems are stitched by machine to form a reënforcement (fig. , b). if the ends lap, make the belt long enough to allow for the lap, and finish as described. sew on hooks and straight eyes after the belting is attached to the garment. when the belting meets, the eye end extends beyond the edge of the under side of the placket and the hook end ter- minates a distance from the upper side of the placket that is equal to the amount that the eye extends (see fig. , a). attaching belting to skirts * - belting may be attached with or without outside stitch- ing or with a binding or facing, depending upon the weight of the fabric and the effect desired. if outside stitching is used, turn under the seam allowance at the upper edge of the skirt and extend the skirt about # of an inch beyond the upper edge of the belting. finish the lap on the upper side of the placket with a facing of a light-weight fabric, cut enough longer than the width of the placket to allow it to extend under the end of the belting (fig. , c). stitch close to the edge of the belting. when outside stitching is used, the raw edges of the seam are between the garment and the belting. if the garment is a dress, join waist and skirt with a plain seam so that the placket opening may be finished as one continuous placket. adjust the garment to the belting, with the seam joining waist and skirt coming at the middle or near the top of the belting. pin, baste, fit, and stitch as a cord seam (see page ). clothing construction if no outside stitching is used, bring the seam allowance of the skirt over the upper edge of the belting. cover the raw edge of the skirt with a facing of tape or light-weight fabric and stitch through the belting along both edges of the facing. continue the facing to the end of the lap on the upper side of the closing, but hem by hand to the placket (fig. , d). sometimes it is desirable, especially on remodeled garments, to use catstitching over the raw edge instead of using a facing. in a dress join the waist and skirt (usually with a plain seam) and then stitch the belting to the seam from the inside (fig. , e). place the belting so that the raw edges of the seam come between the garment and the belting. adjust as already described. then stitch the belt- ing to the seam allowance through the two thicknesses, as close as possible to the seam line. when the top of the skirt will never be visible, it may be stitched flat to the belting at the desired distance from the upper edge. cover the raw edge with a binding if the skirt comes to the upper edge of the belting; otherwise use a facing. this method is especially desirable in the case of plaited or full-gathered skirts. it is frequently desirable to use this method in remodeling problems, since it permits one to add as much as % inches to the length of a skirt. . belts and sashes belts and sashes may be made single or double, and they may vary in width. they are usually cut on the straight of the fabric, but are sometimes cut on the bias for decoration or when a wide crushed sash is desired. the ends may be fastened together by means of buckles, buttons, hooks and eyes, or snaps, or they may be tied in some type of knot. belts and sashes double belt or sash cut a piece of fabric the desired length and twice the width of the finished belt, plus seam allowances. fold the belt lengthwise, right sides together. baste and stitch with the raw edges together, leaving open either one end of the belt or a short distance along one side, depending upon the design of the belt or the method of fastening to be used (fig. ). however, if the fabric is heavy and each end is to be attached to the buckle, both ends of the belt should be left open. before turning the belt right side out press the seam open, being careful not to crease the belt. if the belt is wide enough, turn it right side out over a ruler; otherwise turn by means of a bodkin or safety pin or by means of cord or tape inserted inside the belt and tacked at the end before the belt is made (see “fasteners,” pp. – , and fig. , a). when the opening has been left along the side of the belt, slip-stitch the edges of the opening to: gether and press the seam edge carefully. the belt should usually be attached so that the seam comes at the upper edge. this is especially desirable if the garment has a normal waistline and the belt fits snugly. note. if the belt is to be faced with a lighter-weight or contrasting fabric, cut two pieces of the desired length and width, plus seam allowances, and make a seam entirely around the belt (except for the short opening). single belt or sash cut a piece of fabric the desired length and width. finish with any suitable edge finish. holding belt or sash in place use inconspicuous overhand stitches, slip-stitching, or swing tacks to hold the belt in place; or slip it through clothing construction loops of thread, braid, or self fabric. in the case of garments that are to be laundered or cleaned frequently, it may be desirable to use snaps to fasten the belt to the garment; but care should be taken in locating and in attaching the snaps so that the belt will not have a drawn appearance. the folds of the sash may be tacked to the garment at intervals by means of several tiny backstitches or by swing tacks. ordinarily belts are tacked in place at the underarm seams and in addition at one or more other points, depend- ing upon the effect desired. . bias fabric cut on the bias may be used for bindings, facings, pipings, and folds. cuffs and tight-fitting sleeves, as well as gores in slips or dresses, may be cut on the biastoproduce a comfortable, close- fitting garment with- out visible fullness. marking bias strips fold the fabric so that the warp yarns lie parallel to the fill- ing yarns. if pieces of irregular shape are to be used, decide how the fabric should be folded to obtain the fig. . marking bias on an irregularly - - shaped piece of fabric, using pins to form longest strips possible guide lines and turning back the cut edge (fig. ). crease this as an added guide bias fold, being careful not to stretch the cloth out of shape. open the fold and mark along it, on the wrong side of the fabric, with pencil or tailor's chalk. decide upon the width of the strips. rule other lines parallel to the first one, to make strips of the desired width (fig. ). ruling is not nec- essary if the bias cutting gauge is to be used (fig. ). when ruling, hold the yard- stick firmly, so that the cloth is not stretched and pushed out of line when it is being marked. rule as many lines as are needed to give the required length of bias. when cutting twill fabrics, be sure to cut so that the twill runs per- pendicular to the bias edge instead of parallel to it. in soft or flimsy fabrics fig. . marking bias strips which cannot be ruled, place dots or insert pins at frequent intervals and cut for a short distance along the line thus marked; then fold back the cut bias as an added guide (fig. ). a////a \ cutting and joining bias strips when only a few strips are needed, cut on lines indicated. cut ends of bias strips, following either a warp or filling yarn, depending upon which is the heavier or more con- spicuous. all seams should run in the same direction. lay the right sides of the strips together, with the ends meeting, clothing construction so as to make the sides of the bias lie at right angles to each other. slip the point of one end beyond the other end a seam's width (about # inch). (if the fabric has a pattern, make sure that it matches where the strips are joined. sometimes it is necessary to plan for the matching before the strips are cut; sometimes it is merely a case of taking a deeper seam off the end of one strip than off the other.) stitch from the point where the edges cross on one side to the opposite side (fig. , a). when the seam is Æ pressed open, the edge line of the bias will be continuous, with no jog at the joining point (fig. , b). several strips may be pinned or basted so that the seams may be stitched at one time, with thread lengths of about inch left between each two seams. fig. . joining bias strips note. an adjustable gauge for cutting bias from # inch to % inches wide is one of the very useful attachments which comes with most sewing machines. this gauge is slipped on the end of the narrower blade of the scissors and set for the desired width (fig. ). then the cut bias edge is slipped into the slot in the gauge and the strip is cut (fig. ). to use this gauge successfully, the fabric must be quite firm. when many strips are needed, mark as many as neces- sary. instead of cutting each strip separately, cut only on the lines that mark the first strip and the last strip (fig. ). join the ends of the bias by matching to ’, to ', etc. (fig. ). stitch and press the seam open. cut, beginning on the line between and , and continue to the end. this makes one continuous bias strip. this method bias is applicable only when bias is being cut from a square or rectangular piece, eachedge of which is cut along a yarn. folding bias strips sometimes it is unde- sirable to use commer- cial bias because of the cost or because commer- cial bias cannot be ob- tained in the desired fabric or width. when it is necessary to prepare a considerable length of bias, the following sug- gestion for folding may fig. . above: bias gauge fastened to end of shears. below: use of gauge in cutting bias strips be helpful. on the ironing-board cover make a row of cat- \º stitching as wide as the desired width of the finished fold and use this as a guide in folding the bias. cutthe bias strip slightly less than twice the width of the guide, and allow each edge of the strip to fold almost to the center as it passes through the guide. crease the strip for an inch or two and then pull it slowly under the catstitching from right to left, pressing fic. , bias joined so that it may with the iron the part that is be cut in a continuous strip included by the catstitching. clothing construction when bias bands are to be applied to a garment, it is often difficult to get them of a uniform width unless the following method is used: pin the bias strip of fabric to the ironing board and, exactly in the center, lay a strip of thin card- board as wide as the band is to be made. with the iron, press each edge of the fabric over the cardboard; slide the cardboard along and continue pressing. if the strips are made of wool, the fabric will have to be dampened to make the creases stay in place (see pages – ). . bindings bindings are used to finish raw edges and may often serve as decoration. they usually show about an equal amount on both the right and the wrong side of the article. bias binding cut a true bias twice the finished width of the binding, plus two seam allowances; or, if the binding is to be double, cut the strip four times the finished width of the binding plus two seam allowances (see “marking bias strips” and “cutting and joining bias strips,” pp. – ). the seam joining the ends of a continuous binding should be placed inconspicuously—for example, at the underarm seam on an armseye or at a shoulder seam on a neck line. in attaching bias binding to a straight edge hold the binding slightly taut; when attaching to an edge with an outward curve ease slightly (fig. , b); when attaching to an edge with an inward curve hold taut (fig. , c). in the case of an outside corner the binding should be eased or mitered so that when finished it will lie flat (figs. , a- , and ). around an inside corner or at the end of a slash, bindings fig. . attaching bias binding a- , around an outside corner; a- , around an inside corner; b, on an outward curve; c, on an inward curve fig. io. attaching bias facing a–i, around an outside corner; a– , around an inside corner; b, on an outward curve; c, on an inward curve stretch the binding so that it will lie flat (figs. , a– , and ). unless the binding is very narrow and of a soft fabric, it may be necessary to get rid of fullness at the end of the slash by means of one or two tiny darts taken on the wrong side. clothing construction methods of attaching a single bias binding when nostitching is to show on the right side. if the binding is not to be continuous, baste with the right side of the bias to the right side of the article to be bound (fig. , a). stitch, turn the binding to the wrong side, and turn under the raw edge about # to # inch, or on the crease if com- mercial bias is used. pin and baste so that the folded edge fig. ii. single bias binding (wrong side) attached so that no stitching shows on right side a, bias stitched to edge of article; b, bias turned to wrong side and hemmed in place of the binding comes almost to the line of the first stitching. hem by hand to the machine stitching, using either slant or slip-stitch hemming, the latter being preferable if the wrong side of the binding is likely to show (fig. , b). if the binding is to be continuous, locate the seam by folding back the seam allowance along either the warp or the filling yarn, whichever was followed in joining the strips, so that when finished the center of the seam of the bias will be at the seam line of the garment. baste the right side of the bias to the right side of the garment, beginning about inches from the end of the strip (fig. , a) and continuing to a point about inches from the place where the ends are to be joined. pin seamends together, stitch, and press seam open. baste the rest of the way and stitch the seam joining the bias to the garment. press along the stitching bindings § a : o v. s s § ~$ § Š § ! º zo-' º § s º c - § º qw - § - fig. i . finishing armseye with bias binding , appearance on right side of garment when bias is basted in place; b, ap- pearance on wrong side of garment when binding is hemmed in place; c, appearance on right side of garment, showing location of joining seam in bias binding line and finish as described in the preceding paragraph. for appearance on the wrong and right sides, see fig. , b, c. note. when the fabric is so heavy that the usual method of binding would be too bulky, as in the case of velvet or heavy wool, stitch the bias strip on in the usual way, fold it over the edge of the garment, and let the raw edge extend a little beyond the stitching line on the wrong side (instead of turning it under). hold the right side of the garment toward you, and sew the binding in place with running stitches taken as close as possible to the binding. this method is suitable only when the raw edge of the binding is covered with a lin- ing or when the wrong side of the binding will not show. clothing construction when stitching is to show inconspicuously on the right side, proceed as when no stitching shows on the right side, ex- cept that the folded edge is brought just beyond the first stitching. baste and stitch from the right side so that the line of stitching comes just off the binding on the right side and catches the edge t . / . ttt | side (fig. ). since bind- ings may be attached this so that stitching shows (inconspicu- the former method, and ously) on right side since the stitching is quite very close to the edge of the binding, this method is fre- quently used even on silk garments. of the binding on the wrong in less time than b fig. i. . single bias binding attached way in less t y inconspicuous if it is made note. a variation of the foregoing method is excellent to use in binding seams in a coat which is unlined or lined only to the waist, especially if the bias is to be made of a lining fabric. in this case fold the binding over the edge of the seam, but do not turn it a second time. the raw edge of the binding should, of course, be between the seam and the garment. when stitching is to show plainly on the right side, as is the case when commercial bias is applied in one operation, use the binder attachment, if possible, as it gives a better- looking binding and is a great timesaver. this method is not satisfactory if corners or sharp curves are to be bound. a bias strip of fabric may be used in the same way as the commercial bias if it is cut exactly £ inch wide. if one does not wish to use the binder attachment, crease the bias a little to one side of the middle, and slip the edge to be bound into the fold so that the wider side of the bias comes on the wrong side of the garment. then, when it is stitched, the bindings lower edge will be sure to be caught. baste and stitch by machine from the right side. attaching a double bias binding (french bias) a double bias is used when the fabric is soft and likely to stretch and fray badly, as in light-weight satin or crêpe; or when the fabric is transparent, as in organdie, voile, or georgette. to attach a double bias binding, fold the strip (which has been cut four times the finished width plus two seam allowances) lengthwise through the center with wrong sides together, and baste with long stitches to keep it from slipping. place it on the right side of the article to be bound, with the raw edges of the binding even with the edge to be bound. baste, stitch, remove bastings, and turn the binding to the wrong side of the article. bring the folded edge just to the line of stitching, baste, and sew in place with vertical or slip-stitch hemming. straight binding edges may be bound with ribbon or straight seam binding. crease the binding strip slightly to one side of the center and attach by slipping the edge to be bound into the fold with the wider side of the binding on the bottom, that is, on the wrong side of the garment; then baste and stitch from the right side. when narrow silk binding ribbon is used to finish seams, it is often held in place with run- ning stitches and an occasional backstitch, instead of machine stitching. in this case no preliminary basting is needed. care must be taken, however, not to “full” either the binding or the seam. to prevent this, lay the gar- ment on a table, slip the edge of the seam into the folded binding, and pin at intervals, making sure that the binding and the edge of the seam are held with equal tension. clothing construction in a continuous binding the ends of the binding should be stitched and pressed open, and the seam should coincide with the seam line of the garment. . blocking simple garments it is often unnecessary to buy commercial patterns for simple garments. the pieces of the garment may be blocked according to individual measurements, either on paper (to save a pattern for future use) or directly on the wrong side of the fabric. approximately # inch is allowed for seams. blocking kimono garments measurements needed bust measure (see fig. ). garment length (see fig. , “shoulder to floor”). shoulder to bust (see fig. ). sleeve length is taken from the center bone at the back of the neck over the shoulder, down the desired length o the arm. - sleeve width is measured around the largest part of the arm, and to inches are added. width at bottom is determined by the type of garment, the fabric used, and the current fashions. amount of fabric required allow twice the garment length, including the hem, adding to inches extra for straightening the fabric and for shrinkage. kimono garment without a shoulder seam (fig. ). fold the fabric lengthwise, then crosswise, with the front length blocking simple garments or inches longer than the back. measure ba along the cut end of the fabric, equal to # the width at the bottom. measure ae along the crosswise fold, equal to the sleeve length. measure down from point e a distance ej, equal to ... crosswise fo/d e c d crosswise fo/d c. lz. // / /, / s ns s sº *\ qu qo - ve * - r > ss ss on qo c c qu qo ~j *~j a d b d fig. i. . kimono garment fig. i . kimono garment without shoulder seam with shoulder seam # the sleeve width. measure down from points a and c the distances ah and ci, equal to the shoulder-to-bust length. connect h and i. from h measure over a distance hf, equal to # the bust measure plus % to inches. now connect points e, j, f, and d, curving the line from j to f. clothing construction the neck line of the garment is usually higher in the back than in the front. slash along ae and ah according to the shape of the neck line desired. dotted lines indicate other possibilities for neck and sleeve lines. note. a kimono garment will fit better if one or more of the following adjustments are made : . the front is cut about inch wider than the back of the garment. . some of the surplus bulk over the shoulder is taken out by a shoulder seam (fig. ). . two or three darts are made in the front side of the underarm seam at the bust line (fig. ). . a dart is made in the front side of the underarm seam at the belt line (fig. ). . the neck line is cut wide (fig. ). kimono garment with a shoulder seam (fig. ). this method is preferable when blocking a dress. proceed as for blocking a kimono garment without a shoulder seam, but with the following changes: measure over on ac a distance ag, equal to inches; locate e at a point about or inches down from the crosswise fold and so that ega equals the length from the center of the back to the bottom of the sleeve; make the underarm seam of the sleeve approxi- mately parallel to the shoulder seam. the closer the gar- ment fits up under the arm, the less will be the tendency to tear at this point, because of the increased length this gives to the underarm and sleeve seam. blocking a nightgown from ; widths of -inch fabric (fig. ) two gowns can be cut from three lengths of fabric by this method, provided they are sleeveless. the lengthwise seams come farther back than do normal underarm seams. blocking simple garments front. measure off a length of –inch fabric equal to the front-length measurement of the garment. fold length- wise through the center. measure down from a the dis- c —º & § | : § r : q: n : n & : n. qu : § is u § § . §, : § * n : n § o : § n :s § :s :s q/ , - *— "— *— /o"— a/-o/ ° aac/r fig. . sleeveless gown cut from widths of fabric tance ae, equal to the shoulder-to-bust length. measure eh, a distance of to inches. draw dh and extend it or inches to l. from a measure over af, a distance of to inches. from a measure down ag, a distance of to inches. connect f and g with a curved line. from f draw clothing construction a slanting shoulder line fj, to inches long. connect points j and l with a curved line. back. measure off a second length of fabric and cut in the center lengthwise. make a lengthwise fold through the center of this -inch width. using the front as a pattern, lay it on top of the back with the center-front fold extend- ing # to inch beyond the center-back fold. cut the neck line, shoulder, and back of the armseye. blocking a slip measurements needed bust measure (see fig. ). garment length (see fig. , “armpit to floor”). hip measure (see fig. ). width at the bottom will be determined by personal prefer- ence and current fashions. two—piece gored slip (fig. ) front. fold the cloth lengthwise, at a distance from the selvage equal to ; the desired width for the bottom of the slip. note. sometimes it is more economical to cut the slip crosswise of the fabric. if so, fold the cloth crosswise instead of lengthwise. measure down on the fold a distance ab, equal to the garment length plus the hem allowance. draw a line from b to d. measure ac, equal to # of the bust measure plus inch. locate e at a point the depth of the hem above d and draw line dec (fig. ). sometimes e is located where the top of the hem will come, especially when the garment has a very deep hem. check the hip measure and mark the location for a dart at the bust line. clothing construction . collars collars may be classified in many ways, such as double and single, rolling and flat, attached and detachable. the classification of convertible and nonconvertible, however, seems the most satisfactory one, since the methods of mak- ing and attaching are entirely different for these two types. convertible collars are those which maybe worn fastened close up around the neck or open in a v-shape in front, whereas nonconvertible collars can be worn only in one position. methods of altering and blocking collar patterns are described because it is often necessary to alter the design of patterns; it is also often necessary to make changes in the collar pattern because of the alterations made in fitting the garment. collars range from those that lie perfectly flat to those that roll decidedly, or even stand straight up around the neck line. to model or block collars successfully, two principles must be understood: . the more nearly the neck line of the collar corre- sponds to the neck line of the garment, the flatter the collar will lie; or, conversely, the straighter the neck line of the collar, the greater will be the roll. in fact, sometimes in a convertible collar the neck line has even a slightly con vex curve. . no attached collar will fit well if the neck line is exactly like the neck line of the garment; it must roll enough to cover the seam by which it is joined to the garment. blocking collar patterns to establish the neck line of a collar, pin the waist pat- tern together at the shoulder seam and lay it flat on a piece collars of paper with the center back on the straight of the paper; or, if changes have been made in the fitting, use the garment instead of the pattern to de- termine the neck line of the collar. if the garment is used, fold the waist on the center-front and center-back lines, matching the shoulder - seams, and pin it to a piece fig. . method of blocking a of paper. flat collar to block a flat collar. trace or mark the neck line of the garment on the paper and remove the pattern or garment. cut on the marked line, making the neck line of the collar pattern like the neck line of the garment, except that inch is added at the center back of the collar — continuing the neck- line curve — and at the center front # inch or more is taken off, depending upon the length of the collar (fig. ). then when the collar is attached, the inside edge will be stretched to fit the neck line of the dress. shape the outside edge of the collar as desired. to block a rolling collar. straighten the traced neck line as needed for the type of collar desired (fig. ). for further suggestions see “modification of patterns—collars,” pp. – , and figs. and . i fig. i . method of blocking a rolling collar clothing construction convertible collars convertible collars may roll a great deal or slightly. they may be cut straight at the neck line or slightly curved, de- pending upon the roll desired (fig. ), and they may be worn with or without a vestee. when they are made double, the portion of the front of the garment that turns back with the collar is usually finished with a facing; occasionally such a collar is | – used when the opening of the garment a is finished with a binding. making convertible collars t- -t several methods are used for at- taching these collars. if method a c (fig. ) is to be used, the collar is made as it is attached; in methods b c and c it is made before it is attached. fig. . convertible in the latter cases the lining and the collars * differ in upper side of the collar are stitched together, as in any double collar; or if the collar is made of one piece of fabric, this is folded lengthwise through the center and stitched across the ends (fig. , b). attaching convertible collars method a. this method is best to use if the ends of the collar or lapel are notched or shaped, or if there is a possi- bility that the line made by the collar may need to be changed after the collar is joined to the garment. it insures a more perfect joining than one is likely to get with other meth- ods, and it is especially well adapted to semitailored coats. cut the front facing of the garment the desired size and shape. it is usually advisable to cut this facing with the center front on a lengthwise fold if the front opening does collars not extend to the bottom of the garment. finish the sides and bottom of the facing by overcasting, hemming, or turning the edge under and stitching it. the collar should be cut double or in two pieces (the upper and under sides of the collar) as long as the neck line of the garment, and as wide as the finished collar plus seam allowances. a a fig. . attaching convertible collar (method a) a, collar and garment ready for joining; b, collar stitched to neck line of garment join the under side of the collar to the neck line of the garment with the right sides together and with neck lines matching. have the ends of the collar even with the front opening of the garment. baste and stitch the collar to the garment (fig. ). press the seams open from the center front to each shoulder seam. join the facing to the upper side of the collar with right sides together and with the ends of the collar even with the edges of the front open- ing, and with the neck lines of the collar and the facing matching. baste and stitch to within about ; inch of the ends of the facing at the shoulders. press the seam open. clothing construction apply the right side of the facing to the right side of the garment, with the two sections \ of the collar coinciding (fig. ). be sure that the q seams exactly meet where % the collar is attached to the neck line of the garment and the neck line of the facing; also that the front openings in the facing and / the garment are the same length. baste together the fig. . attaching convertible collar raw edges, that is, the top (method a) and ends of the collar and this shows collar joined to both gar- the front opening. stitch ment and facing, and seam stitched in a continuous stitching around center-front slash across one end of the collar, down one side of the opening, up the other, and across the other end and top of the collar. for methods of stitching at the bottom of the opening see fig. . turn the collar right side out, thus bringing the front facing to the under side of the garment. usually the edge of the collar is turned under at the back of the neck line and hemmed to the first stitching, and the ends of the facing at the shoulder are turned under and hemmed to the shoul- der seam of the garment. if the garment is an unlined coat, a fitted facing for the back neck - r i i i | i i | | i i i i i i i i w - v i ºf - - - - wº * * * a b c fig. . ways of stitching around the end of a slash; also ways of clipping to per- mit neat turning a, square; b, pointed; c, round line should be cut and seamed to the front facings at the shoulders; then the collars - upper side of the collar should be joined to the front and back facings. the seams joining the under side of the collar to the garment and the upper side of the collar to the facings should be pressed open (fig. , a) and tacked fig. . attaching a notched collar to a coat a, back facing joined to collar in an unlined coat; b, front facing joined to front of coat that is to be lined; c, notched collar attached to coat, showing how to clip seam that joins collar to front of coat that is to be lined together at intervals. if the garment is a lined coat, the entire seam joining the under side of the collar to the garment should be pressed open, as well as the seam joining the facing to the upper side of the collar. clip the upper side of the collar diagonally to the shoulder seam line to permit the seam allowance of the collar to extend down on the garment across the back of the neck (fig. , b). this ‘raw edge is covered by the lining. clothing construction the notched collar is made according to the same general directions, except for the following changes: the collar neck line is shorter than that of the garment; hence the ends of the collar do not extend to the edge of the front opening of the garment and facing. when joining the collar to the garment make sure that the ends of the collar are at equal distances from the front opening. after join- ing the under side of the collar to the garment and the *— ſo/a/—- co//a/r a fig. . attaching convertible collar (method b) a, front facing stitched in place; b, collar folded and stitched across the ends upper side of the collar to the front facing, slash the gar- ment and facing seams to the stitching line (about ; inch from each end of the collar), and press the front sections of the seams up (fig. , c). then stitch a continuous line around the collar and front facing, being careful to keep the seam of uniform width. method b. in this method the front facing is cut the desired size and shape, and the sides and bottom are finished (unless the facing is to be stitched to the gar- ment with the stitching showing on the right side, as in a middy blouse). join the facing to the front of the garment, stitching around the marking for the center-front opening (figs. and , a). cut the front opening down to within collars a short distance of the stitching, clip if necessary, and turn the facing to the wrong side of the garment. stitch the ends of the collar together (fig. , b). place the under side of the collar to the right side of the garment, with the seams in the ends of the collar exactly meeting the seamsatthecenter-frontopening of the garment; then pinthe seams together. place - the upperside of the col- lar and the right side of the facingtogetheratthe neck line (both opened out). baste the seam and stitch it. this will make one continuous seam from the shoulder seam line of the facing around the entire neck line of the garment to a corresponding point on the opposite side - - (fig. ). press this fig. . attaching convertible collar (method b) seam open, except acrosstheback between this shows how collar is joined to garment and front facing with a continuous seam the shoulder seams. turn the raw edge of the collar under across the back of the neck line. pin, baste, and hem to the first stitching. when making a middy collar, it may be desirable to stitch from the point where the end of the collar and the center front of the garment join, around the neck line to the opposite side. method c. attach the front facing to the garment, as in method b; then baste the neck line of the facing to the neck line of the garment. make the collar and attach in clothing construction either of the following ways: if no stitching is to show, attach the upper side of the collar to the garment and fac- ing; then turn in the raw edge on the under side of the collar and hem by hand to the machine stitching. if the machine stitching is to show, join the under side of the collar to the garment and facing; then stitch the upper side of the collar in place (fig. ). detachable collars if a detachable collar is de- sired, such as a washable collar on a silk or wool garment or a light-colored collar on a dark fig. . attaching convertible dress, finish the neck line of collar (method c), with stitch- the garment with a facing or ing showing on collar facing a bias binding. make as a nonconvertible collar; if it rolls, finish the neck line with a binding of a light-weight fabric; if it lies flat, finish the neck line with a suitable edge finish and attach collar at one or two points. when a double bias collar is used and it is to be laundered, it may be desirable to machine-picot or bind the neck-line edges separately rather than to finish them together. this makes it possible to iron the collar with the yarns of the fabric, so that it will not be stretched out of shape. the collar may be attached to the garment by basting or with snaps. if several collars are to be worn with one dress, snaps will be saved if they are sewed on the collars so that the ball and socket parts of the snaps alternate. snaps are then sewed on the neck of the garment so that they will match those on the collars. collars nonconvertible collars under this heading are classed all collars that can be worn only in one position. checking collar patterns measure the neck line of the collar and the neck line of the garment, and compare measurements. the entire length of the neck line of the collar should usually be about # inch shorter than that of the garment, so that when the collar is attached it will roll slightly and cover the joining seam. if the collar extends to the waist, as in a surplice type, it should be about inch shorter than the neck line of the garment. before trying on the collar pattern, clip the paper a seam's depth or cut a pattern from cheap muslin. the latter is more satisfactory, since, when pinned to the garment, it gives more nearly the effect of the finished collar than does the paper pattern. with a few pins, placed parallel to the neck line, pin the collar pattern to the garment. put on the garment and check the collar for size and fit. if changes need to be made, see “blocking collar patterns,” pp. – , and “modification of patterns,” pp. – . making collars the outside edge of the collar should always be finished before the collar is attached to the garment. single collars may have the outer edges finished by bind- ing, picoting, facing to the right or to the wrong side, with plain hems of various widths, with rolled hems, or with lace; the lace may be whipped on a rolled edge, or sewed on a raw edge which is afterwards rolled or closely over- cast. various decorative stitches (such as blanket stitch) may be used to hold the hem in place. clothing construction double collars may have the outer edges finished with a plain seam or any form of edge finish. if a plain seam is used, place the right sides together, pin, baste, and stitch. trim the seam. if the collar is curved, clip the edge at intervals almost to the stitching; if the collar is square or pointed, trim off the corners (fig. ). turn the collar right side out, and crease and press on the stitching line. if braid or lines of decorative stitches are to be used, these are usually applied to the upper part of the collar before the two parts are stitched together. some- times the braid is attached to middy collars after the outer edge of the collar is finished. when a wool collar is lined with silk, it may be desirable to fig. . method of clipping use the following method: turn curved edge of double collar under the edge of the wool col- and trimming off the corner lar on the seam line, baste, and press; pin and baste the silk lin- ing in place at the edge line or about # inch in from the edge, depending upon the effect desired. the latter method is usually desirable in large collars. press lightly with a warm iron and without moisture and slip-stitch the lining to the collar. this method permits the necessary pressing of the wool without marring the silk. attaching nonconvertible collars place the under side of the collar next to the right side of the garment, matching the center back of the collar with the center back of the neck line of the garment, and with the ends of the collar in place. pin together, with the pins parallel to the neck line, stretching the collar slightly collars from shoulder seamtocenterfront. try the garmenton, make any needed adjustment, and baste the collar to the garment. the following methods are used to finish the joining of the collar to the dress or blouse. with a bias facing (figs. , ). this is generally the most satisfactory method, since it is strong and aids in keeping the collar and garment in place. use a bias strip of self fabric (unless it is too heavy) from # to inch wide. place the right side of the facing next to the upper side of the collar, keeping the edges even; baste through the facing and the gar- ment and stitch. trim the seam edges to the desired width for the fabric; clip the seam if nec- essary. turn the facing to the wrong side and baste flat to the garment close to the stitching - - - - - fig. . attaching nonconvert- line. it is necessary to bring the ible collar to neck line with a facing far enough to the inside bias facing so that it will not show when the garment is worn. turn the raw edge under, baste, and hem the facing to the garment. this should be done by hand; otherwise it is likely to draw. if there is no neck- line opening, it is well to begin basting the facing strip at the shoulder seams; join the two ends of the bias before stitching the facing and the collar to the garment. if there is a neck-line opening which has a narrow finish like a bind- ing, let the facing extend about ; inch beyond the edge of the opening when beginning to baste and also when ending (fig. ). after the collar is stitched to the garment, crease i clothing construction along the stitching line with the seam toward the facing; then turn the end of the facing back in line with the edge of the opening. turn under the raw edge of the facing, baste, and hem in place. if the neck-line opening is to be finished with a wide hem or facing on the wrong side, baste the collar in place, turn the hem or facing on the fold line to the right side of the garment, and pin in place (fig. ). then apply the bias facing, begin- ning and ending it # inch beyond the inside edge of the hem or facing. baste and stitch entirely around the neck line of the garment. turn both the hem (or facing) and the applied bias strip to the wrong side and finish in the usual manner. with a flat fell seam. the flat fell seam may be used when the col- fig. . method of attach- lar is on the straight of the fabric ing collar to blouse, in and is made of a single thickness, which closing is finished as in the tuxedo type. join the col- with wide hem or facing lar to the garment with the under side of the collar next to the right side of the garment, and stitch with the edge of the collar extending # inch or more beyond the edge of the garment. turn in the edge of the collar and hem by hand or stitch flat. as a binding. this method may be used in attaching double collars of a sheer or soft fabric, but it is satisfactory only where the neck line of the collar is straight and there is a neck-line opening in the garment. attach either the upper or the under side of the collar to the neck line of the garment in the usual way. turn in the other side of the collar the width of the seam; pin, baste, and hem to the first stitching. collars making and attaching nonconvertible coat collars the method of attaching a nonconvertible collar to a semitailored coat depends upon the cut. certain parts of the garment, including the under side of the collar, should be interfaced (see “interfacings,” p. ). if the garment is to be unlined, a fitted facing for the back neck line should be cut and joined to the front facings at the shoulder seams (fig. , a). all neck-line seams should be pressed open. if the garment is to be lined, the upper side of the collar should be clipped diagonally to the shoulder-seam line (after it is attached) to permit the seam allowance at the collar to extend down on the garment (fig. , b). the raw edge of the collar is covered by the lining. when the upper and under sides of the collar are cut sepa- rately from the front facing and front of the coat (fig. , a, b, c), they may be cut with or without seams in the center back. if there is a center-back seam, stitch it and press it open. join the upper side of the collar to the front facings and the under side of the collar to the garment, with plain seams pressed open. place the right side of the facing and the upper side of the collar to the right side of the garment and under side of the collar. pin, baste, and stitch around the outside edge. to finish, see the directions for fitted facing for a coat front, p. , and finish the back of the collar between the shoulder seams in one of the ways de- scribed in the preceding paragraph. when the upper side of the collar is cut in one with the front facing (fig. , a), make a plain seam in the center back of the collar and press it open. then handle the under side of the collar in one of three ways: if the collar is cut in one with the front of the coat (fig. , b), make a seam in the center back, press it open, join the collar to the back of the garment with a plain seam, and press it open across fig. . collar and facing cut separately from garment a, collar; b, front facing; c, front of coat cenſer aack of º jhouſa'er earn aro////ae aront fac/o a a fig. . collar cut as part of (a) front facing or (b) front of garment clothing construction ******************************** fig. . commercial trimmings a, fagoting; b, bias tape; c, d, ruffled ruching; e, box-plaited ruching; f, g, h, shaped trimming bands (fig. , a, h). very decorative trimming bands may be obtained which can be used for neck and sleeve finishes (fig. , f, g, h). bias tape bias tape is used as a trimming as well as an edge finish, and it may be applied as a binding or facing or to form folds or bias bands on the surface of the fabric. used as bindings or facings dresses, aprons, underwear, and children's clothes are frequently trimmed by binding or facing with bias tape in contrasting or harmonizing color. this is applied to such edges as those of the neck, sleeves, belt, and pockets, as well as to certain seams (see “bindings” and “facings,” commercial trimmings and braids pp. – and ). bias tape is also attached with various decorative stitches, such as blanket stitch, chain stitch, darning stitch, or french knots (see “decorative stitches,” pp. – , , – ). used as bands and folds several rows of bias folds may be used to trim collars, cuffs, and pockets, and as trimming bands on other parts of garments. variations -– indesign maybe obtained by using more than one color or different widths of bias, or by differences in spacing. bias tape || which has been folded. || – lengthwise through the center may be fagoted together to form a defi- fig. . bias tape folded lengthwise nite pattern (fig. ) (see and fagoted together to form a design “decorative stitches,” pp. – ). it may also be applied as a fold, either by using the machine attachment or by basting and stitching it in place along the open edge of the fold after it has been creased through the center lengthwise; or it may be stitched flat to form a single band or group of bands. º rickrack rickrack of various colors and widths is used to trim dresses, aprons, underwear, and children's clothes. it is generally stitched twice, so that it will launder well. applied to the wrong side with two rows of stitching showing (fig. ). turn the edge of the fabric under once, or twice, as desired. baste clothing construction the rickrack to the under side so that half of it extends be- yond the turned edge and the other half covers the hem. this gives the effect of scallops on the right side. stitch from the right side with two rows of stitching, one close to the turned edge of the garment, the other just far enough in to catch the inner edge of the rickrack. to join the ends, match the scallops and make a hemmed fell seam. with only one row of stitching showing on the right side (fig. ). baste the rickrack to the right side of the garment so that the scallops extend slightly beyond the edge of the gar- ment (fig. , a). stitch through the center of the rick- rack and turn the edge to the wrong side on the line of fig. . rickrack with two rows of stitching showing fig. . method of applying rickrack so that only one row of stitching shows stitching so that the rickrack covers the raw edge. stitch along the inner edge of the rickrack (fig. , b). note. do not use very narrow rickrack for either of these finishes, since it is too narrow to cover the turned edge. applied to the right side after a narrow hem has been turned and basted, baste the rickrack on the right side of the garment so that half commercial trimmings and braids of it extends beyond the edge. stitch by machine, or fasten each scallop of the rickrack to the material with some deco- rative stitch, such as the seed stitch or french knots. the hem may be stitched before the rickrack is applied, or it may be stitched in place at the same time as the rickrack. one or more rows of rickrack may be applied on the surface of the garment. rickrack is sometimes applied with alter- nating scallops showing on the right side. it may also be set under the edges of hems, facings, or bindings. military braid military braid is used to trim garments which are semi- tailored. it can be obtained in various colors and widths. this braid is usually made of rayon and frays badly; so allowance for waste should be made when purchasing. used as a binding crease and press the braid lengthwise a little to one side of the center (about i's inch) so that the under side projects. apply as a binding, stitching from the right side so that the one row of stitching fastens both edges of the braid to the garment. this may be done by hand, by machine, or by using the machine attachment. great care must be taken in applying this braid, because it stretches easily and is likely to ream, that is, pull on the bias. when this braid is sewed around a corner, it must be fulled by pulling up the edge thread or by running a fine gathering thread close to the edge. stitched flat baste and stitch one edge of the braid to the garment, leaving the other edge free. military braid may be applied so that it just covers the finished edge of the garment, or it may be set back from the edge. several parallel rows are often applied, using the same or different widths. in the clothing construction latter case the widest braid is usually applied to the outer or lower edge. military braid is rarely stitched on both edges, since it is likely to pucker. soutache braid soutache braid is of two kinds — the filled, which shows the filling when it becomes worn, and the unfilled, which is fig. . soutache braid stitched to the garment by machine the same throughout. this braid is used as loops for fasten- ing buttons or for attaching belts, and to trim middies, dresses, coats, and children's suits. in tailored garments soutache braid is often applied in parallel rows, which may or may not be grouped. it is also used to form designs on garments (fig. ). applied flat it is generally stitched to the fabric with the braider attachment, but it may be stitched through the center without an attachment. care must be taken to fasten the commercial trimmings and braids ends of the braid securely. these may be turned under and closely overhanded, or in the case of braided designs the end is sometimes drawn through to the wrong side of the fabric and overhanded to the cloth. a single row of soutache is sometimes stitched into a seam or on an edge of the gar- ment so that half of it shows on the right side, giving the effect of a corded edge. applied on edge when the braid is to be applied on edge instead of flat, bring the needle up through the cloth, just catching the lower edge of the braid, and insert it again close to the place where the thread came out, taking a stitch about ; inch long on the under side. stickerei stickerei is a narrow braid with embroidered scallops on one edge and a selvage on the other. it is used as an edge finish on house dresses, aprons, underwear, and chil- dren's clothes. applied with one row of stitching on the right side baste the braid to the raw edge of the garment, with the right sides together and with the scallops away from the edge. stitch so that the line of stitching comes just to the inner edge of the scallops. turn at the stitching line so that the scallops of the braid extend beyond the gar- ment on the right side and the braid incloses the raw edge of the garment on the wrong side. stitch or hem the selvage edge of the braid flat to the garment. applied with two rows of stitching on the right side turn under the raw edge of the garment, baste and stitch the folded edge to the right side of the stickerei at clothing construction the inside edge of the scallops, and make a second row of stitching on the selvage edge of the braid. match the scallops and join the ends of the stickerei with a hemmed fell seam. io. darts darts are used to remove fullness and to give decora- tive lines to simple garments. darts are wide at one end (fig. , a) or in the middle (fig. , b); they may taper at one end or both, depending upon their location in the garment and the effect desired. they may be left unstitched, be stitched to the end, or be stitched only part way to the end, as in a tuck dart. they are located at such Æ places as under the arm, at the back of the neck, at the hip or shoulder, and at the top of a wide hem in a gored skirt. they are generally made on the wrong side of the garment and may be located horizontally, vertically, or diagonally. a fig. . stitched darts a, tapering at one end; b, tapering at both ends placing of darts commercial patterns indicate the size and location of darts; but in the fitting of garments these may need to be changed, or others added. it is usually more satis- darts factory to use several small darts rather than one large one, since the deeper the dart the longer it needs to be. making stitched darts baste the dart in the desired place, and stitch (after fitting the garment), for about $ inch beyond the end of the dart, the distance of one yarn from the folded edge (fig. ). |- this allows the dart to taper so gradually that no bulge is visible. fasten the stitching by pulling the threads to the wrong side and tying the ends with a square knot (see “square knot,” p. ). darts may also be stitched again on the right side, giving the ap- pearance of lap seams. finishing darts on the wrong side vertical dartsshould be pressed º °. a * * trimmed, pressed open, and toward the center of the garment overcast (in the case of a hem this means that the inside fold of the dart is toward the center). stitched horizontal darts should be pressed up. wide darts may be trimmed to a seam's width and then finished as any plain seam. darts may also be cut along the fold line and opened, pressing back each side. the edges may be finished with any desirable seam finish (fig. ). darts are usually trimmed and opened only in thick fabrics. clothing construction ii. decorative stitches a knowledge of how to make a few decorative stitches is well worth acquiring. most of these stitches are very simple and may be made quickly. one needs to use good judgment, however, in selecting a suitable design and floss or yarn of proper texture and color, and also must possess a reasonable degree of skill if the decoration is to be effec- tive. care should be taken not to overdecorate any gar- ment or household article. arrowheads arrowheads are used for decoration, and for staying such places as the ends of pocket openings and the ends fig. . arrowhead, showing steps in construction a, outline marked and thread fastened; b, first stitch; c, second stitch; d, partly worked decorative stitches of plaits. mercerized or silk embroidery thread is generally used, depending upon the fabric of the garment. mark the shape and position of the arrowhead with chalk, thread, or pencil, depending upon the color and kind of fabric used. starting at the center of the arrowhead, make a few running stitches (to fasten the thread), bringing the needle out at point (fig. , a). insert the needle at the right of and take a very small stitch at the top of the arrowhead (fig. , b). insert the needle at , bringing it out to the right of and close to the first stitch taken at (fig. , c). continue in this way until the arrowhead is completed, taking fig. . com- - - pleted arrow- each succeeding stitch at the top of the head arrowhead just outside and a little below the previous stitch, and taking the stitches on line to just inside of each preceding stitch (fig. , d). when the arrowhead is completed, it appears as in fig. . note. many variations of the arrowhead may be worked out, such as placing four of them together to form a block. (see also “crow’s foot,” p. .) bar tack a bar tack is used as a decoration where it is desirable to reënforce the garment from both the outside and the inside, as at the ends of pockets. it resembles the bar at the end of a buttonhole. to make it, use either sewing thread or embroidery thread, depending upon the effect desired. take several long stitches, one on top of the other, at right angles to the end of the opening that is to be re- enforced. then bring the needle up at the left of one end of the bar and insert it at the right of the bar; continue taking stitches over the bar and through the cloth until the decorative stitches chain stitch chain stitching is a series of interlocking loops resem- bling the links of a chain. it is used for outlining designs and for simple borders. work toward you or - from right to left. fasten the thread by taking a few running stitches, which may be covered by the first chain stitches. bring the needle through to the right side of the cloth and hold the thread with the left thumb. insert the needle where the thread was brought out and take a stitch, drawing the nee- fig. . cable stitching combined with smocking dle out over the thread held down by the thumb to form a loop (fig. ). continue in this way, always insert- ing the needle inside the last loop. pass the needle to the wrong side, outside the last loop, to hold the loop in place, and fasten the thread securely. the chain stitch is a basic stitch which has many variations. these include the blanket stitch, lazy daisy, ladder, magic chain, open chain, and zigzag chain. blanket stitch the blanket stitch is used for decoration along an edge, to hold appliquéd designs in place, to finish seams, or instead of a fig. . chain hem as a finish for raw edges of blankets. stitch . clothing construction work from left to right, with the edge to be finished needlethrough, leav- ing a very short end - of thread on the wrongside. holding b the thread under the º fig. . blanket stitch and over the thread held toward you. to fasten the thread, place the needle in the edge of the fabric, taking a few running stitches along thumb, place the point of the needle in the cloth the de- sired distance from the edge and bring it out from under the a, plain; b, c, and d, variations which is held under the thumb (fig. , a). continue in this manner, inserting the needle at the right of the stitch just made. fasten the thread by bring- ing it to the wrong side and taking a few running stitches. interesting arrangements of blanket stitches may be the edge. draw the a c edge of the fabric made by varying the length, the grouping, the distance apart, and the angles at which © they are made (fig. , b, c, d). () lazy daisy - - - fig. . lazy-dais the lazy-daisy stitch is used to form º y flowers and leaves. instead of a series of loops, one following another (as in chain stitching), the loops are made separately and are so arranged that they form the leaves or petals of a flower. decorative stitches begin by bringing the needle through to the right side of the fabric at the inner end of the leaf (or petal). make a chain stitch the length of the leaf (fig. ). fasten the loop in place by passing the needle down through the fabric, outside the end of the loop. repeat for each leaf. ladder this stitch is sometimes called the wide, or square, chain stitch. the loops are square instead of oval, and are made in a series so that they resemble a ladder (fig. ). bring the needle through to the right side of the cloth, as for the plain chain, but in- stead of putting it back into the same hole, insert it on a line with that hole and to the right of it. bring the needle out directly in line with, but below, the point at which it was drawn out in the preceding stitch, thus forming aloose loop. square this loop, when be- ginning the next stitch, by inserting the needle inside the loop (fig. ). fig. . ladder stitch magic chain this is made like the chainstitch, but two or more threads of con- trasting color are used instead of a single thread (fig. ). thread both threads through fig. . magic-chain stitch, the same needle. to bring out the showing use of two colors alternation of color, hold down with the thumb only one thread at a time. as the loop is formed by the one thread, the other thread (the one not held down) clothing construction is carried to the wrong side so that it does not show on the right side of the fabric. it is necessary to tighten the two threads separately. note. more than two threads may be used, but they are difficult to work with, and the stitching is apt to be heavy. a more attractive design is made if, instead of having colors alternate, – one loop of each, – several loops are made of one color and then a lesser number of the other. this gives the appearance of blocks of color rather than specks. open chain this stitch is made like the chain stitch, except that the needle is inserted to the right and below where the thread was brought out. zigzag chain in this stitch, chain stitches are made in a zigzag line. it is especially effective when heavy floss or yarn is used. slant the needle alternately to the left and to the right of the line of decora- tion (fig. ). couching couching is made by using a heavy thread or group of threads held in place by a finer thread. silk floss (twisted or untwisted), yarn, chenille, ribbon, or gold and silver threads may be used, depend- ing on the fabric and the design. couching is used to outline designs, to form borders, and to cover seams. fig. . zigzag chain stitch plain couching fasten the coarser thread on the wrong side of the fab- ric, after pushing the end through from the right side with decorative stitches scissors or a stiletto. hold this coarse thread tight with the left hand and fasten it in place with single stitches made with a finer thread at regular intervals (fig. , a). these stitches must never be so far apart as to allow the cord to spring out of line; on a curve they must be quite close together. to finish push the end of the coarse thread to the wrong side and fasten it. puffy couching make a row of plain stitches either on the sewing machine or by using running stitches. if the machine stitch is used, it should be lengthened. weave a decorative thread in and out under the stitching to form the loops (fig. , b). brick couching proceed as for plain couching, ex- cept that several rows of the plain couching are used, and the stitches attaching the thread are placed so that they alternate with those in the preceding row. one row is made at a time (fig. , c). interlacing stitch make several parallel rows of darn- ing stitches (fig. , d), using a fine fig. . couching a, plain couching; b, puffy couching, made by weav- ing a heavier thread in and out under a line of stitching; c, brick couch- ing; d and e, interlacing stitch thread. use a heavy thread (such as silk floss) and couch together rows a and b and rows b and c alternately, tak- ing a stitch over abc between alternations to bind together the adjoining rows (fig. , e). clothing construction machine couching this is couching done on the sewing machine. it can, however, be done better on a sewing machine with a rotary bobbin than on one of a vibrator type. wind the bobbin tightly (usually by hand) with heavy thread such as silk floss or tinsel thread, but do not put the thread through the under tension, since it should pull freely from the bob- bin. thread the top thread as for ordinary machine stitch- ing, using either silk or cotton. loosen the upper tension and lengthen the stitch to about ten stitches to the inch. stitch as for ordinary sewing, but remember that as the couching is done by the bobbin thread, the design that is to be followed should be marked on the wrong side, and the right side of the fabric should be next to the feed when stitching. crewel, or outline, stitch these stitches are generally used to outline designs or to hold a hem in place. proceed away from you or from left to right. fasten the thread by taking a few running stitches along the line of the design. take consecu- tive stitches of even length, with the needle pointed toward you and slanted very slightly either to the left or a to the right of the line. fig. . crewel, or outline, stitch make each stitch so that a, ordinary stitch; b, wider stitch it goes back about half- way on the preceding stitch. be sure that the thread always falls to the same side of the needle (fig. , a). decorative stitches when a wider line is desired, the needle should be slanted farther to the right or left of the line (fig. , b). the effect obtained when the thread falls to the right is different from the effect when it is thrown to the left. some experimenting will show which effectis desired. when outlin- ing on a curve, make shorter stitches than on a straight line. the backstitch (see “stitches,” p. ) or the seed stitch is often used for the same purpose as the outline stitch. cross-stitch this is made by crossing one stitch over another to make the diagonals of a perfect square (fig. ). it is used for decoration and for marking initials on undergarments, bed lin- ens, and towels. it may be worked by follow- ing a stamped design, or according to the lines formed by the warp and filling yarns of the fab- ric. if the fabric is very fine and the yarns are hard to follow, or if a diagonal design is de- sired, cross-stitch canvas may be basted upon the fabric and the stitches worked over and through fig. . cross-stitch designs both canvas and fabric; afterwards the yarns of the canvas should be drawn out. the stitches must always be crossed in the same way and worked in the same direction, in order to make an clothing construction even surface. this may be done in two ways. method a is used when making a small design, and method b when making long lines of cross-stitching. method. a where each cross is completed before the next is started. fasten the thread by leaving a rather long end on the eas? fig. . method of making cross-stitch a and b, one-cross-at-a-time method—right side; c, one-cross-at-a-time method—wrong side; d and e, series of stitches (one half at a time)—right side; f, series of stitches (one half at a time)—wrong side wrong side, which will later be held in place by the cross- stitches. bring the needle out at , insert at , bring out at , insert at , thus completing the first cross. to start the second cross bring the needle out at , insert at , bring out at , insert at (fig. , a); to start the third cross bring out at , insert at , bring out at (fig. , b). fig. , c, shows the appearance on the wrong side. decorative stitches method b where half of each cross in the series is made, and then each cross is completed by working back in the opposite direction. bring the needle out at , insert at , bring out at , insert at , bring out at , insert at (fig. , d). to complete the crosses, bring the needle out at , insert at , bring out at , insert at (fig. , e). the appearance on the wrong side is shown in fig. , f. crow’s foot a crow's foot is used for decoration and for staying such places as the ends of pocket openings and the ends of plaits. fig. . crow's foot a, thread fastened and first stitch made; b, second stitch; c, partially worked it somewhat resembles an arrowhead. with the needle brought through the fabric at , take a very small straight stitch across the crow's foot at (fig. , a). turn the work around to the left until is in the top position, and take a small stitch at (fig. , b). again turn the work until is in the top position and take a small straight stitch at (fig. , c). continue taking stitches at each point in rotation until the crow's foot is finished, taking each succeeding stitch a little below the preceding stitch. clothing construction darning darning is made by several rows of running stitches. it is used for filling spaces in designs and for simple borders. (see “stitches,” pp. – .) fagoting the ordinary fagoting (either diagonal or straight) is used to join two finished edges, as in the seams of a garment, or to join folds, as for edge finishes. seams may thus be made more decorative, and similar or contrast- ing fabrics may be joined to form a trimming. bermuda fagoting is a form of openwork which is easily made on sheer fabrics without draw- ing yarns (fig. ). e fig. . ber- bermuda fagoting muda fagot- bermuda fagoting is used to outline initials, ing monograms, or other designs; to finish hems in organdie and other thin fabrics; and to insert lace. this fag- oting requires a coarse darning needle and fine, firmly twisted thread (no. cotton or no. a silk). when finished, the right | fig. . a, b, and c, steps in making bermuda fagoting c. *s side of the work shows a series of squares. at the back of each square a cross has been formed by the slanting stitches. tie one end of the thread into the eye of the needle. work toward you, taking stitches ; inch long to bind decorative stitches together points and , drawing the stitches tight enough to make holes (fig. , a). insert the needle at and bring out at (fig. , b); bind and with two stitches drawn tightly. insert the needle at and bring out at ; bind and together. insert the needle at and bring out at (fig. , c); bind and together. continue in this manner to obtain the effect shown in fig. . variation of bermuda fagoting this stitch is simpler than the regular bermuda fagoting. it may be used to finish hems or facings in transparent or fig. . variation of bermuda fagoting, wrong side a, first step in stitch; b, second step in stitch semitransparent fabrics. use a yarn needle, size to , and embroidery silk or twist. work from left to right on the wrong side; bring the needle out through the edge of the basted hem or facing. take two stitches ; inch long (just outside the hem), one on top of the other, and draw the thread very tightly (fig. , a). insert the needle be- tween the hem and the garment and bring it out through the hem edge (fig. , b). continue in this manner. diagonal fagoting diagonal fagoting is done with a rather heavy, firmly twisted silk or cotton thread. before the fagoting can be done, the fabric must be prepared in the following manner: clothing construction when trimming bands are to be fagoted together, the fabric is generally folded so that the raw edges are turned in to form a seam along one edge. when a seam is to be /* fig. . diagonal fagoting a and b showing two steps in the stitch joined with fagoting, the raw edges on each side of the seam must first be finished (a french hem may be a good finish to use if the fabric is light weight and washable), and then they are held in place by the fagoting. baste the fabric to stiff paper (right side on top), with a space left between the fig. . variation of diagonal fagoting two edges equal to the desired width of the fagoting. work from left to right. bring the needle out on the lower edge; then, holding it per- pendicularly, with the thread thrown to the right and under the - needle, take a small stitch in the upper edge to the right of where the thread came out (fig. , a). take the next stitch in the lower edge, placing the needle perpendicularly, but pointing up instead of down (fig. , b). continue in this way, taking stitches alternately in the upper and the lower clothing construction of the cloth. insert the needle at and bring it out at . continue taking stitches alternately to the right and to the left of the center. double or treble featherstitching (brier stitch) is made by taking two or three parallel stitches on one side before crossing to the other side. special care needs to be taken to keep the stitches of uniform size and slant. note. for beginners it may be helpful to mark alter- nating dots in two parallel lines or to use checked fabric. also, it is easier to get featherstitching straight if a colored basting marks the line of stitching. fishbone stitches fishbone stitches (catstitch, herringbone stitch, and oriental stitch) give somewhat the same effect as feather- stitches, and are easier to make. catstitch (catch stitch) a stitch used for trimming and to hold the edge of a hem, or the raw edges of a seam in flannel fabrics. work from left to right (away from you), on imaginary parallel lines. take a small stitch on one line, then take a stitch on the other line (at the right dis- s_* t tance for the desired slant) with the thread thrown to the right of the needle, and the needle held horizon- tally, pointing toward the left. pick up a few yarns of the fabric and do not draw the thread too tightly. on the first line and to the right at a similar distance, make another stitch. make the stitches of uniform length and equally spaced. fig. . catstitch decorative stitches herringbone stitch this stitch makes a wide decorative line and is most effective when stitches are taken very close together and when they cross near the lower end instead of the center. Šá sež Šº → sº __” a af fig. . herringbone stitch a and b showing the two steps in the stitch fasten the thread at the left of the design and take a short stitch in the middle of the design and somewhat lower down (fig. , a). insert the needle on the right Šá s& Šá so . sy? s$ tes a a fig. . oriental stitch a and b showing the two steps in the stitch side of the design, opposite where it came out for the first stitch, and bring it out on the left side just below the first stitch (fig. , b). continue taking stitches in this man ſ. clothing construction oriental stitch this stitch is used as a wide line decoration, for holding selvages together, or for covering a seam. it is most effective when stitches are taken very close together. fasten the thread at the left side of the design and insert the needle just opposite on the right side, bringing it out in the middle of the design and slightly lower down, and over the loop of the thread (fig. , a). insert the needle just below where it was brought out, in the center of the line, so as to hold down the loop of thread, and bring it out at the left side of the line just below where the first stitch began (fig. , b). note. when two selvage edges are joined, lap about # inch and bring the needle out and insert again through both thicknesses of the fabric. french knots french knots are used for a variety of purposes, such as for holding fine rickrack in place, for line decoration, and as the centers of flowers. they may be made in either of two ways, depending largely upon the size of the yarn or floss used. method a is easier and quicker than method b. method. a fasten the thread by taking two small backstitches where the first knot is to be made. twist the thread once over the needle (fig. , a). insert the needle again in the cloth very close to where it came out, and bring it out again at the point where the next knot is to be made (fig. , b). draw the loop of thread down with the left thumb until it wraps tightly around the needle just where it enters the cloth; then pull the needle through the loop. decorative stitches method b - this is done like method a, except that the thread is wrapped around the needle two or more times; the needle fig. . french knot (method a) a, thread twisted around the needle; b, needle inserted in cloth ready to complete the stitch is then inserted close to where it emerged, and a small stitch is taken to hold the knot in place before the next knot is begun. hemstitching plain hemstitching plain hemstitching is used for decoration on dresses and blouses and to hold hems in place on handkerchiefs and household linens. its use is limited to the direction of the yarns in the cloth. it may be applied to any fabric from which the yarns can easily be drawn. it may be done with cotton, linen, or silk thread, depending on the fabric to be hemstitched. draw the first yarn for the hemstitching at the line where the inner side of the hem is to be. usually from three to five yarns are drawn, depending on the fabric used and the width of hemstitching desired. draw all the other yarns inside the yarn which marked the inner side of the hem. when the yarns have been drawn, turn a hem and baste it in place, being careful that the edge of the hem comes just to the place where the first yarn was drawn. clothing construction hold the cloth with the hem toward you and the bulk of the cloth away from you. proceed from left to right, working on the wrong side of the fabric. fasten the thread with a tiny knot placed well under the hem, or with two stitches through the fold of the hem, leaving the end of the thread tucked into it. insert the needle, right to left, under three to five yarns and allow the loop of thread to fall below the needle (fig. , a). draw the needle through and then a a fig. . plain hemstitching a, separating the groups of threads; b, completing the stitch take a small stitch through the upper edge of the hem, with the needle at right angles to the hem and the thread thrown to the left of the needle (fig. , b). draw up the thread. insert the needle under the next group of yarns and con- tinue as before. there are other methods of hemstitching, but the one described requires fewer motions and is equally attractive. diagonal hemstitching diagonal hemstitching is made by repeating the hem- stitching on the opposite side of the open space, using half the yarns of each of two groups and hemstitching these together to form a new series of groups. the new grouping makes diagonal bars alternating to the right and to the left across the open space of drawn yarns. decorative stitches double hemstitching double hemstitching is made by repeating the hem- stitching on the opposite side of the open space, inclos- ing the same groups of yarns. this makes parallel bars across the open space of drawn yarns. italian hemstitching italian hemstitching is used as decoration on table run- ners, on luncheon sets, and on garments. it is best to use round-thread linen, with the same number of yarns per inch fig. . italian hemstitching a, separating the first group of threads; b, c, d, completing the stitch in both warp and filling. a blunt needle and linen thread (no. ) may be used for art linen; but when a finer fabric is used, the thread must be selected accordingly. this hemstitching, when finished, should show diagonal threads connecting the two rows of hemstitching. pull out two clothing construction groups of yarns, leaving four yarns between the groups. if the article is to have italian hemstitching near the edge, turn the hem back to the line where the first group of yarns has been drawn, and hem or hemstitch in place. to make the italian hemstitching, work from right to left, hold the fabric right side up, with the smaller amount of fabric falling over the hand and the bulk toward you. do |- not be confused by the fact that the fabric is held in the opposite way from that of the posi- tion used in plain hem- stitching. fasten the thread by taking a few running stitches in the fabric between the two spaces where the yarns have been drawn. in- sert the needle, right to left, under the first four warp (or filling) yarns in the lower space where the filling (or warp) yarns have been drawn (fig. , a). bind these four yarns together by taking a stitch back over them, bringing the needle out in the upper space at the left of the same four yarns (fig. , b). then bind them together in the upper space by taking a stitch back over them, and bring the needle out again at the left of the same four yarns in the upper space (fig. , c). repeat the process, insert- ing the needle from right to left under the next four yarns of the lower space, and proceed as before (fig. , d). the thread in italian hemstitching may match the fabric, but the use of bright-colored thread, such as that used in peasant embroidery, gives an interesting variation. fig. . satin stitch decorative stitches satin stitch this stitch is used to give the effect of solid embroidery fasten the fabric in an embroidery hoop and begin with a few running stitches. it is often desirable to pad the design with chain stitching before making the satin stitch. work from right to left, keeping the stitches approximately parallel and very close together (fig. ). fasten the thread on the wrong side. seed stitch this stitch is commonly used as a background stitch. it is made by taking two backstitches side by side, and then bringing the needle out to the left # inch or more away from the first, and taking two more back- stitches (fig. ). if the thread is quite heavy, a single backstitch is sufficient s’ to give the desired effect. & cŞ shell edge a shell edge is used as a decorative fig. . seed stitch finish for the edges of narrow hems, tucks, and bindings on lingerie, children's clothing, linings, collars, and cuffs. it is best adapted to light-weight fabrics, such as nainsook, lawn, organdie, and crêpe de chine, and is more attractive when made on a bias or curved rather than on a straight edge. silk or cotton thread or fine em- broidery floss may be used in making this stitch. when it is used as a hem finish, baste a narrow hem (from to # inch). with the wrong side held toward you, take three or four running or hemming stitches to hold the hem in place, then two stitches over the edge of the hem, drawing the edge down to form a scallop. repeat until the edge is finished (fig. ). clothing construction when it is used for a tuck, baste the tuck and proceed as before, using small running stitches to make the tuck. when it is used on a binding, apply the binding by stitching it first to the right side of the fabric; then turn under the raw edge of the binding and bastetothestitching line. proceed as in making a shell edge on a hem. smocking smocking is a decorative method of holding fullness in place to form fig. . shell edge yokes, cuffs, and belts. cable stitch- ing is frequently combined with it. much of the beauty of smocking depends upon the care with which the fabric is prepared. if the edge of each fold is made to lie straight for its full length before smocking is begun, it is easy to get the stitches even. variety can be obtained by alternating rows of color *- |{{}}| § | in working the design. º plain smocking (honeycomb) . - º in plain smocking, the stitches which f li hold the fullness are so taken as to form || h diamond-shaped designs on the right side == - - - fig. . plain of the fabric. in this type of smocking smocking the embroidery thread shows very little on the right side of the fabric, as may be seen in fig. . marking. unless the fabric is checked or has a small allover design, it is necessary to mark rows of dots as a guide for the smocking. this is done either by using a transfer pattern or by measuring with a ruler and marking dots with chalk or pencil. if no transfer pattern is used, mark off the space to be smocked into squares or rectangles, decorative stitches making all the same size. the right and left sides of the garment may be marked at the same time by using carbon paper. place the right and left sides of the garment, with the wrong sides together, on top of the paper which has been laid on a table, carbon side up. mark dots with a pencil. the space between the dots will be governed by the weight of the fabric, the amount of fullness to be cared for, and . . - - - - - - the effect desired. the space be- - - - - - - tween the dots on a horizontal line fic.; . marking for smock- will usually be from # to # inch. ing which holds little full- the spaces between dots on a ness in place vertical line may be the same as or somewhat more than this. ordinarily one should allow twice the width desired in the finished garment. note. when the smocking is to serve primarily as a decorative border, rather than as a means of caring for full- ness, the dots are grouped in pairs with the spaces between the pairs greater than the space between the dots within the pairs (fig. ). the smocking may then be done by any one of the methods suggested or by a combination of these methods (see fig. ). gathering (fig. ). this step is not necessary if plain smocking is to be done on a fabric that may be marked on the right side or that has a pattern which will serve as marking; neither is it necessary if the fabric holds creases well. otherwise the fabric should be gathered to place the folds. gathering may be done by machine (with a length- ened stitch) if a fine smocking is desired or when little full- ness is to be held in place. if gathering is done by hand, use a strong thread. working from the wrong side, place rows of gathering along the dotted lines, taking a small clothing construction running stitch at each dot. pull up the gathering threads until the fabric is the desired size, and fasten securely. from the right side pull the gathers into place so that the fullness lies in even, straight, plaitlike folds. smocking (fig. ). bring - nº sº. _ the needle out at ; then take ſ a short stitch at and another - - - - - - at , and draw these two folds _/ together. insert the needle at - - c. c-> -- and bring it out at . take a short stitch at and anotherat fig. . gathering for , and draw these two foldsto- smocking gether. insert the needle at and bring it out at . con- tinue binding together alternately two folds on the top row and two on the row below. the thread between the units should be drawn just tightly enough to lie flat on the cloth. note. in thin fabrics where a short stitch is likely to pull out, take one stitch from to (fig. ) on the wrong side, instead of taking a small stitch at and one at and then drawing them together. work the third and fourth rows like the first and second ones. continue in this way, except when there is an uneven number of rows in the design. in this case the last row is made sepa- . e rately, the thread being a carried across between ; : : « . . . units instead of diago fig. . method of making smocking nally. when smocking is stitches completed, remove the gathering threads. press lightly from the wrong side with a soft pad between the garment and the ironing board. decorative stitches variations of plain smocking plain smocking may be varied by outlining the design with long stitches or with overcasting stitches (figs. , , ). numbers in the following paragraph refer to fig. . outlining with the thread floating between units. take stitches at and , as in plain smocking; take another stitch at , bringing the thread out to the right side of the fig. . smocking with thread floating between units a, thread brought out between the two folds in the upper row; b, needle in position to bind the two folds together; c, thread brought out between the two folds in the lower row fabric between the two folds (fig. , a). take a short stitch at , then a stitch at , and another at (fig. , b), and draw the two folds together. take another stitch at , bringing the thread out to the right side between the two folds (fig. , c). take a short stitch at , then a stitch at , and another at . continue across the design in this manner, alternating between the first and second rows. bring the needle out at ", take a stitch at ', and another at '; take another stitch at ', bringing the needle out between the two folds. take a stitch at and another at , bringing the needle out between the two folds. (the thread from to lies on top of or just below that of the clothing construction stitches taken previously in the second row.) if the thread used in the second and third rows is of a different color from that in the first and second rows, it may be desirable to take the stitch at , then a stitch at and , and another at , in order that there may be equal amounts of the two colors. take a short stitch at ', then a stitch at ', and another at ', and draw the two folds together. take another stitch at ' and continue across in this manner. fig. . variations of plain smocking outlining with overcasting stitches. outline each fold with a series of overcasting stitches (fig. ). this is done as in fig. , except that the thread is carried from one unit to the next by overcasting instead of being allowed to float on the surface of the cloth. imitation smocking. in imitation smocking the gathering is often done by machine (with a lengthened stitch) instead of by hand. use line stitches, such as outline, chain, or catstitch, to hold the fullness in place and to give the effect of smocking. the design may be carried out by means of line stitches, either alone or in combination with smocking. this method holds fullness more securely than does smock- ing and may therefore be better for the top of yokes and the bottom of cuffs. draping . draping draping is the modeling or arranging of fabric on a dress form or human figure. no patterns are used, but the knowl- edge acquired from working with patterns is utilized. one should consider the placing and direction of construction lines, the direction of the grain of the fabric, the shape and size of the various pieces of the garment, and the effect of texture on the lines produced. the amateur will find it advisable to drape the garment in paper or preferably in an inexpensive fabric with a texture somewhat similar to that of the fabric to be used in the garment. this is then used as a pattern for cutting the actual garment. preparation of dress form for draping to simplify fitting, the dress form should be exactly the same shape as the individual; however, any well-shaped form may be used to try out the effects of different lines, textures, or grain of the fabric. the padded dress form is one of the most satisfactory types because it is firm, can be pinned to easily, and can be padded to the desired shape and size. making the tight-fitting lining the tight-fitting lining for the dress form should be made long enough to extend below the fullest part of the hips. it is usually cut of firm unbleached muslin, with three pieces in front and four in the back, because of the opening in the center back. if fashion does not decree a fitted waist or hip line, the lining may be cut in three pieces, and darts may be used to fit out some of the fullness. clothing construction fitting the lining few persons have figures that are absolutely alike on the right and left sides; and while the differences are usually not great enough to complicate the fitting of most garments, they do show in one that is tightly fitted. therefore it is advisable to fit the lining right side out, even if this makes alterations somewhat more difficult. another advantage of fitting the lining right side out is that this makes it easier to check the direction of the seam lines. fit the side seams, then the center-back seam, and then the underarm seams, if necessary. the center-front line and the center-back and underarm seams should be perpendicular to the floor. mark the bust line where the measurement is taken and mark the waist and hip lines parallel to the floor. locate a good armseye and neck line (at the base of the neck), allowing for a #-inch seam. place the collar, fitting it closely at the base of the neck. stitch the seams, trim to inch, clip as necessary, and press open. turn under on the seam line and edge-stitch the collar, armseye, and center back on the right half and along the lower edge, attaching to the lower edge at the same time the muslin straps which are to be fastened under the form to hold the lining in place. padding the dress form check the size of the form at the bust, waist, and hip with body measurements taken at the same places, to make sure that the form is no larger than the person. then place the lining on the form with the center front in place. if the underarm seams are out of line, this means that the form is too large and a smaller-sized form is necessary. cotton batting, tissue paper, or newspaper may be used for padding. use tissue paper where small amounts of padding are needed and to cover other padding material; draping use cotton or newspaper where larger amounts are needed. however, if newspaper is used, care must be taken to fold single sheets lengthwise until they are about inches wide. to see where padding is needed, examine the lining which has been pinned on the unpadded form. remove the lining. pad shoulder blades, back, and shoulders to conform with the figure by placing the padding, a little at a time, across the back and over the shoulders. check padding frequently for amount and location by placing the lining over the partially padded form. if the form is too narrow across the shoulders, let the flat layers of padding extend beyond the form the desired amount and pad underneath this ex- tended shoulder to make it firm. next pad the front and then the hips. pin or baste the lining together in the center back and tack the straps to the under side of the form. the padded form should be smooth and firm. the waist and hip lines should be parallel to the floor, and the center lines and underarm seams should be perpendicular to the floor. the standard of the form should be adjusted so that the shoulders of the form are at the same height as those of the person. preparation of sleeve forms for draping long fitted and padded sleeve this form should be the same size and shape as the slightly bent arm of the individual. use a close-fitting, two-piece sleeve pattern; cut the sleeve from a firm quality of unbleached muslin. fit the sleeve wrong side out to the right arm, unless the individual is left-handed. care should be taken to fit snugly and to keep the filling yarns parallel to the floor and the warp yarns perpendicular to the floor above the elbow (fig. , b) in order to obtain good clothing construction armseye and wrist lines and to retain the bend of the elbow. stitch the seams, trim to inch, clip as necessary, and press open. mark with basting the lengthwise yarn at the center and a crosswise yarn at the base of the cap. fit and stitch an oval piece of muslin to the bottom of the sleeve to close it at the wrist. pad the sleeve with cotton batting, tissue paper, or thoroughly dried sawdust, which is easy to handle and gives a firm and flexible padding. turn under the arms- eye seam and edge-stitch by hand. place an oval piece of muslin in the armseye opening and hem the sleeve to it. short upper-arm sleeve form of paper this paper form is pinned to the padded dress form to facilitate the draping of a garment with a short kimono sleeve or a drop shoulder. crush enough tissue paper to form padding the size of the upper arm and cover it by wrapping tissue paper around it; then shape and pin it firmly in place so that it continues the line of the shoulder. general directions for draping select or sketch the design of the garment to be copied and pin it to the form, usually to the front of the collar. use small pins with good points for holding the fabric to the form, or needles if the fabric retains the imprint of a pin. in draping, the normal shoulder and underarm seams and the bust, waist, hip, and armseye lines will be approxi- mately where these lines fall on the dress form; but their location may be modified according to the prevailing fashion. note the differences in effect gained by various placings of the warp and filling yarns on the form and decide on the direction of these yarns which is desired for individual parts or for the entire garment. straighten both ends of the fabric before beginning to work with it. place the fabric on draping the form with one end down and with the other extending over the shoulder of the form and onto a table or chair on the opposite side, being sure that, if there is a design with an up and down, you start with the down end. the warp yarns serve as a guide, the cut end usually gives the worker a good opportunity to check on line, and this placing is frequently the most economical. - drape larger pieces first and work from both ends of the fabric toward the center if there is no up and down. when the design of the garment is bisymmetric and it is cut with the center front or back on a fold, drape the right and left sides simultaneously; when the design is not bisymmetric, it may be desirable to drape the parts of the garment that are not influenced by the one-sided effect, and then to open out the fabric and drape the right and left sides separately. the front of the garment is usually draped first, unless the design is such that it would seem desirable to drape the back first. drape on the right side of the form unless the left side of the form is larger. locate each seam by folding the fabric to the outside along the seam line; insert pins at the seam line and at right angles to the seam edge, having the heads out (fig. , c), allowing a minimum of inch for any seam allowance; then cut. to allow for ease of fit, pin sufficient fullness in lengthwise folds on the form (fig. , c). fullness across the bust may be held in place at the neck line and shoulder seams by darts, tucks, or gathers and at the underarm seam by darts or gathers; fullness may be located at one or more of the places indicated, depending on the figure, the fabric, and the garment (fig. , b, c). the suggestions for draping which are given on the fol- lowing pages may be modified in accordance with current fashions. clothing construction specific directions for draping draping a kimono dress pin the short upper-arm sleeve form to the dress form. decide upon the width of the widest part of the front, and fig. . draping a, back of kimono dress, showing underarm fullness cared for by dart; b, front of one-piece dress, showing placing of pins and distribution of fullness; c, side view of one-piece dress, showing location of shoulder and underarm seams; d, circular section of skirt partially draped fold the fabric lengthwise, half that distance from one edge. mark the center fold with basting. then pin it on the form the desired distance from the floor minus the hem allowance. fasten a tapeline around the form at the belt line; adjust the fullness so that the center front and sides of the skirt draping will hang straight down from the hip line. smooth the fabric across the chest and up toward the shoulder. cut the neck line a seam's distance above the base of the neck, clipping as necessary to the seam line (fig. , a, b, c), so that you can fit the fabric over the shoulder and bring the lengthwise fold into position at the center back. smooth the fabric across the back of the shoulder and pin the center fold to the center back of the form. locate the underarm seam line of the front, then the underarm seam line of the back, allowing at least % inches for fullness from the center front to the center back; cut up from the bottom of the dress to within about an inch above the waistline. fit the sleeve with the warp yarns forming a continuous line around the arm. smoothness in the back may be gained by pinning a dart (fig. , a) from the underarm curve and extending it toward the neck. (this dart is later unpinned, and the fullness thus provided is gathered along the underarm seam before the seam is basted.) pin darts in the front at right angles to the underarm seam at the bust or belt line. locate the sleeve seam and finish cutting. remove a few pins at a time; pin front and back together on the seam line and remove from the form. mark the seam lines, baste the garment together, and fit. the surplus length at the bottom on each side can be cared for when the garment is hung. to eliminate bulkiness and improve the fit of the garment use one or more of these suggestions: cut the neck line broad at the shoulders, thus permitting the garment to rest lower on the shoulder near the armseye instead of near the neck (fig. ); drape with a bias shoulder seam which is placed directly on top of the shoulder and arm, and cut the front and back, following the slope of the shoulder; or drape to make a bias center-back or center-front seam. clothing construction draping a one-piece dress place the fabric on the form without attaching the sleeve, adjust the fullness, and cut the neck line, following the directions for the kimono dress. check the grain over the hip and bust, smooth the fabric over the shoulder, and place darts, tucks, or gathers as needed (figs. , b, c). locate the shoulder seam and cut. allow the desired full- ness at the bust and hips, locate the underarm seam line, and cut (fig. , b). drape the back in a similar manner; smooth the fabric across the figure at the hip and shoulder, keeping the grain straight, and cut the neck line as described. bring the seam line of the back at the shoulder and under- arm to the seam line of the front and pin (fig. , c); then cut. mark the armseye line with pins, cut a seam's distance beyond the pin line, and clip toward the seam line as neces- sary (figs. , b, c). remove the surplus length at the bot- tom on each side when the garment is hung. draping circular skirts if the skirt is only slightly circular, the fabric is fitted smoothly over the form from the waist to the hips, and the lower part of the skirt hangs straight down with slight fullness at the bottom; but if considerable fullness is de- sired at the bottom of the skirt, it will be necessary to have the circular section terminate at approximately the hip line so that the skirt may be fitted smoothly from the waist to the hips. bisymmetric flares may have the fullness distrib- uted evenly; or more fullness may be placed at the sides than toward the center, which tends to give width to the figure, or at the center than at the sides, which tends to give height to the figure. before beginning to drape place paper on the floor around the form to protect the fabric from soil. a skirt front or back draping which is slightly circular may be cut lengthwise from a -inch fabric without piecing; but if more fullness is needed, it will be necessary to cut the skirt crosswise, to plan for inconspicuous placing of the piecing seams, or to cut the circular front or back in more than one section. when the upper edge of a circular section is parallel to the floor, mark this line on the form with pins and cut the part of the skirt above this line in one with the waist or as a yoke. when the center front or back of the skirt is not to be cut on the bias, pin the warp (or filling) yarn of the fabric at the center of the form, with the cut end the desired dis- tance from the floor. the amount of fullness at the bottom of any circular skirt depends upon the depth of the curve at the joining line and the shape of that line. the deeper the curve at the top of the circular section, the greater the amount of fullness there will be at the bottom. if the curve at the top is even, the fullness will be distributed evenly; if it is deeper at any place, more fullness will fall from that point. allowing for a seam at the upper edge of the circular section, cut from the center with an upward curve for about inches; clip to the seam line and pin the cut edge in place; drop the fabric toward the hip line, throwing fullness into the skirt as desired (fig. , d). continue cutting, clipping, pinning, and dropping until the side seam is reached. lo- cate the side seam. unless the skirt is only slightly circular, it will be desirable to even it at the bottom before it is re- moved from the form. when the line made by the upper edge of a circular skirt or section slants upward from the center front, the curve at the upper edge will have to be cut deeper at the sides to provide the additional length needed. otherwise the fullness at the bottom will be reduced. clothing construction when the line made by the upper edge of a circular section slants downward from the center front, the curve at the upper edge will have to be shallower at the sides if the width of the skirt at the bottom is to remain the same. draping collars the neck line to which a collar is attached may be con- tinuous, or the neck-line opening may meet or lap. the amount that the collar rolls will be governed by the length and shape of the garment neck line and the shape of the collar neck line, the width of the collar, and whether it is cut on the straight or the bias. in draping convertible collars one should realize that the more convex the outside and neck-line edges of the collar, the higher it will roll and the wider it will be in the center back. to drape the collar, place the garment on the form, cut the neck-line opening the desired length, and recut the garment neck line if necessary. take a piece of fabric a little longer and wider than is desired for the collar, crease crosswise through the center, and pin with the creased line at the center back of the garment, making the neck-line seam to the outside. continue pinning the collar to the garment on the right and left sides of the garment, shaping the neck-line edge of the collar as desired. then shape the outside edge by turning under and pinning (figs. , a, b). allow for seams and cut. the neck line of the collar may be concave, straight, or convex; the outside edge may be straight or convex (see fig. ). in draping bisymmetric nonconvertible collars, one should realize that the more nearly the neck line of the collar ap- proaches the neck line of the garment, the flatter the collar will lie; conversely, the straighter the neck line of the collar, the more the collar will roll. in determining the draping amount of roll desired, one should consider certain points in the physical appearance of the person, such as the length of the neck and the slope and width of the shoulders. ; aack of * neck/ae fig. . draping collars and sleeves a, b, convertible collars; c, first step in draping a nonconvertible collar; d, back of a nonconvertible collar after being draped; e, front of a non- convertible collar in process of being draped; f, upper side of a tight-fitting sleeve; g, under side of a tight-fitting sleeve, with darts at elbow; h, under side of a tight-fitting sleeve, with lengthwise dart starting at the cut end of the fabric, with the fabric folded lengthwise through the center, mark a point on the folded edge a distance from the cut end equal to the width of the collar, the roll at the neck line, and the seam al- lowance. pin the fabric in place on the form, with the fold in the center back of the garment and with the point just located at the neck line and the cut end of the fabric ex- clothing construction tending up (fig. , c). from this point cut and pin for about an inch, as shown in fig. , c; continue cutting and pinning for about two more inches. turn the collar down into place and pin at the center back; then cut the outside edge of the collar from the center back to a point about inch beyond the shoulder seam (fig. , d). for a round neck line continue cutting and pinning the entire distance in the same way. for a w-shaped or a square neck line, fold under at the seam line, allowing the extra fabric to turn back under the collar section. pin the end of the collar to the garment and then raise the collar and cut a seam's distance from the neck line. mark the desired out- side edge line with pins and cut (fig. , e). draping sleeves sleeves may be draped with the straight or true bias of the fabric following the lengthwise yarn marked on the fitted sleeve form. the shape of the sleeve is governed to a large extent by fashion. - to drape a one-piece sleeve without visible fullness at the armseye, mark with pins on the sleeve form the location desired for the sleeve seam. pin the straight (or bias) of the fabric to the lengthwise line marked on the form as far down as the elbow. lay the fabric in small folds on each side of this line to allow for ease of fit (fig. , f). then bring it around the form and locate the underarm seam. drape one sleeve and use it as a pattern in cutting the second. if the sleeve is to be fitted snugly in the lower half, smooth- ness may be obtained by gathers or by small darts in the under side of the sleeve located at the elbow at right angles to the seam, or by a dart from the wrist to the elbow in line with the little finger. to drape the sleeve with darts draping or gathers at the elbow, locate the seam line of the upper side of the sleeve from the elbow to the wrist, being careful to keep the warp and filling yarns in position; then bring the fabric around the sleeve form at the wrist and locate near the elbow the surplus fullness (fig. , g), which may be held in place with gathers or with two or three darts, depending upon the fabric and the effect desired. to drape the sleeve with the lengthwise dart, pin the seam in the lower half of the sleeve, keeping the underarm line smooth. lay a dart along the outside of the sleeve form from inch below the elbow to the wrist (fig. , h). allow for seams and cut at the underarm, wrist, and armseye. use the armseye of the form as a guide in cutting the sleeve armseye. if the sleeve is to be fitted loosely below the armseye, there may be varying amounts of fullness, and the lower edge of the sleeve may be left loose, or the fullness may be held in place by some type of band or cuff. when a small amount of fullness is desired, drape like the sleeve with the length- wise dart, except that the lower edge is located by placing an elastic band at the wrist to hold the fullness in place. if more fullness is desired below the elbow, relocate the underarm seam from that point, throwing more fullness into both the upper and the under side of the sleeve; place an elastic band at the wrist and check the amount and location of fullness. if more fullness is desired below the cap, begin at the armseye and relocate the entire underarm seam, adding fullness from that point. in general this sleeve will not ap- pear to fit as well as either of the foregoing, unless the fabric is very soft or the sleeve is shorter than wrist length. if a still fuller sleeve is desired, pin the fabric to the length- wise line marked on the sleeve form, and, allowing for a clothing construction very shallow cap, bring the fabric around the form so that it lies smooth at the armseye line and extra fullness falls in folds below the armseye line. locate seams and cut. this sleeve will be similar in shape to that shown in fig. , b. to drape a one-piece sleeve with visible fullness at the armseye, mark with pins on the sleeve form the location desired for the sleeve seam. pin the straight (or bias) of the fabric to the lengthwise line marked on the form. lay folds on each side of this line across the top of the arm. the depth of the folds at the armseye and at the base of the cap will be governed by the amount of fullness desired at the armseye line and in the upper half of the sleeve. the full- ness in the lower part of the sleeve may be entirely fitted out or may be left in, depending upon the design. locate seams and cut. to drape a raglan sleeve, drape as for a one-piece sleeve without visible fullness at the armseye, allowing for the additional length needed at the top of the sleeve to bring it to the neck line. drape the lower part of the sleeve on the sleeve form and mark the highest point; then remove the sleeve and place it on the dress form, with the highest point of the sleeve coinciding with the corresponding point on the form. shape the upper part of the sleeve over the shoulder, using darts if necessary. allow for seams and cut. note. if armseye fullness is to be held in place over the shoulder with tucks, smocking, or shirring, then follow the directions for the sleeve with visible fullness at the armseye. to drape a two-piece sleeve, pin the lengthwise yarn of the fabric to the lengthwise line marked on the form. lay the fabric in small folds on either side of this line to allow for ease of fit. in general the direction of the yarns is the same facings on the sleeve as on the form, and seams are located at ap- proximately the same places. draping coats coats may be draped by following the suggestions given for draping dresses, except that darts in semitailored coats are generally placed at the shoulder rather than at the underarm seam. sufficient fullness must be allowed to make the coat fit comfortably over a dress and for the lining and interlining to be inserted. . facings facings are edge finishes which often serve as decoration. a facing may show on the right or on the wrong side, but it shows only on one side of the article. if the facing is on the right side, it may be desirable to reverse the seams on the garment for almost the depth of the facing to give a neat appearance (see “seams,” pp. – ). a facing is frequently used on a remodeled garment when there is not sufficient fabric to turn a wide hem, or when the edge is quite curved and the effect of a wide hem is desired. there are three types of facings: bias, straight, and fitted. any of these may be a uniform width throughout, or the width may vary; in the latter case it may be necessary to clip the inner edge of the facing the depth of the seam in order to turn under the raw edge (fig. ). the type of facing to be used is determined by the shape and location of the edge to be faced and the effect desired. to insure a flat finish it is necessary to cut the facing so that the warp yarns coincide with the warp yarns in the garment clothing construction c s \ ^_^- a /) |→ l— Æ a /* fig. . facings that vary in width a, for a v neck line; b, for a square neck line; c, for the bottom of a sleeve; d, e, f, for straight edges (except in the case of a bias facing on a curved or straight edge), and it is particularly important to do this in wash garments or in any fabric in which either the warp or the filling yarns are coarser or more tightly twisted than the other. bias facing bias facings are widely used, especially on curved edges, as bias may be eased or stretched. the greater the curve on the edge, the narrower the bias needs to be to fit smoothly. prepare a bias strip of the desired width and length (see “cutting and joining bias strips,” pp. – ). if the fac- facings ing is to be turned to the wrong side of the article, place the bias on the edge to be finished, with the right sides to- gether; if the facing is to be turned to the right side, place the right side of the facing to the wrong side of the article. when attaching a bias facing to a straight edge, hold the facing and the garment with equal tension; when applying it on an outward curve, hold the facing slightly taut (fig. , b); when applying it on an inward curve, hold the facing slightly full (fig. , c); when applying it around an outside corner, hold the facing without fullness at the seam line (fig. , a– ); when applying it around an inside cor- ner, it is necessary to fig. . method of applying a facing make a dart wide enough to permit the facing to lie smooth when finished (fig. , a– ). this dart may be either folded in, or stitched and the excess fabric trimmed off (see “mitering,” p. ). pin, baste, and stitch the facing on the seam line. trim the seam and clip it if it is curved ; then turn the facing to the other side, turning on the seam line or a little to the wrong side of the garment, and press or baste it in place. because of easing or stretching, the bias facing may need to be trimmed to make it a uniform width. turn under the raw edges and stitch by machine or by hand (fig. ). decorative stitches may also be used to hold this edge in place. in case the facing is on the wrong side and is too heavy to be turned under, the raw edges may be finished in a variety of ways (see “hems,” pp. – ). sometimes clothing construction when the facing is turned to the wrong side around the neck line or armseye of a nonwashable garment, it is simply tacked in place at intervals. fitted facing a fitted facing may be used on edges which have pro- nounced curves or sharp corners, such as those at the bottom of circular skirts and at neck lines, especially if a wide facing is needed. using the edge to be faced as a pattern, cut the facing exactly the same shape and of the desired width. cut so that the warp yarns in the facing coincide with those in the garment, except in the case of a fitted facing cut on the bias. seams in fitted facings should be located so that they coincide with those on the garment (fig. , c). the facing seams should be stitched and pressed open before the facing is stitched to the garment. apply in the same way as a bias facing on a straight edge; then trim and clip. fitted facing for a coat front such a facing is usually cut so that it extends beyond the neck line about inches along the finished shoulder seam, but the width at the bottom is only to inches (fig. , a). place the right side of the facing to the right side of the garment (to which the interfacing has been basted—see “interfacing,” p. ). after stitching, press the seam open, and trim the seam of the front a little narrower than that of the facing (fig. , b). press the seam toward the inter- facing and catstitch to it. turn the facing to the wrong side of the garment. instead of having the seam line come ex- actly on the edge, baste and press so that the facing extends slightly beyond the coat front as far down as the neck line opens, and the coat extends slightly beyond the facing the rest of the way down. §s) * * w j/p sºfch a c fig. . methods of attaching facings a, fitted facing on a coat front; b, attaching a fitted facing to a coat front and interfacing; c, fitted facing as a neck-line finish—wrong side of garment clothing construction straight facing a straight facing may be used on any straight edge, such as center-back and center-front closings, belts, and tops of pockets. it may be cut either lengthwise or crosswise of the cloth, but the garment can be laundered more successfully if the facing matches the grain of the edge to be faced. to make it, prepare a straight strip of cloth of the desired width and length and apply it in the same way as a bias facing. . fasteners there are many kinds of fasteners used on garments; but the most common are buckles, buttons and button- holes or loops, hooks and eyes, snaps, and zippers. if two edges meet, choose one of the following types of fasteners: buckles (which meet as in fig. , c), buttons and loops, hooks and round or thread eyes, zippers; if two edges lap, choose any fastener except buckles which meet or hooks and round eyes. in the following pages each type is described. if the garment is not double at the point where a fastener is to be made or attached, a reënforcement of tape or fabric should be placed at that point on the wrong side. when planning the location of fasteners one should remember that it is customary for women's garments to lap right over left and for men's garments to lap left over right. in selecting the fasteners for children's garments one should consider the age of the child and choose those fasteners that are easily handled and will facilitate self- care; for example, use large rather than small buttons; use only as many as are necessary; have them located at points where the child can reach them easily (for example, fasteners in a child's garment with a drop seat, avoid having a button in the center back); use zippers only on firm fabrics, such as play garments; on clothes for pre-school children avoid the use of snaps, hooks, eyes, small loops, or tapes that tie. buckles buckles are made in one or two parts. the buckle bar may be the same width as or narrower than the belt, but it should never be wider. in selecting a buckle be sure that //em fig. . methods of attaching buckles to belts a, one-piece buckle with prong; b, one-piece buckle attached to belt of heavy fabric; c, two-piece buckle attached to belt that is wider than buckle bar it is not too heavy for the fabric used in the belt, since a heavy buckle may pull the belt down. the method of at- taching depends upon the width of the belt, the texture of the fabric, and the type of belt. if the belt is wider than the buckle bar, lay a tuck in the end of the belt (fig. , c), fold the end over the buckle bar, and fasten securely. in light-weight fabrics fold the end of the belt over the buckle bar, turn under the raw edge, hem to the under side of the belt (fig. , c), and overhand across the ends of the hem (fig. , a). in heavy-weight fabrics attach in the same way, except that the raw edge at the end of the hem is not turned under but is held in place by blanket stitching or catstitch- ing (fig. , a); or, if the buckle opening is small and the fabric bulky, attach the finished belt end to the buckle bar clothing construction by means of groups of overhand stitches that hold the belt flat against the under side of the bar (fig. , b). if the buckle is in two parts, attach both ends of the belt by means of one of the described methods. if the one-piece buckle has a prong, it is necessary, when attaching the end of the belt to the buckle bar, to punch a hole with a stiletto for the prong to go through. it may be desirable to over- hand around this eyelet, but often this is not necessary. to make the length of the belt adjustable, on the free end of the belt make several eyelets, inch to % inches apart, and finish with overhand stitches. buttons buttons are of two types: those with shanks and those with two or more holes. both types are available in a variety of materials. they may be used with buttonholes or loops as a means of fastening and of decoration also, or they may be used only as decoration. marking the location for buttons if buttons are used as fasteners, they should be sewed on after the buttonholes are made, so that the exact location can be determined. lap the edges of the garment as planned, and insert a pin through each buttonhole at the place where the center of the button is to rest, namely, at the outer end of the buttonhole placed perpendicular to the edge or in the center of the buttonhole placed parallel to the edge; the location of the button may be more permanently marked by chalk or by taking a small stitch in the material with the point of the pin. if buttons are used only as decoration, the location of each should be determined and marked by chalk or pins in the same way. mark the position of all buttons before sewing on any of them. fasteners sewing buttons to the garment the method used for sewing on a button depends upon the type of button used and upon whether the button is to serve as a fastener or only as decoration. flat buttons. if a flat button with holes through it is to be used as a fastener, a shank must be made with the thread as it is sewed on, so that the buttonhole will lie flat beneath the button. use double thread with a knot. take a small stitch on the right side of the garment, so that the knot will be covered by the button. bring the needle up through the hole in the button and down through the opposite,hole. when sewing a button on a light-weight fabric, place a pin under the thread on top of the button, and continue sewing until the button is securely attached (fig. ). in thick fabrics it will be necessary to insert - fig. . use of something larger (such as a match) to pro- apin in sewing vide a long enough shank to permit the onaflat button buttonhole to lie flat under the button. the threads which pass from hole to hole should run par- allel to the buttonhole if a two-hole button is used; if a four-hole button is used, the threads should form two parallel lines (fig. , a), or, if a decorative effect only is desired, three lines may be made to radiate from one hole in the shape of a fan (fig. , b). after the button is securely attached, remove the pin, draw the button as far from the garment as possible, and bring the needle up between the button and the garment; wind the thread around the threads that hold the button in place, so as to form a shank; pass the needle to the wrong side and fasten the thread securely. if a flat button is used as decoration only, the pin need not be inserted, because a shank is not necessary. clothing construction buttons with a shank may be sewed on in the same way as flat buttons that are used for decoration, except that the needle is passed through the hole on the under side of the but- ton, and no thread shows on the top (::) side (fig. , c). even in the case of q- shank buttons, if they are used for a a fasteners, it is necessary to insure that <> they are not sewed too close to the ===== garment, and a thread shank is often d needed here also. when many but- ..sº tons are to be attached (especially if —es— they are to be removed when the gar- e ment is laundered), use the following fic. . methods of method: make tiny eyelets wherever attaching buttons buttons are to be placed; slip the a-b, flatbuttons; c,shank shanks of the buttons through the buttoni, p, button with holes and fasten with rings or small a metal shank; e, coat button with reënforcing safety pins (fig. , d). button a small button is used as a reënforce- ment if there is considerable strain, as on a coat. the stitches which attach the button go through both the large button and the reënforcing button (fig. , e). linking buttons together two buttons linked together may be used when the edges to be joined do not overlap. a button is sewed at each end of a commercial cord or a cord made of the fabric (see “loops,” p. ), or the buttons are joined by means of a swing tack (see “swing tacks,” p. ). covering buttons buttons may be covered with fabric to match or to contrast with the garment. almost any shop that does fasteners plaiting will cover buttons of a wide variety of shapes and sizes, but the simpler molds can be covered very easily at home; however, such buttons are more satisfactory for trimming than for fasteners. cut a circle of fabric a little more than twice the diameter of the button mold. overcast or run a very fine gathering around the outer edge, either before or after turning under the raw edge. place the button in the exact center of the circle. draw up the gathering thread, to which the needle is still attached, and fasten firmly with several stitches crossing one another on the back of the button. bound buttonholes bound buttonholes may be used as a means of fastening and of decoration also, or as decoration only. many varia- tions of the bound buttonhole are used. slashes in garments, through which belts or ties are run, may be finished on the right side like bound buttonholes. the bound-buttonhole closings used in blouses and dresses are variations of the bound buttonhole, as are all types of slash or set-in pockets. marking the location for the buttonhole mark with a basting line the position and size of the buttonhole. make the buttonhole as long as the diameter of the button plus its thickness plus any additional length desired for decoration. the total width (across the two bound edges) should usually be as narrow as possible, con- sidering the texture of the fabric — from # to # inch. if several buttonholes are to be made in a row, time will be saved and more accurate marking done if a row of basting is placed parallel to the edge of the garment and as far from the edge as the outside ends of the buttonholes should come; clothing construction equal distance beyond the marking at each end. open out the crease and pin and baste in place (fig. , a- ). if several buttonholes are to be made in a row, the binding should be cut in a continuous strip as long as the space to be covered by the buttonholes plus approximately inches. stitching. stitch from the right side around the marked line in the form of a rectangle (fig. , a- , b– ) exactly as long as the marked line and usually from # to its inch wide, depending upon the desired width for the finished buttonhole. be sure to stitch a perfect rectangle; turn square corners — with the needle in the cloth — and take the same number of stitches across each end of the button hole. begin stitching in the middle of one side and end by retracing the stitching to the end of the buttonhole. cutting. cut through the binding, garment, and re- enforcement (if used) along the line marking the center of the buttonhole, to within a distance from the ends equal to the width of the buttonhole (usually about ; inch). then cut diagonally to each corner of the rectangle, being careful not to cut the stitching (fig. , a- , b– ). if a continuous strip has been used in making the row of button- holes, cut it halfway between each two buttonholes. turning and finishing with a facing. turn the binding through the opening thus formed, and on the seam line at each end of the buttonhole crease back the binding so that none of it shows on the right side. baste in place and press at the ends. then fold the binding on the sides over the seams so that the edges meet in the center and inverted plaits are formed on the wrong side at the ends (figs. , a– , b- ). from the right side take tiny running stitches in the groove to aid in keeping the bindings on both edges even, or baste along the seam line. catch the edges of the binding together at the ends of the buttonhole with a few fasteners overhand stitches (fig. , b– ). baste the edges of the binding together at the center of the buttonhole with di- agonal basting, and press. if the fabric is heavy, the seams on the sides of the rectangle may be trimmed slightly; they may be opened instead of having both edges extend into the binding; or both thicknesses may be turned away from the opening and pressed and finished, thus forming a piping rather than a binding. catstitch the edge of the binding to the reënforcement (fig. , b– ). the wrong side of the buttonhole is finished with a facing. the facing should be cut on the buttonhole line in the same way that the buttonhole was cut, and the raw edges turned in and hemmed by hand to the buttonhole binding (fig. , b– ); or, when a very heavy fabric is used and the wrong side will not show, instead of turning under the facing, trim it a seam's depth and hold in place with close blanket stitches taken over the raw edge and through the binding. finishing a slash for a tie or belt if the slash is located near an edge which is finished with a facing, it may not be necessary to use a reënforcement; in this case follow the foregoing directions, except that the re- enforcement is omitted. if there is no facing, follow the directions for making bound buttonholes except that you should substitute the following directions for those given in the preceding paragraph: from the wrong side backstitch the binding along the seam, trim the raw edge to the desired width, and finish the edge as the fabric demands (see “seam finishes,” p. ); or trim the raw edge to the desired width, turn under, and hem by hand to the stitch- ing line. overcast the ends to prevent them from fraying. clothing construction strip buttonholes a satisfactory substitute for buttonholes is made by tacking a strip of ribbon or braid or a finished strip of fabric (made like a narrow belt) at even intervals to the edge of the closing. this method is especially adapted to side-front closings, but it may be used almost anywhere that a row of buttons is used in fastening a closing. if large buttons are to be used, make the tacks far enough apart to allow room for the buttons (fig. ). if one wishes to use buttons spaced some distance fig. . strip buttonholes with - - y buttons set close together apart (as in a little boy's blouse), the strip may be over- handed to the garment between the openings left for the buttons, or decorative stitches may be used to hold the strip in place (fig. ). worked buttonholes buttons and worked buttonholes make one of the most satisfactory methods of fastening garments. there are two types of worked buttonholes: those with a fan fig. . strip but- at one end and a bar at the other, and those tonholes with but- with a bar at each end (fig. , a, b). tons set far apart when there is strain on a buttonhole, as on trousers which button to a blouse, the fan-and-bar type should be used, with the fan placed at the outside end, since fasteners it provides room for the button to rest, and the bar holds the sides of the hole together to keep it from gaping (fig. ). it is never satisfactory to make worked buttonholes through a single i i l * . : thickness of fabric. if the design : : il of the garment does not provide . § : for a double thickness of fabric : : | where the buttonhole is to be — : i made, reënforce with an extra ' a & " piece of fabric on the under side fig. . worked buttonholes of the garment. a, fan and bar; b, double bar in such garments as men's shirts and women's blouses, when the front is finished as shown in fig. , b, the double-barred buttonhole is used because of its more tailored appearance. marking location buttonholes are made on the upper side of the closing, and at right angles to the edge of the closing if there is likely to be strain on it, and so placed that the outer end of the buttonhole is never less than } to $ inch from the edge t. " of the garment. in places where there is little or no strain, as in the front of men's shirts, they are made parallel to the edge of the closing and are placed in the center of the hem or box plait. the distance - - fig. o. marking between the buttons depends upon their location of but- size, the amount of strain, and the effect tonholeswith pins desired. ' to mark the location of the buttonholes, place a tapeline along the edge of the garment and insert pins at the points where the ends of the buttonholes should come. the length § clothing construction of the buttonhole should be a trifle greater than the di- ameter of the button plus its thickness, so that the button may slip through easily. where a series of buttonholes is to be made, mark the location of each by inserting a pin at one end and bringing it out at the other end of the place where the buttonhole will be made (fig. ). making worked buttonholes cutting. do not cut the buttonhole until ready to work, lest it fray and stretch. it may be cut with buttonhole scissors or with ordinary scissors which are small and have sharp points. if ordinary scissors are used, insert the point at one pinhole and cut to the other one. if button- hole scissors are used, they should be set the correct size and tested on a scrap of the fabric. if the buttonhole runs parallel to the straight grain, cut along a yarn of the fabric. if the fabric frays and pulls easily, the buttonhole should be reënforced, before it is cut, by machine stitches or by running stitches. shorten the machine stitch and stitch around the place where the buttonhole is to be cut, begin- ning at the center of one side and making a narrow rectangle. retrace the stitching at the joining to prevent ripping. buttonholing. use thread that is coarser than that used in stitching the garment; that is, if no. thread has been used for stitching, no. should be used for buttonholing. special buttonhole thread which is very tightly twisted may be used on cotton or linen garments; on wool and on silk, silk thread or twist should be used. always use a single thread. , - f : \ } , , , , - hold the garment with the outside end of the buttonhole toward the left and with the slit lying along the forefinger of the left hand. begin at the inside end of the buttonhole, using a knot which is placed to the side of the slit and is cut fasteners off after the buttonhole is finished (fig. ). working on the side of the buttonhole that is toward you, put the needle through the slit and bring it out toward you through the cloth. the depth of the stitch will depend on the fabric and the size of the buttonhole, but it should be taken deep enough so that it will not pull out. while the needle is still in the cloth, bring the double thread, from the needle eye, under the point of the needle from right to left, that is, in the direction in which you are working (fig. ). draw the needle through fig. . magnifiedbutton- the loop thus formed and pull the hole stitches thread tight, allowing the purl (knot formed by the loop) to come on the edge of the slit. continue in this way, taking stitches about the width of the thread apart, until the opposite end of the slit is reached. making the fan. from five to seven buttonhole stitches are made at the end of the slit, slanted like the spokes of a fan or wheel, with the stitches at the end slightly gº longer than the others (fig. (~) ). the second side of the slit should be finished like the first side. making the bar. take two or three stitches across the end of the slit, inserting the needle each time in the hole where the first stitch came out, and bringing it out of the hole where the last stitch came out. turn the work with the bar away from you and cover the bar with a series of blanket stitches, occasionally catching into the fabric under fig. . location of button and buttonhole on ends of a band fasteners better-looking the finished opening will be. however, hooks and eyes on belting are an exception. two kinds of metal eyes are used: a straight eye where the edges are to lap, and a round eye where the edges are just to meet. a thread eye, or loop, may be used instead of the metal eye if a very flat and inconspicuous closing is desired. metal hooks and eyes marking location. place the hook on the wrong side of the upper edge of the closing and usually inch from the a #; a • * fig. . method of sewing on hooks and eyes a, round eye—wrong side of garment; b, hook—wrong side of garment; c, straight eye—-right side of garment edge. if a straight eye is used, it is placed directly under the outer end of the hook on the right side of the under edge of the closing. if a round eye is used, it should extend beyond the edge ; inch, so that the edges of the closing will just meet, as on belting; it is usually attached to the wrong side of the under edge of the closing. sewing on hooks and eyes. begin sewing at the end of one ring of the hook, using buttonhole stitches or over- hand stitches. continue around the ring, placing stitches very close together. carry the thread between the two thicknesses of the cloth to the end of the hook and fasten firmly with several overhand stitches; then go to the other ring, sew it on, and fasten the thread securely to the under side of the garment. the ends of the straight eye are sewed on like the rings of the hook. the round eyes are sewed in the same way, except that the sides of the eyes are fastened clothing construction securely at the edge of the garment, so that the eyes will stay in place (fig. ). if hooks and eyes are being sewed to a stiff belting, use stab stitches, which resemble overhand stitches but are made in two operations instead of one. thread eyes and loops when thread eyes are used instead of straight metal eyes, they should be made the same size as the metal eye and placed in the same position. when a thread loop is used with a button, it is placed on the edge of the garment, and should be large enough to admit the button easily and yet hold it firmly. when the loop is used to hold a belt in place, the width of the belt determines the length of the loop; it should be a little longer than the belt is wide, so that the belt will lie flat and smooth. to make thread eyes and loops use a coarse single thread. make a loop of the desired length on the right side of the garment by taking three or more stitches, one on top of the other. bring the needle through to the right side and cover the loop with blanket stitches placed very close together and with the first and last stitches caught into the fabric. fasten the thread well on the wrong side. small loops may be made more evenly if they are worked over the end of a pencil, or they may be made more quickly by crocheting a chain of the desired length, fastening it to the garment with a crochet stitch taken into the edge of the garment, and then covering the chain with single crochet stitches. lingerie guards lingerie guards at the shoulder seams in dresses are a means of keeping the shoulder straps together and of pre- venting the straps from slipping off the shoulders. the fasteners material used for the guard will depend upon the garment; but tape, a strip of fabric with raw edges inclosed, a cro- cheted chain, or swing tack may be used. fasten one end of the guard to the wrong side of the dress at the desired place on the seam line and sew the socket part of the snap to the other end. the end of the strap nearest the armseye should be attached to the garment, and the end nearest the neck left open. sew the ball part of the snap to the seam edges at a point op- posite the socket at the free end of the guard (fig. ). ~ – – – – . —ll lll- j/rap —- jº) vºted/ loops loops of cloth may be used in place of buttonholes when decora- tive fasteners are desired. loops may be pointed at the end (fig. , c), but they are usually more decorative and much easier to button if they are rounded (fig. , d, e). it is frequently desirable to use commercial cord or braid, especially on remodeled garments. fig. . lingerie guard attached to shoulder seam making loops may be cut lengthwise of the cloth if they are to be pointed at the end; otherwise they are cut on the bias. round loops should be made as narrow as the fabric will permit. t cut strips of fabric twice the width of the finished loop, plus two seam allowances. narrow loops are more decora- tive than wide ones, especially on light-weight fabrics. fold the strip lengthwise, right sides together, and crease lightly. stitch by machine the desired distance from the folded edge, except when starting (fig. , a). trim close clothing construction to stitching, the closeness depending upon the weight of the fabric and its tendency to fray. turn the strip by turning a a wqtl c fig. . making cord for loops a, bias material stitched to inclose a cord, which is used to turn strip right side out; b, casing with cable cord attached at one end; c, casing partly turned over cable cord it inside out over a cord which is firmly attached at one end (fig. , b). the cord may either be slipped in before the fold is stitched or run in later with the bod- kin or darning needle, blunt end first. round loops are left unpressed or are pressed with a warm iron and no moisture. cable cord or yarn may be inserted in the loop by sewing firmly to the end of the strip where the cord inside the cas- ing is attached, overlapping the ends of the two cords and stitching them together beforestitching the bias strip. then, as the strip is turned right side out, it reverses, inclosing the cable cord (fig. , c). cut the strips into the desired length for loops and fold each one with the seam to the inside of the loop. if pointed loops are de- sired, press the strip with the seam on the inside edge of the fold. if loops are to be placed as shown in fig. , c or d, stitch by e h (\ 'ssve aoper fig. . series of loops stitched by machine to tissue paper machine to tissue paper (fig. ), not breaking the thread until the entire series is stitched. this helps to make them fasteners lie flat and hold their shape while being attached to the gar- ment. tear off the tissue paper and clip the loops apart, unless they are to be attached close together. attaching loops are often used as a means of fastening for the front or back opening of a garment which meets instead of lapping. ; _t t- a a c z fig. . methods of attaching loops a–d, types of loops; e, attached to a front opening finished with a facing if loops are to be attached to a soft, thin fabric, it is often desirable to baste it to tissue paper before placing the loops. when the opening is finished with a facing, place the loops flat on the right side of the garment closing, with the raw ends even with the opening, and with the body of the loop extending back on the garment. baste the raw ends of the loops in place so that when the facing is applied and stitched to the garment, the loops also will be stitched in place (fig. , e). apply the facing, baste, stitch, and turn to clothing construction the wrong side of the garment; crease and press the facing seam and let the loops extend beyond the edge of the opening. loops may be attached to the garment in many different ways, as is shown in fig. , a, b, c, d. when the opening is finished with a bias binding, baste the loops in place on the wrong side of the garment, with the cut ends of the loops on the edge of the opening (fig. , a). fig. . steps in attaching loops to a front opening finished with a binding a, loops basted to wrong side of garment; b, binding strip stitched to right side of garment; c, binding finished; d, loops turned toward edge of open- ing and tacked in place place the edge of the bias binding strip along the edge of the opening on the right side and baste. stitch on the machine, making sure to catch the ends of each loop (fig. , b). remove the basting and turn the bias binding to the wrong side, turning under the raw edge of the binding about ; inch and bringing this folded edge just over the line of stitching. baste and hem in place (fig. , c). turn the loops back under the bias binding so that they extend beyond the edge, and tack them in place (fig. , d). when loops are attached to the body of the garment, they serve, when buttoned, as a means of holding fullness in place, as at the bottom of a sleeve which has no placket. the loop is placed at the location desired, with the raw ends of the loop toward the button. fasten the loop to the gar- fasteners ment by stitching about ; inch from the raw edge of the loop, through the loop and the garment, with a row of back- stitches. the raw ends can be fastened to the garment with close blanket stitches, or inclosed by a small tuck made on the wrong side of the fabric, if it is light weight. after the raw ends are finished, the loop is turned back toward the button and pressed into position. if the loop is to be used to hold a belt or tie in place, turn the raw edges at the ends of the loop to the inside and slip-stitch each loop end to the garment. snaps snaps may be used in places where there is little strain, and where a flat and inconspicuous closing is desired. very small snaps should be used for thin fabrics; ordinarily it is not well to use large snaps even on relatively heavy fabrics. marking location the position of the snaps is determined by the kind and location of the opening. in general they should be nearenough to the edge toprevent it from º turning back, near enough —- —--— together to prevent gaping, a Æ c easily accessible, and entirely fig. . sewing on snaps invisible. place the ball part a, ball part of snap; b, socket part of of the snap (fig. , a) on snap; c, method of sewing on a snap the wrong side of the upper edge of the closing, marking its position with a pin. in certain varieties there is a hole in the center of the snap through which a pin may be in- serted to hold it in place. after the ball parts of snaps are all sewed on, chalk the balls, and carefully lap the edges and press them together so that the chalk marks will be visible on the under side. if a stiff fabric, like organdie, is used, clothing construction mark the location of the lower side of the snap by making the imprint of the ball on the under side of the closing. place the center of the socket side of the snap at the point located. sewing on snaps use a single thread with a knot. fasten the thread with a small stitch taken through the place to be covered with the snap. sew with several overhand stitches or button- hole stitches in each hole (fig. , c). pass the needle under the snap to carry the thread from one hole to another. fasten the thread by taking two or three small stitches on the wrong side, close to the edge of the snap, but not show- ing on the right side. when snaps must be sewed where there is only one thickness of material, reënforce by placing a piece of tape or material on the under side, and hold it in place with the stitches which sew on the snap. zippers zippers may be purchased in various lengths and colors. they serve as an excellent type of fastener, especially on children's play clothes, since the child can learn to handle them at an early age if they are used on firm and rather heavy fabrics and are so located that he can get a firm hold at the end of the opening as well as on the zipper slide. zippers from discarded articles may be removed, cleaned, and used on garments that are being constructed. attaching - when the opening is in a seam, stitch the seam # inch beyond the end of the placket opening; when the opening is in a slash, cut the slash # inch shorter than the length of the zipper strip. if the fabric is not bulky, turn the raw clothing construction . fitting preparation for fitting tucks, plaits, darts, and gathers should usually be cared for before the pieces of the garment are basted together. in a garment with a normal shoulder line (if there are no gathers in the front), the front shoulder is cut narrower than the back; hence, in joining the shoulder seam, the worker should hold the back toward her, easing it in and at the same time slightly stretching the front. match the notches, pin the back and the front of the garment together, with the pins at rightangles to the edge, and baste along the seam line. it is not always necessary to baste a garment together before it is fitted. sometimes it may merely be pinned to- gether, with the pins placed on the seam line and parallel to the edge of the garment, instead of at right angles as is ordinarily done when pinning is to be followed by basting. strangely enough this method may be employed in very different circumstances; for example, it is permissible to use it in a simple garment made of firm fabric and to omit the basting step entirely, or it may be used in a rather com- plicated garment which is likely to require considerable ad- justment. in the latter case the pinning is followed by basting. for the first fitting put the garment on wrong side out, unless the first stitching of the seam is to be on the right side, as in french seams, or unless there is considerable dif- ference between the right and left sides of the figure, or unless there is the problem of matching the design in the fabric. the final fitting is always done with the garment right side out. fitting adjust the garment to the figure, being sure that the center front and the center back are in place. if the garment has a belt, distribute the fullness properly, pinning a tape- line or strip of fabric where the belt is to be worn. look the garment over, and note the general appearance, the amount of fullness, the loca- tion and the direction of the seams, and the direction of the yarns of the fabric. standards for properly fitted garments it is impossible to set up any one standard for the proper fitting of a particular garment, because so many factors enter into the situa- tion: the type of figure, the age of the person, the type of garment, and the prevailing fashion. in general, fashion dictates whether garments are to be fitted loosely or snugly. however, if the fabric is rough or bulky in texture, it will require little additional f | a fig. ioo. usual position of the warp and filling yarns in a prop- erly fitted plain garment a, in blouse and skirt; b, in sleeve ease; but if it is sheer and soft, it will need to be fairly loose. nevertheless there are certain characteristics which a properly fitted garment possesses: generally speaking, warp yarns should be perpendicular to the floor, and filling yarns should be parallel to the floor (fig. ); the normal clothing construction shoulder seam should come slightly back of the top of the shoulder and should follow the line of the shoulder; the normal underarm seam should fall straight down from the center of the armpit to the floor; the garment should never be fitted so tightly that it draws or hampers freedom of movement. children's garments should be large enough to permit freedom of movement, yet not so loose as to cause dis- comfort or expose the body unduly. the garment should fit quite closely across the shoulders, so that it will not slip off; the neck line should be trimmed sufficiently so that there will be no pull to cause chafing or poor posture; there should be sufficient length and width through the body of the garment, for which extra fullness may be provided and held in place by darts, gathers, or plaits. the short sleeve should escape the bend of the elbow, the long sleeve should afford ample elbow room, and there should be no tight bands or armseyes. the shorter garments permit greater freedom of the legs and more exposure to the sun. if the garment does not have these general character- istics, it will be necessary to make alterations to correct the defects. as far as possible, the alterations should be confined to the shoulder and underarm seams and to any darts, tucks, or gathers which adjust fullness at these sean].s. specific fitting problems when both sides of the figure are the same, it is sometimes possible to fit only one side of the garment, altering the other side by the one which has been fitted; but it may be advisable to fit both sides of the garment to see the effect of the alterations. if the two sides of the figure are different, each side of the garment should be fitted. in fitting the fitting abnormal figure, care must be taken not to fit the garment so closely as to emphasize the defects. if changes in the seam lines are necessary, the shoulder seams should be altered first, then the underarm seams. it is desirable to test the fit of a garment when the person sits and when she walks, as well as when she stands, and when the arms are moved forward, as well as when they hang at the sides (fig. ). fig. ioi. blouse that draws across the back at the bottom of the armseye a, before fitting; b, after fitting to check the direction of the underarm seam, fasten a pair of scissors or some other weight to one end of a tapeline, fasten the other end over a pencil, and hold the pencil under the armpit. the tapeline will hang perpendicular to the floor just as the seam should hang. in fitting a garment with the seams on the outside make the changes in the seam lines by ripping the basting and re- pinning the seams. in fitting a garment with the seams on the inside rip the basting; then turn under one edge of the garment on the desired seam line, lap it over the other, and pin it in place. after removing the garment, baste along the new seam lines, using the alteration basting stitch (see “stitches,” p. ). clothing construction if the garment does not fit satisfactorily, the unsatis- factory condition usually is due to one or more of the following causes, and may be remedied by utilizing the sug- gestions given. if it has horizontal wrinkles, as shown in fig. , the gar- ment is too tight. to remedy, rip the underarm seams and repin, making narrower seams. if this difficulty occurs in a ki- mono garment, it may be nec- essary to insert an additional piece of cloth in the underarm seam. this piece will be shaped according to the additional width required and where it is needed (see fig. , a to e). for setting in an extra piece see “gussets,” p. . one-piece dress or blouse vertical wrinkles in the front, along the shoulder line, are usu- ally caused by incorrect basting of the shoulder seam. to rem- edy, rip the shoulder seam; then stretch the front and ease the a | fig. io. . gussets of various sizes and shapes for kimono garments a, pointed at one end and in- serted in sleeve; b, rectangular, to be inserted in both sleeve and body of the blouse; c, pointed at one end, to be inserted in sleeve or body of the blouse; d, oval, with widest part to be located at center of underarm curve; e, diamond-shaped, with right and left points at center of underarm curve and other points in line with underarm seam back as it is rebasted. if any of the front armseye extends beyond the back at the shoulder seam, it may be trimmed off after the sleeve is set in. this alteration should not be necessary in the case of a normal figure if the shoulder seams have been basted together properly. fitting wrinkles running diagonally from the neck to the armseye are caused by sloping shoulders. to remedy, make the shoulder seam deeper at the armhole, tapering it toward the neck; trim the armseye if necessary after the sleeve is set in (fig. ). wrinkles running diagonally from the outer end of the shoulder toward the center front are caused by square shoul- ders. to remedy, make the shoulder seam narrower at the h t t a a a a fig. io . sloping shoulders fig. ioa. square shoulders a, before fitting; b, after fitting a, before fitting; b, after fitting outer end of the shoulder (fig. ) or make it deeper at the neck line. in the latter case the front of the garment will be raised, and it will be necessary to make a new neck line. if the garment wrinkles and draws around the neck, the neck line is too small (fig. , a). to remedy, it will be necessary to clip the fabric around the neck and mark a new neck line, as is shown in fig. , b. if the garment is too wide across the back of the neck, several small tucks or darts radiating from the neck line will usually care for the excess fullness. this adjustment gives a snugly fitting neck line, and yet the garment has clothing construction sufficient width through the shoulders to be comfortable, and it is not likely to pull out at the back of the armseye seam. if the garment is too low in the neck in both the front and the back, make the shoulder seam deeper. if it is too low in either the front or the back, rip the shoulder and under- arm seams and raise the front or the back of the garment as needed. either of these alterations will necessitate relocating the armseye line, and the armseye may need to be clipped. a fig. ios. too small a neck line a, before fitting; b, after fitting b excessfullness in the front at the neck line may result from a flat chest in the person being fitted or (in the case of a garment being remodeled) from the fact that the original neck line was of the cowl type (fig. , a, b). to remedy, rip the shoulder seam, smooth out the front, and let it extend beyond the back at the armseye. make a new armseye line. if such an alteration is made, it will be neces- sary to widen the neck line at the shoulders (fig. , a– ) or to insert a piece of the fabric in order to extend the front of the shoulder at the neck line. such a piecing must be covered by the collar or other trimming. this alteration is not necessary if the pattern has been checked and altered carefully. sometimes the extra width can be taken out by darts or tucks terminating at the shoulder. with a neck fitting line which was formerly a cowl type, some or all of the fullness may be handled according to the foregoing suggestions, or darts radiating from the neckline may be used (fig. , b– ). fig. ioff. methods of handling front of garment that is too full at the neck line a, when there is little excess fullness (a–i), use alteration shown in a- ; b, when there is considerable excess fullness (b-i), use alteration shown in b- a stretched neck line is the result of careless handling of the garment (fig. , a). to remedy, rip off the neck-line finish (if this has been put on before the difficulty was discovered), lay the garment flat on the ironing board, and press care- º fully, first with the warp and then with a ſ a the filling yarns, until the stretched edge is back to its original shape. then run a very fine running stitch just outside the seam line, draw up the thread until it is the right length, and tie a knot in the end so that it will not slip out (fig. , b). since this difficulty is most likely to arise in the case of v neck lines and surplice closings, it is well to put in this fig. io' . stretched neck line a, before correction; b, after correction clothing construction running stitch as soon as the garment is cut; as a matter of fact this may be a desirable practice with fabrics that stretch easily, especially for the amateur. \ § b fig. io . one-piece dress that sags at the underarm a, before fitting; b, after fitting if the garment is too low at the armseye, raise it by making the shoulder seam deeper. make a new neck line. - if the underarm seams sag (fig. , a), the condition may be due to the incorrect placing of the pattern on the fabric or to too wide a garment or to both. raise the garment by making the shoulder seams deeper at the arms- eye, or by making one or more darts at the underarm seams fitting at the bust line or the belt line, or both (fig. , b); or re- move the excess width at the underarm seams. if the garment pokes out in front below the waistline (fig. ), this condition may be due to any one of several a a c fig. io . one-piece dress that pokes out in front a, before fitting; b, after fitting, when skirt is made of a bordered fabric; c, after fitting, when skirt is not made of a bordered fabric causes: a large bust, a protruding abdomen, stretching the front of the garment when it was joined to the back in the underarm seam, or failure to make corresponding adjust- ments in the length of the front and the back if the pattern was altered. to remedy, rip the underarm seam and then make one or more of the following alterations: straighten clothing construction the crosswise grain by taking darts in the front at the bust line or belt line or both, by deepening the dart or taking an additional dart if there is one there already, or by making the front narrower at the bottom. if, after these alterations are made in the front, there is excess length in the back, remove it at the shoulder seam. if the garment is made of a bordered fabric with the design at the bottom of the skirt, it is necessary to make alterations at or above the hip line. // º wº s [– a a £ e fig. i. io. round shoulders a -b i, before fitting; a –b , after fitting if the garment pokes out in the back below the waistline, this condition is usually due to protruding shoulder blades. to remedy, rip the underarm seam, slip the back of the garment higher than the front until the crosswise yarns in the back of the garment are parallel to the floor from the hip line to the shoulders, and repin the underarm seam. then rip the shoulder seam and make it deeper in the back at the armseye, easing in the surplus fullness along the shoulder seam or taking it out with radiating darts from the neck line; then correct the armseye line. this alteration will fitting make the back of the garment shorter than the front, but this can be remedied when the bottom is finished. diagonal wrinkles from the shoulder blades toward the under- arm seams are caused by round shoulders (fig. , a , b ). the person is also likely to have a flat chest, which will require modification of the front of the pattern (see fig. , a). likewise the person may be sway-backed; so ſ} a a fig. iii. underarm seam slants toward the front at the waistline a, before fitting; b, after fitting care should be taken not to fit the garment tightly at the waistline, since this accentuates both the round shoulders and the sway-back. to remedy, rip the shoulder seam and make it deeper in the back at the armseye (fig. , a , b ). if this does not remedy the difficulty, rip the underarm seam and raise the back. relocate the armseye on the back of the garment. often it is desirable to have the garment blouse. this alteration should not be necessary if the pat- tern was checked and altered properly. if the underarm seam of the waist is too near the front or slants toward the front at the waistline (fig. , a), the clothing construction front of the garment is too narrow or the back is too wide. if the seam allowance is wide enough, locate a new seam; if not, add a piece of fabric, making the piecing seam parallel the warp yarns on both the frontand the piece; then locate a new underarm seam (fig. , b). diagonal wrinkles on only one side of the garment, run- ning from the shoulder toward the center front and the center back, are caused by a differ- ence in the height of the shoulders. to remedy, rip the shoulder seam on the side that wrinkles and make the necessary adjustment. for establishing the arms- eye and fitting the sleeves see “sleeves,” pp. and ; for checking collar pat- terms see “nonconvertible collars,” p. ; for hanging skirts see “hems,” p. . skirt if the side seams swing toward the front (fig. , a), it may be that the skirt is too full at the lower edge a ) a z) fig. i. . . skirt that swings to the front a–b, full skirt before and after fit- ting; c–d, narrow skirt before and after fitting in the backin proportion to the front, or that the center front of the skirt was cut too short at the waistline. to remedy, fitting make one or more of the following changes: make the back narrower at the bottom; raise the skirt at the waist- line, as shown in fig. , b; raise the front above the back at the side seams. if the skirt is tight-fitting and cups under in the back (fig. , c), it will be necessary to raise the garment enough to provide sufficient fullness through the hips and to swing the º side seams back into position (fig. , d). if the fullness hangs unevenly on the right and left sides of a garment with a bisym- metric flare, raise or lower the flared sec- tion along the joining line until the fullness hangs alike on the two sides and the effect produced is becoming to the individual (fig. ). fullness as shown on the left side of fig. will tend to give height; | while fullness as shown on the right side m \, will tend to give width. fig. i. . a skirt - • - e - . ii. sk a plaited skirt or one with plaited sections with bijmmetri. may be too large at the waistline because the flare where full- person's waist is small in proportion to her ness is unequally hips. do not alter the outside edge line of **** - - - two sides the plaits; instead make adjustments at the inside edge of the plaits. if the entire skirt is plaited, divide the excess fullness at the waist by the number of plaits to determine the amount of fabric that needs to be cared for at each plait. however, somewhat more than this amount should be taken out at the hips and somewhat less near the center front and back. if there are only a few plaits, take out the surplus width at the lengthwise seams above the hip line, or slip each plait over the necessary amount, or make both adjustments, depending upon the design of the skirt and the proportions of the individual. clothing construction kimono garments the alterations listed for a one-piece dress or a blouse apply also to kimono garments with shoulder seams. this type of garment does not require as much fitting as one with a set-in sleeve. the width of the sleeves may be adjusted by letting out or taking up the underarm seams as needed. if the garment wrinkles in the back at the underarm curve, rip the seam and ease in the back around the curve (see figs. , , f to j). . gathering and shirring both gathering and shirring are used to hold fullness in place, but the shirring serves also as a decoration. shirring may consist merely of several rows of gathers or of gathered tucks, or the fabric may be shirred on a cord. gathering gathering is done either by hand or by machine, with or without the use of the gathering attachment. hand gathering make two or three rows of running stitches, using a strong single thread of matching color (see “stitches,” p. ). when the length to be gathered is great, as at the top of a full skirt, it is desirable to divide the top of the skirt into halves or quarters and gather each section sepa- rately. after the gathering threads have been run in, pull them up to the desired length. then adjust the gathers, holding the top of the gathers with one hand and pulling downward with the other. gathering and shirring machine gathering without the attachment put in one or more parallel rows of stitching, with the right side of the garment up, using a lengthened stitch (and sometimes a slightly loosened upper tension). it may be desirable to use silk thread, even on some cotton garments, because it makes it easier to pull up the gathers. fasten the threads of each row firmly at one end; then pull up the thread of the machine stitching on the wrong side of the fabric to make the gathered section the desired length. machine gathering with the attachment the attachment may be adjusted so that the gathers will be scant or full; consequently it is necessary to try it out on a scrap of fabric to be sure that the proper adjust- ment of fullness has been made. in making this test it is well to use a scrap of the fabric which is to be gathered, since different fabrics give different results. gathers put in by the machine attachment are held in place rather firmly, which is an advantage if one is sure that the fabric will be of the desired length when it is gathered. shirring shirring is composed of several rows of gathers which may be spaced from # inch to inch apart, but they must be parallel. when the rows of shirring are to be straight, the design of some fabrics may be used as a guide, a yarn may be pulled, or the quilter attachment may be used to insure a uniform distance between the rows of shirring. commercial patterns frequently have perforations for plac- ing the shirring; these may be marked on the fabric by tailor's tacks, or on the wrong side with a pencil or tailor's chalk. clothing construction hand shirring put in the desired number of rows of gathering, being sure that each stitch of the second row is exactly under the - - corresponding stitch of the first row, and so on. this pre- caution is necessary so that when the gathers are sewed in place the small folds will con- tinue in unbroken lines from the top to the lower edge of the shirring. the shirring thread should be of the same color as the fabric, and of as nearly the same texture as possible. it is not advisable º to use double thread for shir- fig. i . machine shirring ring, neither should it be too coarse. each thread should be several inches longer than the finished length of the shirring, to allow for fastening. when the rows of stitches are all in place, draw up the gathering threads to the desired size and arrange the gathers evenly. it is essential that the gathering threads be firmly fastened at both ends of the shirring. machine shirring the rows of stitching may be put in like those of regular machine gathering by using a long stitch and sometimes a slightly loosened upper tension. it will be necessary to draw up and arrange the gathers just as when gathering by hand (fig. ). all the rows of stitching should be put in before any of them are drawn up to form the gathers; otherwise it is impossible to keep the rows of stitching a uniform distance apart. gathering and shirring tucked shirring baste the tucks the desired width, and then gather through the two thicknesses by hand or by machine. corded shirring corded shirring may be made by stitching tucks (by hand or by machine) where the cords are to be placed. these tucks should be just wide enough so that the cord of the desired size can be run in, a small bodkin being used with the cord sewed to the eye. each tuck forms a casing for the cord, and if the tuck is much larger than the cord, the line of shirring will be ir- regular. corded shirrings are then drawn up by means of the cords (fig. ). rečnforcing shirring machine shirring frequently fig. i. . corded shirring needs to be stayed, and hand shirring should always be stayed. this may be done in the following ways: stitching over the gathering threads by machine is satisfactory if there is to be little strain on the gathers; machine hemstitching will serve to hold gathers in place; in transparent material a strand of em- broidery floss may be placed under each row of shirring, and the gathers sewed to this with running or combination stitches; decorative stitches such as cable, catstitch, chain, couching, crewel, and feather stitch may be worked over the gathers to hold them in place. the strongest method clothing construction of staying shirring is to place a piece of the garment fabric or a lighter-weight fabric under the rows of shirring and sew the gathers invisibly to this. since tucked and corded shirrings are rather heavy, it is advisable to stay them firmly. . godets one way of introducing fullness in a skirt or sleeve is the use of godets. a godet is usually a triangular-shaped section of fabric that tapers toward the top and has a cir- cular lower edge. it may be set into a slash or opening in the garment with plain seams, lap seams, or by machine hemstitching. care must be taken to have the seams as flat as possible — a difficult problem at the top of the insert. godets are also set onto the garment, if stitching shows elsewhere on it. turn under the seam allowance at the top of the godet and along the sides; baste and press. apply flat to the garment and stitch in place. godets may be attached with machine hemstitching. sometimes the raw edges are not turned under but are bound before the godet is applied to the garment, or the godet is stitched on, and then a bias fold of the fabric is stitched flat to cover the seam. the fabric is generally cut out under the godets after they are set onto the garment. since the lower edge of a godet is quite circular, some edge finish other than a wide hem should be used. clothing construction remodeled garment it is permissible to use a hem as narrow as # inch, if it is made so that the depth is not apparent from the right side; hems at the bottom of coats should usually be from % to % inches deep; the hem at the bot- tom of a coat sleeve may range from to inches in depth. as a matter of fact the width of the hem is largely de- termined from the standpoint of what is good design, and should be such that it will give the effect of the weight needed to produce a pleasing appearance. before turning a hem, finish and press all the seams that the hem will cross. if the fabric is bulky, it is usually de- sirable to trim one or both edges of the seam narrower within the hem than outside it; and if the seam finish is bulky, it may be omitted for the same distance. at the inside edge of a plait, clip the seam at the top of the hem almost to the line of stitching, and press the seam open in the hem. if the hem is to be put around a corner, it is neces- sary to miter the corner, since the excess fullness must be eliminated if the hem is to look well (see page ). plain hem plain hem on a straight edge this hem is used on household linens and at such places as the front and back closings of garments and the bottom of straight skirts. for a narrow hem hold the article with the edge to be hemmed away from you, and fold the raw edge toward you from ſº to # inch, turning it to the wrong side of the fabric. the width of the fold depends upon the weight and firm- ness of the fabric. baste the fold in place if the material does not hold a crease. make a second fold in the same direction as far from the first fold as the desired width hems of the hem. the use of a gauge will facilitate the work (fig. ). pin the hem in place at the inside edge, putting pins in at right angles to the edge. baste the hem in place, if necessary, and remove d the pins. hem by hand or stitch by machine c as near the edge as possible. for a wide hem turn under the raw edge as for a narrow hem. then spread the fabric out on the table, with the hem - toward you, and make the second fold of fig. i. . gauge the hem. continue as in making a narrow for marking a hem. hem when the hem is to be used decora- a to b represents tively on a fabric that is alike on both * of sides or when the opposite side of the fabric is used as trimming, make a reversed hem by turning the hem to the right side. it will be necessary to reverse the seams within the hem (see pages – ). narrow hems on curved edges a hem on an inward curve is made like a straight hem, but it must be narrow — not over # inch wide — and it must be stretched slightly to make the first turning lie flat. a hem on an outward curve also is made like a hem on a straight edge, but one must be careful not to stretch the edge. it is usually desirable to stitch by machine on the line of the first turning of the hem or to turn the first crease of the hem and then to stitch by machine or hold in place with running stitches. this permits one to ease in the fullness at the inside edge of the hem. slip-stitch hemming is the most satisfactory hemming stitch to use, because it holds the fullness flat; it is usually desirable to use this stitch if the first turning has not been stitched. clothing construction wide hems on curved edges such hems can be used only on outward curves. for the method of making see “hems on skirts, dresses, or coats,” pp. – . damask hem this hem is especially suitable for household linens. the minimum width for such a hem is about # inch; it may, fig. ii. . damask hem a, wrong side; b, right side however, be much wider. turn as you would a plain hem on a straight edge (see page ); crease the hem back against the right side of the article so that the two folded edges coincide, and overhand them together (fig. ). then press the hem flat. if the fabric does not hold a crease easily, it may be necessary to baste the hem in place before creasing it back to the right side. french hem the french hem is a narrow hem which is used when lace is sewed on at the same time that the hem is made (fig. ). very short vertical stitches are visible on the right side, holding the lace to the cloth, and the hem has the clothing construction hems on skirts, dresses, or coats establishing the hem line gored or circular skirt or dress. put on the garment and adjust it, fastening the closing, and putting on the belt, if one is to be worn. stand on a table or fitting stool to bring the hem line near the level of the eye of the fitter. have the fitter measure up from the table the number of inches that the garment is to be from the floor when finished, using a yardstick, tailor's square, or a commercial skirt marker. if a rubber band is placed around the measuring stick at the desired height, it will facilitate marking and checking the hem line. the fitter should move around the one whose hem line is being established, rather than have her move. mark the turning line of the hem by a line of pins or chalk marks (if a commercial marker is used) parallel to the floor and three or more inches apart. remove the garment and fold on center front and center back, matching the side seams. examine the marked line to see that it forms an even curve, and make any necessary changes. if there is any irregularity in the hem line as it is marked, allow the hem to turn as it “wants to,” rather than force it to turn where it apparently should. straight skirt or dress. put on the garment and adjust it. have the fitter mark the desired length at one point, usually the center front. remove the garment; turn the hem on a yarn of the fabric. baste the hem in place and try on the garment to check the length. if the length is uneven, make any needed adjustment at the top of the skirt or at the waist, hip, or shoulder of the dress, depending upon the design of the garment. note. if the garment is to be hung in this way, special care must be taken in cutting it so that the bottom edge hems comes on a yarn of the fabric. special care is also necessary in joining the parts — begin at the bottom and work toward the top, trimming off any unevenness at the top. garments made from plaid fabrics or those having other conspicuous designs should usually be hung in this way, and if possible the darker part of the design should come at the lower edge of the skirt. putting in the hem after the bottom line of the garment has been estab- lished, turn the hem allowance to the wrong side on the marked line, hold- ing it in place with pins put in at right angles to the edge. turn the hem on a crosswise yarn at the center front and center back (unless the skirt has been cut crosswise or fig. o. method of using gauge to mark bias) and match the hem of uniform width lengthwise seams in hem and garment. baste the hem in place. try on the garment and recheck the length. remove the garment and lay it flat on the table with the outside next the table. locate the narrowest point in the hem; if this will provide for a hem of the desired width, mark an even hem line of this width with a pencil, tailor's chalk, or pins, and then trim (see fig. for method of using a gauge); if this allows for a wider hem than is desired, mark the hem width as described, trimming off the excess width; if this will make a hem that is somewhat too narrow, the hem must be made uniform, but the width may be slightly increased by certain Ádge of /r/ — cha/{ //ne --" aosfºny //ne clothing construction methods of finishing (see “catstitching,” p. , and “applied facing tape,” p. ); if this is insufficient to permit the garment to be hemmed, it will have to be faced, in which case trim at a seam's allowance below the line that is already marked at the bottom of the skirt and apply either a bias or a fitted facing (see pages – ). note. when a skirt is narrow or has a deep hem, it will be much easier to pin and baste the hem in place if a maga- zine or smooth, light-weight board is slipped between the two layers of the garment; or the skirt may be slipped over the end of the machine or the ironing board. caring for fullness in a hem - if there is fullness at the top of the hem, it may be cared for by means of darts or gathers. darts are generally used when there is considerable full- ness to be cared for or when the fabric is stiff. make small darts at right angles to the edge of the hem, placing them where the fullness naturally falls. in a bisymmetric garment the darts on the right and left sides should be balanced in size and spacing. darts should be turned away from the center front and center back so that the straighter grain will lie on the top side, or all darts may be turned toward the left to facilitate stitching. pin or baste darts in place. recheck the width of the hem and trim again if necessary. gathers are used when the excess fullness can be shrunk out (see “to shrink out fullness in the top of a hem,” p. , and fig. ). this method is usually superior to the use of darts in the case of coat hems. finishing the hem at the upper edge if the hem is to be stitched by machine, turn under the raw edge, after any fullness is properly distributed; pin, baste, and stitch very close to the edge. hems if the hem is to be sewed by hand, any one of several methods may be used, depending upon the weight and tex- ture of the fabric. on light-weight fabrics turn in the raw edge of the hem about inch and stitch by machine or with running stitches, near the edge and only through the folded edge of the hem; this method prevents fraying and tends to insure a firm, flatedge, and also makes it easy to alter the hem length. on heavy cottons and on most medium and heavy non- fig. i. . hem finished with an fig. i. . hem with bias applied facing tape ; fullness cared strip inserted and held in for by darts place with catstitching washable fabrics, the hem is less conspicuous if the top edge is not turned under but is held in place by one of the follow- ing methods: running hemming (see “stitches,” p. ), cat- stitching (see page ), or an applied facing tape (fig. ). catstitching is used on such fabrics as satin, crêpe, or flan- nel when any fullness in the hem has been laid in darts or has been shrunk out. the raw edge may have been pinked or stitched near the edge by machine; in the latter case the stitching serves as a guide for placing the catstitching. in a lined coat of a heavy fabricit may be desirable to insert in the hem a bias strip of muslin # inch wider than the hem depth, which is catstitched to the garment along the upper edge, and to which the hem is then catstitched (fig. ). lace and embroidery be used (see pages – ). if the inside edge of the lace is shaped, then it should be sewed on as an appliqué, in which case the lace is basted to the right side of the fabric and is held in place with machine stitching, hemming, overhand- ing, blanket stitching, or bermuda fagoting; the cloth underneath is usually cut away either close to the stitching line or with enough left so that the raw edge may be hemmed or whipped to the seam on the under side (see page ). if a handmade appearance is not important, the lace may be stitched to the edge in one of the following ways: stitched by machine before the hem is turned. this is a very quick and easy method, and no machine stitching is visible on the right side. mark the fold line of the hem and apply the lace, right sides together, so that the straight edge of the lace extends about i's inch beyond this line and the scallops turn away from the edge. baste or pin, and stitch. when the hem is turned back, the lace auto- matically falls into position. stitched by machine to a finished edge. apply the lace flat to the garment with the straight edge of the lace just inside the edge of the garment, either on the right or the wrong side, depending upon the effect desired. pin or baste, and stitch. stitched with a machine attachment. most sewing ma- chines have attachments which enable one to sew lace on at the same time that a narrow hem is made or a binding is stitched onto the garment. inserting lace apply as an appliqué. attaching embroidery embroidery is attached to a raw edge with any of the following seams: plain seam (overcast), french seam, flat clothing construction fell seam, standing fell seam, or rolled seam. sometimes the fabric is cut away along the edges of the embroidered section, and the embroidery is then attached with over- hand stitches in the same way as lace. entre deux is a fine, narrow insertion that is often set into the seams of dainty lingerie garments. if the gar- ment requires fitting, baste the parts together as for a plain seam and fit the garment. mark the seam lines; then rip the seam apart and insert the entre deux. if the garment doesnot require fit- ting, the insertion is applied before the parts are basted together. if one side of the seam is more bias than the other, or fig. . entre deux set into a seam if one side is to be gathered, join the insertion first to the straighter or shorter side. pin and baste it to one seam edge, right sides together, so that the lines of the seam al- lowance on the garment coincide with the center of the entre deux (fig. ). then pin and baste it to the other seam edge in a similar way. if the second edge is to be gathered, this should be done before joining. care must be taken to have both sides exactly the same length. use a rolled seam, a standing fell seam, or a narrow french seam (see “seams,” pp. – ). joining lace and embroidery both lace and embroidery should be joined with the designs matching. a french seam may be used for lace or very fine embroidery, but it is usually easier to match a design by making a plain seam. this may then be fin- linings ished as a hemmed fell or a standing fell seam or as an imitation french seam, or the edges may be trimmed close and finished with buttonhole, overhand, or blanket stitches. when there is a conspicuous design, lap the ends of the lace or embroidery so that the design matches. the ends need not be cut straight, especially for lace, because an irregular line following the design will be less conspicu- ous. overhand, buttonhole, or blanket-stitch through the two thicknesses, always following the edge of the design of the lace or embroidery. . linings dress linings a dress lining serves as a protection to the dress and sometimes as a foundation for it. when fashion demands loose-fitting garments (and al- most always in the case of children's clothes), skirts may be hung on linings instead of being attached to belts. this lining may be made detachable, so that it can be easily laundered. - linings may be made of many different fabrics, depend- ing upon the design of the garment and the fabric of which it is made. pongee, china silk, crêpe de chine, radium, a b c silk, lawn, net, or nainsook may be used as de- sired. for dresses made of a transparent fabric it may be desirable to have the lining of the same color as the garment or a flesh color so that it is nearly invisible; if a dark fabric is used, it is necessary to select one that will not crock. clothing construction design of lining the neck line of the lining should approximate the neck line of the garment. the two neck lines may be of the same size if they are fastened together all Ú \ the way around the neck, or the inner may | be slightly lower if tacked in place. if linings are to fit closely, the fullness should be taken out by means of darts. the num- ber and location of the darts will depend upon the figure and upon the design of the - - garment (fig. ). if protection is needed fig. . lining, just across the shoulders, only the upper showing possible - location for darts half of the back of the waist needs to be lined. the lining is sewed to the garment at the neck, the shoulder, and the underarm seams, so that the strain across the shoulders comes on the lining instead of on the dress. edge finishes for linings the neck, armseyes, and bottom of the lining may be finished with a shell edge, a narrow hem, a narrow lace- finished hem, a facing, or picoting. methods of attaching skirts to linings method a. when a nonwashable skirt is to be joined to a washable lining, finish the bottom of the lining and finish the top of the skirt (usually with a band). place the skirt on the lining at the desired waist line, matching center fronts, center backs and ends, and stitch with long machine stitches near the top of the band. such a joining is sufficiently firm and yet it can be ripped easily when one wishes to launder the lining. for children's garments it is often ad- visable to button the skirt to the lining. linings method b. this method is used when it is not necessary to launder the lining separately. finish the lining at the bottom. if the skirt is made of a light-weight fabric, turn under the top edge before the skirt is attached; otherwise, finish the raw edge by covering with a tape or strip of fabric which is stitched flat over the joining seam. if there is full- ness at the top of the skirt, put in the needed gathers, plaits, or darts. then place the skirt on the lining at the desired waistline, pin, adjust fullness, baste, fit, and stitch flat to the lining. method c. if there is no probability that the garment will have to be lengthened, neither skirt nor lining need be finished before joining. place the right sides of skirt and lining together; adjust any fullness, pin in place, baste the seam, and fit. finish the seam by covering it with a strip of fabric (from # to # inch wide when finished) which is stitched along the lower edge at the same time that the skirt and lining are stitched together; then turn this strip up on the lining and stitch flat. method d. join the skirt and the lining, wrong sides to- gether, with a plain seam, allowing the lining to extend about # inch beyond the edge of the skirt. finish with a flat fell seam (p. ). coat interlinings interlinings are used chiefly to increase the warmth of garments. such fabrics as outing flannel, wool flannel, or chamois skin may be used. sometimes two thicknesses of a light-weightinterlining are used instead of a single heavy one. cutting cut like the lining in grain, size, and shape, as you would for a full-length lining; or cut shorter (to the waist, linings mately to inches. even though the front facing is wider at the top than at the bottom, instead of shaping the lining a a fig. i. . lining set in a coat a, front, showing fullness laid in a dart and held with cross-stitches; b, back, showing fullness laid in a tuck and held with catstitches like the facing it is usually desirable to fit out the extra lining width when the lining is set in the coat (fig. , a). note. in a fur coat the front facing is usually narrower than in a cloth coat and therefore requires a wider front lining. the lining in a fur coat will wear much better if the coat is interlined with a fabric such as light-weight outing flannel than if the lining is next to the pelt. making and attaching finish the entire outside of the coat, including the hem and sleeves, and press open all plain seams, including the armseye seams, before setting the lining in the coat. in the higher-priced garment with set-in sleeves, linings are only partially made before they are attached, while in a less expensive garment the entire lining may be made before it is attached to the garment. - lining with set-in sleeves. baste and steam-press the plait in the center back and do not remove this basting until clothing construction the lining has been hemmed to the garment. stitch and press open the underarm seam, sleeve seam, and any other lengthwise seams. place the garment wrong side out on a dress form or table. put the wrong side of the lining to the wrong side of the coat, with underarm seams matching. fold back the fronts of the lining toward the center back. pin the underarm seams of the lining and the coat together, easing the lining, and tack at in- tervals or baste the seam edges together about ; inch from the stitching line. (if there are other lengthwise seams, begin with those nearest the center back and work toward the front.) the lining and the front facing may be joined in one of three ways. the most common method is to pin the front of the lining to the front facing, turning in the edge of the lining and hemming it to the facing. sometimes the edge of the front facing is turned under and stitched by ma- chine and then hemmed to the lining; sometimes a decora- tive treatment is given by cording the edge of the lining and hemming it to the front facing. in any case the full- ness in the lining should be eased when it is attached to the facing. some of the fullness in the lining above the bust line may be turned back where the lining joins the front facing, and the rest cared for by a dart which is laid at right angles to the shoulder seam as the lining is being fitted. pin the lining to the garment (with pins at right angles to the edge) at the front, the shoulder, and around the armseye (fig. ). fig. i. . lining pinned to coat linings turn under the seam allowance of the back across the neck and shoulders. lap and pin the back onto the front at the shoulders and pin across the back of the neck. turn under the lining a seam's width at the bottom. pin in place, from # to inches up from the lower edge of the coat. baste the lining in place if desired. turn the garment right side out, try on, and check the fit of the lining. hem the pinned or basted edges of the lining to a single thickness of the gar- ment, using the slip-stitch method, except that the stitches must be no longer than about ; inch in the upper part of the garment or where there is much strain. catstitch the front facings to the hem (fig. , a) and remove the bast- ings. tack the armseye seam of the lining to the pressed- open armseye seam of the garment with a combination stitch. attach lining at the bottom near the top of the coat hem; let it extend # inch below the hemming line to allow for ease. note. if desired, after the hem is made in the lower edge of the garment, the lining may be hemmed and allowed to hang free at the bottom. with the sleeves of the coat and the lining wrong side out, tack the lengthwise seams together, easing the lining. turn the lining right side out over the coat sleeve. turn under, pin, and sew with a running stitch the seam allow- ance at the armseye of the lining. pin and baste the lining in place around the armseye of the garment. turn under and baste the lower edge of the sleeve lining in the same way as the lower edge of the coat lining, except that it is never left loose. check the fit of the sleeve lining and then hem. tack shoulder darts and the back plait through the three thicknesses of the lining at the shoulder, hip, and above the hem, using catstitches or cross-stitches (fig. , a, b). machine hemstitching and picoting hems. baste as for hand or machine hemming. seams. baste as for a plain seam; then baste flat, turn- ing the seam to either side, but never opening it. tucks. baste in the usual way; then baste the tuck flat to the article, turning the tuck in the desired direction. picoting picoting is made by cutting away the outer edge of machine hemstitching. it is used for an edge finish, such as the edges of ruffles and seams. it is sometimes used to finish the neck or the bottom of a garment; however, it is not a firm finish, and so it is not satisfactory for these pur- poses on garments where there is strain on the edge. preparation for picoting in general the fabric is prepared for picoting in the same way as for ordinary machine hemstitching. it is well to allow at least # inch for fraying beyond where the hem- stitching is to be placed. if the entire length of the hem- stitching is to be done an equal distance from the edge all the way, no guide line is necessary. note. when a large amount of cloth is needed, as for bands or ruffles, it is an economy to have the hemstitching placed in such a way that each half of it, when it is cut, will form the finish of one edge; thus one line of hemstitching will do for the edges of two strips. (this will not be possible, however, if the fabric has a design with an up and down.) this may be done in a series when both edges of a strip are to be finished. cutting. press carefully; then cut as near to the out- side edge of the hemstitching as possible. this makes the edge somewhat more firm than if the cutting were done in clothing construction the center of the hemstitching. when making banding or ruffling by the method just described, it will be necessary to cut through the exact center, but there is usually little strain on the edges of such trimmings, so that the method is quite satisfactory. - . markings various means are used for marking material when a garment is in process of construction: pins, needles, pencil, tailor's chalk; uneven basting, guide basting, or tailor's tacks; or a tracing wheel. pins are used to mark a line, such as that of an armseye or the fold line of a plait or tuck; two crossed pins are used to mark the location of snaps or buttons, and a single pin to mark the location of a buttonhole. at each point in- dicating darts, tucks, and the like, insert one pin through the paper pattern and two thicknesses of the fabric and then turn over and insert another pin from the opposite side at each point marked; remove the pattern and bring the pin heads close to the fabric as the two pieces are pulled apart. needles are often used for similar purposes, and are preferable to pins if the fabric mars easily, as does taffeta. a pencil may be used to mark lines which indicate where an edge is to be trimmed off, as in evening the top of a hem, and to mark the location of fasteners, or the notches on a seam edge, on a light-colored nontransparent fabric. tailor's chalk can be obtained in different colors, and has an advantage over a pencil, in that it makes a temporary mark which can later be brushed off. it may be used in any of the places where either pins or a pencil are used. clothing construction . matching plaids, stripes, and figures plaids, stripes, and figures may be symmetrical in design, or they may have an up and down, a right and left, or both. when the plaid design is symmetrical, it is usually possible to match the warp yarns almost perfectly at the shoulder, and the filling yarns at the underarm seams, and to have crosswise stripes in sleeve and garment match at the notches in the armseye. this holds true also for the shoulder seam in a symmetrically striped fabric. when the design is not symmetrical, the problem is more difficult, and perfect matching at seam lines is often impossible. if the following suggestions are adhered to, however, the finished garment will present a pleasing effect. when a plaid or other design has a right and left, the same direction of the plaid should be kept around the entire garment; for example, as you look at a person, if the wide stripe of the plaid is at the left in the front of a garment, it should be at the left in the back and sleeves. when one section of a plaid is very con- spicuous in color or size, it may be advisable to balance the garment by locating the center of this section at the center front, back, and sleeve of the garment. to insure having the design properly matched, baste the seam from the right side with an alteration basting stitch (see “stitches,” p. ). after the seam is stitched, it may be finished like any seam which is first stitched on the wrong side. french seams are not satisfactory when one has to match a design, as it is difficult to match a design at the second stitching. measurements . measurements certain measurements are needed in selecting and using patterns and in estimating the amount of fabric required jhow/der /eng// -chesſ —lvo/r/, of back - ov/s/dearm /en. % - show/der fo eſbow j- fºow fowr/s/ ** cenfer back of neck fowrºsiº inside arm —wers? garf h of /ower. " arrn a/ – ceofer back waist fo /ength f/oor armorf fo f/oor jhoulder fo avs/ walsh hºo f/oor a a fig. i. . location on figure of measurements for misses' and women's garments the length of the garment is determined by deducting from the length meas- urements the number of inches that the lower edge of the garment is to be from the floor, and adding whatever hem allowance is desired for garments. the type of garment to be made will deter- mine the measurements needed. for the location of meas- urements see figs. and . special care is needed in taking the following measurements. clothing construction bust. an easy measure over the fullest part of the bustand straight across or slightly raised in the back, with the person doing the measuring standing behind the one being measured. hip. an easy measure taken around the fullest part of the hip with the tapeline parallel to the floor. /veck — - jhow/aer lvo/*h of ches? areas:-- hº- arry wars? wrist aroof ſenzh neck foºnee | *yneck fobend of knee ſ: ack /ength till a a fig. i. . location on figure of measurements for children's garments the length of the garment is determined by deducting from the length meas- urements the number of inches that the lower edge of the garment is to be from the knee, and adding whatever hem allowance is desired shoulder length. from the base of the neck to the end of the shoulder bone, with the tapeline a little back of the top of the shoulder. waist. a snug measure around the body at the normal or the desired waistline. waist to crotch. from the waistline at the center front to the center of the crotch. mending . mending mending should be done at the first sign of wear, in order to save work, to make the article last longer, and to keep the mended place as inconspicuous as possible. it is usually desirable to mend the article before it is laundered. mending may consist merely of restitching ripped seams, sewing on fasteners, or replacing worn parts, such as collars and cuffs, or it may require darning or patching. in darning, the worn and broken yarns are replaced and reënforced by weaving in new yarns or threads; in patching, the hole or worn place is mended by adding another piece of cloth. darning darning by hand on woven fabrics most darning is done by hand with crewel needles or sharps as fine as the thread will permit. the thread used should usually match the yarns of the fabric. in wool fabrics wool yarn or cotton thread is preferable to silk be- cause it shows less. it is often desirable to use ravelings of the cloth; if there is no extra fabric from which to secure them, they may be obtained from the seams or the top of the hem. tears may be classified as straight, diagonal, and three- cornered. the methods used in darning will vary somewhat with the kind of tear. straight tears are the easiest to mend. the darning is usually done from the right side, but in very heavy ma- terials it may be done from the wrong side, the stitches being caught only part way through the cloth. match the clothing construction torn edges as carefully as possible, use no knot, and, begin- ning a little beyond the end of the tear, draw the edges together with rows of fine running stitches. if the tear has frayed, darn by weaving over and under the loose yarns. these stitches should extend far enough beyond the sides of the tear to hold the edges together firmly and to reënforce any yarns weakened by the tear (fig. ). do not draw stitches tightly enough to pucker the cloth. make the rows of stitches irregular in length, and stitch back and forth only enough times to hold fig. i. . darn- ing a straight the edges together firmly. extend the rows tear of stitches beyond the tear, and cut off the thread without fastening it. a three-cornered tear is mended like a straight tear, except that at the corner the rows of stitches should be slanted, as in the fan of a buttonhole (fig. ). in a diagonal tear both the warp and filling yarns are broken at the same place. to mend, first fill in the warp yarns, as in fig. . then turn the cloth at right angles and put in rows of filling yarns, weaving under and over the length- wise yarns, alternating as in fig. . darning a three-cornered plain weaving (fig. ). tear darning worn places. worn places may be strengthened, or reënforced, on the wrong side by darning in extra warp or filling yarns or both, depending upon how much the places are worn. clothing construction as the toes of stockings and sleeves of sweaters. any of the methods that have been suggested for darning woven fabrics may be used for knitted fabrics, but hand darning is prefer- able to machine darning because it is more elastic. the darn will be still more elastic if a small loop of the thread is left at each end of every row of stitches. darning holes. sometimes it may be desirable to trim the edge of the hole so that there are no ravelings. put in lengthwise rows of running stitches, beginning far enough away from the hole so that the worn places are reënforced. when the hole is reached, carry the thread across it - and continue with run- fig. i. . darning a hole ning stitches, being sure to catch on the edge of the hole each loop of the knitting. put in enough rows to cover the hole and worn places. these rows should be about the width of the thread apart, and should be of uneven lengths. turn the article and put in crosswise rows of stitches, weaving under and over the lengthwise threads, as in plain weaving (fig. ). runs in hose may be mended with running stitches, but the following methods are more satisfactory: mending runs with a crochet hook or latch needle. pull the first dropped stitch through the loop at the end of the run with the hook or needle. then pull the next dropped stitch through the loop thus formed, and continue in this manner throughout the length of the run. fasten the last loop to mending the loop at the other end of the run with several overhand stitches. this method is comparatively easy if the garment has rather coarse yarns; it can be done on silk hose, but it is a very laborious process. mending runs with overhand stitches. this is a quick method of mending runs and rips in seams. working from the right side, begin beyond the end of the run and draw the edges together with overhand stitches, making sure to catch the loop of the last dropped stitch. continue to the end of the run and extend beyond the end as in the begin- ning. care should be taken not to draw the stitches too tight. mending leather gloves to repair rips in seams, use overhand stitches or back- stitches, depending upon the effect desired and the kind of seam used. use cotton rather than silk thread, because it is not so likely to cut the leather. to repair tears, blanket-stitch each edge of the tear; then draw the two edges together by catching the purls on each edge with overhand stitches. patching the fabric for the patch should match the article to be mended as closely as possible. new fabric to be used on a faded or shrunken article should be faded and shrunk to match. when no extra cloth is available, a pocket or a piece from the under side of a hem or some other incon- spicuous place in the garment may be used. there are several methods of patching. the method used will depend upon a number of factors, such as the kind of cloth, the type of garment, and the location of the hole. clothing construction hemmed patch this patch is used on light and medium-weight fabrics when strength is very important, as in wash garments. it may be stitched by hand or by machine. since saving of time is an important factor in mending, hand hem- ming should be used only when machine stitching is too conspicuous, and in | places difficult to * | stitch by machine, | such as the knees of pajamas or overalls. | preparation of the | article to be mended. trim away the worn | or torn parts. square | or rectangular patches | generally show less - - - - - - — — — than round or irregu- fig. . hemmed patch lar ones, and since - they are more easily made, it is usually better to trim along the yarn of the fabric. preparation of the patch. place the patch to the wrong side of the article, making sure that the patch laps beyond the edge of the hole the same amount on all sides, and that the design and yarns of the fabrics match. pin in place and baste if necessary. clip the corners of the hole diagonally to the desired seam line. turn in the raw edges, pin in place, and baste if necessary (fig. ). stitch by machine close to the edge on both the right and wrong sides, or hem by hand. it may be more convenient, if the hole is quite large, to pin in place the fabric from which the patch is to be cut, before trimming out the hole. finish the right side; then cut away any extra fabric on the wrong side and finish the edge. | | | | | | | mending variations of the hemmed patch the raw edges may be held in place in one of the follow- ing ways when the fabrics used are too heavy to be turned under (as blankets), or when the material does not fray or ravel (as some knitted underwear and stockings). catstitch is used on either woven or knitted fabrics and is desirable for the latter because of its elasticity (fig. ), fig. i. . catstitched patch fig. i. . darned patch but it is more conspicuous than the other stitches. for the method of making see “decorative stitches,” p. . darning may be used on either woven or knitted fabrics. since it requires considerable time to make a good-looking darned patch, darning is used only where neither cat- stitching nor hemming is satisfactory, as on men's trousers or the elbows of coats and dresses (fig. ). for the method of darning see “tears,” pp. – . hemming stitch is used in knitted materials where the catstitch would be too conspicuous, as in stocking legs (see “stitches,” p. ). this is a good method for some lace fabrics. the torn place should be trimmed in an irregular line following the design in the lace. the design in the patch and the garment should match exactly. hem around the raw edges on the right side; then trim the patch, fol- . clothing construction lowing the design, and hem the patch on the wrong side; or trim quite close and finish with overhand, buttonhole, or blanket stitches taken through the two thicknesses. glued patch a quick and practically invisible method of patching woolen and silk fabrics is the use of mending tissue, mending cement, or glue. these are generally used on a tear or a split and to reënforce worn places; they are seldom satis- factory when the edges of the tear are frayed or when there is a hole. neither are they satisfactory on thin fabrics or on garments which are to be dry-cleaned frequently or laundered. with mending tissue. working from the wrong side, match and draw together the torn edges as carefully as possible. then place over them a piece of mending tissue just large enough to extend a little beyond the edges of the tear. cover the mending tissue with a piece of the fabric, matching the lengthwise and crosswise yarns of the article and the patch. press with a warm iron to make the tissue and the cloth hold together. if too hot an iron is used, the tissue will become hard and rubbery, and a stain may appear on the right side of the article. let the tissue dry thoroughly before handling or wearing the article. with mending cement or glue. working from the wrong side, carefully match and draw together the torn edges. brush over this space a light coating of glue or cement. cover with a piece of the fabric, matching the lengthwise and crosswise yarns. place a cold iron or any heavy object over the patch until the glue or cement sets. if too much glue or cement is used, a stain will appear on the right side of the garment, and the patch will be stiff. mitering . mitering when a hem is turned, it is usually desirable to miter it at the corner to avoid bulkiness. the method described below may be used whether the corner is square or pointed. when lace is sewed around a corner, in order to have the outer edge lie flat it is necessary either to full the inner edge of the lace or to miter it, depending upon the width of the lace. b fig. i . mitered corner in a hem a, showing diagonal seam stitched; b, showing appearance after seam is trimmed and pressed open and edges of hem are creased back mitering a corner in a hem. turn the hem to the right or wrong side as desired, being careful to crease well at each side of the corner to be mitered. it may be necessary to substitute a basting line for this crease on some fabrics. then open the hem and turn it to the opposite side, and recrease it along the original line so that the extra fabric, instead of being turned inside the hem, comes out at the corner (fig. , a). crease along the diagonal line from the corner to the inner edge of the hem to mark one side of the seam line. fold the corner in the opposite direction to patterns women’s, by bust, hip, or waist measure; of misses', by age or by the same measurements as women's patterns; and of men's, by neck, breast, or waist measure. since patterns are made for average-sized people, measurements should be checked (see page ); and when selecting misses' and children's patterns it is not advisable to rely wholly on the age. the bust measure is used in selecting patterns for dresses and similar garments; the hip measure is usually a more satisfactory guide than the waist measure in selecting patterns for skirts and knickers. some difficulties in fitting may be prevented if patterns are carefully chosen; so it is advisable to experiment with different makes, to find those best suited to the figure. two patterns of the same bust measure may vary in the width of back and front or the slant of the shoulder seam. most patterns are made for the average figure, but some are best suited to a certain type — as for a tall, slender figure. some manufacturers make special patterns for abnormal figures — figures with large hips, for instance. the selection of patterns and the construction of chil- dren's clothes present many rather difficult problems. if the garment is made to fit the child, he is likely to outgrow it before it is worn out; but if it is made very large origi- nally, it is likely to be so much oversize that it is awkward and the child is made uncomfortable. part of this difficulty may be obviated if pre-shrunk fabrics are used and if designs are selected which can be adjusted as the child grows; for example, provide for wide hems at the bottom of dresses or place tucks so that they serve as decoration but may be let out easily later; make two-piece garments for boys and make the blouse long enough so that the waistline may be lowered; choose raglan rather than set-in sleeves; avoid patterns that have snug-fitting yokes or bands. clothing construction the importance of having clothing that permits access of sun and air to the body is becoming generally recognized; hence shorts, and garments without sleeves, or with very short ones, and with low-cut backs, represent something more permanent than a whim of fashion. of course, the season of the year, the climate, and the temperature of the rooms in the home and the school are all factors that in- fluence the design of children's garments, as, for example, the length of sleeves. it is desirable that patterns for children's garments should be simple in design, so that the garments may be constructed and laundered easily and so that they will be comfortable. all openings should be sufficiently long to make it easy for the child to get in and out of the garments and should be placed conveniently to teach the child to be self-reliant. before the garment is cut, decide whether the placket suggested in the pattern is desirable, and if not, make necessary changes when cutting. certain suggestions are here offered regarding the choice of designs for children's garments. rompers are likely to be most satisfactory when they fit at the shoulder, are roomy through the body, and have a shaped back extension which laps over the front and buttons up fairly high instead of opening along the crotch seam, since this arrangement stays closed better, is more comfortable, and allows for adjustment as the child grows. rompers, very short trousers, and panties should have sufficient width across the crotch; and in trousers and bloomers it is essential that the crotch be deep enough so that the garment will not bind. neck lines are more comfortable and more easily laundered when finished with facings than with collars. patterns use of patterns the information that is given on a pattern pertains to the cutting out and making of the garment, and should be studied and understood before the pattern is used. this information is indicated in different ways, and varies with the make of the pattern. in some patterns the directions are printed directly on the pattern, while others have per- forations, notches, and numbers, with a key to explain their meaning. diagrams usually accompany the pattern, showing how to place it on cloth of different widths. per- forations and notches or printed directions indicate when the pattern should be placed on a fold of the fabric, as well as show how it should be placed relative to the straight of the fabric; they also indicate joinings, seam lines, and trimming lines. testing patterns methods since patterns are usually made for the average figure, they should be checked carefully before the garment is cut out. there are several methods of testing, and the method or methods used will be determined by the type of gar- ment, the fabric used, and whether or not the figure is normal. checking the pattern with the individual's measurements. this method will be adequate only when the design of the garment does not need to be checked in relation to the individual. using the individual's measurements (see “measurements,” p. ), check the corresponding places on the pattern, measuring from seam line to seam line. it is usually unnecessary to check the measurement by which the pattern has been selected, that is, bust, waist, or hip imeasure. | || fig. . to increase the bust measure and the width of the shoulder slash from the center of the shoulder line, straight down to the lower edge, on both the front and back pieces of the pattern. separate each piece to add one fourth of the additional width needed. correct the shoulder line Æ fig. . to decrease the bust measure and the width of the shoulder lay a fold in both the front and the back piece, taking out one fourth of the extra width in each fold. correct the shoulder line patterns pinning the pattern together and trying it on. this method is generally used because it is possible to check size and also to determine whether any changes in line and design are advisable. pin the pattern to- gether along the seam lines and try it on. be sure that the pattern is well adjusted to the figure, with the center front and center back properly lo- cated and pinned in place. if a dress pattern is being fit- ted, the dress should be re- moved before the pattern is slipped on. cutting a test garment from muslim or any other inexpen- sive fabric and fitting it. this method is used as an additional check for the pattern when a person has an abnormal figure, or when one is using an ex- pensive fabric. the pattern should be carefully tested by checking its measurements or by trying it on. make all necessary alterations on the pattern, and then cut out the test garment. pin and baste the garment together and fit it y- — fig. i. . to increase the bust measure without increasing the width of the shoulder if only a small amount is to be added, make a slash in line with the center of the shoulder, begin- ning at the lower edge of the pat- tern and cutting to within inch of the shoulder. spread the pat- tern to give the additional width needed. if the bust is very full, extra length will be needed also. to give this length, slash at the fullest part of the bust, straight across from the center of the front to the first slash, and then diag- onally to within inch of the armseye. spread the pattern to give the additional length needed (see “fitting” and “foundation pattern,” pp. – , ). after making all the necessary alterations, rip apart and use the pieces of the test garment as a pattern for the clothing construction garment to be made. if the figure is normal and the test garment is made merely as a safeguard in the use of the expensive fabric, the test garment may be of fabric suitable for a dress (such as percale or gingham), and after it has served as a pattern it may be made up. fig. i. . to increase the shoulder width add one half the extra width needed, at the end of the shoulder, on both the front and the back of the pattern, keeping a good armseye line. only a small amount should be added in this way. it is often necessary to in- crease the width of the back also (see fig. , b) fig. i. . to alter for a narrow chest this is an alteration that often accompanies the one for round shoulders. on the dotted line, turn back the edge of the pattern at the center front, taking off one half the extra amount at the neck line and tapering to the edge of the pattern checking the pattern by means of a foundation pattern. this method is especially helpful when it is difficult to have assistance in fitting. to test the new pattern, place the foundation pattern (see “foundation pattern,” p. ) on the commercial pattern, matching the center-front and the center-back line. note any necessary changes in the new pattern. patterns alterations in size of patterns patterns may need to be altered to change the size, to fit figures that vary from the average, and to change the design. sometimes it is unnecessary to change the pattern a a c fig. i. . to alter for round shoulders a, when extra length is needed all the way across the back, slash straight across the back of the pattern from the middle of the armseye, and separate the pieces to give the needed length, correcting the armseye line as indicated. it is usually advisable to add some extra length at the neck line also. b or c, when more length is needed only in the center back, use either method. b, make a slash in line with the center of the shoulder, beginning at the lower edge of the pattern and cutting to within inch of the shoulder. make another slash at the fullest part of the back, straight across from the center of the back to the first slash, and then diagonally to within inch of the armseye. spread the pattern to give additional width and length across the shoulder. c, slash across the back of the pattern to within inch of the armseye, and spread the pattern to give the needed length. correct the center- back line from the slash down to the bottom in making simple alterations, since such alterations can be made by laying the pattern over a little way from the edge or the fold of the fabric, or by cutting partly around the pat- tern and slipping it over the desired distance before cutting the rest of the way around. the latter method is often used when increasing the bust measure and the width of the shoul- clothing construction ders. if the changes are made on the pattern (see page ), the edges of the pattern may need to be corrected. when the pattern must be altered a great deal, it is advisable to cut a new pattern and retest it before cutting out the garment. js – |- -" a a c fig. i. . to increase the hip measure a, slash both front and back of the pattern from the lower edge to within inch of the armseye. spread the pattern to give one fourth of the additional hip width needed. b, to increase the bust and shoulder as well as the hip, slash from the center of the shoulder line straight down to the lower edge of both front and back pattern pieces. separate each piece to add one fourth of the additional hip width needed. c, to increase the bust as well as the hip, make a slash in line with the center of the shoulder, beginning at the lower edge of the front and back pattern pieces and cutting to within inch of the shoulder. spread the pattern to give one fourth of the additional hip width needed for alterations of waist, skirt, and dress patterns see diagrams (figs. – ) and explanations on pages – . for the preliminary testing and alteration of sleeve and cuff patterns see “sleeves,” pp. – , . patterns modification of the design of patterns it is possible to modify simple patterns to make the design more becoming or to introduce new lines (see figs. – ). thus one may use the same pattern for several garments a ap fig. i. . to change the length of a dress pattern a, to lengthen, slash both front and back pieces a little above the waistline and just below the hip. separate the pieces enough to give the extra length needed. b, to shorten, lay folds at the same places where the slashes were made in a, to take up the extra length and have no two alike. if one desires to retain the original pattern, one should cut a duplicate and make the modifica- tions on it. when alterations such as those shown in figs. , , c, d, g, and are desired, slash or dart the pattern only to within about $ inch of the edge in order that the edge of the pattern may not be changed in length when it is changed in shape and that the modified pattern may be flat. patterns too narrow (throughout or in part), lay the original pattern on a piece of paper and mark around it (fig. , d). then draw a new edge line the desired width and shape. if the new collar rolls too much, see the following paragraph. fig. i. . changing the length or width of a collar pattern a, to lengthen; b, to shorten; c, to make narrower; d, to make wider changing the amount of roll in a nonconvertible collar. the collar may roll too little or too much to be becoming. if it is too flat, take darts which taper to the neck line (fig. , b). these may be taken only across the back of the collar, or other darts may be made farther toward the front & of the collar. if much fullness is to be removed, it is better to use several a af c small darts than a few large ones. in some cases it may be easier to slash and lap the pattern in- stead of laying darts. if the collar rolls too much, slash and separate as shown in fig. , c. however, the collar neck line must be made a little straighter than the garment neck line so that the collar may roll enough to cover the joining seam. the more nearly the collar conforms to the neck line of the garment, the flatter the collar will be. fig. i. . changing the amount of roll in a nonconvertible-collar pattern a, original; b, roll increased; c, roll decreased clothing construction skirts to make a plain skirt flare. begin at the hip line and add extra width gradually from that point to the bottom of the garment (fig. , a, ). if the fabric will hang in soft folds, it is possible to preserve a narrow silhouette in the upper part of the skirt and to provide considerable fullness from the knees down by making this line an inward'curve (fig. , a, ). one should keep in mind that this modi- fication permits the addition of only a limited amount at any one seam. to make a plain skirt circular. this method necessitates the use of a yoke or a design in which the skirt is joined to the garment below the normal waistline. if a yoke is to be used, sketch the desired shape on the skirt pattern and cut along this line. slash the skirt section several times to within # inch of the top; separate the pattern at the slashes, as indicated (fig. , c, d); and add a seam allowance at the upper edge of the circular section and at the lower edge of the yoke (fig. , b, c, d). to make a section of a plain skirt circular. draw on the skirt pattern a line indicating where the circular section is to be inserted and cut along this line. slash the section which was cut out, separate as described for a circular skirt, and allow for seams. to make a circular skirt less full. lay darts or slash and lap the pattern from the bottom, tapering to nothing at the top of the circular section, so that the darts or laps form radiating lines from the top of the section (fig. , g). all darts or laps may be of equal depth, or those may be deeper which fall where the most fullness is to be removed. to introduce plaits into a plain skirt. if plaits are to be arranged on each side of a center panel, make the panel slightly wider at the bottom than at the top; otherwise patterns foundation pattern if a person has an abnormal figure, it may be advisable to make a foundation pattern out of muslin or other inex- pensive fabric rather than to alter the paper pattern. this foundation pattern, after it has been fitted and altered, should be ripped apart and may then be used for testing commercial patterns, or it may be used in place of a com- mercial pattern for such garments as simple blouses, dresses, undergarments, and aprons. the design may be varied in many ways (see “modification of patterns,” pp. – ). making use as a basis a commercial blouse or dress pattern which is simple in design and has a normal shoulder line. test the pattern by checking measurements or by trying it on, and alter it as needed (see “alterations of patterns,” pp. – ). use the altered commercial pattern as a guide, and cut the foundation pattern from the cheap fabric. pin and baste the foundation pattern together and fit it, utilizing the suggestions given under “fitting,” pp. – ). in making changes in the fitting, since this is a pattern rather than a garment, extra pieces of cloth can be pinned on the edges where needed, or the cloth can be cut and extra pieces in- serted. after the foundation pattern has been fitted, make any other changes needed; then rip apart, and use the pieces to cut a new paper pattern. preparation of fabric for cutting sometimes it is desirable to shrink the fabric before it is made up (see “pressing,” pp. – ). if the fabric has not been cut along the yarn of the cloth, straighten it by pulling a yarn and trimming or by cutting along a yarn. if clothing construction the fabric has been stretched out of shape in the finishing process, straighten it by stretching it diagonally, or by dampening and ironing or pressing. if there is a decided crease in the fabric, owing to folding, which will interfere with the cutting of the garment, it should be removed before the pattern is placed on the fabric. for the method of removing fold line see “pressing,” p. . placing pattern on fabric place the pieces of the pattern so as to use the cloth to the best advantage. for this purpose the fabric is generally folded lengthwise, although some- times it is folded crosswise. care must be taken to match any design, and to see that all pieces run in the same direction when the fabric has an up and down. for matching de- signs see “matching plaids, stripes, and figures,” p. . in using twilled fabrics the pat- fig. . method of ºut tern should be placed so that the ting notches so that they twill runs from the upper right to the will not interfere with making a seam lower left as one faces the garment. this applies to all pieces of the gar- ment and may serve as a means of distinguishing between the right and wrong sides of the fabric. in wool fabrics with a pressed nap (such as broadcloth) the pieces of the pattern should be placed so that the nap runs toward the lower edge of the garment; but in the case of pile fabrics the garment may be made with the pile running up or down, the former producing the richer-appearing texture. after the pattern has been placed satisfactorily, pin it carefully to the fabric. piping combination piping and facing this is the only piping that finishes the edge. make the piping strip wide enough to allow for the piping plus the amount needed for the facing. crease lengthwise, from # to # inch from one edge of the strip, and apply so that the narrower edge is next to the garment and the wider side of the strip forms a facing on the wrong side of the garment. apply in the same manner as a plain piping, with or without the stitching showing on the right side. in wash fabrics finish the facing by turning under the raw edge and stitching it to the garment by hand or machine. in wool or silk garments the facing may be finished by overcasting or self- stitching (see “seam finishes,” p. ), and left loose or tacked occasionally, or it may be catstitched, or hemmed in place with slip-stitch hemming. note. a corded edge may be made in the same way as a combination piping and facing, except that yarn or cord is stitched into the folded edge before it is applied (see “corded seam,” p. , and fig. ). piping set between two thicknesses of fabric a piping is often set into the edges of hems or facings, in seams or in slashes; it may also be set into the seamed edge of double collars, cuffs, and pockets. if no stitching is desired on the right side, make it as a corded seam. if stitching is to show on the right side, make it as a lap seam, inserting the piping along the seam edge. clothing construction . plackets a placket is a finished opening in a garment. on outer garments it is essential that the placket be as inconspicu- ous as possible, unless it serves as a decorative feature; therefore it is usually only long enough to permit one to put on or remove the garment easily. on women's clothes plackets in the front or the back sec- tions of a garment usually lap right over left, and on men's clothes left over right. on sleeves the upper side always laps over the under side of the sleeve when the placket is in line with the little finger; when the placket is located in a seam, it is usually desirable to lap in the same way. for children's garments plackets should be selected that will promote self-help by their location, type, size, and number of fasteners required; and plackets on outer and on under garments should be located in approximately the same places. on girls' bloomers plackets lap back over front; but on boys' trousers they may lap in different ways, depending upon the age of the boy and the type, location, and number of plackets. if the trousers are made with a partial drop-front, this laps over the rest of the front on both sides of the center, and the drop-back laps over the front at the side seams; if the blouse is cut long enough to serve as a fly, trousers for young boys may be made with an en- tire drop-front which meets the drop-back at the side seams. in general the position of the placket is determined by the location of the seams or by the design of the garment. when a placket terminates at the neck line or at the bottom of the sleeve, it should be made before the neck or the bot- tom of the sleeve is finished, unless the placket and edge plackets finish are cut as one piece. in the case of a placket in the underarm seam of a dress, the waist and skirt should be joined before the placket is made. since many different types of plackets are used on gar- ments, it may be well to refer to the following list to dis- cover which plackets are suggested for specific uses. of course not all the types listed are applicable in a given garment. uses for different types of plackets boys’ trousers (center front) fly boys’ trousers (side front) welt boys’ trousers (side seam) bound-buttonhole extension hemmed — in a seam dresses or skirts (underarm or side seam) continuous-bound, made with a lengthwise strip lap dresses or skirts (center or side front) lap tuck welt girls’ bloomers bound and faced continuous-bound in a slash, made of a lengthwise strip continuous-bound in a seam extension neck openings in slip-over garments bound-buttonhole continuous-bound in a slash, made of a bias strip hemmed — in a slash rolled tailored clothing construction petticoats bound and faced continuous-bound in a slash, made of a lengthwise strip continuous-bound in a seam hemmed — in a slash lap sleeves bound-buttonhole continuous-bound in a slash, made of a lengthwise or bias strip hemmed — in a slash lap picoted rolled substitute (see page , under “cuffs”) tailored continuous-bound plackets this type of placket is easy to make and serves as the basis for a number of variations. it is a one-piece placket that is widely used on bloomers and children's dresses when the garment is made of a light-weight fabric. continuous-bound placket made in a slash with a length- wise strip of fabric cut the opening the desired length along a yarn of the fabric. cut a lengthwise strip twice the width of the finished placket binding (which is usually # to # inch wide) plus two seam allowances, and twice the length of the placket open- ing plus inch. if it is to be finished by hand hemming, place the right side of the binding to the right side of the garment with edges even; if it is to be finished by machine stitching, place the right side of the binding to the wrong side of the garment. holding the garment toward you, pin plackets bound and faced placket this is a one-piece placket used on undergarments and chil- dren's clothes. it is less bulky than the continuous-bound placket and is much stronger. a bound and faced placket is made as a continuous-bound placket, except that the bind- ing strip on the upper side of the placket is cut out to within about $ inch of the bottom of the placket and within about # inch of the folded edge of the strip (fig. ). stitch or hem fig. i . bound and faced the binding in place on the placket under side of the placket. then fold back on the upper side the part of the strip that is to form the facing and baste it flat on the garment. stitch it in place, or hem by hand down the side of the placket and across the end. bound-buttonhole plackets these plackets may be used where the two edges of the placket meet, as in front or back openings in blouses, in side openings of little boys' trousers, and sometimes in slashed openings in sleeves. if the placket is long, a vestee or fly may be desirable. bound-buttonhole placket without a fly mark the location of the placket opening with a line of basting. if possible, avoid cutting the slash until after the binding piece is applied. cut the binding strip on the straight or bias of the fabric, depending upon the effect clothing construction desired. cut the strip at least % inches wide and inch longer than the length of the finished placket. baste the binding strip in place with the right side against the right side of the garment. proceed as in “finishing a slash for a tie or belt” (p. ), without a reënforcement or a facing. a variation of this placket is made with the binding strip cut wide enough to form a facing on the wrong side. after the placket is made, overhand together on the wrong side the two edges of the inverted box plait at the end of the placket. bound-buttonhole placket with a fly cut the binding strip at least inches wide, and place it on the garment, right sides together, with one edge of the strip from to % inches to the left or right of the placket line. make the same as for a short slash, except that the extra width is turned back to form a fly on the wrong side of the garment (fig. ). if the garment is made of a wool fabric, such as flannel, the fly is left single, with the edges finished, but it is re- enforced under the fasten- ers; otherwise the fly is again folded back to make it double. the raw edge on the narrow side of the binding is turned under and stitched in place, if stitching is used around the placket opening, or is allowed to extend and is then finished as desired. fig. i . bound-buttonhole placket with an attached fly clothing construction fly placket this placket is used for the center-front opening in trou- sers for the older boy (fig. , a). cut five fly pieces—two of cloth like the garment and three of some firm lining fabric. upper side of opening. face the upper (left) edge of the front open- ing with one of the fly pieces made of the lining fabric (see “fitted fac- ing,” p. ). fly. join two fly pieces — one of cloth and one of lining — with a plain seam along the outer edge, joining them so that the lining side will come uppermost when it is stitched to the gar- - ment. turn right side tº out, baste, and press so opening that the seam is just in- side the edge on the lin- ing side of the fly. this keeps the lining from showing on the right side. make buttonholes in the fly strip at this time rather than after it is attached to the trousers. pin and baste the fly in position, with the front edge about $ inch back from the edge of the left front of the trousers. stitch the fly in place from the waistline to the bottom of the opening. the stitching should be about # inch in- fig. i. . fly placket plackets side the buttonholes and parallel with the front edge, except for the last inches, where it curves in to the center front. overcast the raw edges of the fly, and tack it firmly to the facing between each two buttonholes. under side of opening. this is an extension which is joined to the right front of the trouser opening. face and possibly reënforce the under lap of the fly (extension) with the lining fabric and join the cloth side of the fly to the edge of the right front of the trousers with a plain seam. stitch the seam and press it open, clipping the edge to make it lie flat. turn under the raw edge of the lining and baste it flat so that it covers the seam (fig. , b). stitch from the right side from the waistline to the bottom of the opening (fig. , a). stay the bottom of the opening, and sew the buttons on the under lap of the fly to match the buttonholes. hemmed plackets hemmed placket in a slash this placket is used on dainty handmade blouses and children's clothes. cut the placket opening the desired length along a yarn of the fabric. on the under side turn a narrow hem (from # to # inch wide) and clip at the bottom of the placket enough to permit turning the hem. baste and hem in place. on the upper side turn a wider hem (from # to # inch wide) and clip as before, baste, and hem. the line of hem- ming may be covered with a decorative stitch. lap the upper side over the under side, forming one plait on the right side of the garment and another on the wrong side. to stay the placket and to hold the plaits in place, stitch clothing construction across the end of the placket or backstitch from the wrong side without bringing the stitches to the outside of the hem (fig. , b). hemmed placket in a seam this is the most quickly made placket for the side seam of a young boy's trousers and can be handled easily by the t-t— t- —r—hr—r— t | | | | | | | | | | | | | l h | | | | ! f-----, him. f- | : ! i i } | . | | | : | | | | | | a a a a fig. i. . hemmed placket in a fig. . hemmed placket in slash an open stitched fell seam a, right side; b, wrong side a, wrong side, reënforced at the end with a tape; b, right side, re- enforced at the end with a bar tack child. it does not lap and so requires that the blouse be long enough to serve as a fly. make the first stitching of an open stitched fell seam (see page ) up to the placket opening and fasten the ends of the threads by tying or stitching back about inch. complete the hemmed seam, and continue the basting and stitching of the hems to the waistline. the end of the placket should be reënforced with a stay of fabric or tape on the wrong side, or by making a bar tack on the right side (fig. , a, b, and “bar tack” pp. – ). plackets lap placket this is a two-piece placket, which is generally preferable to a continuous-bound placket in a dress, because it is flat and strong. mark the seam allowance on each side of the placket with a line of basting. if the seam is on a selvage or the fabric does not fray, reënforce only for fasteners, fig. i . lap placket a, wrong side; b, right side except in the case of wool, when it is necessary to reënforce the entire placket. if the seam has raw edges, use straight strips of a firm light-weight fabric inch longer than the placket opening and wide enough to bind the edge and serve as a reënforcement. after the placket strips have been attached, the inside edges may be hemmed to the garment or finished and left free except as they are held by the fasteners. turn back the upper side of the placket on the seam line, edge-stitch from the right side if desired, and allow the under side to extend (fig. , b). rečnforce the end of the placket with stitching and press (fig. , a). if the seam is narrow, make the binding strip on the under side of the placket wide enough to form an extension. clothing construction picoted placket plackets on full sleeves in sheer fabrics, such as chiffon, may be made by machine hemstitching which is later cut through the center to form a picoted slash. to reënforce the end of the opening, take a few buttonhole stitches or make a small thread bar, as on the end of a worked buttonhole. rolled placket a rolled hem is often used to finish the edges of a placket in a light-weight fabric, especially the sleeve placket in handmade blouses or dresses where no fasteners are needed on the placket. cut a slash the desired length and make a very narrow rolled hem along each edge of the slash. the end of the opening may be reënforced by a few buttonhole stitches or by a small thread bar. shirt-front placket this type of placket is used as the center-front finish on boys' or men's shirts and on women's tailored blouses. the under side of the opening is finished with a hem from # to # inch wide; the upper side is finished so that it gives the effect of a box plait that is about inch wide. when the fabric is alike on both sides, turn a plain hem to the right instead of the wrong side of the fabric. make the first turning about $ inch wide and the second turning about inch wide. baste and stitch flat to the garment # inch from each edge of the plait thus formed. when the fabric has a wrong side, turn a hem to the wrong side the desired width of the plait. crease again on the inside edge of the hem, just as if you were turning the hem an equal distance a second time. then stitch # inch from plackets af fig. . shirt-front plackets a, box-plait effect, made as a part of garment; b, box-plait effect, applied to garment as a separate piece this second fold to form a tuck. crease the tuck flat on the garment and stitch again # inch from the outer edge (fig. , a). note. on tailored shirts the upper side of the placket is often finished on the wrong side by applying a strip of cotton cloth or tape, which is held in place when the stitch- ings are made # inch from each edge of the plait. in this case the plait is usually made of a separate strip of cloth (with the raw edges turned under on both sides about $ inch) applied flat on the right side of the garment (fig. , b). tailored placket this placket is used chiefly as a sleeve placket in boys' and men's shirts and in women's tailored blouses. it may also serve as a finish for a slashed opening in the center front and occasionally in the center back of a dress. clothing construction such a placket may be made of either one or two pieces. with the former method no raw edges are left on the wrong side of the garment; but since the two-piece placket is sim- pler to construct it is explained here. two—piece tailored placket cut a slash the desired length (usually or more inches in length) along a yarn of the fabric. finish the under side of the opening with a straight binding about $ inch wide e- - n- when finished, apply- . . . . . . ,-n ing it as on the under side of a continuous- bound placket in a slash (pp. – ). for the upper side cut a strip at least g. car-l. . . ** inch longer than the slash and twice the width desired for the finished placket plus two seam allow- a a ances (usually about inches wide for a sleeve placket, and wider for one used in a front opening of a dress). turn under the raw edge along the sides of the strip and crease lengthwise through the center. open and cut to a point at the end of the upper side and cut off the lower side, as indicated by the dotted line in fig. , a. clip as indicated in the figure, turn under the raw edges at the top of the strip, and recrease. slip the edge of the slash between the edges of the placket strip and pin and baste flat to the garment. stitch the fig. i. . tailored placket a, placket strip; b, placket stitched to garment clothing construction joining the tuck seam, or in heavier fabrics (as in tailored suits) by placing a small hook and eye very close to the bot- tom of the placket and then flattening the hook so that it cannot come unfastened. sew fasteners on the seam line, and take particular care not to let any of the stitches show on the right side of the garment. welt placket this may be used on the partial drop-front of boys' trousers. slash each side of the front the depth desired for the placket opening; at the end of the slash, clip diag- onally a seam's depth, slanting toward the center front (fig. , a). for the upper side of the placket, cut the welt strip twice the finished width, plus seam al- lowances, and inch longer than the slash; then fold through the center lengthwise, with the right fig. . welt placket sides together, and stitch across a, slash cut for placket; one end. turn right side out and b, finished placket press flat. if the fabric is heavy, place the welt next the right side of the garment, with the raw edges coinciding and the finished end of the welt at the end of the slash; stitch through the three thicknesses of the welt and the garment, press the seam edges toward the front, and finish with overcasting or blanket stitching (fig. , b). finish the under side of the placket like the under side of a lap placket (p. ), using a strip of firm, light-weight fabric. if the fabric is of medium weight, place the welt strip in the same position as for a heavy fabric, but attach like a i b plaits noncontinuous band, which is made before it is attached (see page ). finish the under side of the placket as de- scribed for heavy fabrics, except that the garment fabric may be used. slip-stitch the finished end of the welt to the gar- ment with very short stitches and reënforce the end of the placket from the wrong side with a row of back- stitches, being careful not to bring them through to the right side of the welt. o. plaits the general types of plaits are side plaits and box plaits. inverted plaits and pinch plaits are variations of the latter type. in side plaiting the plaits all turn in the same direc- tion; a box plait is formed by two side plaits turning in opposite directions from a center line; an inverted plait is formed by two side plaits turning in opposite directions toward a center line. in other words, an inverted plait is the wrong side of a box plait. side plaits, box plaits, and inverted plaits are explained in detail under “plaited skirts,” pp. – . for a description of pinch plaits see “plaits for draperies,” pp. – . plaits may be made at home, or the fabric may be taken to some commercial establishment for plaiting. it is ad- visable to have plaits made commercially when a large amount of plaiting is to be used, or when many small plaits are desired. much time will be saved in the laundering of wash gar- ments with plaited sections if the plaits are edge-stitched, especially if the edges of the plaits are not on the straight plaits sections inserted in either a slash or a seam an extra piece of fabric may be inserted (before or after plaiting) in either a seam or a slash, to form one or more plaits. this piece may be cut on the lengthwise, crosswise, or bias of the fabric. if the plaits are to be made commer- cially, the hem should be put in before the plaits are laid. an inverted plait in a slash. slash the garment at the desired place. cut the fabric which is to form the plait about inches longer than the slash. fold this piece lengthwise with the right sides together, stitch down from the top about % inches, and press the seam open. cut off the seam allow- ance the rest of the way down. pin the right side of the section to the right side fig. . invertedplait of the garment, placing the lower end of inserted in a seam the seam just made to the top of the (wrong side) slash. baste and stitch (see fig. ). clip to the stitching; then lay an inverted plait. if the effect of a bound plait is desired, let the fabric of the inserted sec- tion extend beyond the stitched edge to form a binding, as in a bound-buttonhole opening (see “plackets,” pp. – ). stitch this binding after hemming the garment. the top of the slash may be reënforced (see “fitted facing,” p. ). a series of plaits inserted in a slash. slash the garment at the place where the plaits are to be inserted. then at the top of this slash cut the shape that is desired, for a dis- tance on each side of the slash that will be required to insert the section of plaits. cut the fabric for the plaits % inches longer than the slash for finishing. either lay the plaits and then make the lengthwise seams, or make the seams and then lay the plaits. join the top of the plaited section clothing construction to the garment with a plain or a lap seam. finish with binding or overcasting (see “seam finishes,” pp. , ). this joining may be reënforced (see “fitted facing,” p. ). a series of plaits inserted in a seam. proceed as for in- serting a section of plaits in a slash, except that it is not necessary to make the perpendicular slash. plaited skirts plaited skirts are usually plaited all the way around. side plaits, box plaits, or inverted plaits may be used; or the three types may be combined in the same skirt. the necessary measurements for a plaited skirt are waist measure, hip measure, and length of skirt plus hem allowance. each plait requires three thicknesses of cloth. consequently, when the skirt is to be made with no spacing between plaits, it must be three times the hip measure in width; when there is spacing between the plaits, propor- tionally less fabric is used. the number of lengths of fabric required depends upon the width of the fabric and the depth and the number of the plaits. note. when the fabric has a heavy crosswise yarn it may be advisable to make the skirt crosswise instead of lengthwise of the fabric. the seams of the skirt are usually completed and the hem made before the plaits are put into the garment. (when it is to be plaited commercially, it is prepared in the same way, except that one seam is left open.) while laying the plaits it is convenient to place the skirt over an ironing board. determining the number of plaits. add about inches to the hip measure so that the plaits will stay in place when plaits the garment is worn. divide this enlarged hip measure by the desired width of the plaits to determine the number of plaits in the entire skirt. (the width of the plaits must be chosen so that this amount will be contained in the hip measure an even number of times.) for example, if the enlarged hip measure is inches and -inch plaits are to be used, there will be plaits in the skirt. if there is to be no spacing between plaits, this inches represents the depth of the plait; if there is to be spacing between plaits, this inches represents both the depth of the plait and the space between two plaits. side plaits side plaits may be used singly or in a series. they may vary both in depth and in the distance between them; they may lap in the same direction around the entire skirt; or they may start at the center front with a box plait and all turn toward the back, forming an inverted plait at the centerback. laying side plaits with no spacing between plaits. fold the cloth in halves on the center-front and center-back lines. begin at the center front and, working with the cloth double, divide it into as many equal sections as there are to be plaits in half the skirt. at the hem edge mark each thick- ness at these points with pins. all seams should be placed under the plaits in as inconspicuous a manner as possible; sometimes this requires a shifting of the center-front and center-back lines. check the location of seams and division lines between sections; then mark the center-front and center-back lines of the skirt with guide basting (see “stitches — guide basting,” p. ). each section is to form one plait. begin at the center front and measure off from each section line the width of the plait. this represents the fold line of each plait. mark accurately both the sec- clothing construction tion line and the fold line of each plait with pins, needles, tailor's tacks, or tailor's chalk, depending upon the ma- terial used in the garment (see “markings,” pp. – ). *a-sºº, . °- ſ *-caa/, /ae – | | * cºzzº tvºzre- fig. i. . laying side plaits in a skirt section lines marked with guide basting, and fold lines with tailor's chalk. first plait basted in place if the fabric creases easily, press on each line that marks the edge of a fold; if the fabric does not hold a crease (as in wool), baste through the two thicknesses about # inch from each fold line. lap each pressed or basted fold line over the section line, and pin; then baste in place (fig. ). press the plaits (see “pressing,” p. ). laying side plaits with uniform spacing between plaits. locate and mark the center- front and center-back lines in the same way as when there is no spacing between plaits. then beginning at the center front, measure off distances equal to the width of the sections, and mark each section line. beginning again at the center front, measure off and mark a distance equal to the width of the plait plus the space between the plaits; this repre- sents the fold line. the other fold lines are located by measuring this same distance from each section line. clothing construction laying box plaits with spacing between plaits. mark the section lines and the fold lines according to the design of the skirt. lay the plaits in the same way as when there is no spacing between box plaits. inverted plaits inverted plaits may be used singly, in a series, or in combination with side plaits. a skirt of inverted plaits is constructed exactly like one of box plaits. the effect is differ- ent, because the two folds come together at the center front of the garment. plaited trimming plaiting used as trimming is usually made commercially unless only a small amount is needed. the plaits can be of various types, such as accordion, knife, sunburst, side, box, inverted, or a combination of two or more of these types. the amount of material needed varies according to whether or not there is a space between the plaits. it is advisable to have three times the desired finished length of the trimming band, since deep plaits are more satisfactory than shallow ones. preparation of fabric for commercial plaiting the plaiting may be made of a single or a double thickness. a single fabric for plaiting may have any desired edge finish, such as a hem, binding, facing, picoting, or hem- stitching. finish the edges which are not to be concealed when the plaiting is attached, or finish both edges of a strip twice the desired width, and then cut through the center after the plaiting is done. however, if side plaiting is used, the plaits on the two strips will turn in opposite directions. a double fabric is used when the plaiting is to be narrow or when the under side is to be of different material from plaits that of the upper side. when different fabrics are used, put the two right sides together and stitch at the outer edge with a plain seam. then turn to the right side, folding exactly on the seam line; or allow the under piece to pro- ject slightly, if that is desired, for decorative purposes. press; then baste together the unfinished edges. the plait- ing may be made double by cutting the fabric twice the desired width and folding lengthwise through the center. press and baste together the unfinished edges. double plaiting may also be made by picoting two different fabrics together, right sides out. making plaiting at home prepare the fabric just as for commercial plaiting. work- ing on an ironing board or a pad, lay the desired type of plaits. these may be pinned and then pressed in place, or they may be pinned, basted, and pressed in place. the marks from the pins show less if the pins are perpendicular instead of parallel to the fold of the plaits. attaching plaiting. plaiting may be attached by inserting it in seams, under the inner edge of reversed hems, in bind- ings, or under plaits. it may be attached to an edge by stitch- ing in place, if both edges are finished; otherwise finish with a facing, a binding, a plain seam, or a lap seam. cartridge plaits cartridge plaits afford a decorative means of providing for fullness on a nonwashable garment. the amount of fullness that can be cared for satisfactorily in the plaited section will vary with the texture of the fabric and the size of the plaits. it is well to experiment on a double thickness of the fabric before planning the plaits in the garment. turn back the edge far enough to provide two thicknesses clothing construction for gathering and tacking to the garment, or face the edge with another color if contrast is desired. gather as for smocking (see pages – ), spacing the rows as close to- gether as the fabric requires. apply the gathered fabric to the garment, lapping the depth of the gathered section (fig. ). working from the right side, fasten the inside fold of each plait to the garment at the top of the plaited section. this tacking should be in- visible on the right side and can usually be done best with a slip-stitch. then, working from the wrong side of the garment, tack the inside fold of each plait to the garment at the bottom edge of the lapped section. another method is to hold the plaited section to the gar- ment with a row of tiny running stitches along the inside fold of each plait for the depth of the lap. fig. i . cartridge plaits plaits for draperies box plaits are used as a means of holding fullness in place at the tops of curtains and draperies. when they are used for this purpose, they are placed several inches apart and are usually tacked in place only at the top of the curtain. pinch plaits, a variation of box plaits, are more frequently used and give a more decorative effect. make a hem about to inches deep across the top of the curtain; or the drapery may be lined. the hem should be made with two. turnings of equal width, so that there are three thicknesses clothing construction patch pockets the size and shape of the pocket are determined by its location and by the design and fabric of the garment. the top of the pocket may be finished with a hem, a facing, or some other edge finish which may extend around the entire pocket. cut a piece of cloth of the desired shape and size, allowing for seams on the sides and bottom, and for a hem at the top, unless the pocket is to be faced or some edge finish other than a hem is to be used. fig. . wrong making a pocket with a hem side of patch finish the top of the pocket, turn in the . * raw edges, and press or baste; then pin under in position, baste, and stitch close to the edge. this method of making and attaching the pocket may be used if care is taken to turn under the corners at the top (fig. ) and if two rows of stitching are used; but it does not give as pleasing an appearance as the following method, since it is difficult to keep the corner *~|_|_ _ _ _ _ _ _ # – \, . \–’ :=º a fig. i . method of making a patch pocket so as to prevent corners of hem from showing from showing and it is likely to be bulky. baste and stitch a hem across the top of the pocket. slash in from each end for about inch on the under side of the hem, about inch above | pockets the stitching and parallel to it (fig. , a- and ). turn under the raw edges of the pocket, having both thicknesses of the hem turned in to give a finished edge (fig. , b– ), and being careful to turn the ends of the hem on ; | the under side slightly f---- f---- deeper than on the out- || side (fig. , b– ). a || pocket that is faced at fig. . methods of stitching the corners the top should be han- of patch pockets dled in the same way. in stitching pockets it is necessary to reënforce the cor- ners where there is most strain; this may be done in several ways (fig. ). on wool garments the entire pocket is sometimes lined with silk, so that the edges are finished before applying. the pocket is then stitched or slip-stitched to the garment. set-in, or slash, pockets a set-in pocket is a variation of the bound buttonhole. the opening may be crosswise, lengthwise, bias, or curved, according to the design and location desired. mark the line of the pocket opening with basting. a reënforcement is generally advisable, especially if the pocket opening is bias or curved. for the method of applying the reënforcement, see “bound buttonholes,” p. . the pocket strip may be of the same or contrasting fabric and is usually cut crosswise or lengthwise, although for decorative purposes it may be cut on the bias. bound pocket cut the pocket strip inches wider than the desired opening, and twice as long as the finished pocket plus from clothing construction to inches for seam allowances and for the binding of the opening. crease the pocket strip crosswise through the center. place the right side of the strip on the right side of the garment, with the crease on the marked line. pin and baste in place. stitching and cutting. stitch around the marked line in the form of a rectangle, making the seams from # to # inch wide, turning square corners, and retracing the stitching exactly as in a bound buttonhole (fig. , a- ), with the stitching running parallel to the marking line and from # to # inch on either side of it. cut through the pocket strip and garment (and reënforcement if used) along the line of marking, to within # inch of each end. from here clip diagonally to the corners of the rectangle, being care- ful not to cut the stitching (fig. , a- ). turning and finishing. when turning the pocket strip through the opening you must be very careful to crease the fabric back at the ends of the pocket exactly on the seam line. baste in place and press at the ends. then fold the pocket strip so that it forms a binding over the seams, with the edges meeting in the center and with an inverted plait at each end on the wrong side (fig. , a- , b- ). baste firmly in place along the edge of the binding slit. tack the edges of the inverted plaits together at each end of the pocket, baste the edges of the pocket opening together with diagonal basting, and press. if the fabric is heavy, one may open the seams on the sides of the rectangle, instead of having both edges extend into the binding. stitch in the groove inconspicuously by hand or machine along the upper and lower edges of the pocket binding (fig. , a). place the two parts of the pocket strip together, with the sides even, and baste and stitch around the raw edges (fig. , b). if machine stitching was used on the right side of the pocket, pockets place the welt next to the right side of the garment, with unfinished edges on the line of marking and the finished edge extending down (fig. ). place the pocket strip over this and stitch as in a slash pocket, so that the stitching comes exactly to the ends of the welt. when the pocket is right side of drawn through to the wrong garment side, the welt turns up into place on the right side. crease | ºff \"" or press the fabric back at the ends of the pocket exactly on the seam line. slip-stitch the ends of the welt to the garment. press open the seam along the top side of the pocket, stitch the edges of the pocket to- gether, and finish the raw edges. fig. . welt pocket, show- the welt pocket differs from ing the weſt basted in place; the bound pocket in that the the dotted line indicates where pocket strip, instead of serving machine stitching will be done as a binding, serves as a facing on the lower edge and ends of the slit, and at the upper edge it extends directly down to fill the opening and to form the back of the pocket. pocket strip flap pocket the pocket with a flap is made in almost the same way as the welt pocket, except that the piece that forms the flap is attached to the upper side of the slash, and the flap is left loose, not stitched flat to the garment at the ends, as is the welt. make the flap, shaping it as desired, and usually stitching around the three sides. apply it to the garment with the raw edges coinciding with the line that marks where clothing construction the pocket opening is to be cut, and with the flap turned up. apply the strip which is to make the pocket; stitch, cut, and finish like a welt pocket, except that the pocket strip usually binds the lower edge of the slit as in a bound pocket. pocket set in lengthwise seams or under tucks pockets may be set in seams or in a special opening cut along the inside edge of a tuck or (in coats) between the front facing and the edge of the lining. leave the seam open, or (in a case where the pocket is placed under a tuck) cut an opening the length of the pocket opening. cut two pieces of fabric the desired a size for the pocket, having fig. i . pocket set in a length- the pocket pieces several wise seam a, type used between the lining and the front facing of a coat; b, type set in the side seam of boys' trousers inches longer than the seam opening (fig. , a), to give depth below the opening. the pocket may be made of the same fabric as the garment or of one lighter in weight, or the fabric of the garment may be used for the under side of the pocket, which comes next to the body, and a lighter- weight fabric for the other side of the pocket. stitch the straight edge of one pocket piece (fig. , a-a) to one seam edge of the opening, and the corresponding edge of the other pocket piece to the other seam edge, using plain seams with the wrong side of the seams on the wrong side of the garment — the one between the pocket and the garment and the other inside the garment. turn both pieces of the pockets pocket to the inside of the garment, so that one is exactly over the other. to make the pocket pieces lie flat, a second stitching may be made on the right side of the seams at the opening, as in a cord seam. baste and stitch the edges of the two pocket pieces together to form the pocket. note. when a pocket is set in between the front facing and the edge of a coat lining, the pocket pieces are stitched together first, and one side of the pocket opening is stitched to the edge of the lining. the pocket is then set in place, and the other edge is turned under and slip-stitched to the front facing of the coat (fig. , a). pocket combined with placket opening this pocket is used in trousers for boys under eight years of age, and it is found in many variations. since in many ways it is not satisfactory to have the line of the pocket open- ing coincide with the placket opening, the method of making here described has certain dis- tinct advantages. cut the back of the trousers, allowing a sufficient extension for the length of the placket to form a hem, or finish the under side of the placket as the under side of a lap placket. face back the edge of the pocket opening with a piece of the garment fabric fig. i . pocket combined with placket opening; dotted line shows the inside edge of which is large enough to form the pocket the upper side of the pocket, and stitch along the curved edge of the pocket opening. cut the lower side of the pocket, which is also the upper pressing ease as fine cottons, and with little more care. most wash silks should be pressed while they are still damp, but pongee is most successfully pressed when it is dry. it does not then acquire an undesirable shine and stiffness, and it is much easier to iron than when it is wet. silks require careful pressing, especially crêpe fabrics, since hard pressing may remove the crêpe. when no moisture is used, press with a warm iron; but when the fabric is being steamed, a hot iron may be used. steam pressing is usually necessary to remove center folds and to press seams, hems, plaits, and facings so that they will lie flat with knifelike edges. it makes possible the use of moisture without causing water- spotting. it is frequently more satisfactory to press first without moisture and then with moisture. always press from the wrong side, unless a cotton cloth or a sheet of un- glazed paper is placed between the iron and the silk. a limited amount of fullness may be shrunk out of silk if the fabric is loosely woven or the yarns are tightly twisted. to steam-press silk . place the fabric or the garment as flat as possible (to prevent pressing in wrinkles) on the ironing board, either right or wrong side up, depending upon which is the more convenient. . place tissue paper on top of the fabric to prevent water- spotting. . place a dry cotton pressing cloth on top of the tissue paper to help to distribute the moisture. . place a damp cotton pressing cloth on top of the dry cloth, being sure that no part of the damp cloth comes in con- tact with the garment. . use a dry cotton pressing cloth between the damp cloth and the iron to prevent the iron from sticking. . press until the cloths are nearly dry. then remove them and continue pressing on the tissue paper until the fabric is dry. clothing construction to steam silk before cutting it may be desirable to steam some silk fabrics before cutting, such as those that have very tightly twisted yarns, as georgette, and are therefore likely to shrink, and those that have a high luster and are likely to water-spot. this steaming is usually more satisfactory if done at the store, but it can be done at home if much care is exercised. open out the lengthwise fold and lay the fabric over the shower curtain rod (or a broomstick), which is longer than the fabric is wide; try to have as few crosswise folds as possible. run hot water into the bathtub until the room is filled with steam. keep the door shut and let the fabric hang for about an hour. press if necessary with a warm iron, being careful not to press the fabric out of shape or to allow it to crease. pressing rayon rayons are likely to be injured if pressed with too hot an iron; this is especially true of cellulose acetate rayons, which will stick to the iron and fuse, or melt, at a lower tem- perature than will regenerated cellulose rayons. in general, follow the directions for pressing silk. pressing wool probably the chief reason why wool garments often have a homemade look is that they are not properly pressed. in order to understand the procedure that is used in pressing wool, it is desirable that one know certain facts about the behavior of wool under different conditions. the wool fiber is both elastic and plastic. its elasticity permits the fiber to extend when subjected to a force, such as stretching, and to regain its original form when the force is removed. this explains why a wrinkled suit, if made of pressing good-quality wool, will be refreshed after it has hung in the closet for a period of time. the damper the air the more quickly will the wrinkles disappear, because moisture tends to release the latent strains in the fibers and permit the stretched fibers to recover their original length. increasing the moisture content and the temperature (beyond room temperature) increases the plasticity of the fiber until, at the boiling temperature and with the moisture content approaching the saturation point, it is perfectly plastic and can be extended to the maximum amount with- out injury. when pressure is applied, the plastic fibers can be given a more or less permanent “set”; that is, when the fabric is saturated with steam developed by a hot iron and a wet pressing cloth, the fabric can be molded into the desired shape. if steam and pressure are applied for only a short time, or if the pressure is too light, the shaping may be rather temporary; for example, plaiting done at home may be less permanent than that done commercially because less steam may be used and the pressure possible with the ordinary iron may not be sufficient. pressing should always cease while the fabric is still steaming, because when the moisture content decreases and the temperature goes much above ° c. the wool fibers start to decompose, and the fabric tends to become harsh and inelastic. since the fabric will be slightly damp when the pressing is finished, especial care must be used in drying it (see “to press wool,” paragraph , p. ). the “set” may be removed more or less completely by exposing the fibers to the same humidity and temperature conditions as those to which they were originally subjected, but without the pressure; for example, if in remodeling a wool garment, you wish to lengthen it, steam the hem crease. to develop steam without exerting pressure on the fabric, clothing construction hold the iron just above the pressing cloth; by this method it is possible to obliterate the crease line unless the garment was pressed at too high a temperature in the original press- ing or was pressed until it was dry. in other words, the fibers in a fabric must be rendered plastic by steam before it can be pressed into the desired shape; and if you wish to have it regain its original shape, it must once more be made plastic in a similar manner. the technique of pressing heavy tailored garments, such as suits and coats, is not easy to acquire, and may involve the use of a heavier iron than the average home affords. but anyone can easily learn to press the wool garments that are ordinarily made at home if she follows certain simple rules and provides herself with a small amount of additional equipment. desirable equipment for pressing wool consists of the following: a smooth, well-padded ironing board; a heavy- napped woolen cloth, about by inches; cotton cloths — cheesecloth and rather heavy muslin; a sponge and a basin of water. in addition it is often desirable to have a padded roll and a tailor's cushion, but these may be im- provised very easily. to make a padded roll, wrap a heavy towel around a tightly rolled magazine or a broomstick. a tailor's cushion may be made by stuffing a bag made of heavy cotton cloth with scraps of wool cloth or with an old cotton blanket. this bag should be shaped at the corners to fit into curved parts of the garment, such as shoulder and armseye seams. the padded sleeve form may be used as part of the equipment for pressing, as well as for draping. to press wool . place the fabric or the garment as flat as possible on the ironing board. . place a dry woolen pressing cloth next to the right side of the garment. clothing construction cloth; then cover this with a dry cotton cloth and press until nearly dry. to avoid having the imprint of the basting show after press- ing. if the fabric is easily marred, it is wise to use silk in- stead of cotton thread for basting. press lightly with the fig. . method of pressing a sleeve seam on a padded roll bastings still in place; then remove them and finish the pressing. if an imprint is left in spite of the precautions taken, proceed as in removing shine. to press seams. use a padded roll to avoid having the imprint of the extra thickness of cloth show on the right side. this is especially desirable when pressing sleeve seams (fig. ). to remove shine. place the garment right side up on the ironing board; cover with the woolen cloth and then with the damp and the dry cotton cloths and steam by holding the iron close to the pressing cloth. press lightly. brush clothing construction without turning under, stitch with a lengthened machine stitch, quite close to the edge. if the top of the hem is to be finished by turning under the raw edge, turn this edge and baste the turn; then stitch by machine. in either case draw up the thread on the wrong side until the hem lies flat, and pin in place so that the fullness is properly distributed and falls at right angles to the hem (fig. ). then shrink out the fullness in the follow- ing manner: remove a few pins and slip a piece of wrapping * jº. , paper into the hem ſhot ava (fig. ). turn the ° ” wool cloth back over j - * the hem, cover this - with a damp cotton fig. i . shrinking out fullness at the top cloth and then with of a hem a dry cloth, steam, and press from the bottom toward the top of the hem. re- move the paper and replace the pins. continue in this manner until the entire hem is pressed. to press darts at the top of a hem. place the hem wrong side up on the ironing board. slip paper between the hem and the garment in order not to mar the right side. to press pile fabrics. to prevent marring a pile fabric, pressing may be done in one of three ways: use a wire pressing board which is especially constructed for the pur- pose, placing the fabric pile down on the board and steam- ing; use a piece of the same fabric as a substitute for the board, but take care not to press too hard with the iron; or turn the iron on its side, place a damp cotton cloth and then a dry one over it, and steam by holding the fabric, rečnforcements gusset about inches square and fold diagonally through the center with the two wrong sides together (fig. , a). place the raw edges of one side of the folded triangular piece to the wrong side of the shirt front, with point in line with and about $ inch in from the edge. baste and stitch in place about # inch from the edge of the gusset (fig. , b). crease the gusset back along the stitching line and finish as a flat fell seam to the end of the gusset; then turn and stitch in to the first stitching line, turn again, and continue as a hem at the lower edge of the garment (fig. , c). stitch the back of the garment to the front and the gusset; then make the second stitching of the fell seam in the same way as the second stitching on the front (fig. , d). single gussels of various shapes are frequently used in kimono garments to add strength and width to the gar- ments (fig. , a, b, c, d, e). stitch one side of the gus- set to the front of the garment; then stitch the back to the gusset and the front; however, if the gusset is cut rectangu- lar and the length of the underarm seam (fig. , b), baste and stitch the front of the garment to one side of the gusset, and the back of the garment to the other side. care must be taken to keep all seams of uniform width. rečnforcing a corner fitted facing this method not only adds strength but makes it easier to finish a corner or the end of a slash, especially on bulky or loosely woven fabrics. place a fitted facing (see “facings,” p. ) on the fabric, with the right sides together. baste and stitch on the seam line. clip diagonally to the corner, being careful not to cut the stitching (fig. ). turn the facing to the wrong side and finish in the way desired. clothing construction fashions. whatever fabric is used, it should always be shrunk before the facing is cut. cutting. the size and shape of the interfacing in a lined or partially lined coat depend upon the extent to which the garment is to be lined and the effect desired, but the grain is the same as in the garment. cut the interfacing to coin- cide with the front to a point about inches below the arms- c z) aſ a ap fig. . interfacings for coats a, full front interfacing; b, full back interfacing; c, partial front interfacing; d, armseye interfacing on back; e, collar interfacing, with “stand” quilted eye and then curve the line over to the front facing and follow that line to the lower edge (fig. , a); extend the back interfacing an equal distance below the armseye at the underarm seam and curve the line up across the center of the back (fig. , b); cut the collar interfacing by the collar pattern. another method is to cut the front inter- facing as shown in fig. , c; let it extend beyond the neck line about inches along the shoulder seam, and narrow it to- ward the bottom to the width of the front facing of the coat; rečnforcements cut the back interfacing for the armseye about inches wide (fig. , d); cut the collar interfacing like the collar. note. in an unlined coat cut the front interfacing as described for fig. , c; cut the back interfacing (if used) the size and shape of the back neck-line facing (fig. , a) and cut the collar interfacing like the collar. attaching. baste interfacings to the wrong side of the corresponding parts of the garment. make darts as if a single thickness were being handled. mark the line where the collar rolls. quilt the “stand” of the collar (between roll and neck line) with several rows of hand or machine stitching (fig. , e). if tape is desired, apply as de- scribed below; baste the front facing to the garment (see “fitted facing for a coat front,” p. ) and stitch just out- side the edge of the stay-tape, with the interfacing side uppermost. trim the in- terfacing seams to within § inch of the stitching lines to reduce bulk. taping a stay-tape aids in maintaining the good appearance of the tailored garment through- fig. . tap: out its period of wear. use previously "# lº shrunk cotton twilled tape about to $ inch “” wide along the front edges of the coat and the turning line of the lapel (fig. ). place the tape so that one edge comes to the seam line of the front; hem the outside edge to the interfacing, using stitches spaced about ; inch apart, and then hem the inside edge in the same way. tape the lapel by placing the tape so that it will be on the inside of the coat when the lapel is turned back, and by applying it with a slight tension to improve the roll of the lapel. clothing construction . remodeling when planning to remodel a garment decide whether the satisfaction derived from making the contemplated changes will warrant the cost in time, energy, and money. if the re- modeled garment will be more becoming, more harmonious with the rest of the wardrobe, more up to date, or better adapted to one's needs, and if it can be expected to give reasonable service, then remodeling will probably be worth while. consideration should be given to the present state of the garment; to the possibilities it offers for recutting; to whether it should be made over for its original owner or for another person, such as a child; and to whether it can be used as the same type of garment as before. it will probably be unwise to remodel a garment unless the resulting product will have cost appreciably less than one would spend for a new article that would serve the purpose. in any event one should reduce to a minimum con- sistent with the value of the product the time spent on the reconstruction of the garment. strive to attain quality through the use of ingenuity and doing the simple thing well, rather than through complicated design or decoration. * before one attempts to remake the garment, it should be cleaned either by washing or by dry-cleaning. usually it is desirable to rip all stitching and remove threads, unless one can use certain parts of the garment unaltered or can cut away the seams, as when remaking an adult's garment for a child. if the fabric is to be dyed, this should be done either after all seams have been ripped or after the garment has been reconstructed. sometimes it is desirable to use the fabric wrong side out if it is faded or if the nap is worn. seams . seams seams are used as a means of joining two parts of a gar- ment. there are only a few fundamental seams, but by using a wide variety of finishes it is possible to adapt seams to fabrics of different weights and textures, to the different locations, and to the design of the garment. in selecting the type of seam and seam finish, one must decide which of the following characteristics are most im- portant, since no one seam combines all of them. ideally seams should be flat, inconspicuous or decorative, non- fraying, strong, and easily constructed. in making the decision one must keep in mind such points as the location on the garment, whether the wrong as well as the right side may show, the transparency of the fabric, and the texture and weight of the fabric. seams should be of uniform width throughout their length, but the width may vary according to the type of seam and the location on the garment. in general, when the raw edges are inclosed, as in french and fell seams, the maximum width should not exceed # inch; when the raw edges are not inclosed, the width will vary from # to § inch from the stitching line. in the case of seams that turn in one direction only, as a french seam or a plain seam pressed with the two edges together, one should be careful to see that the seam turns in the same direction throughout its length. turn such seams toward the front at the underarm ; turn them toward the side with the lesser amount of fullness (as at the waistline) and toward either front or back at the shoulder, depending upon the effect desired. care must be taken in bloomers and clothing construction trousers (fig. ) to turn the crotch seam of the front and back of the garment in the same direction (either to the right or to the left) and the leg seam in both legs in the same direction (either to the front or to the back). seams are usually made on the wrong side of the garment throughout their length, but when a hem or facing is turned zoffeo///nes represen? /ocofºon of seom edge on wºong s, de fig. . intersecting seams, as seen from the right side, with leg seam turned toward the front and crotch seam turned toward the left a, stitched fell seams; b, french seams to the right side of the garment, it may be desirable to reverse part of the seam, the reversed section always being made as a plain seam and usually left unfinished. plain seams the plain seam is used for an inconspicuous joining, and is pressed open if maximum flatness is desired. place the two right sides of the fabric together, baste along the seam line, and stitch close to the basting but not on it. then remove the basting and press the seam with the two edges together, or press it open. when the seam is to be reversed, as in a hem or facing turned to the right side, stitch the seam to about # inch seams beyond the top of the hem or the inside edge of the facing (fig. , a); clip the seam to the line of the stitching, turn the seam for the rest of the distance to the right side of the garment, and complete it on the right side (fig. , b). seam finishes (fig. ) no seam finish is necessary if the fabric | | | | -*. - does not fray along the ------------- cut edge or if the seam edge will not be visible when the garment is worn. in the case of re- modeled garments, for example, it is desirable to reduce to a minimum the time spent on seam a a finishes. in general, fig. . plain seam, showing part of it seams in lined coats need reversed no finish; however, if a, wrong side; b, right side the garment or lining frays badly and the lining is to be left loose at the lower edge, it will be necessary to finish the seam edges in the lower half of the garment. seam edges are usually finished by one of the methods described below. bound. this finish need be used only on heavy fabrics that fray very easily, and in certain places where the wrong side is likely to show, as in the armseye of an unlined coat. bind- ing is neat and durable, but it tends to make a bulky finish and adds to the cost of the garment (see “bindings,” p. ). seams overcast. this is used on fabrics that fray easily, and where a flat finish is essential. for the method of making, see “stitches,” pp. , . picoted. sometimes this method is used to finish the edges of seams on sheer fabrics, since it gives a neat and very inconspicuous finish, but in deciding to use it one needs to take into consideration the cost of the hemstitching. the edges should be hemstitched together about $ to # inch from the stitching (see “picoting,” p. ). pinked. this gives a neat finish and is easily done, but its use is limited to edges that do not fray badly or that will not show from the right side (fig. , e, f). it may be used on any firm, closely woven, non- • - - - fig. . cord transparent fabric. pinking may be done seam, right and with pinking scissors, a pinking machine, or wrong sides with ordinary scissors. if the last method is used, it is easier to obtain an even edge if one half of each notch is clipped throughout the length of the seam, and then the other half is clipped. cord seam a cord seam is used in tailored garments where a corded effect is desired and where stitching is used as a decorative feature of the garment. single cord seam (fig. ) this looks like a lap seam on the right side, but it is easier to handle, except on angular or very much curved edges. make a plain seam; press on the wrong side, turning both edges of the seam in one direction. baste through the three thicknesses of the fabric, close to the seam line. then clothing construction stitch from the right side of the garment, from ſº to $ inch from the seam line. trim the edges of the seam to between # and ; inch, depending on the fabric. (if the material is very heavy, it is usually desirable to trim more closely the seam edge that lies next to the garment.) finish the raw edges of the seam as in a plain seam with the two edges pressed together. double cord seam proceed as for a single cord seam, except that the seam is pressed open instead of with edges together, and two rows of machine stitching are made, one on each side of the seam line. corded seam the corded seam is used for decoration where a seam line is to be emphasized, for example, in — joining a skirt to a closely fitted (bodice) waist. cover a cord with Æ a strip of fabric — preferably bias fig. . corded seam — and insert it in a plain seam (fig. , a, b). use a corder foot a, cord covered; b, cord in- - - serted in seam or an ordinary presser foot which has had one side filed off, when stitching cording. unless such a foot is used, the cord must be stitched into the seam by hand. note. a corded effect may be obtained by running yarn or dressmaker's cord through the casing formed by the two stitchings of a cord seam (fig. ). seams fell seams to fell means literally “to hem a seam.” most fell seams are hemmed flat to the garment, either by hand or by machine; but in standing fell seams the wider edge is hemmed over the narrower one, so that the seam stands up like a french seam. fell seams have both edges turned to the same direction, except in the case of the open stitched fell. flat fell seam flat fell seams are used where it is desirable to have strong flat seams with finished edges. they should be about # inch wide when finished. a hemmed fell is gen- erally used on underwear, and on dresses for small children. place the two right sides of the fabric together; baste and stitch on the seam line and re- move the bastings. trim - - - - - fig. . hemmed fell seam one edge to within § inch - - of the stitching, leaving * * º b, seam the edge that is to form the fell about twice as wide (fig. , a). turn under the wider edge so that it incloses the narrower edge, and crease both edges flat in the direction in which the seam is to be turned. baste the seam flat, through the three thick- nesses of the cloth. hold the edge in place with slant hem- ming stitches (fig. ). a stitched fell is more quickly made than the hemmed fell, and is used on tailored garments, such as middies and men's a a clothing construction shirts. place the two wrong sides of the fabric together. then proceed as for the hemmed fell, except that machine stitching is used in place of hand hemming (fig. ). if the seam is to have only one stitching on the right side of the garment, place the two right sides together, as you did for the hemmed fell, and make the seam on the wrong side. when the seam has two stitchings on the right side, turn as follows: at shoulder and underarm, turn toward the front; at the armseye, turn toward the sleeve; on a yoke, turn down. when the seam has only one stitch- ing showing on the right side, turn the seam in the opposite direction - in each case described. fig. . stitched fell an open-stitched fell seam may be seam used on light and medium-weight wash fabrics. it is a good seam for the side seams of little boys' trousers, because it is tailored and simplifies the placket finish. make a plain seam on the wrong side, press open, trim the seam edges to about ; inch from the stitching, turn under each seam edge about # inch from the stitching line, and baste flat to the garment. stitch the hem on each side of the joining line through the three thicknesses (see fig. , showing a hemmed placket in an open stitched fell seam, p. ). standing fell seam this seam may be used where a french seam would be desirable from the standpoint of appearance but cannot be handled satisfactorily. join the two edges as for a plain seam. trim one seam edge to about $ inch of the stitching line; for example, trim the gathered edge in attaching a seams single cuff to a gathered sleeve; trim the garment edge in an armseye seam; trim either edge in a seam where two plain edges are joined. turn the wider edge of the seam over the narrower edge and baste just outside the stitching line. fin- ish either by hemming or stitching the folded edge close to but outside the line of machine stitching (fig. ). french seam . the french seam is used on trans- parent fabrics, such as organdie, and fig. . standing fell on light-weight or medium-weight seam fabrics that require frequent laun- dering and where a flat finish is not needed, such as the fabrics used for slips, nightgowns, and petticoats. it is not desirable to make this seam much more than ; inch wide. if the fabric is too heavy to permit so narrow a seam, some other type of seam will be found more satisfactory. --~~~~~~~ fig. . french seam baste as for a plain seam, except that the two wrong sides are put together. stitch a little more than ; inch outside the seam line; remove bastings. trim the seam to within ; inch of the machine stitching. press or crease on clothing construction the line of stitching. turn so that the raw edges are inside and the seam line comes exactly on the turn. crease and press. baste just deep enough to inclose the seam; stitch a little deeper than the basting line to insure having no raw edges showing on the right side (fig. ). imitation french seam the imitation french seam is used where the effect of a french seam is desired, but where it would be difficult to make the second stitching at the desired place, as in match- ing plaids. make a plain seam and finish it by turning the two raw edges together toward the inside (fig. ). press or crease the folds, baste, and stitch with running stitches, over- handing, or machine stitching, close to the outer edge. lap seam fig. ios. imitation french - - q seam a lap seam is used when stitch- ing is desired as decoration, and when the two edges are angular or very much curved. a lap seam is not stitched like a plain seam; instead one seam edge laps over the other and is stitched flat. narrow lap seam turn under one edge on the seam line and crease or baste. if this edge is curved or angular, clip at several places part way to the seam line, at right angles to the edge, before basting the turned edge. mark the seam line on the other edge and lap the turned edge over it until the seam lines coincide. pin, baste flat, and stitch from the right side very close to the folded edge (fig. , a). finish the wrong side like a plain seam, with the two edges pressed together. seams wide lap, or tuck, seam this seam is used where a tucked effect is desired. it may be made with one or two stitchings. when there is to be no placket opening, only one stitching need be used, and the seam is made like a narrow lap seam, except that it is stitched farther from the turned edge. turn and a a fig. igg. lap seams a, narrow lap seam; b, wide lap, or tuck, seam baste the tuck the depth allowed, and lap the under side of the seam over the tuck, with the seam edges coinciding. baste and stitch from the right side through the three thick- nesses of the fabric the desired width of the tuck, using the presser foot or quilter as a guide. when there is a placket opening under the tuck, the placket reënforcement should be made first (see “tuck placket,” pp. – ). baste the tuck the depth allowed and stitch on the seam line for the entire length of the tuck. place the tuck edge over the under side, with the seam lines matching. baste from the right side through the three thicknesses of the fabric, having the basting come between the stitching line and the folded sleeves welt seam the welt seam is used on heavy fabrics where a strong tailored finish is desired and where the flat fell seam is too bulky. make a plain seam. then trim one side of the seam to within # inch of the stitching. from the wrong side press and baste the seam flat, with the wider edge on top. stitch from the right side, from # to # inch from the seam line. this is the only row of stitching that shows on the right side (fig. ). finish the raw edge of the seam as desired; if the fabric does not fray, no finish is necessary. . sleeves although sleeves may cause considerable trouble, it is quite possible to set sleeves into a garment with little dif- ficulty if the following directions are carried out. to insure good results, one must use care in checking and altering the pattern before cutting out the sleeves and must follow ex- plicitly the directions for making and setting in sleeves. there are several types of sleeves: set-in, dolman, epaulet, kimono, and raglan. these vary considerably in the method of making, and will therefore be described separately. set-in sleeves in general the set-in sleeves should not be cut until the garment has been fitted and any necessary alterations made, and they should not be set into the garment until after the neck is finished. set-in sleeves differ in many ways: they may be cut in one, two, or more pieces, depending upon the design; they may or may not have visible fullness at the sleeves underarm seams matching, and mark the seam line with pins, using the first armseye as a guide. clip the armseye to keep it from drawing, but do not trim until the sleeve has been stitched in. replace the pins with a guide basting. for a loose-fitting armseye. establish the upper half as for the close-fitting armseye. the lower half must be determined by the eye. then proceed as for a close-fitting armseye. sleeves without visible fullness throughout the cap in a one-piece sleeve the front of the sleeve cap has a little deeper curve than the back, in order to allow the sleeve to fit smoothly over the muscle that joins the arm to the body at the front of the armpit; and, since the arm naturally swings to the front, more length is needed at the back of the sleeve. at the bottom the longest part comes a little to the back of the center of the sleeve (fig. , b). the sleeve seam should be approximately in line with the underarm seam of the garment. in a two-piece sleeve the inner seam is located at the place where the in- side measurement of the arm is taken b fig. . one-piece set- - - in sleeve without visible (fig. , a). the outer seam lies fullness in the upper along the outside of the arm from the half of the sleeve center of the back of the armhole, a, sleeve which is fitted at the bottom; b, sleeve down over the elbow to the wrist, in which is full at the bottom line with the little finger. testing the sleeve pattern. before cutting the sleeve it is necessary to test the sleeve pattern to see whether it will fit. this is done either by trying on the pattern or by checking the measurements of the sleeve with the arm measurements. clothing construction pin the sleeve seam of the pattern together. put on the dress, with the armseye marked. try on the sleeve pattern, pulling it up well under the arm and pinning the seam line, being sure that the cap comes in the proper place. check the length and width of the sleeve and the length and width of the cap (figs. – ). if the sleeve is to be long, bend the arm to make an allow- ance for the elbow. check care- fully at the largest part of the d & arm. be sure the cap is wide enough to fit rather loosely across the arm and to allow for seams. the cap should be long enough to come up to the highest point on the armseye. when checking arm and sleeve measurements, one length meas- urement only is needed for a one-piece sleeve, namely, the fig. . two-piece sleeve outside arm length that is taken from the highest point on the armseye, over the elbow to the wrist, with the arm bent (fig. , b). an additional measurement is needed for a two-piece sleeve, namely, that taken along the inside of the arm, from the muscle which joins the arm to the body, down to the base of the thumb, with the arm held straight out from the body (fig. , a). check these measurements with corresponding measurements on the sleeve pattern (fig. , e to f, and fig. , a to b). the width of the upper part of the sleeve needs to be checked at one place only, that is, around the largest part of the arm, with the arm bent (fig. , b). this measurement should be taken quite loosely. if the sleeve fits closely, it is a sleeves necessary to check also the girth of the lower arm and, for a coat or a child's garment which has no placket, the hand meas- urement, or, if the sleevehasaplacket, the wristmeasurement. the depth of the cap on a sleeve pattern is very important. measure it on the pattern from e to f (fig. ). to ascer- e e c af c a/ fig. . measurements of fig. . measurements of sleeve length (e to f) and width of cap (c to d) and sleeve width (c to d) depth of cap (e to f) tain the required depth of the cap, fasten the tapeline hori- zontally around the arm just under the armpit. measure from this line to the highest point on the armseye. this is ordinarily about % to % inches. the width of the cap is also important. measure this on the pattern from c to d (fig. ) and check with the similar measurement taken on the person. (the garment should be on when this measurement is taken.) the circumference of the cap is measured with a tapeline held on edge, the measurement being taken around the top of the sleeve pattern on the seam line, after the needed alter- clothing construction ations for depth and width have been made. this measure- ment should be from # inch to % inches longer than the circumference of the armseye at the seam line, if there is no visible fullness in the sleeve. the amount of fullness that should be eased into the arms- eye of a given garment will be governed by the use of the garment, the texture of the fabric, and the shape of the arm. fig. . changing the sleeve length a, to shorten, lay folds above and below the elbow and correct the edge of the pattern; b, to lengthen, draw lines straight across the sleeve above and below the elbow. cut along these lines, and separate the pieces to give the necessary length. straighten the edge of the pattern at the seam lines altering the sleeve pattern. since sleeve patterns often re- quire a number of alterations to insure correct fitting, it is wise to keep on hand a sleeve pattern that has been altered until it fits properly. although styles of sleeves change from season to season, the armseye line varies, on the whole, but little. hence it is often desirable to combine the top of a pattern having the desired armseye measurement with the bottom of the new pattern. for methods of altering sleeve patterns, see figs. – . sleeves cutting the set-in sleeve. it is usually best not to cut the sleeves until the dress has been fitted and the armseye es- tablished. when making garments that do not require much a fig. . changing the sleeve width a, increasing the width of the sleeve. for a plump arm: draw a line straight down through the center of the cap. cut along this line and separate the pieces to give the necessary width (about % inches is the maximum that can be added). correct the curve of the cap and the bottom edge to preserve the original shape. if the cap is too wide after this alteration has been made, correct by the reverse of the alteration shown in fig. , b. for a loose armseye: add equal amounts (not more than inch at each side), gradually tapering off to the edge of the pattern (see the dotted-line extension on each side of the sleeve). b, decreasing the width of the sleeve. if the sleeve is too wide all the way down, lay a lengthwise fold through the center of the cap to take out the extra width. correct the top and the bottom of the sleeve as indicated. if the cap is too narrow after this alteration has been made, correct it as in fig. , b. if the sleeve is all right at the top and too wide at the bottom, narrow as indicated by the dotted lines a to b and c to d; do not narrow the sleeve too abruptly fitting, such as men's shirts and children's clothes, one may cut the sleeves at the same time as the rest of the garment. care must be taken to cut the sleeves on the straight of the fabric, unless it is desired to cut them on the true bias, clothing construction as sometimes when the person has a very plump arm. if the fabric has a right and a wrong side, fold it and cut both sleeves at once, or place both right sides or both wrong sides of the fabric together when the sleeves are cut, to avoid cutting both sleeves for the same arm. if a a a fig. . to alter the cap and add fullness at the elbow a, to lengthen cap, add the necessary length at the center of the cap, a to a', curving the line down on each side to the edge of the pattern, to make a normal-shaped cap; b, to widen the cap, add an equal amount to each side of the cap from a to a' and from b to b', to make a normal-shaped cap; to give added fullness at the elbow, slash sleeve at x to y and spread the parts to give additional fullness fabric.having a distinct pattern is used, additional care must be taken to see that the design of the two sleeves matches, and that the design in the sleeves matches the design in the garment at the notches on the armseye seam. seaming the sleeves. in seaming the sleeves, as well as in cutting them, care must be taken to avoid having both for the same arm. the seam should not be stitched by machine until after the sleeve has been fitted on the person. sleeves the basting of a one-piece sleeve which is full at the bot- tom presents no special problem. match the notches, pin, and baste along the seam line. the one-piece tight sleeve must be very carefully basted if it is to fit well. when the under side of the sleeve is to have fullness in the seam at the elbow, fold the sleeve through the center, laying it flat on the table with the - back side up. beginning at the top, pin the /* two edges together (matching the notches) to within about inches of the elbow; then ease in some fullness on the back side for about inches. this may be cared for by means of gathers or darts. then stretch the back of the sleeve from this point on, until the two edges of the seam are even at the bottom. this fulling at the elbow allows it to bend comfortably; the stretch- ing from the elbow to the bottom prevents the sleeve from twisting on the arm. baste fic, zoo, seams along the seam line. test the sleeve, and of a two-piece stitch. when the lower part of the sleeve sleevebasted to- has a lengthwise dart, proceed as described, º " fullness eased in but any fullness at the elbow may usually at the grºw be eased in. in basting the two-piece sleeve, pin and baste the inside seam as in the one-piece full sleeve. in joining the outside seam, pin at the elbow; then match the notches and care for the fullness at the elbow. pin at the top, next at the bottom, and then, working toward the elbow, pin the entire seam. baste along the seam line (fig. ). test the width of the tight-fitting sleeve, before the seam is stitched, by slipping the sleeve on the arm. if alterations are necessary, most of the change should be made at the sleeves together the highest and lowest points of the sleeve and the armhole respectively. holding the garment so that you look into the sleeve, place the pins with heads out and at right angles to the seam, taking up just a few yarns of the cloth exactly at the seam line (fig. ). pin in the sleeve with no fullness in the lower half and all the fullness dis- tributed evenly in the upper half. beginning at the lowest fig. . sleeve pinned into armseye point, pin to the quarter points first; then pin halfway (in the upper half) between the top and quarter points; then halfway between these pins; and so on, placing the pin each time in the middle of the space. in the lower half the pins may be from # inch to inch apart, but in the upper half they should be placed much closer together. usually sleeves are set in as described above; that is, some fullness (not more than % inches) is eased into the upper half of the armseye. for a very plump arm, how- ever, where sleeves cut on the bias are not desirable and where extra fullness is needed, the sleeve can be slightly clothing construction eased into the lower half of the armseye or extra fullness can be cared for by a very small plait or dart under the arm. if the pins have been placed carefully, the garment may be tried on right side out and the sleeve tested and fitted without basting. note. sometimes it is desirable to set the sleeves into a lining instead of into the garment. when this is done, the armseye of the garment should be finished with an ap- propriate edge finish. if there is a possibility that the lining may show, the armseye may be faced with the garment fabric before the sleeve is, set in (see “fitted facing,” p. ). fitting the sleeve. a sleeve should look well and feel com- fortable; that is, it should not bind or twist, it should have no visible fullness at the top, the lengthwise yarns should be perpendicular to the floor from the shoulder to the elbow, and the crosswise yarns in the cap should be parallel to the floor. if the sleeve does not fit satisfactorily, the difficulty is usually due to one or more of the following errors, and it may be remedied if one utilizes the suggestions given: . the sleeve “puffs up” at the top when the cap is too long. to remedy, remove the pins or basting across the top of the armseye and slip the excess length up into the arms- eye and repin. . diagonal wrinkles run from the top of the shoulder to the underarm, and the crosswise yarns slant downward on each side of the center of the sleeve, when the cap is too short. to remedy, remove the entire sleeve and lengthen the cap by trimming out under the arm. . the lengthwise yarns are not perpendicular to the floor when the highest points of the sleeve and armseye have not been matched properly, or when the sleeve has been cut incorrectly. if the difficulty is caused by the former error, remove the sleeve and repin, being sure to match sleeves the highest points; if it is due to the latter error, it may be possible to recut the sleeve correctly by piecing it, or it may be necessary to cut a new sleeve, depending upon the extent of the error. . fullness is visible at the top of the sleeve when the sleeve is too large for the armseye, when the fullness is unevenly distributed, or when too few pins were used when the sleeve was pinned into the armseye. . the sleeve draws across the top of the arm (especially when the arm is raised) when the cap is too narrow or the girth of the upper part of the sleeve is too small. if the dif- ficulty is caused by the former error (unless the sleeve is long and tight-fitting), it is possible to make adjustment by trimming off the top of the cap somewhat and then recutting the entire cap. the result is a shorter sleeve, but widening the cuff may compensate for this; other- wise it will be necessary to cut a new sleeve. if the trouble is due to the latter error, the girth of the sleeve may be enlarged by setting in an extra piece under the arm. this difficulty should not occur if the pattern was checked and altered properly. after the sleeve has been fitted satisfactorily, stitch and finish the seam. the armseye seam of a dress is usually pressed toward the garment and tacked in place to the shoulder seam, because it tends to show less, and sleeve and garment fit better; the armseye seam of a lined coat is fre- quently pressed open to equalize the bulk. in either the dress or the coat, clip the armseye seam of the garment (not the sleeve) at intervals to permit the seam to lie smooth on the wrong side. sleeves without visible fullness at the armseye such sleeves may be cut in one or more pieces, depending upon the design of the lower part of the sleeve; they may have varying amounts of fullness below the armseye line. clothing construction ment. in heavy coats the stitching is sometimes done on the garment both across the shoulders and around the armseye. - in any case, set in, fit, and stitch the sleeve as for a plain seam. then turn the seam in the desired way, baste, press, and stitch. make a continuous underarm-and-sleeve seaml. when a lap seam is used. the final stitching is done in any of the ways suggested for the cord seam. the sleeve is set into the garment according to the way it is to be stitched, but in each case the seam allowance must be care- fully marked on both sleeve and garment. to obtain the effect shown in fig. , turn back and baste the seam allowance on the epaulet and the armseye of the sleeve. working from the right side, lap the epaulet to the seam line on the shoulder at the front and the back, and pin and baste in place. match the notches, and pin and baste the armseye in the same way. pin and baste the underarm-and-sleeve seam, and fit the garment. stitch along the epaulet and around the armseye, and then make the continuous underarm-and-sleeve seam. often the seam is made to lap in one direction on the epaulet and in the other around the armseye, in which case proceed as described, except that the seam allowance is turned under on the armseye of the garment instead of on the sleeve, the seam is lapped accordingly, and special care must be taken when stitching around the corner. fitting the sleeve an epaulet sleeve, if it fits properly, must meet all the requirements of a set-in sleeve. if it does not fit satisfac- torily, one or more of the following errors is responsible and may be remedied if these suggestions are utilized: clothing construction testing the pattern pin the front of the sleeve pattern to the front of the garment pattern, matching notches. pin together at the back in the same manner. match the notches, and pin a continuous underarm-and-sleeve seam. try on the pat- tern, being sure that the center front and center back are in place. it is usually necessary to check the length and the fit through the shoulders. for methods of altering this type of sleeve, see fig. . setting in the sleeve baste any darts; then pin and baste the sleeve to the front and back of the garment, as in joining the correspond- ing parts of the pattern. if the sleeve is loose, the fitting and alterations are the same as for kimono sleeves. if the sleeve is close-fitting, there may be a tendency for it to puff at the end of the shoulder ~ where the sleeve joins the garment. the extra fullness may be taken out in the fic. . a fitted seam or by shrinking or making darts, raglan sleeve depending upon the fabric and the effect desired. after the necessary alterations are made, stitch in the sleeves, and clip the seams at inter- vals, if it is necessary to do so in order to prevent drawing. make a continuous underarm-and-sleeve seam. bottom finishes for sleeves it is usually desirable to finish the bottom of a sleeve after it is set in, since it is easier to adjust the length at the bottom than at the top. - if the long sleeve is tight or attached to a close-fitting clothing construction the method of holding cloth and needle and of using the thimble, see “running stitch,” pp. – , and fig. . begin with a knot. place the needle in the fabric, parallel to the edge of the cloth; work from right to left _^ a y — — — — . y --> fig. . basting stitches a, even basting; b, uneven basting; c, dressmaker's basting; d, diagonal basting; e, guide basting; f, right side of alteration basting; g, wrong side of alteration basting and draw the thread just tight enough so that it will lie flat on the fabric. the stitches and floats should ordinarily bear a definite relation to the strain placed upon them; as the strain decreases, the floats may be larger. when the line of basting is finished, fasten the thread with two or three small stitches taken parallel to each other. when remov- ing the basting, clip at inter- vals; do not try to pull out the whole length at once, since this may cut a fine fabric. in even basting the thread shows an equal amount on both sides of the article (fig. , a). this is used wherever there is great strain, or accuracy is re- quired, as in holding gathers in place at the shoulder seam. in uneven basting the thread floats for the longer distance on the side toward the worker (fig. , b). diagonal basting is made at right angles to the line of stitching, so that on the under side there is a series of ver- tical lines, and on the upper side a series of diagonal lines, of thread (fig. , d). this stitch is not used in basting stitches seams but for holding two surfaces together, as in lining collars and panels. it is also used to catch two edges to- gether, as in the opening of a slash pocket. dressmaker's basting consists of groups of small, even basting stitches, with long floats between the groups. it is particularly useful in basting long seams, since it is quickly made and is accurate enough for ordinary purposes (fig. , c). alteration basting is used on seam lines which have been established upon the right side of a garment by fitting and pinning, as for a lap seam or in basting a seam in a figured fabric which requires matching (see page ). it also serves as a guide line upon the wrong side for the stitching, so that the seam will be stitched exactly as fitted. work with the garment right side out; use a knot, and baste from right to left. hold the seam across your left forefinger, with the folded edge toward the right; bring the needle up from the wrong side through the under piece of fabric and catch one or two yarns on the folded edge. insert the needle opposite this point and take a stitch parallel to the seam line — from # to # inch long—catching the folded edge as the needle is brought out (fig. , f). continue to the end of the seam and fasten the thread well. small stitches show on the right side, perpendicular to the seam, and on the wrong side the basting line appears as a series of slightly slanting stitches, forming a guide line for the machine stitching. guide basting is made with short stitches and very long floats alternating (fig. , e). it is used only for marking such places as the center front and center back of garments. clothing construction backstitch the backstitch resembles machine stitching on the right side (fig. , b) and the outline stitch on the wrong side (fig. , c). it is used where - a strong stitch is required and a where it is inconvenient to use machine stitching, as in § -- - - -g------- resewing a rip in a seam and in reënforcing the end of a *~-c-cº-º-º-º-º-º-º- placket. c place the needle in the cloth a few yarns from the - - - - - - - - - - right-hand end and take a f z stitch; then insert the needle fig. . seam stitches a second time in the hole at ::::::::::"...º.º.º. the beginning of the first stitch; d, combination stitch stitch, bringing it out of the fabric a short distance in advance of the first stitch. continue by putting the needle back each time so that the line of stitching is continuous. combination stitch the combination stitch consists of running stitches with an occasional backstitch (fig. , d). it is used where more strength is required than that afforded by the ordinary running stitch, and should be substituted for the back- stitch whenever possible, in order to gain speed. darning darning usually consists of parallel rows of running stitches, so placed that stitches and floats alternate in suc- ceeding rows, as in weaving. stitches hemming various kinds of hemming stitches are used to hold in place folded edges, such as hems and facings. hold the fabric, with the hem basted in place, across the forefinger of the left hand, with the hem toward the left. put a knot in the thread, and conceal it under the edge to be hemmed. in a very transparent fabric fasten the thread by slipping the needle into the fold of the hem, drawing the thread through, and tucking the end under the hem. take a stitch or two to secure the thread; then continue with the hemming. always work from right to left. note. it is frequently desirable, when hemming silks, to untwist the sewing silk and separate it into three parts. by using one strand at a time the hemming stitches can be made to appear as a part of the weave of the fabric and are therefore invisible. catstitch hemming (fig. , a) is used to hold in place a hem which is not turned a second time, and is especially useful in the case of fabrics that tend to fray (see “cat- stitching,” p. ). damask hemming is used for hems on table linen (see page ). running hemming (fig. , b) is used to hold in place a hem which is not turned a second time, and is used only with fabrics that do not fray. it is flat and quickly made, and shows very little on the right side. if there is a selvage on the edge to be hemmed, clip at intervals to prevent drawing; if there is a raw edge, this is usually pinked or overcast. the stitch is a variation of the combination stitch, with very short stitches on the right side of the garment, and floats from # to # inch long on the wrong side, with very short backstitches taken at intervals through the hem only. clothing construction slant hemming is used to hold in place a hem that is turned a second time when the appearance on the right side is a minor consideration (fig. , e, f). take slanting stitches equal distances apart, catching a few yarns of the g. fig. . hemming stitches a, catstitch hemming; b, running hemming with an occasional backstitch; c, slip-stitch hemming (wrong side); d, right side of either slip-stitch or vertical hemming; e, slant hemming (wrong side); f, slant hemming (right side); g, vertical hemming (wrong side) garment and then a few yarns of the fold in each stitch. the needle should point toward the thumb of the left hand as it comes through. fasten the thread by making two or three small stitches one over the other. slip-stitch hemming is used on a hem that is turned a second time when an inconspicuous effect is desired on both stitches the right and the wrong sides (fig. , c, d), and it will wear well because the floats of the hemming thread lie in the fold of the hem and are not exposed. bring the needle out of the fold of the hem. then in one operation insert the needle in the garment directly opposite, taking up one or two yarns, and slip the needle through the fold of the hem, bringing it out about # to # inch farther on. continue taking stitches in the garment and the hem, occasionally taking an overhand stitch as a reënforcing stitch in the hem edge. vertical hemming, or straight hemming, is very similar to slip-stitch hemming and may be more quickly done (fig. , d, g). it is used when the appearance on the wrong side is not important. it is made like slip-stitch hemming, ex- cept that the thread floats on the wrong side between stitches instead of being concealed in the fold of the hem. overcasting overcasting is a slanting stitch used to prevent the fraying of raw edges, as on a plain seam. the stitches should look alike on both sides of the cloth. trim off the frayed edges. begin with two short stitches or a concealed knot, and work from right to left. it is best not to attempt to work from left to right, because, al- though the same effect is produced, only one stitch at a time can be taken. the depth of the stitch and the space between stitches should vary according to the texture of the fabric. the space between the stitches should be ap- proximately twice the depth of the stitches. in a gored seam, work with the bias, not against it. for instance, begin at the bottom of the skirt instead of at the top. care should be taken that the thread is not drawn so tightly as to curl the edge, especially in running overcasting. clothing construction overcasting, one stitch at a time. hold the fabric between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, with the edge or edges to be overcast up. point the needle through the fabric from the under side toward the thumb of the left hand. draw the loop of the thread down until it lies smoothly but loosely over the edge of the fabric. take the next stitch to the left of the point where the needle was brought up, leaving sufficient space for the thread to lie at an angle \ - - fig. . overcasting a, overcasting, one stitch at a time; b, running overcasting to the edge. continue this process, keeping the spaces even and the slant of the thread the same (fig. , a). end the overcasting with two small stitches. running overcasting. time may be saved if several stitches are taken on the needle at one time, especially if the fabric is fairly firm (fig. , b). leave a loop when drawing the thread through so as to have sufficient slack to prevent the stitches from curling the edge of the seam. overhand stitch this stitch is ordinarily used to join two folded or fin- ished edges, as in sewing lace to a hem. when it is used in hemming damask it is called damask hemming. on the wrong side the stitches slant across the fold; on the right clothing construction this resembles even basting, except that the stitches are shorter. it is the most quickly made permanent stitch when it is done correctly; but unless it is done in the proper way, the line of stitches will be uneven and an excessive amount of time and energy will be required. its extensive use war- rants the time and patience required to become proficient in making it. study fig. carefully, noting especially the position of the thumb and fore- finger of each hand and of the thimble finger. fasten the thread with a knot or with two or three stitches, and place the needle in the fabric parallel fig. . running stitch, showing position to the edge. hold the of fabric, hands, needle, and thimble cloth taut between the thumb and fore- finger of each hand, with the forefingers about # inch apart; and with the thimble against the end of the needle held in the right hand, run the needle in and out of the cloth with a slight up-and-down motion of the right wrist and hand. when as much cloth as possible has been gathered upon the needle, release by pushing the fabric onto the thread. con- tinue in this way without removing the needle from the cloth, except when you wish to take a back stitch, as when sewing a long seam in a fine fabric. fasten the thread with two or three stitches, except when gathering; in that case use a knot. supplies and equipment for sewing slip stitch slip-stitching is used to fasten two folded edges together with stitches which do not show from either side of the gar- ment. it is used where overhanding would be too con- spicuous, as in joining the front facing of a coat to the hem at the lower edge or in closing the opening left in a belt for turning. baste or pin the folded edges together. bring the needle out of one fold and insert it directly opposite in the other fold, taking a stitch to inch long. continue taking stitches of even length alternately in the two folds. the terms “slip stitch” and “slip-stitch hemming” are fre- quently confused. learn to distinguish between them. . supplies and equipment for sewing clothing may be made much more easily and quickly if one uses well-chosen sewing equipment. of course a sewing machine is essential. sewing machine information is given in the instruction book accom- panying a sewing machine regarding such matters of opera- tion and care as threading, changing the tension or size of the stitch, using attachments, and cleaning and oiling. care should be taken to insure the proper length of stitch for the fabric to be stitched; in general, coarse or thick fabrics require a long stitch, about eight to twelve stitches to an inch, and fine or thin fabrics require a shorter stitch, about fourteen to eighteen stitches to an inch. too short a stitch is unattractive, since it may tend to pucker the cloth and to cut silk fabrics at the stitching line; too long a stitch is clothing construction equally unattractive and in many cases will not be suf- ficiently strong. use the same size of thread on the bobbin and the spool. adjust the tension to the fabric and thread so as to produce stitches which have the same appearance on the right and wrong sides and so that the cloth is smooth and not puckered. test the length of the stitch and the tension on a double thickness of fabric. one should acquire skill in the use of machine attach- ments, because, if an attachment will produce a satisfactory appearance and if any great amount of the particular finish or process is to be needed, considerable time will be saved. keep the machine and motor clean and well oiled. additional supplies and equipment the other supplies needed are few and quite inexpensive. emery. useful for sharpening needles that have become slightly blunt. iron. medium weight, with a pointed end. ironing board. well padded, firm; so arranged that garments may be slipped over the end; tapering toward one end and not too wide; supplied with covers that may easily be re- moved for frequent laundering. needles. assorted sizes and kinds (see table iii). for size of needle suitable for a specific situation consult table ii. in general, you should use fine needles for hand sewing. pinking machine or scissors. a great timesaver if one is doing much sewing on silk or wool. pins. small, sharp-pointed dressmaker's pins, purchased by the box, are most economical and satisfactory. scissors. both large and small; also buttonhole scissors, if one is making children’s clothes. tailor’s chalk. white and colored. tapeline. made of two thicknesses of cloth, with metal ends; preferably numbered from both ends. n clothing construction table iii. types of needles kind description uses bodkins chenille needles crewel needles (darning) ground-downs, or shorts - large eye, bluntend, three sizes — not numbered long eye, very pointed end, thick in the mid- dle; nos. – long eye, pointed end, rathershort; nos. – ; assorted sizes: – , – , – very short, oval eye; nos. – ; assorted sizes: – for drawing tape through a casing and for some kinds of embroidery for chenille yarns for darning and embroid- ery. a fine crewel nee- dle is frequently used for general sewing for very fine sewing, such as that on handmade lingerie millinery needles rug, or tapestry, needles self-threading nee- dles sharps yarn needles very long and strong, round eye; nos. – blunt end, long eye, thick in the middle; nos. – notch in top of needle that allows thread to be put into eye without usual process of threading; not satisfactory for silk thread; nos. – ; as- sorted sizes: – round eye, medium length; nos. – ; as- sorted sizes: – , – , – very large, long needle with long eye; nos. – ; assorted sizes: – , – for all sewing on hats; also for basting for ordinary sewing by those who have poor eyesight for ordinary sewing for yarn embroidery and bermuda fagoting only type of needle in which low numbers indicate fine needles; in all other cases the larger the number, the finer the needle. tucks commercial patterns usually indicate the size and loca- tion of tucks. when making a garment from a pattern with no allowance for tucks, it is advisable to make the tucks or at least to baste them in place before cutting the garment. for the amount of extra fabric required for the tucks, allow twice the width of each tuck times the number of tucks. tucks may be sewed with machine stitching, hemstitching (hand or machine), running stitches, or decorative stitches. take care that the threads at the ends of the machine- stitched tucks are securely fastened by pulling them to the wrong side and tying the ends (see “square knot,” p. ). a tucker attachment is included in the equipment of most sewing machines. such an attachment is adjustable, and does very satisfactory work when the directions given for the particular machine are carefully followed. . weights additional weight may be added to give the desired lines to such garments or articles as some cowl neck lines, wrap- //ec/ º) fig. . covering for lead weight ore a, stitched ready to turn; b, completed—location of weight shown by dotted line clothing construction around skirts, or long over-draperies. heavy spherical buttons, lead weights of different sizes, or leaded tape may serve as weights. care must be taken to add enough weight, but not so much that a pulled effect results. the spherical button may be preferable on a garment made of trans- parent fabric or where little weight is needed; it may be fastened directly to the garment or to one end of a swing tack. cover lead weights and attach like the spherical button, or insert weights or leaded tape in the hem or be- tween the outside of the article and the lining. if a lead weight is to be used, cut the covering of a medium-weight or light-weight fabric the same color as the garment and of the desired size and shape; stitch, leaving one side open, clip corners (fig. , a), and then turn right side out and press; insert the lead and overhand or slip-stitch the open edges together, and overhand the upper end to the edge of the garment (fig. , b). clothing construction used in appliqué, used as seam finish, blocking kimono garments, – nightgown, – slip, – collars, – bloomers bands on, , selection of patterns for, plackets in, , blouse, fitting of, – bodkins, bound-buttonhole placket, – bound buttonholes. see button- holes, bound braid attaching to middy-blouse collar, military, – soutache, – brick couching, brier stitch, buckles types, methods of attaching, – bulkiness, to eliminate, bust measure, alteration of pattern to change, , buttonholes bound marking location for, – , making, – finishing slash for tie or belt, strip, worked types of, – marking location for, – , making, – thread suitable for, buttons marking location for, , sewing to garment, – linking together, covering, – cable stitch, cap of sleeve, , , – , , catstitch used to finish raw edge of skirt attached to belting, how to make, used in hemming skirts, , used in mending, catstitch hemming, chain stitch and variations, – blanket, – lazy daisy, – ladder, magic chain, – open chain, zigzag chain, chalk, tailor's, , chest, narrow, alteration of pattern to fit, children's garments bands on, fasteners for, – fitting of, selection of patterns for, – plackets in, , made over from adults' clothing, circular skirts, draping, – coats binding seams of, collar of, – , – draping of, fitted facing for front, – width of hem on sleeve, hem on, , – interlining, – lining, — interfacing, – collars cutting, making, and attaching different types flat, index rolling, convertible, – with shaped ends, – joined with continuous seam, – middy-blouse, – detachable, double bias, nonconvertible, – single, double, wool lined with silk, attached with bias facing, – coat collars, – draping of, – modification of patterns, – combination stitch, commercial trimmings and braids, – construction processes, orderof, – convertible collars. see collars, convertible cord seam, – corded seam, corded shirring, corner, mitering of hem at, – corner stay, cotton and linen, pressing and shrinking, couching plain, – puffy, brick, interlacing stitch, machine, crewel stitch, – cross-stitch, – crotch seam, crow's foot, cuffs bands used as, – bias, smocking on, , for blouses and dresses, – for coats, – curtains. see draperies cutting garment, damask hemming, , darned patch, darning used as decorative stitch, by hand on woven fabrics, – by machine on woven fabrics, on knitted fabrics, – description of stitch, darts, – in hems, decorative stitches arrowheads, – bar tack, – cable stitch, chain stitch and variations, – blanket, – lazy daisy, – ladder, magic chain, – open chain, zigzag chain, couching, – plain, – puffy, brick, interlacing stitch, machine, crewel, or outline, – cross-stitch, – crow's foot, darning, fagoting, – bermuda, – variation of bermuda, diagonal, – straight, featherstitch, – fishbone stitches, – catstitch, herringbone, oriental, , french knots, – clothing construction hemstitching, – plain, – diagonal, double, italian, – satin, seed, shell edge, – smocking, – plain (honeycomb), – varieties of plain, – used to hold collar hem in place, used as collar trimming, used to attach bias tape, used with rickrack, used with bias facing, dolman sleeve, draperies, plaits for, – draping, – preparation of dress form, – preparation of sleeve forms, – general directions, – kimono dress, – one-piece dress, circular skirts, – collars, – sleeves, , – coats, dress form, preparation for drap- ing, – dress linings. see linings, dress dresses draping of kimono, – one-piece, fitting of, – hems on, – alteration of pattern to increase hip measure, to change length, plackets in, edge finishes bias tape, – rickrack, – military braid, – - soutache braid, – stickerei, – lace, – for linings, machine hemstitching, picoting, piping, — see also hems, facings, and shell edge embroidery attaching, – joining, – mitering a corner, emery, entre deux, epaulet sleeves, – lining, equipment for sewing, – eyelets, facings bias tape used for, – , , uses and types of, – bias, – fitted, – , straight, on skirts, combination piping and facing, fagoting used with bias tape, bermuda, – used in appliquéing lace, variation of bermuda, diagonal, – straight, fasteners types and selection of, , buckles, – buttons, – bound buttonholes, – strip buttonholes, worked buttonholes, – eyelets, hooks and eyes, – index lingerie guards, – loops, – snaps, – zippers, – method of marking location of, featherstitch, – fell seams flat, , – hemmed, stitched, – open-stitched, standing, – figures, matching, fishbone stitches, – fitting lining for dress form, preparation for, – standards for properly fitted gar- ments, – general directions, – one-piece dress or blouse, – skirt, – kimono garments, sleeves, – , – see also draping flap pocket, – foundation pattern, french bias, french hem used with fagoting, how to make, – french knots used in attaching bias tape, used in attaching rickrack, how to make, – french seam, – imitation, fur coat, lining, gathering and shirring, – gathers, in hems, gauge, for cutting bias strips, , for marking hem, method of using, gloves, leather, mending, glue used in mending, godets, gussets, , – handkerchiefs hemstitching on, rolled hem on, hem mitering a corner in, – shrinking out fullness at top of, – pressing darts at top of, hemming catstitch, damask, running, slant, slip-stitch, – vertical or straight, hemming stitch used in appliquéing lace, used in mending, — hems, – plain, on straight edge, – reversed, narrow, on curved edges, wide, on curved edges, damask, french, – rolled, on skirts, dresses, or coats, – hemstitching plain, – diagonal, double, italian, – machine, – herringbone stitch, hip measure, , alteration of pattern to change, hooks and eyes, – metal, – thread eyes, hose, mending, – index patching, – hemmed patch, – glued patch, patterns blocking of kimono garments, – nightgown, – slip, – collars, – convertible collars, nonconvertible collars, selection of, – use of, testing, , – alteration of bust measure, , shoulder width, , for round shoulders, hip measure, skirt length, sleeve, , , modification of, – foundation, placing on fabric, cutting garment, marking, sleeve testing, – altering, , , petticoats, plackets in, picoting, – as seam finish, pile fabrics direction of pile in garment, pressing, – pinking, tinking machine or scissors, pins used for marking, suitable for dressmaking, piping plain, combination piping and facing, set-in, plackets, – in dress with belting, – uses for different types, – continuous-bound, – bound and faced, bound-buttonhole, – extension, fly, – hemmed, – lap, picoted, rolled, shirt-front, – tailored, – tuck, – welt, – combined with pocket, — pressing of, plaid skirts, hemming, plaids, matching, plaited skirts, – attaching to belting, fitting, hemming, plaited trimming, preparation of fabric for com- mercial plaiting, – making plaiting at home, plaits staying ends with arrowheads, – staying ends with crow's feet, to introduce into plain skirts, , , types, commercially made, edge-stitched, – cut as part of garment, inserted in slash or seam, – side, – box, – inverted, cartridge, – for draperies, – pressing of, reénforcing ends with square knots, reënforcing ends by retracing machine stitching, index french, – imitation french, lap, – narrow, wide or tuck, – rolled, slot, welt, seed stitch, , set-in sleeves, – sewing machine, use of, – see also attachments shell edge, – use of, on linings, shine, to remove, – shirring, – hand, machine, tucked, corded, reénforced, – shirt-front placket, – shirt sleeve, shoulder length, measurement, shoulder seam, shoulder width, alteration of pat- tern to change, , shoulders fitting garment to, – , , – , round, alteration of pattern to fit, shrinking fabric before cutting, – cotton and linen, silk, wool, silk pressing, – , steaming, pressing bias binding on, skirts bands on, attaching belting to, , – lengthening, plaited, , , , – draping circular, – fitting, – width of hems on, – making hems on, – altering length of pattern, flared, , modification of patterns, – plackets in, slant hemming, slash for belt or tie, sleeve forms, preparation for drap- ing, – sleeves draping, – modifying patterns, plackets in, , set-in, – establishing normal armseye line, — without visible fullness through- out the cap, – without visible fullness at the armseye, - with fullness at the armseye, dolman, epaulet, – kimono, raglan, – bottom finishes for, – slip, blocking, – slip-over garments belting used in, neck openings in, slip stitch, slip-stitch hemming, – slot seam, smocking, – plain (honeycomb), – variations, – snaps marking location, – , sewing on, soutache braid, – standards for properly fitted garments, – for seams, – clothing construction stay belt, steam pressing of silk, stickerei, – stitches, – basting, – backstitch, combination, darning, hemming, – overcasting, – overhand, – running, – slip, see also decorative stitches stripes, matching, supplies and equipment for sewing, – swing tacks , thread suitable for, how to make, tailored garments, – tailor's chalk, , tailor's square, tailor's tacks, tape applied facing, on bulky fabrics, bias, – , prussian, taping tailored garments, test garment, , – thread eyes and loops, suitable for different uses, varieties of, tie, slash for, reénforcing, tracing wheel, , trimmings and braids, – trousers, plackets in, , tuck, shell edge on, tuck dart, tucked shirring, tucker attachment, tucks, – twilled fabric, placing pattern on, underarm seam, correction of sagging, – correction of slanting, – underwear, bands on, velvet binding on, direction of pile in garment, pressing, - vertical hemming, waist measure, weights, – welt placket, – welt pocket, – welt seam, whipping, wool, pressing and shrinking, – yokes smocking on, , - altering length of skirt with, zigzag chain stitch, zippers, – albert r. mann library cornell university gift of thomas bass from home bakings, by edna evans san francisco, , gſø-sęsºwsø-sęsºws/z-sés'wsø-sęsºs th: c/vºw. -cyclerºsie •f w/weser (sevins edited by frances blondin published by wm. h. wise & co., inc. new york through special arrangement made with the national needlecraft bureau, inc. \s^ /\s^ /\s s /\sºz/ copyright, , by the national needlecraft bureau, inc. revised edition copyright, wm. h. wise & co., inc. all rights reserved. no part of this book may be reproduced in any form. by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publishers. %/ e books are trademarked º look for the m/ e old bird! printed in the united states of america american book-stratford press, in.c., nlw york woman's ingenuity. a dozen women may choose the same dress pattern, but when they have finished, there will be twelve completely different dresses. each will have added her own individual touch—created, in a sense, her own original design. one of the major satisfactions of being able to make one's own clothes is having a wardrobe styled to one's own personality. added to this, is the possibility of having good fit, a distinct advantage when planning to be well dressed. in her children's clothes and in the accessories of her home, the woman who sews has more chance than most to express herself creatively. it is hoped that this book will help many women discover the hidden assets and pleasures in their thimbles. for invaluable assistance in compiling the technical matter in this book, grateful acknowledgement and thanks are given to jane chapman, joan frye, mary harrell and elizabeth mathieson, of the educational bureau of the spool cotton co.; to american viscose corp.; the butterick co.; botany worsted mills; cela- nese corp.; e. i. du pont de nemours & co., inc.; wil- 'liam skinner and sons; arthur bier co.: singer sewing machine co.; and to the american home: woman's home companion; simplicity pattern co.; j. wiss & sons co. frances blondin Čc vºtewººts off to a flying start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . essential sewing equipment—how to use a sewing machine —how to make a pinafore, a practice piece for fundamental steps in sewing, including finishes and techniques suitable for cotton fabrics. sew a straight seam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . directions for making simple and attractive things for the home largely from straight pieces: pot holders, aprons, tablecloths, luncheon sets, table scarves, cocktail napkins, bridge cloths, bedspreads, dressing table covers, dresser covers, closet accessories. window dressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . how to make glass curtains: straight curtains, sash cur- tains, cottage or dutch curtains, casement curtains, ruffled curtains — directions for making draperies and valances: french headings, valance boards. bright inside story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . easy-to-follow instructions for making slip covers: measur- ing, estimating yardage, fitting, finishing, trimming. bag of tricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . accessories to make: collars, dickeys, bags, hat, evening skirt, scarf, mittens, espadrilles. . ... pattern for success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . selection of pattern and fabric — explanation of a com- mercial patterm — alteration of patterns — cutting out a pattern. on the make . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . general procedure in making a garment — steps in making a skirt, blouse, dress—sewing details: basting, darts, pleats, gathers, seams, necklines, closings, pockets, plackets, sleeves, belts, hems — pressing — fitting. the tailor's apprentice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tailor's tricks in cutting, making and lining tailored clothes. repeat performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . general recommendations for make-overs—suggestions for restyling women's clothing—cutting down adult's clothing to make children's and women's clothing—making a man's suit into a woman's suit. stork set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . baby clothes to make – gifts for the new mother and baby. . . y alterations: shortening, lengthening and taking in gar- ments, relining a coat. . material evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . selection of fabrics: textile fibers, terms, weaves — textile chart of fabrics — explanation of terms found on labels — shrinking of fabrics before cutting — laundering and cleaning — spot and stain removal. . supply depot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sewing room accessories: implements used in cutting, meas- uring, marking, fitting, sewing, pressing. index flossy touches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . basic embroidery stitches — simple border designs made from basic stitches—appliqué—embroidery and appliqué designs — monogramming — smocking. life savers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mending made easy: stockings, girdles, fasteners, grooming aids, turning collar and cuffs, tears, patches—tips on . º c/vºw, nºys •psie •f cº &\"wº (sevins striped taffeta evening skirt with a peplum ... the familiar dirndl done in a new version . . . easy to make and fun to wear! see instructions on page . . c# to sº ºtert tº) if you've been feeling wistful about the pretty clothes in the shops . . . if you've been down in the dumps because your home is turning seedy at the seams, wearing shabby around the edges... if you've been wondering how you're going to juggle the budg- et into keeping your small fry in clothes, your troubles are over. to live better on less, look lovely on next-to- nothing, take to your thimble! to start with, let's puncture a myth. you don’t need any special talent or ability to make a dress or a slip cover. all it requires is the normal amount of fingers and a fair quota of patience. while most books on sew- ing assume that you're acquainted with the funda- mentals, this one starts out on the premise that you're innocent as a new-born babe about selvages and seams. you begin at the beginning, learn step by step. you learn by doing, and with each step your confi- dence grows. in the very first lesson you make * attractive and wearable pinafore. in other words, you reap as you sew! / ] off to a flying start all the important things that you want to know about sewing are described in this book. the construc- tion details are shown in connection with interesting things to make for yourself, your home and your fam- ily. if you have a question about a special technique, consult the index in the back of the book which con- tains a complete list of all the subjects covered. sewing is not difficult but, like all skills, it requires practice. practice may be both pleasant and profitable if an attractive, usable article is made while trying out the construction details given. the purpose of the book is to teach the most fundamental operations of off to a flying start / / sewing in this way. for example, the basic steps in sewing are taught while making a simple pinafore. this begins on page . sewing has some tools and equipment which are indispensable, others which contribute greatly to con- venience and efficiency. in chapter , only the essen- tials are mentioned. in succeeding chapters, additional items appear and are described as they are needed. so as to make it easier to check supplies and to add to them from time to time, the furnishings for the per- fect sewing room—the place where every conceivable help for sewing is assembled—are reviewed on pages to . the kind of needle and the size of needle to use de- pend on the weight of the fabric and the type of sew- ing being done. before beginning to sew, it is advisable to turn to the thread and needle chart on page where there are full particulars as to the proper needle sizes as well as a description of the various types of needles. in buying a package of assorted sewing needles to keep in a work basket, sharps, sizes to , is a good general assortment. seuwing equipment needles / / off to a flying start sewing thread sewing thread, too, should be selected according to the use to be made of it. too large a thread and needle are very awkward. they make sewing hard work, since more effort is required to push them through the fabric. the results are clumsy and very unsatisfactory. too fragile a thread defeats its own purpose, and a needle, which is too fine, will break in the hand. white and black thread come in a large number of sizes, in sizes (coarse) to (very fine). for sewing on wool, thimble rayon, silk, colored cotton and linen fabric, mercer- ized cotton thread comes in both heavy and normal weights, has a high luster and a wide range of colors. silk thread may be used on silk, rayon or wool fabrics. for basting, there are special cottons also, but many people use white sewing thread, or better still, odds and ends of colored mercerized threads. for complete details on sizes and kinds of thread, see thread chart on page . a thimble is a must for sewing comfort. all expert sewers use thimbles because the needle may be pressed with more force and no discomfort. off to a flying start thimble is a contraction of the word “thumb bell.” it was invented in holland and, when introduced into england in the seventeenth century, was worn on the thumb. tailors for men still wear them in this manner, but for ordinary sewers the correct position is on the middle finger of the right hand. some people like to have a gold or silver thimble as a permanent possession. these may be purchased at any jewelry store. chromium plated brass and plastics make very satisfactory thimbles which do not leave a mark on the finger. the average adult takes size , or . children take the smaller sizes. when buying a thimble be very sure that the small round grooves (millings) are deep enough to hold the needle and that they extend well down the sides. the thimble must be smooth on the outer sur- face to prevent it from catching in the fabric. another requirement for sewing is a scissors or shears. buy the best possible. it is a good investment. there is one consid- eration that is so important in discussing scissors for sewing that it merits excep- tional attention. do not use the scissors with which you cut fabrics for any other º . % . (‘ſº º / | | \ § º ^ | / / off to a flying start measuring helps purpose. buy a very cheap pair of scissors for paper, cord and the like, as nothing dulls and spoils the edge of a good scissors as quickly as cutting things of this nature. for good “all around” shears use a bent trim- mer – " long. keep the blades clean, for dust and dirt dull them rapidly. apply a drop of oil at the joint occasionally, to keep them running freely. when they become dulled through use, they should be resharp- ened by a competent grinder. (see page for a good line of scissors and shears.) careful measurement is one of the requisites for sewing well. an oilcloth tape measure which may be read from both ends is the most practical. a six-inch ruler, with markings up to ", will serve many pur- poses where a longer one would be cumbersome. the newest ones are transparent, making it possible to see the grain of the fabric. the yardstick is used for meas- uring fabric and hems and for marking long straight lines. make sure it is a good durable one with well turned, smooth edges and clear markings. buy good quality brass dressmaker pins, size or , by the half pound box. steel pins are also good, but they are apt to rust. poor quality pins will mar the fabric in which they are used. a convenient method for using pins is to have them in a small pincushion held at the wrist by an elastic. another type is the wall pincushion which may be hung near the work. a pin- cushion is sometimes strapped around the arm of the sewing machine. there are many devices for marking on fabric, but off to a flying start / ] the beginner will find tailor's chalk most useful. the ºins chalk is just what its name implies—a chalky sub- stance made in a flat or crayon shaped piece—and it may be used on silk, rayon, cotton, limen and wool. it comes in white, red and black for use on all colors of fabric. there is another kind of tailor's chalk, a wax, but this is for wools only. it will leave a mark on other fabrics. for other marking aids, see page . #s / zzzz/ -% ) ***t*t*. it may seem strange to include an iron and an iron- pressing ing board as essential pieces of sewing equipment, but pressing is an important part of good sewing, not merely a finishing touch. each seam of the garment should be pressed after it has been stitched and the bastings removed. a good ironing board should be well padded. removable slip covers for the ironing board make it possible to have clean covers at all times and so prevent any possibility of soiling fabric while pressing. a press cloth, that is, a cloth which is placed over the fabric before the iron is applied, should also be on hand. for pressing cottons and linens, which will be worked on at first, a piece of cheesecloth or muslim is best. remove all sizing first by rinsing sev- eral times in clear water. on page , further details are given on pressing. equipment / ] off to a flying start sewing machine the first simple problems of sewing may be done entirely by hand. a sewing machine, however, is a great time saver. its operation is so simple, that, in this day and age, when automobiles and even air- planes are familiar to us, no woman should have to confess ignorance of the sewing machine. for those who have never used a sewing machine. there is usually a local sewing machine shop where at least elementary instruction is available. in any case consult the manual which comes with the ma– chine, checking carefully with the machine. find out how to set the needle, how to thread the machine, how to wind the bobbin. the simple explanations which follow may help also. read them before beginning to work. off to a flying start / / the modern sewing machine has two sets of mech- anisms. one set is located in the upper part, or head, and feeds the thread from the spool down through the needle. the other is located in the lower part, or bed, and regulates the bobbin thread. the two mechanisms are kept in motion by the balance wheel (the large wheel on the right side of the machine). the balance wheel is started by turning the wheel in the proper direction. from then on it is kept in motion by the motor or the foot treadle. the purpose of the machine is to make strong inter- locked stitches. because two threads are used the stitching is uniform on both sides. the thread for the upper part of the stitch is fed from the spool through the mechanism in the head to the needle. the lower part of the stitch is formed with the bobbin thread, fed by the mechanism in the bed. the two threads meet and are locked together in a stitch as the needle goes down through the needle hole in the throat plate. in order that the stitch be perfectly formed, the first requisite is that the thread from the spool to the needle and the thread from the bobbin be arranged exactly as directed in the manual furnished by the manufacturer. the size of the thread and the size of the machine needle should be chosen in accordance with the fabric used (see thread and needle chart on page ). the needle, which should be perfectly straight, must be inserted according to instructions (see machine manual). stitching over a pin will sometimes bend a needle slightly. this slight bend mechanism stitch / / off to a flying start tension stitch regulation may cause irregularity in the stitches. to test a ma- chine needle for straightness, place the flat side of the needle against a perfectly flat solid surface to see that they align. correct tension is another important factor in get- ting a perfect stitch. the thread coming from the spool is controlled by the tension regulator on the head of the machine (see machine manual). the thread coming from the bobbin is usually controlled by the screw which holds the spring under which the thread passes (see machine manual). stitches are lengthened or shortened by means of the stitch regulator (see machine manual). the number of stitches to the inch depends on the type of work which is being done. see thread and needle chart on page for correct number of stitches per inch for all kinds of sewing. for a perfectly regulated machine stitch remember that fine materials need a fine needle, a fine thread, a short stitch (more to the inch) and a tight tension. heavier materials need a coarser needle, a coarser thread, a longer stitch (less to the inch) and a looser tension. . follow these steps in regulating the stitch: . use the size of machine needle and thread suited to the fabric (see thread and needle chart on page ). . regulate the machine so that it has the correct number of stitches per inch. (see thread and needle chart on page .) . regulate the tension, keeping the presser bar off to a flying start / j down. as a rule, once the bobbin has been properly adjusted, it is seldom necessary to change it. a correct stitch may usually be obtained by varying the tension on the needle thread. . make a sample of stitching on a double thick- mess of the fabric to which the machine is being regu- lated. figures , and show clearly the differences between correct and incorrect regulation of stitches. fig. figures - –correct and incorrect tension—figure –the correct ten- sion of thread on the sewing machine means that the threads coming from both the spool and bobbin pull evenly as shown. figure —when the needle thread on the sewing machine is too tight, the needle thread lies flat along the top of the material as shown. fig- fig. ure —when the needle thread on the . sewing machine is too loose, the bobbin thread lies straight along the under side as shown. to sit at the machine correctly and comfortably, use a straight chair of convenient height so that, with- out stooping, the elbows rest comfortably on the ma- chine. the chair should be pulled close and placed directly in front of the machine so that the person using the machine is in line with the presser foot. if you have never sewed on a machine before. you will need a little preliminary practice. mark a small piece of fabric with parallel lines extending to the edge. place another piece of fabric underneath (do not sew on a single thickness of fabric). proceed ac- position at machine practice stitching / / off to a flying start cording to the directions given below. the following rules will make sewing easy at any time. before putting the fabric in the machine— . thread the machine and the machine needle as directed. . there should be about " of thread beyond the needle. . if there is not enough, pull the thread between the head of the machine and the eye of the needle, and then pull it through the needle. (this lessens the possibility of bending the needle. a bent needle may cause your thread to break or your stitches to slip.) . hold end of thread in left hand. . with the right hand, move the balance wheel so that the needle goes down through the hole in the throat plate. continue moving wheel until needle comes backup into position, bringing the under thread through the needle hole. . lay both ends back under the presser foot be- fore starting to sew. to put the fabric under the presser foot— . lay the edge of the practice piece to be stitched just far enough under the presser foot so that the first stitch will go through the fabric (on the marked line). it is important to remember that the first stitch must never be taken beyond the fabric. . lower the presser foot and practice stitching on the marked line. to stop the machine— . just before reaching the end of the line of stitch- off to a flying start / ) ing, slow up the motor or the pedaling and stop the machine by placing the hand on the balance wheel. . raise the presser bar. * . raise the needle up as high as it will go by turn- ing the balance wheel. . give the thread above the needle a little pull. (this prevents bending the needle.) . take the fabric away by pulling it straight back. . cut the thread on the thread cutter usually at- tached to back of presser foot. (see machine manual.) repeat until a straight line is stitched successfully. then practice stitching squares, triangles and curves to gain perfect control of the machine. some do’s and don'ts . do use needle and thread of good quality and correct size. . do set needle correctly. . do thread machine according to directions. . do regulate stitches to the proper length (if stitch regulator is turned back too far, the machine will not feed). . do test tension on a small piece of the fabric to be sevved. . do oil machine regularly (see machine manual). . don’t wind bobbin too full. . don't sew over pins unless machine has a presser foot designed to stitch over them. . don't pull fabric while sewing. . don't allow fabric to drag over back of machine. machine sewing rules / / off to a flying start place a chair there to hold it as it is being sewed. . don't allow machine belt to become too tight (see machine manual). . don't permit mechanism to become dusty or gummed up (see machine manual on oiling). º proper lighting is mentioned last, but is second to nothing in importance. whether light comes from a window or an electric light bulb, the best light for working comes from over the left shoulder. when sewing, an adjustable light fixture on the machine is a necessity. if the machine does not have an electric light, a small lighting attachment may be purchased and easily attached to it. jº, off to a flying start / / º f- t ~ a far r n jºa war r § w j. ” ja - w § ſº o it ke § sarza r j. " q zz/rzza - Žorzz ºf - jr. • § zz/rzzz & - rozzz & % as a cars i zaroavr warrata ºf % or or x terra as pavarorefrayazºoke – tyrre ºf . % t- zaroa r baca's or i of diagram b pyavaroa e izºzºva roºf diagram a m - at - pattern iii pattern ii figure –to enlarge to actual size patterns given to scale on small squared sections, follow these direc: tions. each small square on diagram represents a " square in actual size. to make pattern, use smooth rown paper, pencil and ruler. note number of inches as marked in length and width of pattern you wish to make. with ruler draw box of length and width needed. mark off " spaces around all sides of box. use ruler to join corresponding marks with straight lines. use squares, thus made, as guide and draw lines to correspond with those given in diagram. to use pat- tern, cut it out around outline made. pin pattern to fabric. when section of pattern is marked “on fold,” that edge must be laid directly on straight fold of fabric and fold must not be cut. transfer all marks on pattern pieces to fabric pieces. jarrºr - . * r tº r a ..ºracº ars' zºpoavr or ox: diagram .c pattern i fig. / / - . off to a flying start grain of fabric cutting directions "crosswº figure —selvage is the name given --oº fi → .. to the woven edges on the length of the ~ – ºutwo → -- fabric. “the lengthwise grain” means - t—h+h=\{- - jl the lengthwise threads or warp threads / h hh f li ii and is, of course, parallel to the selvage l, e | u - '#'s edge. “the crosswise grain” means the vº h h;"| . |-|-hºjº crosswise or the filling threads, “on the <e → * ~ | § q , | ee- grain” or “on the straight” of the goods set | |s| $: # - means to be straight with either of these ~ |-l § & $$. i threads. qe - §§ ; h o § s} | . . . ~ || | - i | | | ! fig. take the fabric and notice that, on each of two sides, there is a group of closely woven threads. these are known as the selvages and run along the length of the fabric (figure ). notice also that the fabric has lengthwise or warp threads and crosswise or filling threads. it would be impossible to overemphasize the importance of knowing about these threads. when sewing, everything must be cut in relation to them. other expressions often used are “the lengthwise grain,” “the crosswise grain,” “on the grain,” “the straight of the goods.” anything which is not cut in proper relation to the grain will not hang or lie properly. (see figure ). to cut adult's size pinafore, cut the pieces listed below according to diagram a on page . follow the cutting directions given on page . band and tie— piece, " by ". skirt– pieces, each ” by the remaining width of fabric. ruffles— pieces, each %" by ". front bib– piece, pattern no. (pattern placed on fold). * > . . off to a flying start / ) back bib– pieces, pattern no. (%" allowed at cen- ter for seam). to cut girl's size pinafore, cut the pieces listed below according to diagram b on page . follow the cut- ting directions given below. band and tie— piece, " by ". skirt– pieces, each " by remaining width of fabric. ruffles— pieces, each " by ". front bib- piece, pattern no. ii (pattern placed on fold). back bib- pieces, pattern no. ii (%" allowed at cen- ter for seam). to cut child's size pinafore, cut the pieces listed be- low according to diagram c on page . follow the cutting directions given below. band and tie— piece, " by ". skirt– pieces, each %" by ". ruffles— pieces, each " by ". front bib– piece, pattern no. iii (pattern placed on fold). back bib- pieces, pattern no. iii (%" allowed at center for seam). cutting directions for pinafores (diagrams a, b and c on page serve as guides for cutting adult's, girl's and child's sizes, respectively. the following measurements are for the adult size only. in cutting other sizes merely substitute correct measurements given above.) off to a flying start figure –to straighten the end of fabric, pull carefully (until it breaks) the first crosswise thread which extends all across the piece. cut along the line it makes. continue to pull and cut in this manner all across width of piece. figure –to tear across to straight- en the end of certain firmly woven cot- ton fabrics, such as percale, clip the sel- vage at a crosswise thread. with the left thumb on the top of the material and the right thumb underneath, tear quickly, straight across. . be sure that the edge of the fabric is straight, that is, that the same crosswise thread marks the entire top edge. if not, straighten the edge as shown in figure or . . for the band, measure down " on the selvage and across " on the width and mark. if using percale, clip at the marks. tear down as far as the " mark and tear or cut across. if weave is less firm, it is ad- visable to pull a thread and cut as in figure . . for the skirt, measure down " along selvage, mark. tear across or pull thread and cut. repeat. . for the ruffles, measure down %" along selvage and mark, tear across or pull thread and cut. repeat this more times. . for the back, fold the remaining fabric over about %". be sure that the fold is on the straight of the goods (see figure ). place the center edge of the pattern about " from fold and parallel to it. pin pattern to fabric with pins placed at right angles as shown in figure . cut around edge of pattern. slit the fabric along the fold (the extra allowance will [ ] off to a flying start figure –pin edges to be seamed to- gether with pins placed at right angles | to the edge about " apart. fig. figure —the correct length for thread is " (or about the distance from forefinger to elbow). a longer thread is apt to knot or tangle, or even break. thread should be cut, rather than broken; then end will be sharp and will pass more readily through the needle. c > fig. figures – –how to make a knot—figure —grasp the thread about % "from end between thumb and fore- finger of left hand. figure —with the right hand, bring the long end of thread around the left forefinger and in between the forefinger and the left thumb (which is hold- ing down the short end). figure —still holding the long end between the thumb and the forefinger of right hand, roll the short thread end forward between the left thumb and forefinger. figure –continue rolling end through the loop and off the forefinger. figure —the resulting loop is pulled down into a knot by the thumb and fore- finger of the left hand. . take the marking chalk and the " transparent ruler and mark " " from edge at fairly close intervals. the %" is the seam allowance, and it will be the same wherever there is a seam on the garment. . to baste, cut off " of thread or basting cotton (figure ). thread the needle and make a knot (fig- ures – ). off to a flying start figure —to remove bastings, clip stitches at short intervals so that fabric will not be drawn. figure –to make a plain seam, pin, baste (see figure ) and stitch two pieces of fabric right sides together. the distance from the stitch- ing line to the edge of the fabric is known as the seam allowance. remove bastings (see figure ) and press open (see figure ). figure —hand running stitch is used where there is not much strain on a seam. to begin, fasten thread as in figure . guide the material in the left hand as for basting. take very small stitches ( to threads) of equal length, holding the portion worked taut with the right hand. several stitches are taken on the needle before it is pulled ºugh fasten off thread as in figure fig. figure —a back stitch is used where firm hand sewing is needed. the work is held as shown in figure . fasten the thread as directed in figure and take one running stitch. take the second stitch back over the first one, bringing the needle through to the right side the length of a stitch ( to threads) ahead of the first stitch. repeat. fasten off thread as in figure . figure –to hold work for a back stitch, place the fabric over the fore- finger of the left hand and hold it firmly with the middle finger and thumb of the left hand. fig. figure –to begin a line of hand stitching, put the needle in from the right side and take a short stitch. draw the thread through until only a very small end shows. take a stitch or two back over stitch just made. this fastens the thread securely. off to a flying start ... [ ] figure –to finish off a line of hand stitch- -------- ing, take one or two stitches back over last stitch • ‘w and bring the needle to the wrong side. hold the thread down close to the fabric with the left y— thumb and pass the needle under the thread. draw thread up tight to make a knot, still hold- fig. ing thread close to fabric with thumb. repeat two or three times for stronger knot and clip. | º figure —to press a seam open on cotton fabric, open seam allowance out by creasing --> along seam with thumb nail. lay press cloth over ^ - - opened seam and moisten it with a sponge over s-sº seam line. press over moistened line. pressing is \s not ironing. the weight of the iron and the steam do the work. do not push the iron as if to smooth out wrinkles. fig. . ºn tº fig. figures - —how to turn a narrow hem—figure –hold fabric at the right hand end of the edge to be turned between thumb and forefinger of left hand. with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, turn in edge " and crease with thumb nail for about ". figure –make a pleat of the creased portion and hold it between thumb ºf forefinger of right hand. con- tinue turning hem, creasing with left hand and catching pleats in right hand until there are about three pleats. give these a hard pinch, release the pleats and go forward repeating the process. figure —the edge is turned again in the same manner for the whole length. baste through all thicknesses. the hem may be stitched by hand (figure ) or by machine. gathered into the waistband, clip ends of thread close to fabric. if stitching is done by hand use either plain running stitch (figure ) or back stitch (figures and ). begin and finish off hand stitching as in figures and . . clip basting (figure ) and press seams open (figure ). with this cotton fabric a press cloth is not necessary, but the seam should be opened out and moistened with a sponge or a cloth thoroughly wet and wrung out. because the two edges of the seam are / ] . off to a flying start figure -–to do blind hand hem- % - minº, hold abric the same as for a back stitch (figure ). fasten thread under fold. take a very small stitch, catching or threads of fabric at edge of fold. slide point of needle along un- fig. der fold for about %" and bring needle through the edge of fold. repeat. stitches should be small, straight and barely visible. figure —to gather by hand or by machine, at least two rows of gathers are made, one on the seam line and an- other " nearer edge. before gather- ing, divide the edge to be gathered and the edge to which it is to be applied into the same number of equal sections. mark points with pins or with a few running stitches at right angles to edge. to make hand gathers, use a thread at least " longer than the distance to which piece is to be gathered. it is not advisable to use a thread more than a yard long. when gathering a longer piece, use a separate thread for each section of gathers. fasten thread at the beginning (see figure ). take short, even, running stitches, then push the fabric back on thread without removing the needle. when the end of the row has been reached, draw fabric up to the desired length and wind excess thread around a pin until gathered edge is fitted exactly to the ungathered edge (see figure ). to #. gather, adjust machine to six or eight stitches to the inch. run two rows of stitching along the edge to be gathered, one row on the seam line and one row %" nearer edge. do not gather more than a yard or so with one continuous thread. pull stitching up to proper measurement by pull- ing the under (bobbin) threads of both rows of stitching at the same time. pull top threads through to wrong side. wind both threads around a pin until the gathered piece is fitted exactly to the ungathered edge (see figure ). f- rººs ||nº|| | | figure –to apply gathered piece to ungathered edge, match markings on ungathered edge to corresponding markings on gathered edge. distribute the gathers evenly between markings. baste edges together along line of gathers on seam line. fasten off hand gathers as in figure . fasten off machine gathers by knotting two threads together as shown, or thread the ends in a needle and take a few stitches. stitch along gathering line on seam line. off to a flying start / ) ------------------ |tºm--iſº fig. figure –to turn a belt, insert the blunt end of a pencil into the seamed end. work the fabric over the pencil until opposite end opening is reached. then pull the belt through. (if both ends are open, use a safety pin.) selvages, it is not necessary to finish the edges. . on the two short sides turn a narrow ( ") hem (figures – ). this may be stitched by machine or hemmed by hand (figure ). . gather (figure ) the top edge of the skirt to ” ( " for girl's size, " for child's size). . the band should be marked at the center and at points " to each side ( ” for girl's, or " for child's). . the center seam will serve as a mark on the skirt. apply band to gathered edge of skirt, edge to edge and right side to right side. match centers and pin together. match ends of skirt to marked points on band. proceed as directed under figure . . pin, baste and stitch along gathering line which is on seam line. . fold entire band in half lengthwise, right side inside and raw edges together. pin and baste all raw edges together except across gathered edge of skirt. . stitch on ' " seam line around ends of band (ties) up to skirt. trim seam to ' ". . turn stitched ends of band (ties) to right side (figure ). crease along seam line and baste close .a.!...+\k. |] a. ſ off to a flying start fig. figure –to finish a turned belt, work out the corners sharply by using an orangewood stick from the inside, or a pin from the outside. be careful not to pull threads of fabric. crease edges exactly on seam line and baste close to crease. press. figure —a flat fell seam is a strong, tailored seam. stitch seams on the right side, edge to edge. trim one edge (the edge towards the back of a gar- ment) " or less from stitching. bring longer edge over, creasing at seam line. turn under raw edge so that finished seam will be " wide. baste flat to garment. edge stitch (see figure ) close to fold. :a #s. £º figure –to finish the neckline with a facing cut to fit, take the patterns used for front and back of the garment and pin to fabric. cut out front and back neck opening. cut about " across the shoulder edges and down center (unless it is a fold). mark " away from cut neck edges (use ruler and tailor's chalk). cut around this line. join facings at shoulder seams in a plain seam (see figure ). stitch and press open. turn under outer raw edge " and edge stitch (see figure ). baste and stitch the entire facing to the neck edge (right sides together). be sure to take full designated seam allowance. trim seam to " and clip seam in to stitching line at corners and along curved edges to insure a neat turn. turn to wrong side, crease at seam line, baste close to crease, press. slip stitch (see figure ) to garment around outer edge. * – mº- figure –to finish the neckline with a mitered facing, cut a straight strip of fabric " wide and long enough to fit around neck edge. turn under " along one edge and edge stitch (see figure ). pin raw edge of strip to neck- line, right sides together. leave a triangular fold at corners. pin along this fold so that the facing lies perfectly flat. baste and stitch at corners as shown. cut away excess fabric to " and press seam open. baste and stitch facing to entire neckline, taking full designated seam allowance. trim seam to ' " and clip seam in to the stitching line at mitered corner. turn to wrong side, crease at seam line, baste close to crease, press. slip stitch (see figure ) to garment around outer edge. (the facing strip may also be made on the bias. see page for instructions on how to cut and join bias strips.) off to a flying start / ) figure –edge stitching is a line of machine stitching applied on the right side very close to a fold edge (or to one edge of a seam). º figure —slip stitch is used for a hem in- visible from both sides. insert needle in fold, slip it along ' " or more and bring it through. take up to threads of fabric directly under the point where the needle comes through. draw thread through and begin next stitch. to crease (figure ). turn under ' " along raw edge that has been left open and baste. front and back of bib . finish straight opening of back with a narrow ( ") hem (see figures – ). . join back to front at shoulders with a flat fell seam (figure ). . face neck edge. this may be done in several ways. two are given under figures and . the neck may also be finished with a bias strip or with prepared bias binding. (see page .) . edge stitch on right side (figure ) and press. ruffles . take strips for ruffles. sew ends together with narrow french seams (figure ). . cut the long strip thus formed in half and shape the ruffles as shown in accompanying diagram. note that the centers are marked on three sides. cºa/ &ººzava. //v ___ca/v ar £ hijºs cºśńſiſſiº: car away caeavra az coºr a way . on shaped edges of both ruffles make a narrow (%") hem (see figures – ). [ ] off to a flying start figure —a french seam is a strong seam, especially adapted for long straight seams on garments of sheer fabrics that do not have any particular fitting problems but need frequent launderings, such as lingerie and baby clothes. stitch seam on the right side, taking $ " less than seam allowance designated. trim seam to %" from stitching line. turn to wrong side, crease along seam line and baste close to crease. hand sew or machine stitch # " to " from fold edge, depending on type of fabric and fine- ness of seam desired. t------------------- figure —an overcast finish can be made on a plain seam without press- ing the seam open. trim seam edges evenly and finish by sewing the two edges together with slanting overcast stitches taken from right to left. make stitches firm, short and about " apart. figure —to take a hem with a yardstick, decide the height from the floor at which dress is to be worn. have someone mark this distance • * ~ * *-* *-* - || : - : - from the floor with a yardstick at short intervals around the bottom of the skirt, inserting pins - parallel to the floor. person upon whom dress hem is being taken should not turn around but should remain in one spot. baste on pin line. |n ___ ºf º |fig. fig. figure —a commercial hem marker, which can be purchased in almost any large department store, may be used to mark a hem. set marker at desired distance from floor and have someone |\ mark around dress in manner specified in direc- - tions accompanying marker. baste along marked line. figure –to mark hem when it is impossible to have any assistance, stand close to a table and mark a line (with chalk or pins) around the skirt where it touches the table. this line must come below the hips so that the skirt will hang straight. measure the height of the table. subtract from this figure the distance from the floor at which skirt is ordinarily worn. measure this distance down from the marked line. for instance, if table is " high and skirt is normally worn " from floor, mark for hem line " down from marked line. baste along marked line. off to a flying start / j . mark center on straight edge of each ruffle and gather (see figures and ). . place gathered edge of one ruffle against each side edge of bib, raw edge to raw edge, and right sides together. . pin centers of ruffles to shoulder seams and pin edges together at each end. . draw gathers to fit side of bib (see figure ) and distribute them evenly. . baste, stitch and overcast raw edges of seam to- gether in an overcast seam (figure ). . press seams so that the seam edges turn in to- ward bib. . edge stitch the side edges of bib on the right side (see figure ). attaching bib to skirt and finishing . mark center of lower edge of bib front and cen- ter of skirt band. . insert lower edge of bib front º' under open- ing in skirt band wrong sides together, matching cen- ters, pin and baste. . slip stitch (see figure ) free edge of band (fold) over the bib, catching stitches through to skirt. . in the same manner, insert lower edges of back pieces of bib %" under opening in skirt band so that the back edges of the bib are at the ends of the open- ing. pin, baste and slip stitch. . press bib up and baste top edge of band to bib. . edge stitch (see figure ) all around band. . fasten at back opening (figure , page ). off to a flying start figure –to turn hem, lay garment on table wrong side out and turn hem up on inside of garment along basting line. place pins at right angles to fold. baste close to fold. press on the wrong side and trim to desired width, using a gauge (see figure ). figure —this hem gauge is an in- valuable aid in marking a hem. it is made available by the publishers of the new encyclopedia of modern sewing as a supplement to this book. - to use, place lower edge of gauge - against fold of hem. set the handy |: - - movable indicator at the correct meas- . …— urement for a hem, usually about ". || - mark the fabric with chalk in line with - • . .” the pointer as shown. move gauge - along hem, continuing marking. it has | - many other uses, such as keeping an . . . -- t. even distance between buttonholes or - - --t any fastenings such as hooks and eyes - - or snaps. it is also used to measure buttonholes and to ensure evenness of width in tucks, pleats and ruffles. . figure —to finish a plain hem on a straight skirt made of cotton fabric, turn in top of hem % ". edge stitch (see figure ). trim raw edge of fabric close to stitching. pin and baste edge of hem to skirt, easing in any slight fullness. slip stitch hem to skirt (see figure ). hern . put on the pinafore and take the hem (figures , , or ). . turn up a " hem (figure ). . mark and finish hem as shown in figures and . press. . ev × rasht ear, well, here you are, ready to go on to bigger and better things. chapter took care of your elementary education! now you’re going to put it to work and learn some new tricks as you go along. in this chapter you'll still be sticking pretty much to the straight and narrow — that is, things which are made largely from straight pieces. you'll be surprised at how many gay and attractive things come under this category — brighteners for the kitchen scene — aprons, pot holders; attractive accessories for the dining table — luncheon and bridge sets, scarves, napkins. even the bedroom can have its face lifted with simple-to- sew, delightful-to-live-with bedspreads, bureau and dressing table covers. what are we waiting for? let's get going! / ] sew a straight seam pot holders when the fundamentals of sewing have been mastered, there are many simple and attractive articles which may be made for the home. on the pages following, each important room in the house is considered, and suggestions are given for articles to be made. the important subjects of curtains and slip covers are treated separately in chapters and . useful kitchen accessories --- - \ Şſ l, \ pot holders pot holders are always a necessity in the kitchen, and they may be made in many shapes and forms. use bright scraps of washable fabrics such as gingham and percale. cotton batting or scraps of woolen fabric are used for padding. sew a straight seam i ) round or square pot holders material (for two): plain or printed percale or gingham — yd.; percale bias trim (see figure ) or a bias strip cut from fabric (figures – )– yds. of same or contrasting color; cotton batting or scraps of heavy woolen fabric—% yd. directions for cutting: round pot holder – circles of fabric, each " in diameter, and similar circle of cotton batting or of several thicknesses of woolen fabric. square pot holder — two " squares of fabric and similar square of cotton batting or of several thick- nesses of woolen fabric. directions for making: . place batting or woolen pieces between two fab- ric pieces (right sides out) and baste through all thick- messes close to edge. . bind edges with bias trim or bias strip (figures – ). . make two or more rows of machine stitching %" apart toward center, following edge of binding as a guide. / / sew a straight seam fig. f figure —the true bias grain is found by folding a lengthwise thread to meet a crosswise thread. the selvage edge of the fabric is always straight, and before trying to find the true bias, the cross- wise edge should be straightened (see figure , page ). fold one corner of the fabric so that the selvage edge (or a lengthwise thread) lies along a cross- wise thread. a right angle is formed by the selvage. the long side (fold) of the triangle is the true bias. fabric cut on the true bias can be curved or fitted more easily than pieces cut on the straight thread. for this reason, bias cut strips are frequently used for finishing raw edges. a bias strip may be made from self fabric, or bias may be purchased already cut and folded on cards. in this form it is usually known as bias trim (see figure ). - i | | t m_ - figure –to cut bias strips, find the fig. longest possible true bias (see figure ). press along fold and cut i. crease. this edge is a true bias edge, and strips are cut parallel to it. the width of the strip is determined by the width of the trimming or facing de- sired, plus seam allowances. when the bias finishes bias strip is to be used for a facing (bias will not show on right side), determine the width of the facing and add " for seam allowances. when bias strip is to be applied as binding over a raw edge (bias will show on both sides of edge), the cut width of the bias strip should be twice the width of the finished bind- ing showing on the right side, plus / " for seam allowances. mark off lines de- sired width away from the true bias edge and parallel to it. mark with tai- lor's chalk, using a ruler or yardstick. cut along these lines. Ø figure —a bias gauge to be placed on the pointed edge of a scissors is an attachment which comes with some sewing machines. once the true bias has been found, any number of strips of equal width may be cut quickly and accurately by using this gauge. sew a straight seam figure –to join bias strips, place the straight lengthwise ends of two strips at right angles to each other, right sides together. the points of the angles should extend just enough at each end so that the bias edges meet exactly on the " seam line. baste the strips together and stitch with a %" seam on the straight of the goods. be - careful not to sew the lengthwise grain to the crosswise grain, but always match lengthwise to lengthwise and crosswise to crosswise. stitch together enough pieces to make the desired length, following the rules given. snip selvage edges (if there are any) to avoid pulled seams. press seams open and carefully clip the small triangles extending beyond strip. fig. figure –commercial bias trim may be purchased already cut, folded and wound on cards. it is usually made in either percale or lawn. bias trim is cut " wide. “single fold” bias trim has " turned under along each edge. “double fold” bias trim is folded again through the center so that it is all ready to apply as binding over a raw edge. figure –to apply a bias strip as a binding, cut a strip as long as the edge to be bound plus ", to allow for a joining. if binding is to be applied to an edge (such as a neck edge) where there is a seam allowance, first trim seam allowance from edge. place edge of bias strip against edge to be bound, right sides together. baste to edge, shaping it if the edge is curved. be careful not to pull the binding as it is applied, because the edges are easily fig. stretched. to make a joining at the ends, see figure . stitch " from edge (along fold on prepared bias trim). press seam toward raw edge of bias strip. turn under seam allowance ( ") so that raw edge meets raw edges of seam. baste fold to stitching line and blind hem (see figure , page ) so that stitches do not show through on right side. this is known as hand felled bias binding. -------------""" figure —to join ends when apply- ing bias binding, trim strip diagonally at beginning on the straight grain. in basting the binding to the article, leave this end free for about %" and stop just before reaching the end. smooth out the binding so that it meets the other end and seam the ends diagonally on the straight grain of the fabric (see figure ). press the seam open so that the joining is perfectly flat. bias finishes sew a straight seam bias finishes fig. figure –to finish bias binding by machine instead of hand felling, turn under the seam allowance, fold binding to the wrong side so that the fold comes a little below the stitching line and baste. stitch on the binding on the right side as close as possible to the seam. this is easy to do with commercial bias trim since the under side is always º a little longer than the upper s ( . figure —to bind with double fold fig. commercial bias trim directly over the edge, place the trim over raw edge, making sure that the longer side is on the under side of the fabric. baste along the center and stitch close to edge on right side. - | | figure —the binder attachment on j% the sewing machine may be used for [ſi +f binding long, straight edges. both bias lq cut strips and commercial bias trim | fig. may be used in the binder. when joined - bias strips are used, the seams should be clipped very close and pressed so that º: will pass easily through the binder. it is not necessary to baste when using the binder. the sewing machine manual or a local sewing machine store can furnish full particulars on how to use this attachment. - - - - - - ‘g)—a fig. fig. figures and —hou to turn a square corner with bias binding—figure –baste to within the seam's width of the corner. fold corner as shown. on the other side of the fold bring the thread through at the point where basting stopped and continue basting seam of the same width around the next side. stitch. figure –turn binding to wrong side, fold corners in a miter as shown and fell down binding with blind hemming stitches (see figure , page ). sew a straight seam / double oven mitt material: plain or printed percale or gingham — yd.; percale - bias trim (see figure ) or a bias strip cut from fabric poſitoid, (see figures – )– yds. of same or contrasting color; cotton batting or scraps of heavy woolen fabric – yd. directions for cutting: pattern no. iv (see figure , page , for directions for enlarging pattern from diagram)— pieces of fabric, pieces of cotton batting or several thicknesses of woolen fabric. pattern no. v (enlarge as above)– pieces of fabric. d oa d a cae /+/j a. pattern iv pattern v i ] sew a straight seam directions for making: . join two no. iv pieces with a plain seam (%") along straight edge and press seam open. repeat for the other two no. iv pieces. . place batting between these two pieces and baste through all thicknesses close to edge. . pin rounded edges of no. v pieces to rounded edges of no. iv pieces, easing in fullness (figure ) and baste. figure —a bias strip used for facing is stitched edge to edge as for binding fig. z (see figure ). take a " seam. turn ,’ strip to other side on the stitching line, baste close to fold, press. blind hem (see figure , page ), or stitch flat by machine. if there is a corner it is - mitered as shown in figure . if the facing is to be on the wrong side of the article, apply the bias strip to the article right sides together. if the facing is to be brought to the right side of the article (to form a trim) apply the right side of bias strip to the wrong side of the article. figure —easing in fullness means - *i*i*t* n a vº. f * * * that fullness is eased into one edge of a - \ , r z w $ \ * - - - * * * * * * * * * º - - - seam without gathering the fabric. in | | | | | /- *** pinning, basting and stitching, keep the full side of the joining on top. pin with - fullness distributed as desired. baste on fig. the seam line with small stitches, spaced very closely together to hold the full- ness in evenly. . cut a " strip of bias trim, fold in half and stitch fold edges together. baste at center seam for loop. ends are caught in binding. . bind all around with bias trim or bias strip (see figures – ). sew a straight seam - / ] £/ aprons aprons are a necessity in the kitchen and they may aprons be pretty as well as practical. they should be made of fabrics which launder easily and well, such as ging- ham, percale or unbleached muslim. dainty party aprons may be made of organdie or dotted swiss. bias trim in various combinations makes an easy and attrac- tive trimming. there are many commercial patterns for aprons. the directions on page for a simple apron made without a pattern may be applied to any of the fabrics mentioned. vºv aprow ." diagram a . % % z ' &d | z% zºº / " %lgá. / / - sew a straight seam organdie apron material: organdie— % yds. of white; scraps of light weight cotton fabric in a pretty color for appliqué. directions for cutting (see diagram a, page ): skirt— piece, %" by " ties— pieces, each %" by " bands— pieces, each " by %" directions for making apron: (%" seams allowed) . on the band pieces, turn under and press ' " around all sides. . on the ties, make a narrow hem (see figures - , page ) along two long sides and one short side. . on the skirt, make a narrow hem along each long side. sew a straight seam / / . on one short side, fold " to wrong side, baste and press. . on the same side, make two rows of gathers (through both thicknesses) (see figure , page ), the first row " from the fold edge and the second row " below. . pleat unfinished ends of ties to measure " and baste to skirt on the right side between the lines of gathers, lapping ends of ties ' " over side edges of skirt. . baste band to right side of skirt over the rows of gathers, covering the tie ends. edge stitch all around (see figure , page ). . baste the other band piece to the wrong side of skirt over the gathers and slip stitch in place (see figure , page ). . make a %" hem at lower edge of apron (see figure , page ). (for most adults, a %" hem will make the apron the correct length. pin this amount up and try on apron, adjusting as necessary.) . trim just above hem line with a dainty appliqué (see pages and for design and directions). potholder apron unbleached muslin apron with bias trim these two aprons are pictured on page . they are variations of the same design that is used in the organ- die apron and can be made from the same directions. the potholders button on and have an extra flap added for a pocket. - / ) sew a straight seam pot holder apron unbleached muslin apron % | º % º zzzzzzzzzz % sew a straight seam / ) mother and daughter aprons size and size picture and patterns, pages and materials: plain fabric (linen like rayon)–(mother) yd.; (daughter) yd. . . . flowered chintz—(mother) % yd.; (daughter) yd.... percale bias trim, double fold (see figure , page ) in contrasting color— (mother) yds.; (daughter) yds. directions for cutting: (see figure , page .) patterns (page ) mother daughter bodice front (plain) piece (pattern via) piece (pattern vic) bodice back (plain) pieces (pattern vib) pieces (pattern vi d) apron skirt (chintz) piece ( %" x ") piece ( %" x ") bottom band (plain) piece ( " x ") piece ( " x ") directions for making either apron: (%" seams are allowed) . baste and stitch the darts on bodice front, right sides together, as shown by x's; graduate to single x at points. press darts to one side. stitch darts on back bodice in same way. . baste and stitch side seams of bodice, right sides together. press open. . press out center fold of bias trim for about " (mother), " (daughter). pin in crisscross design down center front of bodice, taking in fullness on inner curved edge by making a small dart. baste and top stitch close to each edge. . bind edges of back opening and neckline of bodice / / sew a straight seam mother and daughter aprons directions for making given on page . sew a straight seam / ) < a z- -> ºr zá q s n. & o x- r nº w pattern vib pattern vi a - <— -> <— ?”—- a tattern vic / ) sew a straight seam with bias trim. bind armholes in same way. (see figure , page .) . baste and stitch bottom band to lower edge of apron, wrong sides together. press seam open. turn seam allowance on lower edge of band to right side; press. . press out center fold of bias trim for yds. and baste over seam joining apron and bottom band and again across lower edge of bottom band. top stitch close to each edge of bias trim. . bind side edges of apron with bias trim. . run gathering stitches at upper edge of apron (see figure , page ). . baste and stitch gathered apron to bodice front, wrong side to wrong side, adjusting gathers evenly (see figure , page ). trim seam to ' ". . bind seam joining bodice and apron skirt. . for ties, fold a piece of bias trim about yds. long on the length so that the right side is inside and raw edges are even. sew twice close to raw edges. turn to right side. . from this piece, cut " for a bow at center front waistline and divide remainder into four parts for ties at neck and waist. finish ends by folding under raw edges and slip stitching. figure —whip stitch is used to catch an edge to another piece of fabric. it is done with small slanted stitches. catch through only a few threads of the under piece of fabric and then through the edge which is being whipped down. whip stitch is also used for joining edges (see index). sew a straight seam i ] kitchen tablecloths tablecloths for the kitchen should be bright and cheerful. indian head, a firmly woven linen-like cot- ton is a good inexpensive fabric to use for these cloths. linen, sailcloth, percale, or unbleached muslim may ###". also be used. since these fabrics are usually " wide, a small size cloth ” by " may be made from yd. an additional yd. will make napkins, " by ". to insure a straight edge when cutting linens, always measure, draw a thread and cut along it (see figure , page ). finish in any of the ways under suggested finishes for table linens, beginning on page . a larger luncheon cloth, ” by ", may be made from yds. cut the fabric into yard lengths (see above). turn a narrow hem (see figures – , page ) along two adjacent sides of each piece. stitch by hand. fagot the four pieces together along the fin- ished edges (figures , or ). finish the edges with a napery or damask hem (figure ) or a narrow machine hem (see figures – , page ). to get more wear from worn linens, cut them into squares, cutting away the worn spots, and piece them together again in this manner. / / sew a straight seam . fig. figure — criss cross fagotting is a method of joining two finished edges. baste edges to be joined to paper ' " apart (space may vary according to taste). hold work as shown. bring thread through to right side of fabric at top of left hand side, close to edge. take a stitch through the opposite edge from underneath about " down from first stitch. pass the needle under this stitch as shown. bring thread through and take stitch from underneath on op- posite edge about " down. fagotting fig. figure –bar fagotting is prepared and started as in figure . take first stitch straight across opening and bring needle through right edge from underneath. twist the needle under and over thread. put needle into the fabric on the left side from top, slide through fold ' " and bring through to start next stitch. fig. figure — to use grouped blanket stitches like regular fagotting on ** open-work seam, prepare edges as in figure . work blanket stitches alter- nately on either side of opening. sew a straight seam / ) five linens for the dining room table i v (~ º \ & ! :) # \- /- ſº- s ) (~ ſ l'u' damask linen cloth and napkins for special occasions and family gatherings there damask cloth is nothing to surpass a damask linen tablecloth and napkins. unhemmed cloths may be purchased in reg- ulation sizes ” by ", ” by ", " by ", " by ", " by ". the napkins are usually " by " and are purchased uncut by the dozen. the raw edges are always finished with a napery or damask hem (figure ). since it takes quite some time to pre- figure —napery or damask hem is used for hem- ming linens, especially fine table linens. turn hem twice as for a narrow hem (see figures – , page ), making the complete hem iess than " wide. - qrease hem back (to right side) at fold of hem. catch both creases together with a small overhand stitch made at right angles to the fabric edge, as - shown. take up only two threads of fabric. fig. pare this hem for hand sewing, the attachment on the sewing machine known as the foot hemmer (see machine manual) may be used to very good advan- tage. set the hemmer for the desired narrow width " "). remove the thread from the machine needle but do not remove the needle. run the edges to be / / sew a straight seam luncheon sets turned through the hemmer, and the hem will be evenly turned. the needle softens up the edges of the fabric, making it easy to do the hand sewing. ſº ſº. a- luncheon sets \ luncheon sets are the special joy of the homemaker. they are easy to launder and permit variety in table settings. fabrics may range from unbleached muslin, percale and heavy linen to fine linen, dotted swiss and organdie. a luncheon set consists of one runner; place mats, usually four, six or eight; and napkins, the same number as the place mats. the sizes are as |- follows: runner — " x " (or ") place mat – " x " napkin – " x " various finishes for luncheon sets are given next. the cut sizes above allow for fringing a narrow hem, or binding, but if the finish decided upon has a deeper hem, add the necessary number of inches all around. to insure a straight edge when cutting linens, al- ways measure, draw a thread and cut along it (see figure , page ). sew a straight seam [ ) suggested finishes for table linens the finishes which follow may be applied to lunch- eon sets or cloths, or to any sort of a doily or runner. finishes for where edge finish is plain and further decoration is “ desired, use appliqué, embroidery or embroidered monograms (see index). . the edge may be fringed (figure ). . a narrow hem may be hand rolled (figure ). º ---t-tt-t------------------------- º : . the edge may be bound (see figures – ). bir / / sew a straight seam . the edge may be scalloped and bound (figure ), in the same or contrasting color. . the hem may be hand hemstitched (figures – ). | º º º b º º … º º . the edge may be finished with a hand hem- stitched hem and the body of the runner, place mat or napkin divided into sections as shown and double hemstitched by hand (see figures – ). after hems have been basted, clip threads as shown and draw threads through body of piece. turn clipped thread ends under into hem and finish this space in hem as a coi’i ". - * t * hmm. e el e. -- º |É unt i e b - e mimim. sew a straight seam / / . a hem " to " wide may be finished with napery or damask stitch (see figure ). the corners may either be mitered (see figures – ), or the hems may overlap (figure ). crº-r-z-z-rºrrºrcorrºr) - – . a hem " or " wide may be turned to the right side and edge stitched (figure ). the corners are mitered. . a hem turned to the right side may be piped with a contrasting color (figure ). / / sew a straight seam . a hem turned to the right side may be scalloped at the edges and piped (figures and ). | n . the edge may be piped and faced at the same time with a contrasting color (figure ). figure —fringing may be used best on fabrics which have fairly heavy threads, such as heavy linen, monk’s cloth and indian head. pull threads to make fringe of desired width. the fringe may be strengthened to prevent threads from pulling out by hemstitch- fig. my figure —a hand rolled hem gives a fine professional finish. first, machine stitch very close to edge of fabric to give it body. roll edge with thumb and forefinger of left hand and slip stitch (see figure , page ). the finished hem should be less than %" wide. ing (see figures – ). sew a straight seam figure — scallops of any size or depth may be marked on fabric by making a pattern of desired size from cardboard. mark edge to be scalloped into sections equal to size of scallop and mark a scallop in each section by draw- ing around pattern with chalk. the edges are bound as in figure , page . clip points between scallops when turning binding. scallops look best when they are finished by hand. figures – —how to hemstitch—figure —hemstitching can be worked only on fabrics from which threads can be easily drawn, such as linen, monk's cloth, etc. turn under " and crease (see figures and , page ) on edge or edges to be hemstitched. turm under and crease hem of desired width. if piece is to be hemstitched all around, corners must first be mitered. figure —to miter a corner unfold creased hem and cut away corner $ " away from crease. figure —when finishing a miter by hand, turn in " along corner edge, turn hem under again all around, bringing mitered cor- ners together and finish corner with a slip stitch (see figure , page ). stitches should not show through on right side. figure –to finish a miter by machine, fold corner crease in half, cen- ter exactly at point of inside corner and stitch by machine. press seam open. turn under hem. figure –baste hem. be sure that fold edge of hem follows a straight thread of the fabric. on the wrong side close to fold edges at corners, clip the number of threads to be drawn (enough to make a space / " to " wide). draw threads. figure —working from left to right, start hemstitching by bringing needle up through fold of hem and draw thread through. pick up . threads with needle from right to left. figure — circle group of threads and insert needle at back of hem, emerging just to right of group of threads. figure —to make corner of hem- stitching secure, use a blanket stitch worked closely to hold edges together. figure —for plain double hemstitching, repeat the operations on other side of drawn threads as in figures and . figure —for diagonal hemstitching, divide groups of threads (taking from each) when hemstitching other side of drawn threads. fig. fig. fig. hemstitching sew a straight seam fig. fig. figure — to finish corners when hems overlap, unnecessary fabric is cut away so the corner will not be thick and bulky. turn up the hems and crease them. then cut away the sur- plus fabric at corner to within "s" of the overlapping edge, so that when this edge is brought back in place, the cor- ner will be perfectly flat. baste the edges in place, then whip (see figure ) so that the stitches at the corner do not show on the right side. slip stitch (see figure , page ) the edges to- gether at the corner to prevent the nar- row seam from raveling out. sew a straight seam / / figure —a hem turned to the right side makes a decorative band effect. this may be done only on fabrics which have no right or wrong side. if there is a seam in the fabric that is to be hemmed in this way, clip the seam a little below where the top of the hem is to come and seam the part that is to be inside the hem on the right side. the corners are mitered by machine (see figures – ) to make a neat finish on the right side. figure — a piping is a narrow bias fold of the same or contrasting fabric used to decorate edges and seams. use a " bias strip (see figures – ) folded in half. when using commercial bias trim, press flat and fold through center. baste the bias fold under the fold edge of hem so that only a narrow edge is visible. machine stitch close to fold edge of hem. figure —piping may be used to trim a conver scalloped edge, turned to the right side as a hem. mark and cut scallops in same manner as in figure . clip in / " at each point between the scallops. turn the scalloped edge under %" and baste close to the turned edge. prepare piping as in figure and baste the bias fold in place under scalloped edge so that only a narrow edge is visible, clipping it at the point of each scallop. machine stitch close to fold edge of scallop, lifting the presser foot and pivoting the work on the machine needle at the points between the scallops. / / sew a straight seam figure —for bias trim piping for concave scallops, mark and cut scallops using a cardboard guide as in figure . clip the edge, as shown, making the slashes not more than %" deep. turn edge under " as shown, being careful to make the points of the scallops sharp and true. prepare piping as in figure and baste bias fold in place so that only a narrow edge is visible. fold bias as shown at points. stitch as in figure . figure –to combine piping and fac- ing, cut a bias strip (see figures – ) and press the edges under, making the fold on one edge twice as deep as on the other. turn under " along edges to be finished with facing. place the wide fold of the bias under the folded edge of the fabric, so that it shows about / ". baste and stitch on the right - side of fabric close to fold edge. slip fig. stitch (see figure , page ) the op- posite edge to fabric on wrong side. figure –for a piped seam, prepare piping as in figure . baste bias strip to right side of one edge of fabric to be seamed so that the fold is %" inside seam line and raw edges of piping are against raw edge of fabric. apply the other piece of fabric as for a regular seam. (where seam allowance is %", if bias strip is cut %." wide, raw edges of seam and piping will be even.) / / sew a straight seam directions for cutting: cut from linen (see diagram e): , , " x “ "x /g" | m x ºr /. ” x/ ” / ” x/ w / ” x / * / ” x/ ” ºss. diagram e place mats — pieces, each " by " center runner — piece, " by " napkins — pieces, each " by " cut from organdie: place mat trim — pieces, each " by ” center runner trim — pieces, each " by " napkin trim — pieces, each " by " cut from chintz: flower motifs – large motifs, small motifs (leave %" around outer edges to turn under). directions for making: place mat . hand roll hem (see figure ) one long side and two short sides of each place mat piece. . place raw edge against one " raw edge of a " sew a straight seam ( ) by " piece of organdie, right sides together. ends of organdie will extend over finished sides of linen piece. they should extend the same amount at each side. baste. . stitch together with rows of stitching, ' " and %" from edge. . trim seam close to " stitching line and press seam toward organdie. . turn under ' " along " edge of organdie and baste. . fold organdie to meet seam line, right side in- side. stitch ends together on a straight line with sides of linen. . turn to right side. . slip stitch fold edge to stitching line (see figure , page ). make stitches very fine; be sure they do not show on the right side. center runner . hand roll hem both " edges. . finish ends of runner with " by " pieces of organdie in same manner as for place mat above. napkin - . hand roll hem all edges. . fold " by " piece of organdie in half length- wise, right side inside. . stitch %" ends together so that this piece when finished is the same length as one side of hemmed napkin. . turn to right side, press. . turn in raw edges ' ", baste and press. / ) sew a straight seam . place fold of organdie strip edge to edge with one side of napkin. pin in place all along edge. . baste and slip stitch (see figure , page ) opposite edge and ends to linen. where to apply motifs apply motifs partly on organdie and partly on linen (see photograph on page ). place mats — upper left hand corner; center runner — upper left hand corner and lower right hand corner; napkins — lower right hand corner. how to apply motifs - turn raw edges to wrong side all around outline of motif and baste. where indentations in outline occur, clip in to outline to make a sharp corner. blind stitch (see figure , page ) to fabric. diagram g diagram h , a i - -- — — — — — — — — — h. | i l *|| - aft//v/va r |*|\! | - - - - - - - - - - - - |-} =|||||eºs i l—r—t-roº hŠ |tsissº ---------------- : etet=teteſ) | | i mat $ mat -kº | | $ $ diagram f -- - - - - - i.i.p. – f – --tij. gr ––––––+pº-- -----rs . | | |..] , a- (“"i ma | | mat :*f; | | — — — — — — ił-------- | i … • t t sew a straight seam - / ) monk’s cloth luncheon set with woven trim material (for four settings): - monk's cloth ( " wide) – yds.; cotton rug yarn — ball each of red, green, yellow, black or any four contrasting colors; indian head or linen to match one of contrasting colors — yd. (to make napkins, each " by ”). / ) sew a straight seam directions for making . cut off one selvage edge and pull out two or three strands each made up of threads. (the single threads are used later for hemstitching.) . by means of bastings, mark cloth off for a runner and four place mats (see diagram f ). . before cutting the pieces apart the contrasting threads are woven in: a. measure up " from lower edge of piece along the side where selvage was cut, and at that point pull one strand (made up of threads). the fabric will pucker slightly, since the other end of the strand is still caught in the opposite selvage edge. b. make a knot in the end which is pulled out (dia- gram g). c. insert black rug yarn through strand under knot as if through the eye of a needle (diagram g). d. pull out opposite end of strand at selvage, weav- ing the rug yarn through as the strand is pulled out (diagram h). ease the knot through with thumbnail as yarn is pulled through. e. thread the black rug yarn through in this man- mer " to each side of basting lines which mark off mats and runner, as indicated by dotted lines on diagram f. f. in the same manner, work the pattern (diagram i) in toward center of mats from each of these lines of black rug yarn. g. work same pattern " in from side edges. h. cut the runner away from group of four mats along basting line. work same pattern in on either side sew a straight seam / / of the basting line which marks the ends of the mats. i. work pattern at other end of runner. . cut out mats and runner along basting lines and hemstitch (diagram ;) all around each piece, %" in from edge, using a single thread from strands of thread pulled out previously (step ). . fringe edges up to hemstitching. . fringe napkins (see figure ). unbleached muslin luncheon set with bias trimming material (for four settings): unbleached muslin ( " wide)— yd.; percale bias trim– yds. each of black and aqua, yds. of red (color used to bind outer edges), or any other colors; indian head to match one of contrasting colors—% yd. (to make napkins, each " by "). / / sew a straight seam directions for cutting (see diagram k): cut from unbleached muslin: place mats— pieces, each " (selvage) by " center runner— piece, " (selvage) by " cut from indian head: napkins— pieces, each " by " directions for making: . on one long and one short edge (lower and right hand edges of place mats), mark a line with tailor's chalk " in from edge and another line " in from edge. these lines will cross at corners. . on " line baste aqua bias trim flat so that the edge toward center is directly on marked line. cross strips at corners as shown in diagram . . on the " line do the same with black bias trim and cross at corners as in diagram. . machine stitch close to both edges of all strips. . apply red bias trim to edge as facing on the right side (see figure ). . fringe napkins (see figure ). jø " = diagram k / × diagram § /. x j. x & s s n § a. x . x § tn s$ . s sew a straight seam / ] table scarves scarves which may be used on serving tables are table scarves made in the following sizes: " by ", " by " and " by ". fabrics are the same as those suggested for luncheon sets (see page ). for finishes, see sug- gested finishes for table linens, beginning on page . cocktail napkins the correct size for cocktail napkins is " by ". fine ones are made of handkerchief linen. a fringed hem that is hemstitched (see figure ) or a hand rolled hem (see figure ) is the easiest finish, but many of the finishes under suggested finishes for table linens, beginning on page , are suitable. napkins can be made amusing and gay with appliqués, or with em- broidery, see index. cocktail napkins / j sew a straight seam bridge cloths bridge cloths a dainty cloth to fit a bridge table should measure " by ". the napkins are ” by ". linen makes a fine cover, but almost any other fabric may be used. sheer fabrics make dainty, feminine cloths. see sug- gested finishes for table linens, beginning on page , for suitable edge finishes. the napkins may be fin- ished to match the cloth, or they may be finished with a napery hem (see figure ), or with fringing (see figure ). figure — corded piping makes an attractive trimming. cover cable cord with a bias strip or bias trim (see figures – ), using a cording foot as shown to stitch the covering close against the cord. figure –to combine a corded piping and a facing, cut a fairly wide bias strip ( %") and make corded piping (see figure ). cut one edge to within %" of stitching line. baste piping to right side of fabric with narrow raw edge of piping against raw edge of fab- ric. the long edge extends beyond edge of fabric. stitch close to cord with cord- ing foot (see figure ). bring the long edge to wrong side. turm under raw edge, baste and blind hem (see figure , page ). sew a straight seam / / ==/º ss: zizwº new color for the bedrooms bedspreads º bedspreads are the most important item to consider bedspreads in dressing up a bedroom, and it is fun to make them. measurements for beds vary, but a good standard size is " wide by " long for a single bed, and " wide by " long for a double bed. any measurements given are based on these figures. if the size of the bed differs, it is easy to make the necessary adjustments. suitable fabrics for bedspreads are chintz, cretonne, organdie, dotted swiss, gingham, percale, taffeta. see pages to for descriptions of these fabrics. some of these fabrics come in both " and " widths. before com- puting the necessary yardages, it would be well to check with local stores as to what is available. figure — to insert corded piping in a seam, make corded piping as in fig- ure . baste piping to right side of one edge of fabric to be seamed so that the stitching line on the piping is on the seam line, and edges of the piping are against the raw edge of fabric. apply the other piece of fabric as for a regu- lar seam and stitch close to cord with a cording foot. ( sew a straight seam plain bedspread directions for making a plain bedspread for a single bed, the standard size for a plain bed- spread is " by ". this type of spread may be made from yds. of " fabric. cut it in two sections of yds, each. one section will be the center panel. the other section is divided into two strips, each " wide by " long. these are stitched to either side of the center panel. for decoration, contrasting piping (fig- ure ) or corded piping (figures , and ) may be inserted in these seams. when the seams are com- pleted, the seam allowance should be overcast together (see figure , page ). if bedspread is made of a sheer fabric, it must be lined. the lining is made in exactly the same manner as the spread, and the two sew a straight seam / ] thicknesses are sewed together when the edge finish is applied. for a double bed, a plain spread measures " by ". to make a spread similar to the one described before, it is necessary to use yds. of " fabric. cut the fabric into two -yd. sections. from the selvage edge of one section, remove a strip " wide. (if fabric has a pattern which should be centered, take %" strips from each side.) this makes a center panel of ". split the other -yd. section into two strips each " wide. stitch these strips to the center panel as for the spread for a single bed. to make this spread of " fabric, yds. are needed. the center panel, " wide by yds. long, is stitched to two side strips, each " wide by yds. long. - suggested finishes for bedspreads . the edges of the spread may be finished with a contrasting piping and facing (see figure ). if a corded piping is used in the seams, this piping should also be corded (see figure , page ). . the edges may also be faced (see figure ) with bias trim or a bias strip. . a straight facing of a contrasting fabric may be applied to make a band on the right side. use a straight strip as wide as desired and long enough to go around edge of spread. stitch the right side of this strip to the wrong side of the spread. turn to the right side on seam line. miter the corners of the facing (see figures – ). turn in the raw edge ' ", baste to spread and machine stitch to fabric along fold. finishes for bedspreads i ) sew a straight seam dust ruffle directions for making a dust ruffle some beds look very attractive with a short spread used with a dust ruffle attached to the box spring or wire spring. this spread should hang over the side of bed just enough to cover the mattress by a few inches. to make a continuous dust ruffle for a bed with a box spring, without a footboard, remove the mattress and measure the top of the box spring. cut a piece of strong white fabric to these measurements, allowing %" all around for seams. unbleached sheeting comes wide enough so that it will not have to be pieced. sateen and unbleached muslin may be pieced together and used also. the ruffle is usually made of chintz, sateen, percale or a similar fabric with enough body to stand out crisply. the depth of the ruffle will equal the dis- tance from the box spring to the floor plus " (%" for seam allowance and %" for hem). to determine the length of the ruffle, add together the lengths of two sew a straight seam / / sides and the end of the bed and multiply this figure by . to determine how many yards will be needed, divide the number of inches needed for the ruffle by either " or ", according to the width of fabric used. to make ruffle piece, measure down along selvage the depth of ruffle plus ". clip selvage and tear across (see figure , page ), or draw thread and cut along it if fabric will not tear (see figure , page ). continue tearing length into pieces this size. join selvage edges of pieces to make one long strip. make plain seams and press them open. make a narrow hem at the short ends and a %" hem along one long side. gather the other long side by machine (see figure , page ). make a " hem on one short side of the foundation piece. ap- ply gathered edge of ruffle to the two long sides and one short side of foundation piece. on beds which have footboards or posts (where ruffle cannot go around in one piece), make ruffle in three parts, one for each side and one for foot of bed. to mount a dustruffle on a wire spring, measure for the ruffle in the same way as before. make ruffle in three parts, each part twice the measure of the side of bed to which it is to be attached. gather to fit corre- sponding side of bed. instead of a foundation piece, make a strip " wide and long enough to go around the two sides and the end of bed. stitch side, end, and side ruffle pieces in this order to one edge of this strip. turn under the raw edge and stitch to the seam. sew " cotton tapes at " intervals all around. tie these tapes to the wire of the spring, " in from edge. / ) sew a straight seam used with a dust ruffle, a plain spread will be smaller. for a single bed, make a center panel " by ". the side strips should each be " by ". for a double bed, make a center panel ” by ". the side strips should be " by ". this provides for a " overhang on three sides and for a " over-the- pillow tuck-in. join strips as described under bed- spreads on page . cut a ” square out of each lower corner (see illustration) and finish as on page . variations of plain bedspreads there are many types of spreads that can be made, using the plain spread as a basis. they all use a plain centerpiece made to fit the top of the bed exactly. the length of this center piece varies according to the type of spread made. to make a spread in ” fabric for a single bed " wide, a " center strip is stitched to two outer strips each " wide. for a double bed " wide, %" strips are stitched to a ” center strip. see directions for making a plain bedspread on page . a spread may be made with ruffles on the sides, an over-the-pillow tuck-in at the top and a tuck-in at the foot. the length of the plain centerpiece, which should exactly fit the top of the bed (see above), will be the length of the bed, plus " for the over-the-pillow tuck-in and " for the tuck-in at the foot. a ruffle is placed on each long side of center piece from the top to within " of the bottom edge ( " allowed for tuck-in). the length of each ruffle must, therefore, be times the length of the side measure (minus the " tuck-in allowance). the depth of the ruffle is the dis- sew a straight seam / / tance from the top of the mattress to the floor, plus " ( %" for hem, !?" for seam allowance). make narrow hems on ends and on one long side. gather the raw edge to fit the allotted space on sides of center piece, baste and stitch. the foregoing spread, when used on a bed that has no footboard, needs a ruffle around the two sides and one end. the length of the ruffle should be twice this measurement. the length of the center piece will equal the length of the bed, if separate pillow cases are used. if a tuck-in for pillows is desired, " is added. to make a fitted spread with scalloped edges for use with a dust ruffle, make the spread center piece to fit exactly the top of the bed (see directions on page ). make a lining that is the same size as the center panel. from the fabric used for the spread, make a strip " wide and " longer than the distance around the spread with ruffles ll-li-lill lll . / / sew a straight seam fitted spread two long sides and one short side of the center piece. make a similar strip from the lining fabric. fold the spread fabric strip in the center on the width. from the center fold, mark off " segments along one edge until the entire edge is marked. cut a paper pattern for a " scallop and in each section mark a scallop. if there is some left over at the ends, mark only part of a scallop. pin the lining strip under this strip wrong sides together and cut the scallops in both fabrics. baste and stitch the straight edge of the strip of spread fabric to the side and end edges of the center panel, made of spread fabric, matching the center fold of the strip to the center of the panel. cut off any excess at the ends. repeat with lining strip and panel. place the lining and spread wrong sides together and pin scalloped edges together. bind both together around scallops and across top end of spread with a bias strip of the same or contrasting fabric, or with bias trim (see figure , see page ). sew a straight seam / ) dressing tables a dressing table may be decorated in many differ- ent ways. chintz or sateen to match bedspreads or draperies may be used. sheer fabrics, such as organdie or dotted swiss, make dainty covers. with these, a petticoat of white muslim or pastel-colored sateen is necessary. general directions for covering a table with arms for a dressing table which has arms that open out, cover the top with a piece of fabric cut to fit the top, plus " around all edges. cut a bias strip (see figures – , page ), or use bias trim and bind, or face with bias (figure or , page or ). tack to the top of the table with thumbtacks placed on the under- side. make two covers at the same time, so that the cover may be changed frequently for laundering. on this type of dressing table, the skirt is made in two sections and attached to the table so that it may be easily removed. one method of doing this is to cut pieces of buckram each %" wide and long enough dressing tables table with arms / / sew a straight seam corded skirt diagram m to fit each arm. cover with muslin or sateen, as in dia- gram m. when skirt is finished, it is basted firmly to covered buckram, and the buckram is tacked to table arms. to remove skirt, clip basting stitches. the arms may also be covered by winding with a strip of fabric, and the flat half of a strip of snap tape slip stitched (see figure , page ) to front of each arm. the matching half of tape is sewed to each skirtsection. corded dressing table skirt to make the type of skirt pictured for a table with arms, measure the length of the arm. a strip twice this measurement will allow for ample fullness. to find the width of the strip, measure the distance from the top edge of the arm to the floor. add to this %." sew a straight seam ſ / for top heading, %" for tucks (%" each for ) and %" for lower hem. make pieces to these measurements, piecing if necessary to make strip long enough. finish the center edges with a narrow hem. along the top, turn in the raw edge ' " and then turn a " hem. baste and stitch. on the right side, make a ' " tuckjust below the stitching line for the hem and another ' " tuck " below the first tuck (see figure ). about " down make tucks, each " wide and " apart. make a narrow hem along the lower edge. fig. figure – a cardboard gauge for measuring tucks is made by cutting a notch (a) into a strip of cardboard at the width of the finished tuck and then cutting another notch (b) at the dis- tance between tucks (stitching lines). when making tucks, be sure to start measuring from a straight line where first tuck is to be. mark the width of the first tuck with notch (a) on the gauge (using tailor's chalk). fold on marked line and baste tuck in. place notch (b) on the basting line, as shown. at notch (a) and at the end of gauge, º stitching line and fold of next tuck. the top is gathered to fit the table. insert " cable cord in a safety pin or bodkin (see page ) and run it through tuck at top of the skirt, pushing the fabric back on the cord (diagram n). § "fºº" r’ſ " \ſ .” … diagram m / / sew a straight seam scalloped cover cable cord is also inserted in lower tucks, but here the fabric is only slightly gathered. baste skirt to buck- ram, allowing the hem to stand above it as a heading, and tack to arms. snap tape may be slip stitched to wrong side of skirt to match snap tape sewed to arms. to make this type of skirt for a table which does not have arms, make strip in one piece, twice the length of the outer edge of table. finish and attach in same way. scalloped cover for table without arms this is an attractive cover for a table top to be used over a plain skirt. cut a piece of fabric to fit top of table, plus " " seam allowance all around. cut a liming the same size. stitch two pieces together along back. turn and press. cut a strip of fabric " wide by the length of the outer edge of table. mark off one edge into " sections. make a pattern for a " scallop and sew a straight seam / ) mark and cut a scallop in each section. bind scallops (see figure ) and ends of strip with " wide bias strip of fabric (see figures – ). stitch straight edge of strip to outer edge of the main top piece, right sides together. turn under outer edge of lining fabric and slip stitch (see figure , page ) to seam on wrong side. ruffled skirt ruffled skirt for table without arms when a dressing table has no arms, the top cover and skirt may be joined. cut a pattern to fit the shape of the table top. cut fabric and a lining from this pat- tern, allowing %" all around for seams. seam these together at back edge, turn right side out and press: cut a straight strip for the skirt just as long as outer edge of table and wide enough to reach from the table top to the floor plus " ( %" for seam allowances, %" for lower hem). make narrow hems at ends and / ) sew a straight seam dresser covers a " hem at lower edge. for ruffles, cut two strips each twice as long as the foundation skirt piece and about " deep. make narrow hems at ends and on one side of each piece. gather raw edges to fit foundation piece. to insert the lower ruffle, cut foundation piece across " up from lower (hemmed) edge. draw a thread and cut along it to insure a straight line (see figure , page ) or mark, using a yardstick and tai- lor's chalk. insert ruffle between these cut edges and stitch. baste other ruffle to the top of the foundation piece. stitch this edge to the outer edge of the main top piece, right sides together. top stitch seam on right side of top. turn under edge of liming and slip stitch (see figure , page ) to seam on wrong side. to hold cover firmly in place on table, tack at intervals with thumbtacks. these should be hidden under folds of ruffle. dresser covers covers for the bureau and vanity may be made in linen, organdie, dotted swiss, percale, chintz, muslim and similar fabrics. the sizes will vary according to the space to be covered. the same finishes as those suggested for the table limens, beginning on page , are suitable. sew a straight seam / / bright closet accessories there is every reason why a closet should be bright closet and interesting. there are many articles which can accessories be made easily that are useful and yet decorative. / ) sew a straight seam shoe bag shoe bag material: percale or chintz— % yds.; percale bias trim in con- trasting color— yds.; wooden slat— " by %" by "; metal rings ( " diameter)— . directions for cutting: foundation— piece, %" by ” (selvage) pockets— piece, " (selvage) by ", cut in three equal lengths, each " by " directions for making: . bind one " edge of each pocket piece. . mark off this edge into sections, each %". divide each section into parts, ", %", ", respec- tively. . each " section is made into a pleat ” deep. each %" section is the face of a pocket. between the faces of the pocket the pleats are pinned and folded with edges facing, making box pleats (see diagram ). . baste pleats across bottom (raw) edge. . place wrong side of one pocket at bottom of foundation piece against right side, raw edge to raw edge. . baste around sides, across bottom and between' box pleats. . place lower edge of second pocket piece " above first, baste as for first pocket piece. repeat for third pocket piece. . starting at top edge, stitch pockets in place be- tween pleats, continuing line of stitching from top to bottom (see diagram p). sew a straight seam [ ] w . w . *> n- %. “ diagram diagram p . cover lower raw edge of top and center pockets with bias trim, stitched flat. . make %" hem at top. slip wooden slat into open hem at top. , bind (see figure ) sides and lower edge with bias trim. . fasten rings securely to top with loops of bias trim. hanger cover material: percale or chintz—% yd.; percale bias trim in con- trasting color— yds.; wooden coat hanger. directions for cutting: paper pattern–lay hanger flat on a piece of wrap- ping paper. trace around top edge. at sides, draw straight vertical lines, " deep. connect vertical lines by a horizontal line. cut out pattern, making a slight curve at point where wire hook occurs. fabric— pieces from paper patterm. allow " " all hanger cover * sew a straight seam / / diagram -- : . bind raw edges together all around. . to hang, insert hanger in hole left at top edge. traveling slippers material: percale or chintz, plain and printed— yd. of each; {#s denim or drill cloth– yd.; cotton batting or scraps of heavy woolen fabric—% yd.; percale bias trim in contrasting color— yds.; elastic (%" wide)—% yd. directions for cutting: sole— pieces, pattern no. vii, denim, plain per- cale, cotton batting (see figure , page , for direc- tions for enlarging patterns from diagrams). top– pieces, pattern no. viii, plain percale. / . sew a straight seam " - o" c c r s i ; pattern viii pattern vii printed percale, cotton batting (or several thick- nesses of woolen fabric). (enlarge as above.) ties— pieces, each " by ", printed percale. directions for making: . place batting (or woolen) between denim and percale pieces of sole (no. vii), and between plain and print pieces of top (no. viii), right sides of fabric out. . baste layers together and machine quilt. to ma- chine quilt, mark off diamond shapes by marking lines about " apart to cover piece. machine stitch along these lines (see illustration). . bind (fig. ) edges of both pieces with bias trim. . top stitch another piece of bias trim over bind- ing just applied around rounded edge of top piece on printed side, turning under " " at each end. . baste top to upper side (percale) of sole, match- ing center fronts. . whip (see figure ) free edge of bias trim to under (denim) side of sole. . fold " by ” strips in half lengthwise (right side inside). . stitch edges together along " side. . turm (see figure , page ), insert " of elastic in each and whip ends of elastic to ends of strip. turn under ends of strip and whip to slipper top at each side of center notch (see illustration, page ). . w- ew &orseeins | in the theater, “curtain” means the end — the act is finished, the play is over. but in a home, curtains are the beginning, an invitation to enter and linger if they're sparkling, fresh and crisp. decoratively speak- ing, half your battle is won if your windows get the treatment they deserve, if the curtains or draperies are suitable, colorful and ample. there are two im- portant rules to observe. the first is to choose a suitable style — formal draperies in a formal room, informal curtains for a more casual setting. the second thing to remember is that yards and yards of the most in- expensive fabric make for a more gracious effect than a more expensive material used skimpily. / / window. dressing a. curtains are usually divided into two types, glass curtains and draperies. some of the ordinary types of glass curtains are plain straight curtains, sash cur- tains, cottage or dutch curtains, casement curtains and ruffled curtains. each type is discussed in this chapter. draperies vary in fabric, length and top fin- ish, but basically, they are similar. Å; it is very important to have good sewing and press- ing equipment to make professional looking curtains. sewing and pressing equipment are described in detail on pages to . see index for directions for press- ing various types of fabrics. a steel tapeline or an extension ruler is necessary for taking accurate in easurements. glass curtains glass curtains glass curtains are made in lightweight fabrics, mostly sheers, because they are meant to subdue strong light and to give privacy without cutting off the view or the light entirely. however, in certain window dressing / ) cases, when greater privacy is desired, or when cur- tains are pushed aside during the day and drawn only at night, non-transparent fabrics are used. the sheer fabrics generally used are cheesecloth, dimity, dotted swiss, marquisette, net, minon, organdie, scrim, the- atrical gauze or novelty curtain fabrics. the non- transparent fabrics are batiste, casement cloth, hand- kerchief linen, pongee and shantung. see pages . to for descriptions of these fabrics. when buying, it is advisable to inquire whether the fabric is wash- able, and if it is washable, whether it has been pre- shrunk. if it has not been pre-shrunk, it will be neces- sary to leave a " shrinkage allowance on the length. this is concealed as a tuck at the top of the curtain. how to measure for glass curtains on a plain curtain the top hem must be made wide enough so that a rod may slide through easily. this is known as a casing. the top hem may, however, be made wider so that it includes enough fabric, not only for the casing, but also for a tuck known as the head- ing (diagram a). this tuck is formed by making a line of stitching above the top hem line stitching and parallel to it. the rod is inserted in the lower opening (casing), the tuck on top making an attractive ruffled edge. a heading is always used when there are no draperies. another method of finishing the top of a curtain when there are no draperies is a french head- ing or “pinch pleats” (diagram b). directions for making a french heading are given on page . the finished lower hem is usually " wide, and this hem measuring curtains / ] window dressing -(ee:# : diagram a width of curtain diagram b * *a r is made double to give body to the curtain and also to prevent the raw turn-under edge from showing on a sheer curtain. the finished center hems look well when they are of the same width as the lower hem. these are also finished double. the finished side hems are ". the lower and center hems are sometimes omitted when trimmings are used (see page for making a trimmed curtain). the width of the curtains should be at least one and one half, but preferably twice, the width of the win- dow. for an average size window, ” high by ” wide, two lengths of " fabric are considered ample. if the window is exceptionally wide, measure hori- zontally from the inside of the frame on one side to the inside of the frame on opposite side and estimate how much more fabric will be needed to give the proper fullness. it is often possible to take one more window dressing / ] . length of curtain fabric, cut it in half and join each half to a full width of fabric to make a curtain of ample width. when any joining is done, narrow french seams are used (see figure , page ). glass curtains may come to the sill, to the window apron (the lower edge of the window frame), or to the floor. when combined with draperies, the glass curtains usually come to the sill. when there are no draperies, the glass curtains extend to the apron. long curtains which extend to the floor are used to give a luxurious touch, or to add height to a room. the total length of a curtain is derived from a combination of several measurements. the list of these measurements is given below, and directions on how to find them follow. always check back against this list, because all subsequent directions for glass curtains will be given with reference to these measurements. the total of all these measurements is the proper cut length of most glass curtains (exceptions will be noted as they occur). . measurement of the window (see below) . allowance for top hem (see page ) . top hem seam allowance of ' ” . allowance for " lower hem — doubled . allowance of " for shrinkage the measurement of the window should be taken with a steel tape or an extension ruler. sill-length curtains are measured from the bottom of the rod to within " of the sill. (the casing allows curtains to drop down slightly and curtains stretch somewhat length of curtain / ) window dressing after hanging.) this type of curtain is often hung from a round rod set inside the window frame " down from top, especially when draperies are used. however, both draperies and glass curtains may be hung from a double rod fastened to the window frame. apron length curtains are measured from the bottom of the rod to the bottom of the apron. floor length cur- tains are measured from the bottom of the rod to within " of the floor. these last two types are always hung from rods fastened to the window frame. tie- back curtains are always apron or floor length. see diagram c for all measurements. the allowance for top hem depends on the size of the rod and whether there is to be only a casing (dia- gram d), or a casing and a heading (diagram e). since the measurements for the window are taker, from the bottom of the rod, the allowance for the fin- ished top hem is doubled. the measurements given below for allowances for the top hem are based on the various widths of rods most likely to be used. they do not include the seam allowance. when rod is %" wide ( " casing): for casing alone, add " for top hem. for casing and a " heading, add " for top hem. when the rod is " wide ( %" casing): for casing alone, add " for top hem. for casing and a " heading, add " for top hem. when the rod is round (casing—twice the diameter): for casing alone, add times the diameter of the rod for top hem. window. dressing / ye. - f-ºn-t'in ---- - | | ffeli | || | || | § | | | | | | § | | || ||| | | | q —nºſſºſ ſº i i \ſſ. | | s — !!!!!!!!!,' § || | | | || º wo | i i rº- | | r. | ||r- | | | r < i | i º s || || i || s | || | | | $ - § | || | | | | } diagram d | | | | | q to | | | | | || § || || | | | || ū | || : i § || | | *zt. h. : : ; : tº t; § | | ? < i & u i | s & | | º jm/a . j/ ! ! sº i ſº | _l º w i ” | - nº. zeal o of. nz | diagram c diagram e for casing and a " heading, add times the diam- eter of rod plus ", for top hem. sash curtains, cottage curtains, casement curtains and ruffled curtains are similar to plain glass curtains so that most of the directions already given apply to them as well. the special characteristics of each are taken up in the following paragraphs. / ) window dressing sash curtains m | | | | sash curtains cottage curtains sash curtains are mounted on a narrow brass rod fastened to the top piece of the lower sash, so that the cottage curtains curtains may move up and down with the raising and lowering of the window. a sash curtain is measured like the plain glass curtain, from the bottom of the rod to within " of the sill (diagram f). the same allowances are made as for plain glass curtains (see page ). a heading is usually used on a sash curtain. cottage curtains or dutch curtains are a combina- tion of sash curtains and of short curtains placed on a rod mounted at the top of the window frame. the top curtains may be made with ruffles or without. these curtains are very practical because the lower section can be drawn together to give complete privacy, while the upper section can be tied back to admit more light. window dressing / / i °od zºoz) !- {{s | | |s i |s | º v i zºop | § | !: | . | / i . % ** oz) º diagram f diagram g the sash curtains are measured as directed above. the top curtains are measured from the bottom of the rod to about " below the top of the lower sash (see dia- gram f). the same allowances are made as for plain glass curtains. - casement curtains are for casement windows which casement open in and out, instead of up and down as regular curtains windows. for casement windows which open toward the inside, the curtains are often attached directly to the window. two rods are used, one at the top and one at the bottom of the window. the width of the curtain is, as usual, twice the width of the window. the meas- urement for the length of the curtain is taken from under the top rod to the top of lower rod (diagram g). add to this figure an allowance for a casing and a " heading (see page ), and the same amount for the lower hem, as a casing and heading are used both at the top and the bottom. if it is not desirable to attach the curtains directly to the window, it is possible to / ] window. dressing ruffled curtains casement curtains ruffled curtains make a plain glass curtain and mount it on a swinging rod which moves with the sash. when the casement opens out, the best method is to make a plain glass curtain and mount it on a rod placed on the window frame. these curtains are usually mounted on rings or hooks and opened and closed by means of a pulley and cord. for these latter two kinds of curtains, a french heading (pinch pleats) is preferable (see page ). ruffled curtains follow the same rules for width as the other glass curtains (see page ). for length. they are measured from the bottom of the rod to the apron or to the floor (see diagram c, page ). the allowance for the top hem is the same as for plain glass curtains with a " heading. there is no allowance made for a lower hem, only the " seam allowance. for cutting the ruffles, see page . for applying the ruffles, see page . / ) window dressing finishing curtains tightly woven and will cause the edges of the curtain to draw when it is hung. selvages will also shrink more than the rest of the fabric when curtain is washed. . fold curtains in pairs. . for ruffled curtains, cut ruffles (see page ). . before beginning to sew, it is well to mark off width of hems (allowance for hem plus seam allow- ance). use a hem gauge (see figure , page ) and tailor's chalk for marking. remember that the hems on each curtain of a pair must be made to face each other. how to finish glass curtains on glass curtains, the hems may be stitched by machine or by hand. when stitched by machine, at the end of each line of stitching turn and stitch back to stitches instead of tying the ends. if hems are done by hand, a slip stitch is used (see figure , page ). on curtains with no trimming, the procedure is as follows: . make a pair of curtains at one time. measure them against each other for length as hems are made. make sure that the center hems face each other. . make the narrow outside hems first. turn the edge twice, ' " each time (see figures and , page ). baste, stitch and press. . on the center hems (which should be the same as the lower hem), the raw edge is turned in the width of the hem, basted and pressed. then this edge is turned back (diagram h). baste, stitch and press. window dressing / / : diagram h - diagram i . the lower hems are done next in the same way. . the top hems are done last. before putting in the top hem, check both curtains of a pair against each other for length. turn under " " and then turn under one half of the amount allowed for top hem. baste, stitch and press. if there is to be a casing, make a line of stitching above and parallel to the stitching line of the hem. seepage for width of casings to be used with different rods. . to hide the " shrinkage allowance, make a " tuck on the wrong side close to the stitching line of the top hem, turn it up and catch it to the back of the casing with long stitches (diagram i). on french headings, it is awkward to make a tuck at the top. in this case, make an extra turn of the bottom hem to allow for shrinkage, sewing it with long stitches for easy ripping. how to make trimmed glass curtains the easiest way to trim glass curtains is to use ready-made trims, such as fringe, pleating and ruf- fling. trims are usually applied to the center and lower edges. allow only a " seam allowance at the lower edge of the curtain when cutting. all other trimming curtains / ] window dressing applying ruffles measurements are taken in the same way (see page ). to estimate the necessary amount of trimming needed, measure down the center and around the lower edge of one curtain and multiply by the num- ber of curtains to be trimmed. curtains are finished in the same way as on page . trim is applied instead of making center and lower hems in steps and . turn the lower and center edges in " either to right or wrong side, depending on trim. if the trim has a decorative edge, turn the raw edge to the right side, baste trim over it on the right side. slip stitch (see figure , page ) or machine stitch both edges of the trim to the curtain (diagram i). if the trim edge is to be hidden, turn the raw edge of curtain to the wrong side and slip stitch or machine stitch this edge over the trim edge (diagram k). also slip stitch (or machine stitch) opposite edge of trim to curtain on the wrong side. how to cut, finish and apply ruffles to glass curtains to estimate the amount of fabric needed for ruffles, measure around the center and lower edge of the cur- tain. for ruffles of organdie and chintz, % times the measurement of curtain should be allowed. for dotted swiss, net and voile ruffles, allow twice the measure- ment of the curtain. multiply the amount needed for one curtain by the number of curtains to be trimmed. cutting ruffles lengthwise means that fewer join- ings are necessary. to find out the amount of ." fabric needed for the ruffling, divide the total yards of ruffling needed by for " ruffles, by for " window dressing / ) <=zº § . { } { } { } {..} {{...} diagram k ruffles. measure piece off into " or " strips and either draw threads at markings and cut along them (see figure , page ), or mark strips with a yardstick and tailor's chalk and cut. the pieces are joined together by very narrow french seams (see figure , page ). join strips to make ruffle length for each curtain separately. hem one long edge and ends of the ruffle pieces with foot hemmer on the sewing machine (see ma- chine manual), with a narrow hem (see figures and , page ) stitched by machine, or with a nar- row hand rolled hem (see figure , page ). these edges may also be machine hemstitched and the hem- stitching clipped through the middle to get a picot edge. gather raw edges of ruffles by machine or by hand (see figure , page ). make rows of gathers " and ' " from edge. pin and baste gathered edge of ruffle to curtain, wrong side to wrong side, ' " in from edge (see figure , page ). be careful not to stretch the fabric. when turning a corner, make sure that the gathers are full enough so that the ruffle will stand out straight. stitch on ' " gathering line. press on right side so that edge of curtain lies over top of ruffle. turn edge of curtain in ' " at edge. baste and / ) window dressing tie-backs stitch to ruffle (diagram ). finish the top of the curtain like a plain glass curtain (see page ). diagram to make an easy valance finish for a ruffled cur- tain, make a strip of fabric twice as long as the entire curtain rod. the width of this strip should equal the width of the ruffle, plus the same allowance as on the curtain for top casing, heading and seam allowance. finish two short sides and one long side with a narrow hem. make casing and heading like that on the cur- tain (see step , page ). using double rods, mount the ruffled curtain on the inner rod and the valance piece on the outside rod. how to make tie-backs an attractive tie-back for a ruffled curtain is made by cutting a band of fabric " by ", and a ruffle " by " or ", depending on how much fullness was al- lowed in the ruffle of the curtain. hem the ruffle except on one long side. gather and stitch this edge to one long side of the band piece, right side to right side and edge to edge. turn in ends of band. turn in and baste free edge of band to seam line of ruffle. stitch all the way around straight strip and press. sew small rings or loops to the short ends. the simplest kind of tie-back is made by cutting a straight piece of curtain fabric " by ". seam the window. dressing / ) two long sides together right side inside. turn to right side, turn in ends and edge stitch all around. sew small rings or loops to the short ends. ball fringe, ruffling or plain fringe may be applied to plain tie-backs. how to make french headings in order to describe the making of a french heading or “pinch pleats,” it is necessary to use an actual cur- tain as an example. to fit other cases not described here, insert figures to fit individual measurements. the figures are given for a curtain made from fabric " wide, from which %" has been cut away (when selvages were trimmed) and %" has been used for hems ( " for center and %" for outside). this leaves " available for pleating. pleats are made from in- side " center hem to within " of outside edge. . when measuring for curtains, make the allow- ance for top hem to include a casing and a " heading (see page ). . insert a strip of crinoline in top hem of curtain and finish without stitching a casing. . measure curtain rod from bracket to bracket ( ” in this case) and take half of it, ". . measure curtain across the width, ”. . subtract ( ) from ( ). this gives ", the amount available for pleats. since pleats are usually sufficient, divide this amount ( ") by . each pleat will be ”. - . there will be three spaces between the pleats. the amount for spaces is ” (the measurement found in step ). from this, subtract the width of the center french headings / / window dressing a n . %. # . %. #- %. # . % . z" > diagram m º diagram o | diagram n diagram p diagram hem ( ") and an equal amount ( ") to be left at outer edge of curtain. this leaves ". divide the " by to find the amount for each space, ". - . the top of curtain is then divided as shown in diagram m. . bring pleat markings together to make a pleat on the right side. stitch pleat down the width of the hem (diagram n). (on draperies, stitch down ".) . divide pleat evenly into three parts and pass needle through and over the pleat several times and catch down with two or three stitches on the right side (diagram ). . rings or hooks are stitched to the back of the finished pleat so that the curtain may be moved back and forth on rods (diagram p). or use the type of hooks which stick into top of drapery (diagram g). window dressing / ] <\% ſ ſ § | draperies the fabrics suitable for informal draperies are draperies chintz, cretonne, percale, gingham, linen, monk's cloth, quilted cottons, sateen. for formal draperies use bengaline, damask, moire, satin, taffeta, velvet and velveteen. (see pages to for descriptions of these fabrics.) draperies are usually lined. sateen is a suitable fabric for lining most draperies. for formal draperies, taffeta may be used. when making dra- peries of heavy fabrics, use a heavy duty sewing thread. (see thread and needle chart on page ). window dressing / ) in such a case, the glass curtain is mounted on a regu- lar rod, and the drapery is placed on a swinging crane arm. if a second rod were used, it would not be en- tirely covered and so would be unsightly. occasionally a decorative wooden pole is used for draperies. rings are sewed to the top of the drapery at equal intervals and are strung on the pole. four to five inches is a good allowance between each ring, depending on the amount of space to be covered. measurement for this drapery should be taken from under the pole to within " of the floor, and no allow- ance is made for a heading. how to prepare and cut the fabric for draperies . before measuring for cutting, straighten the top edge of the fabric by pulling a thread and cutting along it (see figure , page ). if it is not possible to pull a thread, mark a straight line with a yardstick and marking chalk and cut. . measure the required length along both sel- vages and mark with chalk or a pin. at mark, pull a thread, or mark with chalk and cut. . use the first drapery as a pattern for the others so that no variation in size will occur. pin to next length of fabric (cut edges and selvages together) and pull thread, or mark before cutting. . if the fabric has one of the large floral designs now so popular, or any kind of a repeated design, care- fully match the drapery already cut to the fabric to be cut. the cut drapery piece is not pinned against cut edge of fabric. it must be pinned at exactly the cutting draperies / ) window dressing making draperies same point in the design. it is quite possible that a small strip will have to be discarded, but this excess fabric may be used for valances or tie-backs. . the lining is cut the same width as the drapery and " shorter than the measured length of the dra- pery, without allowing for any hems. - . cut a piece of buckram " by " to go under the top hem of each drapery. . trim off all selvages from both drapery fabric and lining. . fold draperies in pairs. how to make draperies . make a pair of draperies at one time, measuring against each other for length. make sure that center hems face each other. . lay the drapery fabric on a large table, right side down. . turn in and baste %" along the outside edge of drapery, making only a single turn, catch stitch (figure ) and press. . turn in and baste " along the center edge of figure — to catch stitch a hem, work from left to right. take up a few threads of fabric, being careful not to - have stitches show on the right side. take a similar stitch in the hem about %" to the right. continue making zig- zag stitches as shown. fig. window dressing - / ] | a a { diagram r a a { a: - " % : j%." --~~~~ drapery (single turn), catch stitch in place and press. . turn in and baste %" for lower hem (single turn). catch stitch in place and press. . for top hem and a " heading, turn down ." over the " strip of buckram and baste (diagram r). catch stitch in place and press. . on the lining, turn up and baste a " hem (single turn). catch stitch in place and press. . place the sateen lining on top of the drapery with wrong sides facing. . turn the top of the lining in ' " and pin in place %" above lower edge of the top hem of the curtain. . if the drapery fabric is heavy it should be tacked to lining. smooth lining over drapery so that side edges are even. pin lining to drapery down the center. unpin / / window dressing t ar == . % + % t - a//v//v g- ~ . ( | | -—r-ºr-tºr-pr- ------------ --------- n. sz- diagram s - diagram t the liming across half the top. fold the lining back along the center and catch the two fabrics together with a long, loose basting stitch that does not show on the right side of either fabric or lining. thread is knotted about once every ' as shown in diagram s. . repin across top and fold under side edges and pin to the drapery so as to cover the raw edges of side hems by %". . baste and slip stitch (see figure , page ) the lining to the drapery around sides and top (diagram t). stitches should not show through on the right side of the fabric. . the lining should not be attached along the lower edge. so that it does not show, tack it to the window. dressing ( ] figure — to make a french tack, fig. make a stitch about " long from sev- eral strands of thread, to connect lining and drapery. buttonhole stitch closely together around these threads. drapery hem about every " with french tacks (fig- ure ). . attach a weight to each lower corner of drapery. . finish the top of the drapery with a french heading (see page ), or if it is to be used with a val- ance, sew hooks " down and " apart (see diagram p, page ). how to apply trimmings on draperies lined draperies are usually untrimmed. however, trimming fringe, pleating and similar decoration may be easily ‘’” applied. finish drapery completely. if the trimming has a decorative edge, baste trimming to the edge of the drapery on the right side and slip stitch both edges. these edges may also be stitched by machine (see figure , page ). if the edge of the trimming is to be hidden, press drapery with a warm iron. slit the diagram u #arſºnſ sc window dressing / tom. catch stitch and press. lay the lining on the fab- ric wrong sides together, turn under and pin edges so a ºr as to cover raw edges of hems by %". baste as shown in diagram v. make two lines of stitching parallel to t .” |- & rººm—w r==== - s - /n / wº //v/a/or # "> t -- | . l diagram v. the top edge, one " down and one %" down. this makes a casing for rod. slip stitch around except over ends of casing. mount draperies on lower rod and valance on upper rod. other valances may be made which can be tacked to a valance board. a valance board can be made by attaching a board ( " wide by " thick by the length of the window frame) to the window frame with sev- scalloped valance / / window dressing diagram vv diagram x eral arm brackets as shown in diagram v. these valances are usually cut about " wide, not allowing for seams. the simplest type is a scalloped valance. it may be made by cutting a piece of fabric long enough to go across the length of the board and around the corners to the window frame. make it about " wide to allow for seams. cut the liming the same size, pin and baste the two fabrics right sides together and mark the center on the width. make a cardboard pat- term for scallop " wide and about " deep. working from the center, mark scallops along one edge of val- ance by drawing around the pattern. stitch around scallop markings and along two short sides. trim scal- lops close to seam and clip at points. turn to right side. crease on seam line, baste close to crease and press. turn under raw edges at top and slip stitch together (see figure , page ). pin " tape to wrong side with edge even with top edge of valance. whip lower edge of tape to valance (diagram r). stitches should not show through to right side. tack valance around board as shown in diagram. window dressing / ill -u- l |l another type of valance tacked to a valance board is made on a buckram foundation. one attractive type of this kind is quilted. cut a piece of fabric (chintz is good) " deep and long enough to go around valance board from one side of the window frame to the other. cut lining sateen, cotton batting and buckram stiffen- ing to the same dimensions. if buckram has to be pieced, overlap the edges and stitch each edge flat by machine. turn under all edges of buckram " and stitch with large stitches, using a coarse needle and a strong thread. lay batting against wrongside of chintz and lay buckram on top of this. turn long edges of batting and chintz over buckram and stitch raw edges together with a long catch stitch (see figure ). cut out corners to eliminate bulk and catch stitch short ends to buckram. draw diagonal lines on chintz (see illustration) with marking chalk and quilt with heavy embroidery cotton, using bold running stitcheſ quilted valance ſ / window dressing swag valance through all thicknesses. sew large fabric-covered but- tons at intersections of quilting lines if desired. make a lining of sateen cut to fit finished valance. turn in " on all edges and slip stitch (see figure , page ) in place on back of valance. attach tape as in diagram . tack to valance board (see diagrams v and r). tl|| || ul|| swag valances are also very popular. a ruffled swag for chintz draperies can be made quickly and easily. for an average size window, make a strip of chintz " wide and yds. long. hem one long side. for ruffling, cut a strip " wide and % yds. long. gather to yds. and attach it to the two short sides and one longside of strip, rightsides together. cover seam with a bias strip (see figures – , page ) applied like a facing (see figure , page ). drape the swag over arms or rings screwed to window frame as shown in illustration. next to the windows, the upholstered furniture is the biggest bugaboo in the average woman's decorat- ing budget. today many decorators, and the alert women who follow their lead, have found slip covers the perfect — and inexpensive — solution to the prob- lem. a glowing chintz, a bold stripe, a fresh color scheme can put a new face on an old room for the cost of a few yards of fabric. many people have adopted the idea of having two sets of slip covers, one for win- ter and one for summer. a room full of shabby up- holstered furniture is a challenge to your wit and imagination. try your hand at slip covering that fad- ing wing chair, and you’ll see that there's plenty of life in the old chair yet! / ) bright inside story fabrics for slip covers trimming slip covers may be made in cotton, linen and rayon fabrics. some of the cottons commonly used are chintz, cretonne, denim, gabardine, gingham, indian head, percale, piqué, quilted cotton, rep, sateen, ticking, twill. see pages to for descriptions of these fabrics. chintz comes with a glazed and an unglazed finish. an ordinary glaze will wash out. to assure a permanent glaze, the fabric should be labelled “per- manent finish.” plain and printed linens are durable. most of the rayons used, such as brocade, damask, moiré and cotton-backed satin, even though mixed with cotton, must be dry cleaned. the cottons and limens are washable. when buying cottons which are intended for washing, however, it is necessary to ascer- tain from the label or to inquire whether they have been pre-shrunk. otherwise, it will be necessary to wash the fabric, partly dry it in the shade and iron while damp. chintz, cretonne, sateem, etc., which are purchased as upholstery fabrics, come in a " width. this width cuts to best advantage for most slip covers. regulation " or " wide fabrics may be used, however. slip covers are sometimes trimmed with binding tape or bias trim, welting, or fringe, or they may be self-trimmed by means of a seam called a boxed seam. a boxed seam is a narrow french seam with the ridge on the right side. for washable slip covers, only colorfast trimming should be used. if trimming is not pre-shrunk, it must be washed before being used. it is much easier to use bright inside story - / binding tape or bias trim, welting and fringes pur- chased ready-made. however, bias strips for binding and welting may be made of the same or contrasting fabric. bias strips %" wide are cut and joined together as shown in figures – , page . for binding, the raw edges are folded to meet at the center. welting is made by covering cotton cable cord of any size with the bias strip (see figure , page ). trimming is applied only on the principal seams and never on the seams inside the chair, like those inside the seat or back. see illustrations of chairs of various types on page for approximate amounts of trimming re- quired for various types of chairs. measure seams of chairs to be trimmed as indicated on sketch to figure exact amount necessary for individual chair. proper sewing and pressing equipment is necessary for making slip covers. sewing equipment is discussed on pages to . pressing aids are described on page . the ways to press various fabrics are taken up in detail (see index). the proper thread, both for hand sewing and machine sewing, is important also. a special type of heavy duty mercerized thread is ideal for this. see thread and needle chart on page . . how to measure fabric for slip covers each slip cover should be measured separately as described in the following pages. in order to provide a guide against which beginners may check their own calculations, general estimates are given with the necessary equipment measuring / / bright inside story sketches of various types of chairs on facing page. these estimates are for average type, average-sized chairs in plain, evenly striped or all-over print de- signs. when the fabric has a large central design or grouped stripes, the design must be centered on all the important sections of the chair. under these cir- cumstances, at least yd. should be added — more, if the design is very large. before measuring the chair, remove the cushion. it is measured separately. take the measurements of the length and width of each part of chair (see dia- gram a and directions following) and note them down as in table on page . all seam allowances are ". this may seem like too much, but it is better to fit the slip cover with generous seams. they can always diagram a - - - bright inside story / ] . overstuffed chair yds. – " fabric -* yds. – " fabric yds. – trimming . wing chair yds. – " fabric yds. – " fabric yds. – trimming . club type chair yds. – " fabric types of chai yds. – " fabric ypes of rs yds. – trimming . club type chair yds. – " fabric yds. – " fabric yds. – trimming | . club type sofa yds. – " fabric yds. – " fabric yds. – trimming . boudoir chair % yds. – " fabric % yds. – " fabric yds. – trimming / / bright inside story be trimmed after the sewing is completed. tuck-in allowances are provided around the seat and back sec- tions of the chair (where there are springs) to accom- modate the “give” of the springs. allow " on each edge of the pieces where this tuck-in is to be. back of chair the back ends at the highest point on the back of the chair. it may be at a seam, at the top of a wooden rim or under a roll, if the upholstery rolls over the top of the chair. sometimes a straight piece, known as a boxing strip, is inserted between the back and the front (see sketch of chair , page ). if so, the meas- urement of the back begins at the back of the strip. length — this measurement is taken from the highest point to the lower edge of the upholstery (if there is to be a valance around the bottom), or to the floor (if the back is to be straight). add " for seam allowances at top and bottom. width — this measurement is taken at the widest point plus " for seam allowances. front of chair length — this measurement is taken from the place where the back ends to the edge of the uphol- stery in front (if there is to be a valance) or to the floor (if the cover is to be straight). several additions must be made (totaling from ” to " in all): " for top seam allowance ( ” if there is a boxing strip); " for the tuck-in between the seat and the front; " to allow for seams if the apron piece is made separate; ” at the lower edge. bright inside story / / small home studios—barker bros. / ) bright inside story width — the measurement of the widest point of the front will usually be the measurement of the seat, because " must be added on the sides ( " on each side) for tuck-in allowance. however, on a chair with a t-shaped cushion, the front edge plus " for seams may be the widest measurement. sides these measurements include only the portion of the sides of the chair below the top of the arms. allow- ance must be made for two of these pieces. the depth of the chair back, whether it is a wing or whether it takes some other form, will be measured and made separately. length — this measurement is taken from the lower edge of the upholstery at the side (if there is to be a valance) or from the floor (if the cover is to be straight) over the top of the arm down to the seat. the additions will total " or ”: " at edge; " for seam allowances at joining of outside and inside of arm ( " if there is a boxing strip); ” for tuck-in at the seat. width — this measurement should be taken at the widest point according to the chair. add " for seam allowances. wings length — this measurement is taken from the point where the wing joins the arm on the inside to where it joins on the outside. there are three seams, one at each joining and one on top (double seam allow- ance), so " for seam allowances should be added. bright inside story / / allowance must be made for two of these side pieces. width — this measurement is taken at the widest point of the wing from the point where it joins the front on the inside of chair to the point where it joins the back of chair on the outside. allow " as there will be three seams: " for seam at back corner, " for the edge seam (double seam allowance), and " fortuck-in between wing and back of seat. extra pieces the extra pieces are those which are often placed at the front of the arm and between the back and front above the arm. often it is possible to cut these from the scraps left over from the other pieces. take the length at the longest point and width at the widest point. make a " allowance on the length and " on the width for seams. allowance must be made for two of these pieces. valance length — measure all around the bottom of the chair at the point where the valance is to be joined (usually at the bottom of the upholstery) to find the circumference of the chair. the amount of fabric needed will depend on the type of valance used. a shirred valance requires twice the circumference of the chair. a box pleated valance with the pleats placed edge to edge requires three times the circumference. a straight valance with box pleats at each corner requires " more than the circumference. this is a popular type of valance which is easy to make. / . / bright inside story width — measure the distances from upholstery to floor. add "— " for seam allowance, " for hem. the amount of fabric is estimated as follows: the valance may be made on the length or the width. it is best to wait until the yardage is figured out on a chart (see page ) before deciding which is the most sat- isfactory way to cut the valance. in " fabric it usually works out that the valance is cut on the length. to estimate the amount needed for a valance cut on the width of the fabric, divide the length needed for val- ance by the width of the fabric minus ", to allow for joining seams. if this comes out with a fraction left over, take the next highest whole number. this gives the number of times the width of the fabric needs to be cut. multiply this figure (the whole number) by the number of inches in the width of the valance and divide by " to estimate the yardage needed. extra cushion the length and width of the top are measured. add " to each measurement for seams. allowance must be made for two of these pieces. the length of the join- ing strip is measured around the entire pillow plus ” for joining seam. the width is the distance between the top and bottom plus " for seams. this piece may be cut on the length or width, depending on how the rest of the pieces come out of the fabric (see chart, page ). in " fabric, it is often best to cut it on the length. to estimate the amount of fabric needed to cut this strip on the width of the fabric, divide the length of the strip by the width of the fabric minus " for / / bright inside story jºo.” > > # %| zs" ||zt-zº-fº gw qu - * ~ § || > n § || back sack r - º . ” -- th rrowr ||s n. | #| | § § fºowr < - * > h ! s : m. - > § c º r r -- c - n s ji § ?" th s - ſo § $ i n - ºn * ' > s. s wrvg. &|| www.g u -- . -- || ". -q f º *||s #|$ "||& #| wrvg |} wºvo. i **** . 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" “ " " kw cn º supé sloe & $ - * º s. stde | s/de s & ya/ºps & yards layout no. layout no. in order to estimate exactly how much fabric will be needed and where pieces will be cut, it is easiest to make a layout chart. this also will show whether valance pieces should be cut lengthwise or across the width of the fabric. in most cases, main pieces of chair are too wide to enable cutting more than one on the width of the fabric. follow layout no. for all fabrics except those with large designs which must be centered, placing all main pieces along one sel- yage of fabric so that excess will be in the largest possible piece. strip pieces and extra pieces can usually be cut from this excess and where design of fabric permits, the valance can also be cut lengthwise from this excess. on striped fabric, this means that the stripes will go around the valance, but this variation is often desirable on a striped cover. if the design is one which must be centered, layout no. would be impossible, since all pieces are cut off center. follow layout no. for this type of fabric. for " fabric the same type of diagram can be made. there will not be enough excess on width to cut any but small pieces. valance must be cut on the width. see page for instructions for figuring out yardage required to cut fabric on width. to estimate yardage, add up lengthwise meas- urements of pieces and divide by ". add an extra yard if fabric has a large pattern which may require some shifting to center the design. bright inside story / ] general instructions for making slip covers there are many types of chairs and couches, and while they all differ in the problems they present, fundamentally, they are similar. it would be im- possible to anticipate all the problems of making slip covers of every possible type, so a wing chair with a t-shaped cushion, which contains most of the prob- lems which might be encountered, has been selected as an example. in covering another type, follow the directions given, omitting those steps which do not apply to the chair being covered. plan the pieces to fit as nearly like the upholstery as possible, seaming and piecing wherever the upholstery underneath is seamed. for a couch, the same procedure is followed as for a chair. before beginning to cover any chair, straighten edge of fabric by pulling a thread and cutting on line made (see figure , page ). if it is not possible to pull a thread, mark a straight line with marking chalk and yardstick before cutting. how to place the fabric on the chair when covering a chair, the fabric is laid on the chair lengthwise. the selvages are at sides always, never at the top and bottom. always be careful to keep the fabric on the correct grain while pinning and fitting (see figure , page ). whether the fabric is placed on the chair for pin- ning right side out or wrong side out is determined by the type of finish desired. place fabric on chair right side out for a bound edge, wrong side out for a boxed general. instructions placing the fabric / / bright inside story edge, for a welted edge or for any inserted trimming, such as fringe. centering a design centering design the directions which are given are for plain, evenly -*- - striped or all-over print fabrics. if a fabric with a large design or grouped stripes is used, the directions will have to be adjusted. the pattern or stripes must be centered by placing the fabric on the chair, so that the center of the design is in the center of the pieces. then adjust it, following the straight of the goods, and proceed as outlined. how to fit a slip cover for a wing chair sº piece — front of chair back and seat (with cushion - - -- •- - - - - " -> - - - - -- - - - - * * * - * -- : * ~ * *** * ~ *-º-º-º: t p/a cé l - - - - - - - - - - - - + removed)—this piece extends from the top of the chair to the front of the seat. there should be " seam allowances at top and front edges and a " allowance for tuck-in at the sides and " excess to allow for a " tuck-in between back and seat. follow diagrams b, c and d when fitting this piece. : ‘. - - *- -, -": -- - ---- diagram c \ diagram d bright inside story / . . mark a straight line " from the straight top edge of fabric. . place fabric on chair so that the line just marked is at the point at which the back upholstery ends (see back of chair, page ). if the back and front chair pieces are joined by a boxing strip with a seam at both edges, the marked line should be at the front edge of the strip. . if there is a definite pattern, center the design (page ). otherwise take the measure of the widest point across seat (see front of chair, page ), plus allowances for seams and divide this measurement in half. measure this amount across straight edge of fabric and place this point at center back of chair (diagram b). . be sure that the grain line of the fabric (see fig- wre , page ) is straight in relation to the length and width of the chair back. one way to assure this is to adjust the fabric very carefully and pin it to the chair, following a lengthwise thread down the center back. then pin it on a crosswise thread about halfway down the back (see diagram c). . smooth the fabric up to the top edge from the crosswise pinning and pin it to the upholstery seam. the pins, which are placed with points facing inward, are not put in all the way. if there is excess fabric across the top, pin in corresponding pleats on each side. these pleats should turn toward sides on the fin- ished cover, so if cover is being fitted wrong side out they should be turned toward center (diagram d). bright inside story / -º-º-º-º-º- - - - -, * .* - • * * - - - ** •-l. /a; ca -'. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- r ; -- ~" i - f - f - :-} + i - +------ ---. diagram e apron, leaving " for a seam. if there is a large pattern in the fabric, center the pattern on this strip as before. . pin strip to the upholstery at sides and across bottom. extend piece to the floor if there is not to be a valance. . trim " beyond the pins. piece — pieces for inside of arm — these pieces extend along the arms of the chair on the inside from one end of the arm to the other and from the seat over the top of the arm to the seam in the upholstery. (sometimes this piece is seamed at the roll of the arm just where it meets the wing. see illustration of chair trimmed with fringe on page .) these pieces have " seam allowances on the front and top edges and " tuck-in allowances on the bottom and back edges. bright inside story / ] •l. t t- f -----|--|--|-------iſ arm joins inside of wing. trim " away from pin line. clip seam allowance if necessary to make it lie flat where the fabric curves around wing. . smooth fabric toward the front and pin to up- holstery around edge of arm. trim " from pin line. if the arm rolls, pin the fullness into tiny pleats. the pleats should turn down on the finished cover, so if cover is being fitted wrong side out, they should be turned up. . smooth fabric up and pin along the line where the upholstery is seamed to the chair at the outside of the arm. this may be at the top of the arm or under the roll of the arm. if the outside and inside of the arm are joined by a boxing strip with two seams, pin this piece to the inner seam. piece — pieces for outside of arm — these pieces extend on the outside under the arms to the bottom of the upholstery (or to the floor if there is no valance) and from the front edge of the arms to the back of the chair. they have a " seam allowance on all sides. follow diagram g above. when fitting each piece: ſ bright inside story . straighten the edge of the fabric (without cutting excess strip). . mark top seam allowance " from straight edge. . place piece against side of chair. center the de- sign if necessary. if there is no design, extend the front of the piece " beyond front edge of chair and pin " marked line across top on the same upholstery line to which piece was pinned. extend the piece to back corner of chair. . pin to edge of upholstery at front, back and bot- tom. extend piece to the floor if there is not to be a valance. trim seam allowances to ". piece — pieces for inside of wing — these pieces have a " seam allowance on all sides except the inner edge where there is a " seam allowance. follow diagram h. to fit each piece: . pin fabric on inside of wing so that the grain is straight and the pattern is attractively placed. pin fabric to the chair along a lengthwise thread in the center and then pin on a crosswise thread. smooth out to the edges. . pin around all outside edges, making pleats along outer curve if necessary to make it fit. pleats should turn down on the finished cover, so if cover is being fitted wrong side out, they should be turned up. trim " away from pins. . pin the fabric to the crease between wing and back of chair and trim " from pin line. piece —pieces for outside of wing—these pieces have a " seam allowance all around. follow diagram bright inside story / ) i. to fit each piece: fit the same way as for inside wing above. trim seam allowance to " all around. piece –back of chair—this piece has a " seam allowance all around. follow diagram .j. . straighten fabric and mark a line " in from straight edge. . place fabric on chair so that marked line is at the / / bright inside story highest point at which the back upholstery ends (see back of chair, page ). . follow steps and under piece , page . . smooth fabric up to top and pin to top edge of upholstery, making pleats if it is necessary to fit in any extra fullness. turn pleats same as on front of chair back. . smooth fabric out and pin to sides and bottom of chair. extend piece to floor if there is not to be a valance. . cut around edges, so that there is a " seam allowance on all sides. piece —pieces for front of arm—these pieces have a " seam allowance all around. follow diagram k. to fit each piece: . place the fabric over the surface to be covered and pin in place around edges. be sure that design is well placed and that the grain lines are straight. cut two matching pieces. . cut around edges, leaving a " seam allowance on all sides. piece –extra cushion—for each cushion: . cut two pieces, each $ " larger all around than the top of the cushion. be sure to center the design and keep the grain lines straight. . cut a strip of fabric, " wider than the width of the pillow and as long as the distance around the pillow plus ". (boxing strip.) piece if necessary. piece —valance—cut enough strips of fabric of the desired width to make the length needed. these may bright inside story / / diagram k be cut on the length or the width (see layouts on page ) by pulling a thread at the proper intervals and cutting along the line made. miscellaneous pieces on other kinds of slip covers on other kinds of slip covers it may be necessary to make a boxing piece or a small piece to cover the depth between the back and front. these are cut in the same way as piece . they are pinned on to fit and cut with a " seam allowance. how to sew slip covers before sewing a slip cover, remember that an open- ing must be left to permit the cover to be removed from the chair. this is usually at one back corner, and it extends from the floor to a point " or " above the arrrl. to finish with bound edge (slip cover was pinned to the chair right side out.) . pin all pieces of slip cover together except those edges where " seam allowances were left and edges at opening. mark these seams with chalk at the lines where they are pinned to chair. make sure that cover is fitted snugly, adjusting if necessary. . remove cover from chair and baste seams to- sewing slip covers bound edge / / bright inside story - diagram gether along pinned lines with an uneven basting (see figure , page ). . when seams are bound, it is easier to stitch, trim and bind each seam before it is stitched to the next piece. start with the basted seam between the inside of arm and the inside of the wing—the seam marked no. in diagram . stitch this seam on basting line. trim seam to ' ". baste and stitch binding tape (%" to %" wide) or prepared bias trim over this seam (see figure , page ). continue to stitch, trim and bind basted seams in the order indicated in diagram . stitch back seam ( ) around to top of opening, trim to ' " but do not bind. . turn slip cover to the wrongside and pin marked lines of " seams together. trim seams evenly " away from pin line. it may not be possible to tuck the full " into the crease at the upper part of wing. if so, trim seam allowance so that there is only enough excess to tuck in neatly. a full " may be too much all the way down this crease. if so, adjust as necessary. bright inside story / ) -* diagram m diagram n . pin edges together allowing %" seam, starting at top of seam between wing and front of chair back. pin down to corner. then pin in from corner formed by inside arm piece at front and seat piece. leave ex- cess on piece free in a pleat. stitch edge of pleat together as shown in diagram m. then baste seams out to ends from this corner. stitch seams twice to resist wear. . press all seams made on slip cover and place it on the chair. turn up lower edge even with chair upholstery and baste. . apply valance as described on page . . finish the closing by using a prepared button tape or a zipper, or by placing a facing on the back piece and an extension on the side and closing with large snaps (diagram n). this is done as follows: a. trim seam allowance of opening to ' ". clip in to stitching line at end of opening. b. cut two bias strips (see figures – , page / / bright inside story - bored edge ) %" and %" wide respectively and ' " longer than the opening. c. turn in ends ' " on %" strip and place edge to edge (right sides together) against the edge of the opening which comes on the side of chair. baste and stitch ' " from edge. d. turn in the raw edge %" and machine stitch or slip stitch it (see figure , page ) to the seam line on the wrong side. - e. for a bound edge, turn under ' " along ends and one side of %" strip and stitch by machine. place the raw edge of this piece against back of opening, wrong sides together. stitch " from edge. bind entire back seam of chair, binding this edge of opening also (diagram ). for a bored or welted edge, turn under %" along ends and one side of %" strip. place raw edge of this piece against back of opening, right sides to- gether. stitch " from edge. this will be along stitch- ing line of welting, if edge has been welted. turn to wrong side, crease along seam line and baste close to crease. for a boxed finish, stitch all around back seam and back of opening as on other seams. f. sew large snaps at intervals to close. to finish with bored edge (slip cover was pinned to the chair wrong side out.) . pin all pieces of slip cover together except at opening and where " seams are allowed. mark these seams with chalk at the lines where they were pinned. be sure that the cover fits snugly. . remove cover from chair and baste all seams bright inside story / / diagram o along pinned lines. pin marked lines of " seams to- gether. continue as described understep under finish for bound edge on page . . on all seams except where " were allowed, stitch ' " from bastings (nearer edge) and trim seams to ”. . pin and stitch seams where " were allowed as in step under finish for bound edge on page . . turn slip cover to right side, crease all ' ” seams back on seam line and baste close to crease. to make boxed finish, stitch seams ' " in from crease in the order specified in diagram . do not stitch back seam ( ). . place slip cover on chair. turm up lower edge even with chair upholstery and baste. . apply valance as described on page . . finish the closing as described in step under finish for bound edge, page . to finish with welted seams (slip cover was pinned to the chair wrong side out.) - . pin all pieces of slip cover together except at opening and where " seams are allowed. mark these welted seams / bright inside story ohirred valance seams with chalk at the lines where they were pinned. be sure that the cover fits smugly. . remove cover from chair. trim all pinned seams to $ ". - . unpin the seams following the order specified in diagram on page , insert welting (see figure , page ) and baste the seam with all the thicknesses sewed in. at back seam ( ), continue welting along back edge of opening on ' " seam line. . stitch welted seams with a cording foot (see fig- ure , page ) in the same order in which they were basted (see diagram ). . pin marked lines of " seams together. continue as described under steps and under finish for bound edge, pages and . . turn slip cover to right side. place on chair and turn up lower edge even with chair upholstery. put welting under this edge and baste. . apply valance as described below. . finish the closing as described in step under finish for bound edge, page . how to make and attach valances to make a shirred valance . seam together pieces cut for valance (see page ) and press seams open. - . turn up and stitch a " hem along one edge. . mark off raw edge into spaces, each twice the measurement of side, front, side and back of chair in that order. bright inside story / ) . gather (see figure , page ) raw edge with two rows of stitching, Ø" and " from edge. make separate gathering threads for each section. . adjust gathers of each section to fit side in the usual manner (see figure , page ). pin gathered edge under lower edge of slip cover on " gathering line. adjust if necessary. . remove slip cover from chair, baste and edge stitch cover to valance on fold. to make a bor pleated valance . follow steps and for shirred valance above. . along raw edge on right side of fabric, measure off and mark " for seam allowance. . mark off four sections in the following order. each section should contain three times the length of a side. (substitute individual measurements.) a. times measurement of side of chair b. times measurement of front of chair c. times measurement of side of chair d. times measurement of back of chair . allow " for seam allowance on other end. . since the front of the chair is most important, the general width of the box pleats will be determined by the number of pleats it is convenient to fit into the front. on an average chair, from to pleats are used. an average chair which measures " across the front will be used as an example. to fit other chairs, substi- tute individual measurements. work as follows: since the length of the front of the chair is ", section b marked off on the valance will be ". the following bor pleated valance / / bright inside story - . . *— – – –-t—*-*—t-tº-º-º-º-º-º-º: diagram p : - - a. tt diagram q diagram r measurements for pleating the valance are deter- mined: a. amount between pleats— " (length of front of chair) b. amount for pleats— " ( times length of front of chair) c. number of pleats— d. amount for each pleat— " (step b –– by step c) e. amount between each pleat— " (step a -- by step c) divide section b as shown in diagram p. the " (half of space between pleats) space on each end is for the lap of the pleat on the corner. . if the side is the same length as the front or is evenly divisible by " (the figure in step e above) the side pleats may be measured and marked in the same way. if this is not possible, there will usually not be more than " (figure in step e) difference between the two measurements. in this case, figure out the amount of fabric for each pleat and amount of fabric / / bright inside story covering loose cushion press and stitch pleats together across the raw edge. . pin valance under fold edge of cover and adjust to hang evenly. . remove cover from chair, baste and stitch cover to valance along the fold edge. how to cover the loose cushion . seam pieces cut for boxing strip (see page ) together to make piece long enough to sew all around the cushion. press seams open. . when welting is being used, baste welting to right side of upper and lower cushion pieces, raw edges together. . begin to pin boxing strip to the middle of one side of upper piece of cushion. if a bound seam is being used, pin piece wrongsides together. if boxed or welted seams are used, right sides are pinned together. . baste a " seam for a joining, stitch, press. . when joining seam is made, baste pinned edges of strip to cushion, taking a " seam. . baste under piece of cushion to boxing strip just one half the distance around the cushion (half way along one side, all around the next side and half way along the next side). . stitch basted seams, using cording foot for welted seams. . finish opening as in step under finish for bound edge, page . the extension is placed on the under piece of cushion, the facing on the boxing strip (diagram s). fashion has its own brand of magic, and every well- dressed woman could teach houdini a trick or two. only instead of taking rabbits out of her sleeve, she reaches into her bureau or closet and comes out with a dazzling new collar, a delightful little hat. and presto-chango! before you can say “needle-and- thread,” a tailored town dress becomes a fluffy in- génue, a workaday suit a vamp. in the twinkling of an eye last year's dud is transformed into this year's darling. try it and see for yourself how versatile the simplest wardrobe can be made. it's the most inex- pensive magic in the world — a collection of simple- to-sew accessories is all you need. / / bag of tricks º, easy-to-make accessories felt bag (illustration on frontispiece) materials: felt—% yd.; lin- ing fabric—" yd.; inter- lining (strong, heavy un- bleached muslin or drill cloth)— % yds. directions for cutting: see figure , page , for direc- tions on how to enlarge and use patterns). button– pieces, pattern ixa– felt, interlining. trim off " on all edges of one interlining piece and " on all edges of three interlining pieces. back and flap— pieces, pattern ixb– felt. inter- lining. trim off " on all edges of one interlining piece and " on all edges of other interlining piece. reinforcement for top of bag— pieces of interlining, %" x ". flap facing— piece of felt, pattern ixc. front— pieces, pattern ixd- felt, interlining. trim off " on all edges of one interlining piece and %" on all edges of the other. gusset and handle piece— pieces, pattern ixe— felt, interlining. trim off " on all edges of the two interlining pieces, a " on all edges of six interlining pieces. handle facing— pieces of felt, pattern ixf. bag of tricks ( ) *— -> . <- zo t-> pattern ixa ^ z.a. y. o/v oz. d j. pattern ixf //a/vdaa; ac//v - *zzwºods z. a y o /v -o z, zo z | e—& “—- *—z & “ pattern ixb <— ºz-> . : pattern ixc pattern ixd a. aq y o/v 'oa.d t w | pattern ixe lining for front and back– pieces of liming fabric, pattern ixd. lining for gusset– pieces of lining fabric, pattern ixe to dotted line. directions for making: (press each piece of interlining bag of tricks / ) ing " from edge to the wrong side of felt piece. along top edge make two rows of stitching, one row %" and one row %" from edge. . take the two sets of interlining of gusset and handle piece. lap the wider ends one over the other for " " and stitch across this lapping once or twice. this makes one continuous piece. . take the two felt pieces of gusset and handle sec- tion. seam them together across the wide ends and press the seam open. baste the prepared interlining %" from edge to wrong side of fabric. . take two felt pieces for handle facing. baste them to the tops of gusset and handle section on the inter- lining side. around the edge of the facing only, stitch the two sections together with two rows of stitching, one row %" and one row %" from edge. . now the bag is ready to be put together. matching centers, baste the gusset first to the front and then to the back. stitch together with two rows of stitching, one row %" and one row %" from edge. connect stitch- ings at handle. . make button by enclosing interlining between fabric pieces and join with two rows of stitching, one row %" and one row %" from edge. attach to bag to meet buttonhole. - . lap one handle end over the other " and sew together invisibly. . sew lining pieces together and insert wrong side to wrong side. turn in raw edge and hem to bag along upper edge. - / bag of tricks collars and dickeys since the charm of neckwear is its crisp freshness, the prime requisite for fabrics is that they should launder well. piqué, handkerchief linen, dress linen, organdie, gingham, broadcloth, dress silks and rayons are suitable. figure — to whip on lace edging or insertion, place right side of lace against right side of finished edge of garment, edge to edge. work with lace towards body, easing the lace slightly between the thumb and forefinger, while taking small shallow whip stitches close together. figure — to make a detachable col- lar, place pieces of collar right side to right side. pin, baste and stitch around outer edge, making a plain seam / " wide (see figure , page ). trim seams to ' ", clip corners, if any. turn to right side. crease along seam line, baste close to crease and press. baste a strip of bias " wide, cut from fabric (see figures – , page ), or of bias trim (see figure , page ) to raw edge, right side to right side, turning in ends. stitch " from edge. turn under free edge and slip stitch (see figure , page ) to seam line. press. figure — to make a slashed opening with a convertible collar, mark position of slash for opening and center of facing with basting lines, but do not cut. baste center of facing to marked slash line, right side to right side. using a very small stitch, stitch / " to each side of basting, tapering to a point at bottom. stitch twice around point where seam is very narrow. make a narrow machine hem around edges of facing (see figures – , page ). slash opening and turn facing to wrong side. crease along seam line, baste close to crease, press. cut a straight piece of fabric " wide and equal in length to the neckline, allow- ing " for seams. fold through center lengthwise and stitch a " seam at both ends. turn collar to right side and press. baste and stitch one edge of collar to neckline (and facing) on wrong side, edge to edge (%" seam). fold in raw edge of collar on right side and slip stitch (see figure , page ) to seam. press. bag of tricks ( : short dickey wº- pattern x pattern xi | pattern xii material: fabric—% yd. directions for cutting: (see figure , page ). front— piece, pattern no. x; facing— piece, pattern no. x (see cut-off line); back– piece, pattern no. xi; collar – pieces, pattern no. xii. directions for making: . stitch back and fronts together at shoulder seams with a plain seam (see figure , page ). . make a slashed opening with a convertible col- lar (figure ). . finish all outer edges with a narrow hem (see figures – , page ). . if buttons are desired, make a thread loop about " from top on right side and two more at " intervals below (see figure , page ). . sew buttons (%" size) to opposite edge. bag of tricks / ) material: fabric — yd. (for each dickey); buttons (%" size)— (view a), (view b); elastic — " (view a). directions for cutting: (see figure , page ). note that the different revers, as well as the facing, have special cut-off lines that are clearly marked on the pat- terms. observe these lines when cutting. view a view b regulation dickey band bottom dickey fronts — pieces - sarı pattern no. xiii back – piece sarı . pattern no. xiv facing — pieces sa iile pattern no. xiii (cut-off at facing line) collar – pieces pieces pattern no. xv pattern no. xvi waistband pieces, each " x " view a – regulation dickey . mark buttonholes on outside of right front ac- cording to position marked (see figure , page ). . stitch fronts to back along shoulders, making a plain seam (see figure , page ). . make corded or welted buttonholes (figure ) as far as applying facing. to make worked button- holes (figure ) do so after facing has been applied. . make notched collar as shown according to either figure or . . finish buttonholes as in figure , or make worked buttonholes (figure ). sew buttons on left / / bag of tricks notched collar fig. figure — to make a notched collar by attaching under collar to garment and collar to facing, stitch under collar to neckline of garment, right side to right side, edge to edge, center of collar matching center back, and matching any notches. at ends of collar and at shoulder seam, clip garment the width of the seam. press so that both seam edges are turned toward collar edge in back and opened out flat in front. make a narrow machine hem on the shoulder and outside edges of facing pieces (see figures – , page ). stitch the outer collar to the two front facing pieces of the blouse, matching notches at the front edge of the collar. at ends of collar, clip facing the width of the seam. press seam open. fit the facing and collar to the garment, right side to right side. baste and stitch. trim seams to ". clip away seam at corners. turn front facing and outer collar to the wrong side, crease along seam line, baste close to crease, press. turn under the raw edge of the collar and slip stitch to seam line (see figure , page ). figure — to make a notched collar by making the entire collar separately, finish collar except neckline edge. match center back of collar to center back of garment on outside and baste to neckline. make a narrow hem on the shoulder and outside edges of facing pieces. apply facing to front and neck- line, right sides together, over the col- lar, baste and stitch. trim seams to " and clip away seam at corners. baste and stitch a %" strip of bias, folded through the center, at the back of the neck on seam line. turn facing and bias at neck to wrong side. slipstitch to garment (see figure , page ). figure — to mark buttonholes, mark on the right side on the thread of the goods with a running stitch in con- trasting thread. use an h-shaped mark- ing, the center line to mark the direc- ! ! #. . end º . º the º - - - -ić wa the distance from the edge of the gar- r * % ; – % — ment is one half the diameter of the ( i button to be used plus the seam allow- ance. the allowance for a buttonhole - is " longer than the diameter of the fig. button. measure exactly. to measure - the distance between buttonholes, use a hem gauge, see figure , page . bag of tricks / / fig. ?/g# t s / de vv r orv g. s / df $e; e wronwor r/g-h. t. s./de w r o n g. s foe: fac wav s/ de figure — the bound buttonhole made with a strip of material is a profes- sional finish, sometimes known as a welt buttonhole. measure and mark as shown in figure . cut a bias strip (see figures – , page ) of fabric " wide and long enough to allow for all the buttonholes. (each buttonhole requires two strips of fabric, " longer than buttonhole marking.) for a corded buttonhole, make a cording by inserting no. cable cord in bias strip (see figure , page ). for a welted buttonhole, fold strip in half lengthwise, right side out and stitch " from fold. trim raw edges of strip (in either case) to within " of stitching and cut into strips " longer than buttonhole mark- ing. baste strips on right side of garment with raw edges on marked line of buttonhole. stitch along stitching line of strips, exactly the length of the buttonhole marking. start stitching in center, stitch to one end, then back to opposite end and back to center. from wrong side, slash along marking line to within " of ends, then clip diagonally to the corners. bring strips through slashed opening to inside of garment. be careful not to strain ends. press. stitch triangular sections at ends to cording. make this a double stitching for strength. press. place facing over buttonhole, pin and baste carefully around buttonhole. slash through from right side to get correct position, then continue on wrong side to within /š" of ends, clip diagonally to corners. turn under slashed edges of facing and slip stitch (see figure , page ) to back of button- hole along stitching line. figure — to make a worked buttonhole, measure as directed in figure . stitch around marking by machine, using a small stitch to reinforce the button- hole. slash on marked line with a sharp scissors. finish with closely worked buttonhole stitches. - to make a buttonhole stitch, thread the needle with a double thread. hold buttonhole over forefinger and work from right to left, from the inside corner. take a few running stitches from left to right to anchor thread at starting point. bring the needle through from the wrong side just below stitching line, but do not draw it all the way through. hold the thread near the fabric over the forefinger with the middle finger. draw the thread near the needle to the right and then to the left under the needle. pull the needle through and draw up the loop thus made. work around the outside corner (toward edge of gar- ment) in a fan-shaped curve. finish at end with up-and-down stitches, secured by buttonhole stitches. buttonholes ſ / bag of tricks front to match buttonholes (see figure ). . finish sides of dickey with narrow hems (see figures – , page ). . make " machine stitched hem along lower edges. join back and front by inserting %" of elastic at each side in open ends of hem. view b — band bottom dickey . follow steps to under view a, above. . turn under and press %" around all sides of waistband pieces. fold in half lengthwise and mark centers. on lower edge of fronts, " in from side edges, gather " sections to ". button fronts together and pin at lower edge. insert front and back in each band, matching centers (see illustration, page ). baste all around band. edge stitch (see figure , page ) through all thicknesses. . fasten front band to back with hooks and eyes (figure ) or snaps (figure ). figure — to make a thread loop, mark off diameter of button on edge of garment where desired. these spaces may be adjacent or separated. make three stitches, joining one marking to the other, inserting a pencil to keep the loops the same size. cover these foun- dation stitches with buttonhole stitches (figure ). figure — to sew on buttons, mark position with pins. use a double thread. hide the knot under the button by pushing the needle through from the right side. place the button in position. if it has holes, lay a pin across the top to keep the thread loose and sew back and forth across the pin. by winding the º the button and fab- ric, a shank is formed, permitting the -- buttonhole to slip easily. g fig. bag of tricks / / figure – to sew on hooks and - eyes, use a double thread and an over- fig. i and-over stitch through holes. sew over - hook near top, to hold it down. the - curved eye extends slightly beyond the ſ edge of the opening. the straight metal bar or thread loop (figure ) is placed . on the seamline. - fig. . figure –to sew on snap fasteners, use a double thread and conceal knot under snap. use an over-and-overstitch. sew each hole separately and carry thread under snap to next hole. attach flat side of snap first. hold the garment closed and put a pin through the hole in snap to mark location of other half. place snaps not more than " apart. pointed or round collar material: yd. (see page for fabrics) . . . direc- tions for cutting: pieces, pattern no. xvii (see figure , page ) . . . directions for making: see figure , page , for making a detachable collar... suggested finishes: a lace edging (see figure , page ), a plain or corded piping (see figures and , pages and ), a scalloped edge. (mark edge of round collar with scallops. make collar in usual way. slash seam between scallops before turning.) —ö"—” pattern xvii (cut along dotted line for round collar.) ( ) bag of tricks dirndl (illustration, page ) materials: striped taffeta, " wide. (measure from waistline to floor and add ". double this measurement to find out how much fabric you need.) muslin. 's ya. directions for cutting: (see diagram a opposite for cutting layout for this dirndl and figure , page , for making and using patterns). cut fabric into two equal pieces. cut " off the width of one piece. from this piece cut the peplum (pattern no. xviii) in two pieces as shown in diagram a. from this piece, the waist- band " wide is also cut. the length of waistband equals your waistband measure plus " for seam allow- ance. it is cut in two pieces. there is sufficient fabric if piecing is necessary. directions for making: ( " seams are allowed) press all seams as you make garment. seam skirt on both sides. one side is left open " for placket. finish placket (see figure , page ). gather top of skirt (see figure , page ). seam pieces of the peplum. roll hem bottom edge, and gather top edge to %". baste to back, matching centers. cut piece of muslim " wide and the same length as the waistband. baste the muslim to the wrong side of one piece of waistband. seam the two pieces right sides together along one long side and two short ends and turn to right side. apply belt (see figure , page ; figure , page ), in- cluding peplum. slip stitch raw side edges of peplum to skirt along stripe. turn up hem. bag of tricks / the short drawstring dirndl be- low is made of denim. the length of a regular skirt plus " should be doubled for amount of fabric. turn in " top and bottom. make a " casing at top and draw cable cord through (about yds. needed). pattern xviii ºf - i i / ) bag of tricks espadrilles sizes or material: printed cotton—% yd.; grosgrain ribbon— % yds.; small pieces of felt, crinoline and toweling (scraps may be used since quantities needed are so small) . . . directions for cutting: (see figure , page ) add ' " around pattern edges for seam allowance; pieces, pattern no. xix— fabric, toweling, crin- oline, felt; bias strips (see figures to , pages and ). " x " for binding: %" x " for loops. directions for making: ( espadrille) fold %" x " bias strip with right side inside and seam long edges. turn to right side and cut in six equal pieces. place three sole pieces together, fabric on top, then toweling and crinoline. baste loops on fabric side as shown (see marks). apply bias all around (see figure , page ) catching in loops. sew felt sole to bottom and lace as shown. pattern xix bag of tricks [ / % % º º § % satº i. | º | º (ſ º | ſ o pattern xx sandals, bag, kerchief materials: denim— % yds.; heavy cable cord, yds.; small buckles, cork inner soles, pieces of felt, ” x ". directions for cutting: (see figure , page ). ker- chief— pieces, pattern no. xx— fabric (add ' " around pattern edges for seam allowance), crinoline (no seam allowance); triangle (% of " square). bag, pieces, %" x %" (one piece could be cut of water proof fabric); fabric circles " in diameter; cardboard circle, " in diameter. sandals, pieces. " x " (fronts); bias strips, " x %" (back strap); straight strips, %" x %" (ankle straps and " for center tab on front piece) ; pieces of felt cut to fit cork inner soles. directions for making—observe the draw- ings closely. there are no special problems in making this set. bag of tricks / allowance. hat-crown, pieces, pattern xxia, fab- ric, lining, crinoline; side-crown, pieces, pattern xxib, cut from same fabrics . . . bag, pieces, pattern xxic, fabric, lining; for tab, pieces ( " x %"), fabric, lining for strips . . . ascot, pieces, pattern xxid, fabric, lining . . . mittens, pieces, pattern xxie, fabric (remember that it must be cut so that there is one right and one left), lining, felt (no seam allowance. directions for making: these articles involve no par- ticular difficulties. for the hat the crinoline is basted to the fabric and then it is treated as one piece. on the mittens, stitch the fabric and lining right side to right side, except on bottom edge. turn to right side, press and slip stitch opening. stitch the elastic about %." from lower edge (see pattern) on wrong side of felt. place fabrić and felt wrong sides together and join with whipping stitches. pattern xxi . (patter, few ºuccess | who killed cock robin has always been much less of an enigma to the average woman than solving the mysteries of a pattern. for some reason many women shy away from commercial patterns under the impres- sion, apparently, that they’re deep enigmas. actually, following a pattern presents no more difficulties than learning the multiplication tables, and once you've mastered it, you'll think you've always known how. needless to say, it's an essential part of any woman's sewing education, especially today when patterns are more attractive than they ever were. the woman who wants the fashionable clothes of the moment is half way to having them if she makes herself pattern-wise. when you've finished the chapter that follows, you should be able to cut any pattern your heart desires. pattern for success / ] selection of pattern and fabric when making clothing, commercial patterns pro- vide fashions in the current trend which have been designed to fit certain definite sizes. even for those with the ability and the desire to design their own clothing, a commercial pattern makes a fine starting point. for successful dressmaking, the correct size of pat- term is essential. the most important measurements in choosing a pattern are the waist, bust and hip meas- urements. see page for directions for taking these measurements. check the measurements with the size information given on every pattern envelope. if they do not coincide with any one standard size, it is ad- visable to choose a pattern according to bust measure- ment, as the adjustment of the waist and hip is rela- tively easy. a skirt is always purchased by the waist imeasurement. - in order to have successful results in sewing, it is not enough to buy a pattern of the correct size. an- other important consideration is the fabric from which the pattern is to be made. it is a mistake to think that any fabric may be used with any pattern. patterns are designed with definite types of garments in mind, and pattern companies employ experts to give all the nec- essary information to insure success. on the envelope of some commercial patterns is a list of suitable fabrics. it is well to be guided by these suggestions. chapter , beginning on page , gives descriptions of various types of fabrics and suitable uses. this chapter also discusses various finishes and descriptive terms used selection of pattern / pattern for success commercial pattern on labels, to insure more intelligent purchasing of durable fabrics. there is usually more than one view pictured on the pattern envelope. before buying fabric, first choose the view to be made. on the back of the pattern en- velope there is a chart of yardage requirements for each view in all sizes. - for convenience some patterns also list the neces- sary motions. use the guide for correct thread and needles for specific fabrics on page . the thread should be slightly darker than the fabric, because thread, when worked into fabric, appears lighter. the minimum equipment necessary for sewing is given on page . before beginning to cut, consult page on the preparation of fabric for cutting to see whether shrinking the fabric is necessary. explanation of commercial pattern when beginning to cut, first take out the work- sheet that comes with the pattern. part of the work- sheet is devoted to pattern layouts showing the sewer how to lay out the pattern on the fabric in the most economical way. each view of the pattern has its own group of layouts for all sizes in various widths of fab- ric. pick out the layout of the view and size desired and circle it so that it may be referred to readily when- ever necessary. following this layout, unfold the pat- tern and check each piece against the layout. if the piece is to be used, mark it plainly in pencil with its correct name. fold together all the pieces which are not needed and return them to the pattern envelope. pattern for success / / every pattern has certain marks that must be un- derstood. on some patterns, directions are printed, but on most patterns various sized perforations indicate markings. look for the mark which indicates the seam allowance. this will usually be a line of marks or per- forations from " " to %" in from edge. notches are nicks in the edge of the pattern and are most impor- tant because they mark the points at which the various pieces must fit together exactly. darts are sometimes used to take in fullness at the back of the neck, the front shoulder, the top of the sleeve, the elbow, the underarm and waistline. they are wide at the seam edge and taper to a point in the body of the garment. darts are clearly marked on the pattern. tucks, pleats and gathers are also used to take in fullness but they are not stitched to a point as in the case of a dart. observe how they are indicated. somewhere on the pattern there will be some sort of a distinctive mark, not used for anything else, which will indicate the straight of the goods. these marks must always fall on a lengthwise thread of the fabric (see figure , page ). there can be no exception to this rule. never cut a piece with these marks placed otherwise in order to save material. the garment will not hang properly if the pattern is not cut with the straight of the goods properly set. alteration of pattern before placing the pattern on the fabric it will be necessary to give some thought to the fit of the pat- tern. the pattern was bought by the bust or waist alteration of pattern pattern for success / note measurements for ready reference whenever buy- ing or altering a pattern. have someone assist in taking the measurements as it is impossible to do it alone. remove dress and mark true waistline by tying a tape or ribbon around it. take all measurements around body easily except waist, since this is the only part of a garment which is fitted snugly. see diagram a for where to take measurements. front measurements individual measurements . neck – around neck at the level of the hollow of the neck in front and the base of the neck in back. . bust — around fullest part of the bust, about " below armhole, and a little higher in back; take measure- ment from back. . waist — around natural waistline. . hip — around body about " below waistline at fullest part of hips. . front waist length — from center of shoulder to waistline over fullest part of bust. . front skirt length — from waistline to desired length. back measurements . width of back — from armhole to armhole, " below base of neck. armhole should come well over shoulder blade in fleshy part between arm bone and shoulder blade. . back waist length — from base of neck to waist- line. . back skirt length — from waistline to desired length. arm and shoulder measurements . shoulder — from base of neck to top of arm bone in shoulder, a little to the back of center. . armhole — around top of arm over bone in shoulder from " below armpit. . outside arm — from shoulder to wrist, around elbow, with arm bent. . inside arm — from armpit to wrist with arm straight. . upper arm — around fullest part. . elbow — around elbow with arm bent. . wrist — around wrist, just above hand. / pattern for success - if alterations are made in the pattern before cut- ting, there will be much less difficulty in fitting after it has been cut. pattern pieces are pinned together and tried on to see where alterations are necessary but it is usually most satisfactory to make actual adjust- ments on the flat pattern. when preparing pattern to try on, look carefully at the pattern and the work- sheet. pin in all darts, pleats and tucks. gathered sec- tions should be folded and pinned into small pleats. pin together sections of waist, skirt and sleeve sepa- rately, matching notches. place pins parallel to edges at seam line. to prevent tearing, do not pin too close to armhole at underarm seam of the waist or sleeve. making alterations on the waist pattern try on the waist first with dress removed. directions for the more ordinary adjustments follow. if the waist pattern is too long or top short measure how much longer or shorter it is than the normal waistline by comparing the waist length measurements on page with similar meas- urements taken on pattern. the seam allowance should not be included in measuring pattern. three inches above the waist, on both back and front of pattern, draw a horizontal line across the pattern. this line should be at right angles to the lengthwise grain, which is plainly marked on the pattern by some special perforation or line. if the waist pattern is too long, measure up from this line and mark at two or three points a distance equal to the amount which the pattern needs to be shortened. using these marks as a guide, draw another line parallel to the first. bring first line to meet second, making a tuck, and pin (diagram b). when the pattern is placed on the fabric, be sure that the side seam is cut as shown by the dotted line. check to be sure that the back and front have been short- ened the same amount. if the waist pattern is too short, cut along the horizontal line on both back and front. pin tissue paper to the edge of the top piece of the pattern. from this edge measure down and mark a distance equal to the amount the pattern needs to be lengthened. following these marks, draw a horizontal line on the tissue paper. pin the lower piece to this line (diagram c). cut off excess tissue paper even with side edge. check to be sure that the back and front have been lengthened the same amount. / pattern for success a piece of tissue paper under neck edge and recut higher. if neckline is changed, adjust collar to match. take a tuck to make the collar smaller; slash and make an insertion of tissue paper to make the collar the necessary amount larger. making alterations on the skirt pattern when all the adjustments have been made in the waist, pin the skirt pieces together and pin up the hem allowance. fit skirt separately and make ad- justments. if a straight skirt pattern is too long or too short measure how much longer or shorter skirt is than normal. if it is only about " too long, turn the excess up at the hem. otherwise, remove the pattern and unpin. below the hipline make a pleat to shorten the necessary amount (dia- diagram l diagram m gram l), or make a slash and insertion to lengthen (diagram m) in the same manner as for waist pattern which is too short (see page ). the dotted line on the side indicates the edge to be followed in cutting. if a flared skirt pattern is too long or too short measure how much longer or shorter skirt is than normal. to make it longer, merely add necessary amount at hemline when cutting. continue line of flare at sides to new hemline. to make skirt shorter cut off desired amount at lower edge. slash pattern through center from hem almost to top. pin cut-off hem section over pattern and spread slash to fit it (diagram n). if pattern is too small at waistline and hips if the pattern does not come to the center at the waistline and hip, measure how much short of the center they are. the hipline is about " down from waistline. take off pattern and unpin. draw a line parallel to the grain line from hem to waist about one third of the distance from side to center. slash on the line and insert tissue paper (diagram ) in same manner as for waist pattern for success diagram diagram p pattern which is too short (page ). if the skirt is joined to a waist, the waist must be slashed to correspond. slash from the lower edge to about " below the armhole and insert paper to hold slash open the same amount that top of skirt was spread. if hips are large and waistline normal try on the pattern. the pattern will not come to the center at the hip. measure to find out how much allowance is necessary to make pattern reach center. slash in the same manner as before, stopping slash just short of the waistline. insert tissue paper to hold slash apart (diagram p.). make sure that the extra measurement at the hipline is correct, and let the rest fall naturally. to allow for this in another way, when cutting skirt add the extra amount from the hipline all the way to the lower edge. from the hipline up, taper off to nothing at the waist. / pattern for success diagram q diagram r if skirt pattern pulls up in front measure the amount by which the dress is short. if this is slight, raise the center back until the side seam hangs straight (diagram ). if the amount is considerable in a two-piece dress, add one half the amount at waistline (half at lower center front of waist and half at top center front of skirt, tapering off to the regular seam allowance at the side). add the other half at the lower edge of skirt (diagram r). making alterations on the sleeve when trying on pattern do not try to pin all the way into the armhole. just pin seam line to seam line on the upper half of the sleeve seam. if sleeve pattern is too long or too short measure sleeve pattern from center at top along lengthwise grain mark- ing to lower edge. do not include seam allowances. compare this measure- ment with outside arm measurement (page ). length is adjusted by a pleat to shorten (diagram s), or an insertion above and below the elbow to lengthen (diagram t). handle in the same manher as for the waist pattern (page ). pattern for success / diagram s diagram t diagram u if top of arm is larger than normal to find out how much is needed to adjust size of sleeve, compare armhole and upper arm measurements (page ) with similar pattern measure- ments. seam allowances should not be measured on pattern. slash through center the length of the sleeve pattern, stopping just before reaching wrist. use tissue paper to hold slash apart the required distance (diagram w). diagram v diagram w to adjust armhole for both methods when the sleeve is made larger, the armhole must also be adjusted. cut the armhole as indicated by taking off half of the amount added on the front and half on the back (diagram v). if arm is very thin to make the sleeve smaller, take tucks at the sides of the sleeve parallel to the grain line (diagram w) to make sleeve correspond to upper arm meas- urement (page ). add to the armhole the same amount taken from the sleeve, half to the back and half to the front. / pattern for success making alterations on patterns for slacks or shorts if the pattern is too long or too short measure the amount necessary to adjust the length. make a tuck to shorten (diagram +), or slash and make insertions to lengthen at the points marked with a dotted line (diagram ). make these in the same manner as for the waist pattern (page ). cutting out a pattern pinning the pattern to the fabric pinning use the pattern layout on the worksheet suitable to “" the view chosen, the width of the fabric and the size– the layout circled previously when pattern pieces were removed from envelope (page ). follow this chart exactly. a beginner who attempts to shift or rearrange is apt to forget that sleeves cut separately must be made to fit opposite arms. no additional space is needed between pieces when pinning, since the seam allowance is included in the pattern. an exception is made for cutting a coat or a garment of heavy fabric and for fabrics which fray easily. here a " allowance pattern for success / is made on side seams to allow for any alterations. fabrics with a design, a stripe, a check, a plaid or a map, must have special consideration and require more yardage than plain fabric. when a design points in one direction, the top edges of all the pattern pieces must point in one direction. when stripes, checks and plaids are used, the closings and seams must match, and the sleeves must match the blouse. this is accom- plished by making sure that corresponding notches on pieces which are joined together are laid on the stripes in exactly the same manner in each place where the pattern piece is applied (diagram y). occasionally, diagram y a stripe or a plaid will have a repeat, that is, certain grouping of stripes or plaids will repeat themselves at regular intervals. in this case even more care must be used in placing corresponding notches on the same stripe in a repeat. when there is an irregular repeat the top edges of all the pattern pieces must all face in one way. on a mapped or pile surface (see pages and ), there is an up and down. this is determined by brushing a hand over the surface. on both sur- faces, patterns must be placed so that top edges are all in the same direction. on the mapped surface the smooth way must run upward in the garment, but / pattern for success cutting out pattern marking fabric on a pile surface either way may be used as desired. press all wrinkles and creases from fabric. straighten top edge as shown in figures and , page . pin every piece in place as indicated on layout before cutting (diagram ). on each pattern piece, pin the marks diagram which indicate the straight lengthwise grain on a lengthwise thread. then smooth the pattern out to- ward the edge. pins are put in at right angles to edge (figure , page ) closer together along curves than along straight edges. if part of the pattern is laid on a fold, pin the edge that lies along the fold first. cutting out the pattern use bent trimming shears (dressmaker's shears) (see page ) for cutting. they will make long clean strokes. cut notches out rather than in as shown on the pattern. the seam allowance is thus kept intact. marking the fabric do not remove the pattern pieces from the fabric until each piece has been marked for stitching. the pattern is marked as follows: pattern for success / ] . mark all perforations which indicate seams, darts, pleats, pocket, and buttonhole locations. there are several methods of marking perforations: tailor's tacks (figure ), carbon paper with tracing wheel (figure ), chalked thread (figure ) and chalk- ing perforations marked with pins (figure ). <\s s - figure — to make tailor's tacks for marking fabric, use a double thread. make a looped back stitch in each perforation and join perforations with a long stitch. clip the latter and remove pattern. separate the two thicknesses of the fabric slightly and cut the threads. figure — to mark with a tracing wheel, do not trace directly on the table. be sure it has a protective cov- ering such as a marking board or layers of newspaper. cottons and linens may be traced directly through pattern. when marking with a tracing wheel - on wool fabrics, use white or yellow fig. carbon paper. fasten a piece of this carbon with wax side up to a card table or marking board. lay the cut-out portion of the garment fabric side down over the carbon. run the tracing wheel along marking lines on pattern. the lines will appear as a series of tiny white dots. remove pattern, but keep the two pieces of fabric pinned together. now turn marked piece uppermost, place unmarked piece against the carbon and run tracing wheel along the white line of dots. this marks second piece of fabric just as the first was marked. fig. figure — to mark with chalked \ thread, thread a needle with a short º thread, rub thread over chalk and zº - draw it through and out of perfora- tions. renew the chalk each time the thread is drawn through. / ) pattern for success . run a marking basting along all center folds, whether back, front, collar, skirt or yoke (figure ). always consult pattern directions to find out what perforations indicate the center front when the gar- ment has a front closing. on the sleeve begin from the marking which indicates the top of the sleeve and run a line of basting on a lengthwise thread down about ". about " under the armhole, make a line of basting on a crosswise thread. each of these lines will be per- pendicular to the other. . mark armhole and neckline with a running stitch along seam line (figure ). it is most impor- tant that these lines should not be stretched. always work on them with great care, especially the neck. it is advisable to machine stitch around these edges if the fabric is particularly sheer. perforations. mark with chalk over pin and reverse fabric to mark underside over pins. %, figure — to mark perforations fig. /º with chalk over pins, pin through the º - \ . ,” * ’ }=- lor" _c^ " _c^_or _or" yº- _of .* figure — to mark centers and to mark edges to prevent stretching, use basting (see figure , page ) along \ all center folds, whether back, front; \ ^ collar, skirt or yoke. armhole and - neckline edges are marked with a run- fig. ning stitch along seam line. nothing about you is as eloquent as the way you look. your clothes reflect your personality, tell the story of your taste. it's in your hands whether they tell an attractive story, one that makes people like to look at you, makes you proud to look at yourself. that doesn’t mean you have to spend a fortune on your clothes, but it does mean that they must be be- coming, fit like the proverbial dream. nobody knows or cares how much your dress or your blouse cost, but what does matter is the finesse with which it's put together. in this chapter you will get to the bottom of every dressmaker's trick, learn to look-like-a-mil- lion and do it for a song. º: / ] on the make general procedure general procedure in making a garment (for details on steps – , see chapter , page .) . select the pattern and fabric, matching find- ings (page ) at the same time. . according to view of pattern chosen, determine pieces of pattern to be used. . alter pattern, if necessary. . follow pat- tern layout in cutting fabric, being careful to check straight of goods. . see that all perforations, notches and markings are made. . work on a table. . pin before basting, inserting pins at right angles. on seams match notches, pin ends and then pin in between (see page for details on bastings). . before stitch- ing the seams, test the machine stitch and the tension on a sample piece of the fabric used (see page ). see chart on page for correct needle and thread sizes to be used with every fabric. specific instructions on how to make a skirt, a blouse and a dress follow. in studying the steps, it will be observed that there is a certain similar routine in each one. for successful results, this order of procedure should be followed in making any garment. two words which occur frequently are fitting and pressing. pressing is discussed on page , and fitting on page . without careful attention to these two details, the garment will look “homemade.” - when making any garment, basting, darts, pleats, seams, necklines, plackets, belts, pockets and hems are mentioned. various finishes for all of these construc- tions are discussed, beginning on page . at each on the make / . basic dress — suggestions for making given on following page. basic skirt and blouse— suggestions for making given on following page. / / on the make steps in making garments stage of the procedure turn to this reference section and choose the construction best suited to the garment. steps in making a skirt for each construction, see reference section, beginning on page . . stitch any seams and baste all darts and pleats that are part of the actual construction of the front and back. . pin and baste skirt together along side seam markings, allowing opening at left side for placket. . try on skirt right side out for first fitting (see page ). . stitch darts and seams and press. . finish placket and press. . finish seams. . apply belt to top of skirt and press. . try on for second fitting (see page ). . turn up and finish hem. . sew fastenings on skirt. . press skirt. steps in making a blouse for each construction, see reference section, beginning on page . . baste all darts, pleats and gathers that are part of the actual construction of the front and back. . pin and baste blouse together along seam markings at underarm and shoulder. . try on blouse right side out for first fitting (see page ). . stitch darts and seams, press. . finish seams. . make pockets and buttonholes (if they are welted or corded) and press. . apply facing and collar and press. . finish welted buttonholes, or make worked buttonholes. . sew on buttons. . stitch, press and finish sleeve seam. . pin and baste sleeve into blouse. . try on for second fitting (see page ). . sew in sleeve, finish seam and press. . make and put in shoulder pads. . try on for third fitting (see page ). . finish lower edge of sleeve. . finish lower edge of blouse. . press blouse. steps in making a dress for each construction, see reference section, beginning on page . . stitch any seams and baste all darts, pleats and gathers that are part of the actual construction of the front and back pieces of dress. when there is a special construction on the skirt, such as the pockets on the dress illus- trated, make the skirt front as directed in the pattern. . pin and baste skirt and blouse pieces together separately along seam markings and try on right side out for first fitting (see page ). . stitch darts, gathers or pleats, underarm and side seams, shoulder seams and press. . make pockets and buttonholes (if they are welted or corded) and press. . apply facing and collar and press. . finish welted buttonholes or make worked buttonholes. . sew on buttons. . stitch and press sleeve seams. pin and baste sleeve into blouse. . turn top edge of skirt to wrong side along seam line and baste along edge. . pin skirt to waist along waistline, matching center front and back as well as side seams. between center and side points distribute fullness as indicated. baste. . try on for second fitting (see page ). . stitch waistline seam along edge and press. . sew in sleeves, finish seams and press. . make and put in shoulder pads. . finish side placket of dress. . make belt. . try on dress for third fitting (see page ). . finish lower edge of sleeves. . turn up hem and finish. . make belt loops. . press dress. on the make / / sewing details basting basting is used to hold fabric in place for machine stitching, fitting or other finishing. pin before basting (see figure , page ). use a single knotted thread. uneven basting is the basting generally used as a quick guide line where there is no particular strain (see figure , page ). even basting and slip basting used in fitting are described in figures and . to remove bastings, see figure , page . z figure – even basting is used as a firm basting for fitting or stitch- ing. make stitches and spaces about $ " long. fig. figure — slip basting is done on the right side of a garment, when making alterations which have been marked on the right side and when -º-wrº-h matching plaids. one marking line is - folded and laid against the other. pin. fig. slip needle along inside fold, push it through and pick up a few threads on the opposite side. draw thread through and repeat. darts basting darts are used to take in the fullness of a garment at various points, usually darts at back of neck, shoulder, underarm, waistline, top and elbow of sleeve (diagram a). they make a garment fit properly and bring it into the diagram a / / on the make correct grain. darts are also used for decoration. fitting darts are stitched on the wrong side, decorative darts on the right. figure shows how darts are marked, stitched and finished. darts at the shoulder, the back of the neck, the top of the sleeve and the waistline are pressed toward the center. darts in the elbow and underarm are pressed up. pleats fig. figure — to make darts, mark with tailor's tacks or tai- lor's chalk (see page ). tai- lor's tacks show on both sides of the fabric, making it easier to work on either side. baste marks together. start stitching from the point of the dart, leav- ing long thread ends, and stitch up to wide end. tie thread ends together at point, or thread them into needle and secure with an over-and-over stitch. on a heavy fabric, slash dart through the center, press open and overcast edges (see figure , page ). pleats . when pleats are indicated in a garment, do not sew the side seams before the pleats are laid. if the section containing the pleats has joining seams, these should be completed before the pleats are made. side pleats are pleated in one direction (diagram b). a box pleat consists of two side pleats folded in opposite directions (diagram c). an inverted pleat consists of two side pleats folded to face each other'(diagram d). pleats may be made on the straight of the goods or on the bias. the pattern markings indicating pleats should be followed very closely as they are care- fully placed so that the pleats will not twist when completed. study the directions to be sure which marking indicates the fold line. make the mark- -ejest diagram c . diagram d on the make / ] figure — pinked seams are used on woolens, fig. silks, cottons or rayons that do not fray easily. use pinking shears, sewing machine pinking attachment (see machine manual), or ordinary shears. to pink with ordinary shears, pinch edge of seam between thumb and forefinger, cut notches into seam, edge to edge, being careful not to cut too near the stitching line. : ; : fig. ; figure — a turned seam is used on silk or rayon crepes, or other non-transparent light- weight fabrics. seam should be at least " wide. press seam open. turn raw edge under ". baste, holding seam free from garment. stitch close to edge. - fig. figure — a top-stitched seam is a tailored seam, used on skirts and dresses. press plain seam open and, on right side of garment, add a row of º t t t t stitching on each side of seam. ; ! t t ! fig. - * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - figure — a double stitched seam is used on sheer fabrics. press edges together and, holding them free from garment, stitch seams to- gether %" from seam. trim. over- cast edges if they fray (see figure , page ). figure — to apply a faced collar to a neckline, baste collar wrong side down to right side of neck edge. cut a matching bias strip " longer than collar and about " wide (figures – , page ). bias trim may also be used. baste the bias strip, right side down and edge to edge with collar, and stitch along top edge of bias through all thicknesses. turn in ends and opposite edge of strip. blind hem to seam on in- side of garment (figure , page ). / ) on the make closings pockets ures and , page ). on a slashed neckline a straight collar is both simple and attract, ve (figure , page ). these necklines may also be finished with bias binding or bias trim. to bind a neck edge or slash, see figure , page . stretch binding when turning point of slash. for a v-neck make a true miter at the point. closings there are several types of closings. buttons and buttonholes are the most ordinary. buttonholes may be worked (figure , page ), or they may be corded or vºlted (figure , page ). when using buttonholes, the buttons must be sewed on securely (figure , page ). worked thread loops (fig- ure , page ) are also used with buttons. snap fasteners (figure , page ), or hooks and eyes (figure , page ) are used for invisible closings. zippers are a modern and convenient method of closing. one of the most com- mon uses of the zipper is in the slashed opening at the back or front of the neck (figure ). | | figure — to apply a zipper in a slashed neck opening so that it is con- cealed, mark opening with basting thread the length of zipper plus $ " for top finish. cut a piece of fabric % " wide and " longer than marking. apply right side of piece to right side of fabric directly over marking. baste in place. machine stitch on wrong side as shown, using a small stitch. stitch /s" from marking at top and taper to a point at end of marking. stitch twice around point to prevent pulling out. slash on marking line to point. turn facing to inside, baste and press. baste edges of slash together with a slip basting (see figure ) as shown. place center of closed zipper right side down exactly over basted opening on wrong side of garment. top of pull should come " from edge of fabric. pin and baste zipper in place as shown. stitch from right side. make allowance for extra width of zipper slider and continue stitching at that width as shown. trim facing even with edge of tape and overcast edges together (see figure , page ). conceal top tape ends in neck finish. pockets pockets add interesting detail to all types of garments. the size, shape and placing are important matters in the construction. a patch pocket is the easiest. on a tailored suit the patch pocket is frequently lined (figure ). the welt pocket (figure ) is a simple tailored pocket and is suitable for both suits and dresses. the welt may be of contrasting fabric, if desired. a i - t - : * | . t - i - i i i - i - ; * | * * - - i - * i - * . . "--- fig. / / on the make plackets h figure — to make a zipper closing on dress or skirt placket, cut a facing strip of fabric %." wide and " longer than opening. on wrong side of garment, ----- - mark seam allowances on both edges with bastings. - trim front seam allowance to % ". baste facing to front of opening, right sides together, edge to edge. stitch from one end of opening to the other so that stitching line is continuous with that of side seam. trim seam. turn facing in at seam line and press. at back of open- c//p ing, fold seam allowance %" away from marking to- *> wards raw edge, continuing fold " above and below opening. baste and press. pin and baste back edge of opening to zipper tape, close to metal. on skirt, place zipper / " below top of skirt. ease fabric to tape so that metal will lie flat. stitch close to edge with cording foot. extend stitching beyond opening to ends of tape r- at both ends. at ends of tape, clip back seam allowance | in to seam so that it will lie flat. on right side, pin front | edge of placket to seam line and baste firmly. stitch &o/v front of placket to tape on right side, using cording—cºº" " . foot. make allowance for the extra width of the zipper slider and continue stitching at that width. on skirt, | conceal tape ends in belt. | plackets a dress placket should be in the left underarm seam. it must be long enough to slip the garment on easily, usually from " to ” long, " to " above waistline, " to " below waistline. the placket should be carefully handled to prevent stretching or bulging. zippers are comfortable and convenient in dress plackets (figure ). since zippers are not always available at the present time, plackets with snap fasteners and even buttons are a necessity (figure ). a skirt placket is made in the left side seam and is usually " long. skirt plackets are made the same as dress plackets. / / on the make figure —when stitching the sleeve in, keep the sleeve side up. start stitch- ing at the underarm seam and let the beginning and end of stitching overlap about ". see page for directions for pressing sleeves. fig. figure — to finish a long tight sleeve with seam binding and snap fasteners, clip back seam allowance in to seam / " above top of opening, being careful not to cut stitches. on back seam, turn / " to wrong side, baste, press. turn up hem, baste, press and trim to ". on front seam, turn regular seam allowance to wrong side. baste, press, trim to %" and clip corners. starting at clip- ping of back seam. "'ace seam binding on fold edge of back opening. baste down edge of back opening, around edge of hem, and up front edge of opening, mitering corners. slip stitch both edges of binding to sleeve (see figure , page ). press. sew on snap fasteners (see figure , page ). figure –to set a plain sleeve in an armhole, have sleeve right side out and work from wrong side of garment. working on sleeve side fit sleeve around the armhole. match underarm seam to underarm seam, top of sleeve marking to shoulder seam, and match notches. even the plainest sleeve has slight full- ness at the top which must be eased in (see figure , page ). when easing- in process is difficult on woolens, see diagram p, page . figure — to finish a sleeve with a turned-back cuff, first make cuff by stitching together ends of a straight piece the length of edge of sleeve plus " and twice desired finished width plus ". stitch one edge of cuff to wrong side of sleeve, edge to edge, right sides together. trim searc. turn free edge under ", baste, slip stitch to seam and press. turn back cuff to conceal seam. fig. º on the make / / figure — to make a zipper closing in a long tight sleeve, baste two sides of opening together as if for finished seam. press open. place center of closed zipper, right side down, exactly over basted seam. top of pull should come " from lower edge of sleeve. pin and baste zipper in place as shown. stitch from right side. make allowance for extra width of the zipper slider and continue stitching at that width as shown. note that stitching extends only as far as top of pull. trim seam allowance even with edges of tape and overcast together (see figure , page ). conceal tape ends in edge finish. turn down tape ends and apply seam binding as shown. figure — to finish a sleeve with a continuous bound placket with wrist band, make a " slash, %" from underarm seam on the back of the sleeve. for placket, cut strip on straight of goods, " wide and " longer than twice the length of opening. starting at one edge of sleeve, place right side of bind- ing against right side of sleeve, edge to edge. pin. about " from point of slash, slip the sleeve in from the edge of binding / ". baste ( " seam). tapering basting to / " at point of slash. stitch. press the seams toward edge of binding. turn binding to wrong side. turn raw edge under ", baste close to edge and press. blind hem to sleeve along stitching line (see figure , page ). front of placket is folded back on seam line and pressed. back is allowed to extend. gather edge of sleeve to fit wrist band. figure —shoulder pads may be made accord- ing to directions furnished with every pattern in . s which they are used. these pads will conform to t . the current fashion. a good standard shoulder % s. pad is made by cutting four triangles according to dimensions given in the figure. place two tri- <- fi “ — angles, right sides together. stitch along long - side only (%" seam). trim, press seam open. fig. . fold on stitching line, wrong sides together. place cotton batting between two triangles, mak- ing padding about %" thick at long side and thin- ning the layer gradually until it is reduced to nothing at point of triangle opposite long side. the size of the pad may be varied to suit your own taste by inserting more or less padding. match and pin raw edges and bind (see figure , page ). <- y_ * -> on the make ( ) . figure — to apply belting, turn under %" along raw edge of skirt top and placket and baste. make " hem at one end of belting. apply belting to turned edge of skirt with the hemmed end of belting, wrong side up, at inside edge of front placket facing. pin and baste belting all around edge to the end of the facing of placket in back. cut belting " beyond edge of skirt. turn the extra piece back for a hem. stitch around the top of the n skirt. apply hooks and eyes as shown (see figure , page ). front figure — to make a separate fabric belt, cut a piece of fabric equal in length to waist measurement plus " and twice as wide as desired finished width, plus " for seams. cut an interlining of heavy muslin the desired finished width, plus /, "seam allowance. fold t; belt in half lengthwise right side inside and fig. pin edges together. on one side of belt, pin -r— edge of interlining even with raw edges of - belt. baste through all thicknesses " from f edge. to make one end pointed, mark as y shown. beginning at center fold, stitch around '------------------------------ point and continue stitching the length of the belt on the seam line. do not stitch straight end. trim seam. turn belt to right side (fig- ure , page ). figure — to cover a buckle, place it right side down on the wrong side of fabric and trace around the inside and outside edge. allow %" seam on each edge. clip inside edge at corners. catch stitch edges together (see figure , page ). cut and clip back [... in same manner, fold raw edges to wrong side and place on uckle. whip stitch (see figure , page ). º zº § i : º º zº % figure – to attach a prong buckle to a belt, make a hole in-belt " from straight end. use a stiletto (see page ) and make hole large enough to slip the prong through. finish as a worked buttonhole (see figure fig. , page ). place buckle on belt with prong through hole. turn in raw edges at end and slip stitch straight end to belt (see figure , page ). slip pointed end through buckle and draw through to fit waistline. at the point where the prong meets the belt, make a hole in belt and finish as before. figure — to make thread belt loops, use double thread, knot ends and insert needle through side seam half the width of belt below waistline. re- inforce this point with small buttonhole stitch (see figure , page ). take another stitch at same point but do not draw the thread ºft to complete the stitch. this leaves a loop at end near work. place thumb and forefinger in loop. using forefinger, draw thread through loop, thus making another loop. draw this loop out and tighten the first one, continue chain of loops to desired fig. length. pass needle through last loop and draw thread tightly to close chain. g insert needle in seam at same distance above waistline, draw through to wrong side and fasten securely. ºlºrazº ~~~~< on the make / / pressing since success or failure in sewing often depends on the pressing during the making. see page for descriptions of the pressing equipment mentioned. general instructions . always test the temperature of the iron on a scrap of fabric before press- ing (belt or inside of hem), even if iron has an automatic regulator. . never rest iron on fabric. keep it moving constantly to avoid marking, always fol- lowing the straight grain (see figure , page ). . while pressing, always smooth garment into correct shape so that fabric is not stretched or creased. press cloths for use with a regular iron, have three pressing cloths, one of cheesecloth, one of muslin, and one of drill cloth. remove all sizing by rinsing fabric before using. a steam iron needs no press cloths. uses for the different cloths are given with instructions for pressing specific fabrics. pressing fabrics . cotton — press on right side, sponge lightly and press with mod- erately hot iron. if sheen appears on test scrap, use damp muslin pressing cloth. to remove wrinkles on sheer cottons, use cheesecloth, almost dry, iron- ing with a very moderate iron. . linen — press on wrong side. sponge lightly and press with mod- erately hot iron. . rayon and silk — press on wrong side with moderately warm iron. special care must be exercised with rayon fabrics because some are com- pletely dissolved by excessive heat. when moisture is necessary, first cover garment with a dry drill cloth. then place a damp muslin cloth on top. the steam will penetrate drill cloth without leaving a sheen on fabric. . wool — press on wrong side and cover with a damp muslin pressing cloth. press with moderate iron until cloth is almost dry. this steams fabric. replace damp cloth with dry cloth. continue pressing until almost dry. press- ing woolen garments until they are completely dry gives a sheen to garment. . velvet or velveteen — press on wrong side. place right side of fabric down on needle board, press on wrong side with moderate iron (diagram e). to steam velvet, stand a hot iron on end and cover with a damp press cloth (diagram f). after the seams have been opened, the wrong side of the fabric should be passed over the steaming press cloth. hold fabric loosely so that it will not mark. - $º "tº pressing / ) on the make pressing rules . press seams immediately after stitching. do not wait until garment is completed. . press all seams up from bottom or in towards center of garment, except at waistline. . . straight seams are usually opened out flat and pressed on a regular ironing board. . underarm seams on sleeve, sleeve finishes, and other small seams are more easily pressed on a sleeve board (diagram ). ſ diagram g . seams at armhole are usually pressed toward the neck except when the fabric is exceptionally heavy, or when a coat is to be lined. then they are pressed open. these seams may be pressed more easily over a tailor's cushion which is also used for all curved seams (diagram h). . press darts on light fabrics to one side, either up or towards center. on heavy fabrics slash darts and press open. - . do not press gathers flat. lift portion of garment while working point of iron into them. do a little at a time. . the lower edge of the hem should be pressed to give a firm, trºº hemline before marking the width of the hem, and again after the final sewing. always press a hem from the bottom up, never around the bottom of the skirt. steam out basting thread marks by pressing them lightly on the wrong side. on the make / ) . shrinking out excess fullness at top of sleeves and at the hemline is done with an iron and a press cloth, or with a steam iron. place the top of the sleeve over a tailor's cushion (diagram i). apply the moisture directly or by means of a dampened press cloth according to the type of fabric, as directed above, then press. the hem is placed flat on a regular ironing board before the seam binding is sewed on and pressed in the same way. fitting if the pattern has been altered carefully, fitting should not be difficult. to fitting refit, the seams are repinned with pins placed parallel to the body. the fitting may be done on a form which conforms to the measurement of the person to be fitted (see page ). otherwise it is done on the person for whom the gar- ment is being made; in this case it is helpful to have the assistance of another person. when it is not possible to use a form or to have another person's help, the dress is placed on the person to be fitted, and, with the help of a full length mirror, corrections are noted and indicated. the garment is then taken off and adjustments are pinned. the garment is put on again and another check made, and this is repeated until all corrections are complete. first fitting skirt (separate, or part of a dress) pin in corrections according to directions which follow. then remove skirt and mark new seam lines with tailor's chalk or basting. if alterations are not too great, seams may be rebasted immediately by matching new markings. if alterations are considerable, take out side seam bastings, fold skirt pieces in half and check alterations to make sure that they are evenly made. rebaste and try on skirt to recheck fitting. try on skirt right side out with darts, gathers, pleats and seams basted. pin belt or strip of fabric snugly around waist at natural waistline. to this, pin the skirt at the waistline seam marking. make sure that markings at center front and back are at center of body and perpendicular to the floor. pin placket at regular seam allowance. / / on the make diagram ; see if the lengthwise seams appear straight and perpendicular to the floor. if the side seams swing forward, raise back of skirt slightly to bring back into line. if side seam is too far forward or backward, shift seam slightly by taking more from back or front. see if crosswise grain around hips is parallel to the floor. raise or lower the waist seam line until the grain is correct at the hipline. see if the fit around the hips allows for sitting down comfortably. if the skirt is let out or taken in at the hipline, continue seam at same width from hipline to lower edge. blouse (separate, or part of a dress) when working on a form, alterations on the blouse are pinned on the right side of the blouse. when pinning on self, it may be easier to work on left side. after alterations are pinned on one side, remove blouse and mark new lines with basting or tailor's chalk. take blouse apart, fold front at center, wrong sides together, or match two pieces if blouse opens down the front. pin all edges together at underarm seams, shoulder seams and armhole edges. mark the other half according to the alterations made, using a tracing wheel or tailor's tacks (see page ). repeat on back of blouse. if changes have been numerous, rebaste and try on garment to check fitting again. try on blouse right side out, with darts, gathers, pleats and seams basted. if the blouse has a front opening, pin together at center. (do the same if there is a back opening.) make sure the markings at centerfront and back are at center of body and perpendicular to the floor. on the make / / see if the shoulder seam is a straight line from the neck to the large bone in the shoulder and if the underarm seam is perpendicular to the floor. if shoulder or underarm seam is too far forward or backward, shift either seam slightly, taking more from back or front as necessary. see if the seam line of the armhole is correctly placed. the armhole seam line should coincide with the top of the shoulder and continue as an almost straight line, following the natural curve of the arm. the shoulder seam may be shortened by deepening the dart in the shoulder, and taking a corresponding dart in the back if necessary. the armhole should be curved to follow the curve of the armpit, making armhole at underarm come up almost to armpit. if the armhole is tight at the place of greatest curve, make small slashes into the seam allowance, being careful not to cut in too far. diagram k diagram see if crosswise grain at the bust is parallel to the floor. raise the shoulder on back or front wherever necessary to bring the blouse into correct grain and do not forget to adjust armhole accordingly. see if the shoulder darts and under bust darts appear in a straight line, adjusting accordingly. see if the fit across the bustline is loose enough. let out or take in the under- arm seam as necessary and remember the armhole adjustment. see if the neckline fits snugly and smoothly. do not twist the body when fitting the neckline at the back. learn to judge the amount of alteration by standing in front of a mirror. if the neckline is tight at the place of the great- est curve, make small slashes into the seam allowance, being careful not to cut in too far. this slashed edge is later cut off. second fitting separate skirt check position of fastening for belt and mark hem (see page ). separate blouse try on blouse with sleeves basted in. see if sleeve stands up in the arm- hole. when the arm hangs down at the side, the sleeve hangs straight down from the top of the sleeve cap with the lengthwise grain in the upper sleeve perpendicular to the floor and the crosswise grain. when sleeves seem to twist toward the back, clip bastings at top between notches and shift sleeve slightly in order to straighten it. diagram m Ž / / - on the make dress try on dress with skirt basted to the blouse and sleeves basted in. pin placket together at marked lines. see if waistline seam follows the natural waistline of the body. clip bastings if necessary and raise or lower until it is correct. see if waistline is snug and comfortable. if the seams were adjusted prop- erly in the first fitting, there will be no difficulty about this. check the sleeve in exactly the same way as given for the separate blouse. *=[it third fitting diagram n separate blouse check sleeve length and make a line of pins at correct length. bend elbow on long sleeve as this requires extra length. after removing garment, even pinned line and mark with a basting. finish as desired. dress check sleeve length as above. check position of belt and, with belt in place, mark hem (see page ). . t. tailer's capprentice fashionably speaking, this is the tailored age. a jacket and skirt are practically the uniform of the well- dressed woman. morning, moon and might a suit is trim, meat, practical. a suit is versatile, adapts itself readily to any situation, from a day at the office to tea at the committee chairman's house. with a little ac- cessory juggling, a suit can take you around the clock, across the country. it's the leading lady of this chapter in which you are thoroughly coached in the fine art of tailoring. / / the tailor's apprentice tailor’s tricks before cutting successful tailoring of a jacket or a coat is the result of accuracy in cutting, fitting, basting and sewing, a thorough job of pressing, and a few tricks of the trade. the tricks of the trade are: . the facings of the front opening and of the col- lar must have a stiffening known as an interfacing. the interfacings are made of muslim, percale or light- weight canvas which should be shrunk by washing until all sizing has been removed and pressed while still damp. if, in makeovers, the old interfacing is used, do the same thing in order to renew the “body.” . this interfacing is reinforced by means of a spe- cial diagonal basting. . certain seams are taped for extra firmness. before cutting the garment first alter the pattern as described on pages to . since most tailored garments are made of heavy fabric which is likely to tear the pattern while it is being pinned, many beginners find it advantageous to cut the garment in unbleached muslin first. all the marks of the pattern are transferred to this muslin garment by means of tailor's tacks or tailor's chalk (see figures and , page ). if there is no seam at the center back, mark center back with a basting. baste all darts and gathers into muslim garment and baste pieces together. put on muslin garment and fit it (see page ), making allowances for the fact that a lining is to be inserted. this muslim pattern may be kept and used as a master pattern, making it easy to alter other patterns. the tailor's apprentice / / how the tailor does it / / the tailor's apprentice cutting directions cutting directions garment and sleeves follow instructions for placing pattern on fabric and marking given on pages to . special care should be taken when cutting woolens, because, although they are heavier, they must hang correctly. when cutting the collar, the upper piece should be placed so that the center fold lies on the straight lengthwise grain. the under piece or the facing is placed on the true bias. the pattern marks will show clearly how to do this correctly. when cutting, in- crease seam allowance on side seams to " in all cases. when using a muslin pattern, rip it apart, press and cut as if from a paper pattern. when the pattern directions instruct that a piece should be cut on a fold, fold the muslin pattern to correspond with original paper pattern. this is usually done on the back or the collar. transfer all marks from the muslin to the fabric. if alterations have been made, it is the new marks that are trans- ferred. to do this, place pins on the muslin side through all the marks so that they penetrate all thicknesses to the opposite side. mark on fabric side with chalk. remove muslin. pin through marks just made and chalk on the other side. diagram c diagram, a diagram b interfacings the interfacings for the jacket may be cut from a paper pattern or from the muslin. diagrams a, b and c indicate interfacings. the two front pieces are cut on the straight of the goods and the back is cut all in one piece on the bias. if desired, interfacing may be cut from facing pattern. the collar interfacing is cut from the under collar pattern and is also cut on the bias. front of lining cut from the regular pattern for the front minus the part covered by the front facing. consult pattern guide sheet for marks which indicate the cutting line for lining. pin, mark and cut the lining, allowing " excess on all seams to allow for adjustment for padding. when the muslin pattern is used, fold it back along the line where the facing ends and use this portion for a pattern. the tailor's apprentice / <—s-fa-a- - - t-of- at&kaa-e-> ast! ^ %. . zay's-> – &////vg z ezazz-a-f-z - - - - * - - - diagram d back of lining (with center seam) place back pattern on folded fabric with center edge of pattern / " from fold (diagram d). pin and mark as for original garment. mark center back edge of pattern on fabric. at center back, cut %" farther out than the mark just made. the extra inch thus given at center back is used for a pleat. cut around remainder of pattern, % " farther out than regular seam allowance. back of lining (with fold at center back) place back pattern on a folded fabric with center edge of pattern / " in from fold. pin all around and mark as for original garment. mark center back edge of pattern on fabric. leave center fold uncut. cut around pattern /?" farther out than regular seam allowance. this extra inch at center back is used for a pleat. sleeves the sleeves are cut exactly as the original garment except for the extra seam allowance. interlining. see directions on page . making the garment fitting sewing when the garment has been cut, baste all darts and seams in body of gar- directions ment and try on for fitting. instructions on fitting, basting and stitching begin on page . applying the interfacing to body after the body and shoulder seams of the garment have been sewed and pressed open, the interfacing is applied. if there are any darts in the inter- facing, make them on the right side, stitch, slash through center and press open. place garment wrong side out flat on a table or on a form. apply inter- facing to corresponding parts of garment wrong sides together; match darts, if any, and tack them together. pin first down center and then pin all around edges. baste %" in from seam line on shoulders and underarm and " from edge along armhole and front. cut away seam allowance of interfacing at f / the tailor's apprentice <– o -> diagram q – / °—e diagram p diagram r making hem turn up hem on jacket, pink raw edge or run machine stitching close to edge and catch stitch (see figure , page ). baste inner edge of facing to inside of jacket, turning rever out while doing so to make sure it is not too tight. catch stitch to jacket. setting a two-piece sleeve into jacket match and stitch seams of sleeves. press seams open, using tailor's cushion to shape. at top of sleeve cap, gather along seam line between notches (see figure , page ). gather a second line ' " nearer edge (diagram p). turn sleeve to right side. set into armhole. match the two sets of underarm perfora- tions, the shoulder seam and top sleeve perforations, and corresponding sleeve and armhole notches (see figure , page ). work from the sleeve side. pin around underarm from notch to notch. draw gathers of sleeve cap to fit arm- hole, fasten. distribute gathers evenly. pin all around. try on and check fit of sleeve (see page ). remove sleeve from armhole. turn to wrong side, place the gathered edge over a tailor's cushion and shrink out all fullness of gathers (see page ). turn to right side. place sleeve in armhole, match perfora- tions and notches, as above. check fit. baste. stitch. turn up hem of sleeve and pink raw edge, or machine stitch close to edge, catch stitch. pressing the jacket before the shoulder pads and lining are put in, the jacket should have a final pressing (see page ). armhole seams should be pressed open. it is ad- visable to have this pressing done by a tailor. making the shoulder pads from thin muslin cut triangles, following dimensions given (diagram q). place a layer of cotton batting on one triangle, make padding about %." thick at " side, and thin the layer gradually until it is reduced to nothing at the point opposite (diagram r). place a second triangle on top, matching long side to long side. secure layers together with large diagonal stitches. place pad in shoulder of jacket with " side projecting slightly into sleeve cap, adjust to fit, tack at points of triangle. the tailor's apprentice / ] | . º - | diagram u diagram s diagram t making lining on back with fitted center seam, place pieces right sides together and baste along mark of center back edge. stitch (see diagram d). trim. clip seam. to make pleat, baste along center back mark for original seam allowance (see diagram d). press basted seam toward right section. turn to right side and catch stitch pleat " down from neck edge (diagram s). do not remove bastings. on back with a fold at center back to make pleat, baste along center back mark. press basted seam toward right section. turn to right side, catch stitch pleat " from neck edge (diagram s). do not remove bastings. putting lining into jacket put jacket on form or on table, wrong side out. place front lining in jacket first, wrong sides together. match the armhole seam marking of the lining to the armhole seam of the jacket and pin. do the same at underarm, working from top, easing the fabric. pin to seam line. do the same at shoulder. turn raw front edge under /," and baste. pin this fold over raw edge of facing. fold dart allowance under toward center, pin. try jacket on, lining side out, and check to see that lining fits smoothly, but not tightly. if necessary, re-adjust shoulder and underarm seams to accommodate excess padding. mark these seam lines with basting. catch stitch darts (diagram t). on back, match and pin center of lining to center of jacket the length of the garment. on shoulder and side seams fold raw edges of lining under on seam line and match folded edge to seam line of front and pin. clip, turn under raw edges of neck and pin. try on jacket to check fit. make adjustments necessary with pins. remove jacket and slip stitch (see figure , page ) at underarm seams, shoulders, front and neckline seams. baste around armhole on seam allowance. turn sleeve wrong side out. slip lining on, right side out. match seams, notches and perforations. pin lining to sleeve along seams. fold raw edges of armhole under on seam line and match folded edge to seam line of jacket. check fit. slip stitch seam. hemming lining of jacket and sleeve put jacket on and pin lining to jacket about " above hem, all around. baste lining to jacket around this line. turn up hem of lining %" shorter than hem of jacket. baste. press. trim to ". set lining edge " up from jacket edge i. slip stitch to jacket (diagram u). remove bastings at center back of ining. dad's striped shirt makes a fetching bathing suit (right) with a sarong skirt and a bra top. commercial patterns furnish many choices of design. two of his white shirts make this year's favorite beach coat (left), the cholo. the little ruffle is in the front only. / ] repeat performance general directions for make-overs general recommendations when it is worth while to make over when making over clothing, the first consideration is whether the fabric is in sufficiently good condition to warrant the time to be spent on it. woolen fabric may often be turned to the wrong side if outer part is worn. even when a fabric has a pronounced right and wrong side, it may often be reversed with good results. small holes and tears may be darned or covered with a decorative detail. cottons, silks and rayons should be held up to the light to see weak spots around the places where tears or breaks have already occurred. it may still be pos- sible to use remaining fabric. cleaning it is preferable to have garments washed or dry cleaned before starting to rip. to rip or not to rip whenever the size of a garment permits, it is ad- visable to cut it apart at the seams. when the garment is to be ripped, two methods are generally used. method no. — clip a thread and rip out a few stitches with the head of a needle until there is enough to grasp. pull the thread until it breaks. turn the seam over and pull the thread on the other side until it breaks. continue this method of working from one side to the other until the seam is ripped. this method has the advantage of not leaving any threads in the seams. method no. — rip seams with a stiff one-edged razor blade or better still, buy a gadget in which a two-edged razor blade may be screwed. preparation of fabric after fabric has been ripped, it should be pressed carefully. it may be desirable to mark the straight of the goods as well as the right and wrong side of each repeat performance / ) section. then the fabric is ready for the pattern. it is laid on and cut as if the fabric were new (page ). cutting follow general cutting directions on page . sewing and finishing follow pattern guide and consult index for direc- tions for particular finishes. cut ups there's a simple as abc trick for stretching a slim budget to cover an active family. don't waste or discard anything. make clothing do time, twice, thrice, before you let it get away from you. a tired dress can be rejuvenated with a bit from the scrap bag or it can be made into a jumper, a vivacious swimming suit, a gay pinafore. cutting up isn't just fun, it's smart! . when the skirt of a . to make dress larger, . make a playsuit from dress is too narrow, add insert contrasting panel a summer dress which is new skirt at waistline or in front. too short. slightly below in con- trasting fabric. . make a jerkin or a . when the waist or the . if shoulders are out jumper from a dress skirt of a dress is out of of date, add contrasting which is worn out under date, make it over in a yoke and sleeves. the arms. new style in contrasting fabric. for all these restyling suggestions, use commercial patterns chosen to fit in with existing style of garment and type of change desired. . panty and slip from a man's shirt tale of a shirt remember the fairy tale of a thousand and one stories? well, dad's old shirts aren't quite up to that many, but they can give a good account of themselves. take the worn shirts off his back and make them into blouses and suits. for making all of these clothes, use commercial patterns chosen to fit in with the limitation of fabric in shirt. the layouts give suggestions as to how pieces can be laid out for cutting. smocked dress from two shirts child's pinafore from a shirt boy's blouse from a shirt child's sun suit and bonnet from a shirt a.º. blouse from two shirts child's overalls from a shirt / ] repeat performance here's a useful piece of wardrobe magic. canny cutting turns a man's top coat into the sort of casual topper every woman loves. use a commercial pat- tern. refer to chapter for tailoring. a two-for-one trick worth trying on a spring reefer that has seen better days is to divide it into a chic bolero and skirtensemble. you can find a suitable design in any pattern book. repeat performance / ) making a man's suit into a woman’s suit in addition to the general considerations which pertain to all makeovers, there are certain specific problems involved in making over a man's suit. - consideration of size when making a man's suit into a woman's suit, size is an impor- tant consideration. the suit must be larger than the woman for whom the suit is planned. keeping any of the tailoring the tailoring along the front edges and the pockets may be kept. if it is retained, the pattern bought must resemble as nearly as pos- sible the original suit. the jacket will have to be completely ripped: . if buttonholes are changed to the right side (men's suits button to the left). . if worn fabric is to be turned. . if a double-breasted coat is being used. . if the existing tailoring is too exaggerated. clcaning and ripping - when sending the suit to be cleaned, instruct the tailor not to press the crease in the trousers. see page for methods of ripping and pattern layouts (pages and ) for specific instructions. choosing a pattern few patterns have been designed for makeovers, so the purpose of the two layouts presented is to show how suit patterns of an ordinary type may be adapted with a few minor alterations. when purchasing a suit pattern for remodelling, remember that men's suits in general have certain characteristics: a seam down the back, two darts at the waist, a side pocket on the left, and frequently flap pockets, so select a pattern with these characteristics. the limitations of fabric in the trousers make it necessary for the skirt to be fairly straight. a kick pleat or a slight flare is the only fullness that can be expected. lining usually it is not advisable to use the old lining. rayon twill is a very serviceable fabric to use, although silk and other rayons may be used. when lining is used, see pages and for cutting directions and page for instructions on finishing. interfacings the collar and facings must have interfacings. the interfacing already on the suit may be used. if that seems too heavy, a light- aemaking a man’s suit / / repeat performance when tailoring is retained weight muslin or canvas may be used. the fabric is shrunk before using by washing and pressing while still damp. do the same with the old interfacing, if it is used, so as to renew the “body.” cut inter- facing for front facings from same pattern as front facings on the straight grain. cut the interfacing for the collar from under collar pattern, cutting on the bias (see figure , page ). this makes the collar lie more smoothly. see pages and for directions. general directions on cutting . pin together corresponding parts of ripped suit, same sides of fabric together. . take out pattern pieces needed. note perforations for straight of goods. mark them with a colored pencil, as it is most important that these perforations be laid on the lengthwise grain (see figure , page ). . where there is a dart on the pattern at front shoulder, pin it up, matching perforations. this permits the pattern to fit into the origi- nal armhole with less overlapping. notice on pattern layout that this dart is allowed for elsewhere. . using the layout and the instructions given for each layout, depending on type of pattern, cut out pattern. . in the instructions which follow, certain words have special meanings: (a) lay pattern on the fabric means that in doing so you must match the perforations for the straight of the goods to the lengthwise grain (see page ). (b) mark means mark darts, seam allowances and other indicated points with tailor's tacks or tailor's chalk (see figures and , page ). (c) cut means cut around pattern, cutting notches away from pattern. layout no. i jacket on this jacket some of the original tailoring is to be retained, so a pattern is picked which resembles the original as closely as possible (see page ). the pockets, the two front darts and the front edges from the collar joining just above the lapels are not ripped. the outer edge stitching is ripped down to the tip of the lapel and from the bottom up to the first button. the interfacing is trimmed to the edge of the coat facing. back of coat (jacket back) lay pattern on back sections of coat as shown. mark seam allowances and shoulder darts, but disregard darts at waistline. cut around pattern and cut off extra piece of pattern. front of coat (jacket front) each side will be cut separately, since the tailoring is retained. lay pattern (dart at shoulder already pinned) on front section as shown, front edges to- gether, and marking for pockets in line with pockets already in coat. the / / repeat performance suit entirely remade lay skirt front pattern on back section of trousers as shown. pin. to allow additional fullness as indicated by dotted portion of diagram, measure down " from top edge along fold of pattern and mark. continue line of lower edge of pattern to edge of fabric with a basting. connect end of this line with point marked above, as shown. this is cutting line. mark and cut. after skirt front is cut, take one of remaining pieces and fold on lengthwise grain. place upper collar pattern with perforations on fold. mark and cut. front of trousers (skirt back)—under collar is also cut from this section. lay patterns on front sections of trousers, as shown. if skirt pattern exceeds width of fabric, turn it back at side seam as shown, graduating in to hipline. pin, mark and cut. sleeves lay patterns on sleeve sections as shown. cut off the pattern piece that ex- tends beyond the fabric of the upper sleeve and pin to under sleeve as indi- cated. when pinning, notice that a small amount of width is added to keep the outer line curved. mark and cut. belt cut belt from any remaining fabric. piece at side seams if necessary. if fabric is heavy, face with lining material. lining and interfacings see instructions for lining and interfacings, page . sewing and finishing follow pattern guide and see chapter , page , for instruction on the special processes used in tailoring. the skirt is seamed at center back, center front and sides, and finished as usual. hints on how to finish the front and the collar of the jacket of this suit, in which the tailoring has been retained, are as follows: . seam under section of collar to jacket, right side to right side, and press. . turn facing out over the right side of jacket and at lower edge of jacket, stitch facing and front together, continuing original seam. . at neck edge, stitch upper section of collar to facings (the collar will be placed under the facings, right side of collar to right side of facings). press seam open. . sew upper and under sections of collar together, continuing the stitching down the edge of the rever, and keeping an even line until it merges with old seam. . trim seams, clip corners and turn facing to inside of jacket. . baste around outer edge of collar and rever and lower edge of jacket. press. finish edges with stitching the same as original front edge stitching on suit. to hide ends of thread, leave long enough ends when finishing off ma- chine stitching to thread a needle and bring the ends through to the inside of jacket. . turn lower hem and catch stitch to coat (see figure , page ). . baste inner edge of facing to inside of jacket, turning rever out while doing so, to make sure that it is not too tight. catch stitch to jacket. layout no. ii jacket for this jacket in which the coat was entirely ripped and turned, a pattern with patch pockets has been selected so that the pocket slashes might be covered irepeat performance / ) *«> ·… nsns taoustº_aack % plear inst ºr �©）żżża n -·№ z *romr - * - ſ == // .……•zzzzzzzzºzzzzzz…，- ，… / / repeat performance by patch pockets. the two front darts have been retained and sewed in on the other side. the dotted lines on the jacket front indicate the pockets and darts on the original suit. the perforations indicate the placing of pockets on re- modelled suit. back of coat (jacket back) there is no special problem. pin pattern to back sections of coat, mark and cut. front of coat (jacket front) . both sides may be cut at one time. lay pattern (dart at shoulder already pinned) on front coat sections as shown, so that front edge comes just to the buttonholes. the buttonholes may run a little into the seam allowance, but this is of no consequence. pocket perforations should come above the pocket slash. pin pattern in a few places. . to make pattern lie flat, a new dart must be cut from the armhole to lower perforation of shoulder dart as indicated. it should come below pocket slash. . smooth pattern out and pin all around. if rever of pattern extends out a little too far, take a small pleat in it, graduating it as shown. mark seam allow- ances and new dart. disregard waistline darts on pattern. when fitting coat, it may be necessary to take in existing darts a little. front facings lay pattern on so that front edge is in back of buttonholes. if rever of jacket front was made smaller by a pleat, take the same pleat in the facing as was taken in the front. pin, mark and cut. it makes no difference if facings are a little narrower than the pattern. allow the extra amount on the lining. skirt - front of trousers (skirt front)—pockets are also cut from this section. . lay skirt front on front sections of trousers as shown. be sure it is far enough from the edge to allow for seam at outer edge and far enough down so that pockets may be cut from piece above. pin, mark and cut. . pin pockets on remaining pieces as indicated. in a herringbone tweed, a nice effect is produced by cutting on the bias as shown. pockets may also be cut straight. back of trousers (skirt back)—collars and pleat insert are also cut from this section. . lay skirt back on back sections of trousers so that pleat extension is on lengthwise grain of fabric. pin, mark and cut. . from one of two remaining pieces the collars are cut. pattern pieces are shown in proper position. from the other piece the pleat insert is cut with the center back on a lengthwise fold. sleeves — see instructions for sleeves under layout no. , page . belt — see instructions for belt under layout no. , page . lining and interfacings — see instructions for lining and interfacings, page sewing and finishing — follow pattern guide and see chapter , page , for instruction on the special processes used in tailoring. to close pocket open- ings, cut strips of lining " wide and length of opening plus %". baste § " turn under on all sides. baste on right side over openings and stitch around edge. these strips will be hidden by pockets. o. ºterſ, ºet it's the inalienable right of every baby to look adorable. and it's the privilege of every mother, aunt, grandmother and friend-of-the-family to make sure of this. whether it's for your own special bundle of bliss or somebody else's blessed event, making things for a baby with your own hands comes under the depart- ment of pure pleasure. fortunately, there's no limit to what a brand new baby needs to make it comfortable and happy. everybody can sew to her heart's content; baby will reap the benefits and say thank you with an irresistible gurgle. / / stork set baby clothes to make. baby's slip pattern xxii b material: batiste or mainsook—% yd.; pearl buttons clones (%" size)— . directions for cutting: pieces, pattern no. xxii (see figure , page , for directions for enlarging pattern from diagram). - directions for making: . baste front and back wrong sides together and finish sides with french seams (see figure , page ). . cut bias strips " wide and join to make a strip % yds. long (see figures – , page ). face neck and armhole edges as in figure , page . take " sea iii.s. . at shoulder edges make " hems. on back shoulder edges, make worked buttonholes (see figure stork set / ] figure —at end of back slash and at right angles to it, clip %" to each side. on both edges of slash, turn "s" to wrong side, baste. along each folded edge mark / " at intervals. fold both sides of opening to . * along marked lines, baste, slip stitch (see fig- º: ure , page ). lap right edge over *::::::::::::" left with fold edge of right meeting stitching line of left hem. this will fig. t t %.” * awararaves - canvrear form a pleat. pin. stitch placket closed across lower end with tiny back hand stitches (see figure , page ), mak- ing a square of stitches. make one worked buttonhole (see figure , page ) on upper part of placket, " from neck edge. make a second one " down from first. fig. figure —trim off one edge of en- tre-deux. baste entre-deux to neck edge jºa aavºr with cut edge along seam line ( / " in *::::::::: - from raw edge). whip (see figure , ave carzzave (ºrce r sape) page ) inner edge to garment. turn to wrong side. trim seam allowance of garment to ", hand roll and whip. trim opposite edge of entre-deux. . mark center front of neck edge ' " from edge. mark %" to each side of center. gather the " to meas- ure " (see figures and , page ). . attach entre-deux as in figure . . to apply lace edging, cut piece of lace % times the neck edge. to gather lace, pull the strong thread that lies along the straight edge. gatherto fitneck edge and fasten gathering thread. place right side of lace against right side of entre-deux, edge to edge, distrib- uting fullness evenly. whip edges together (see figure , page ). at ends of lace turn back raw edges, roll and whip. / ] stork set . one-half inch from lower edge of sleeves gather sleeves to measure ". apply entre-deux as above and whip on lace. whip ends of lace together. . turn up " hem at lower edge of dress and slip stitch (see figure , page ). gifts for the new mother and baby bath towel apron stork set / / material: plain bath towel, "x "; chintz—% yd. directions for cutting: cut away hems on both ends of towel. skirt— piece, " long x width of towel ( "); bib- piece, "x ”; pocket— piece, "x "; chintz – strips, each %"x " or ". directions for making: . on one " end of skirt, place right side of one chintz strip on wrongside of towel, edge to edge, stitch. turn to right side on seam line, press, stitch close to edge. turn free edge ' " to wrong side, edge stitch to towel. . on opposite end of towel, mark center of width. gather this end to measure ". . piece chintz strips to make strips, each %" x ". . place strip on unfinished end of towel, right sides together, edge to edge, match center of strip to center of towel. in same manner, place right side of other long strip on wrong side of apron, edge to edge. stitch strips together along top side, including the apron, across ends, and on under side as far as sides of apron. turn tie ends to right side and press (middle section is open and raw edges are turned in). . to make bib, apply strip of chintz to two ” sides and one " side as in step . (pleat corners diag- onally to make strip lie flat.) on untrimmed side, ” from center front, make ' " pleat on each side of bib. to sew bib to apron, insert bib in opening, matching centers. baste and stitch all around band close to edge. . to make strap forbib, cut a chintz strip %"x ". / / stork set fold in half lengthwise. stitch around one end and lengthwise edge, turn. turn in raw edges at end and slip stitch (see figure , page ). attach ends to top corners of bib. . for pocket, cut a chintz strip %"x ". on one " edge of pocket, apply chintz as in step . turn raw edges of pocket " to wrong side. apply pocket to apron in desired position. stitch around sides, close to edge. cuddly pig material: gingham or cotton fabric– yd.; pink sateen scraps; cotton batting for stuffing; shoe but- tons; heavy duty mercerized sewing thread. directions for cutting: (see figure , page ) when cutting, add %" to all edges of pattern for seam allowance): pieces, pattern xxva, for sides; piece, pattern xxv b for top; piece, pattern xxvc for underbody; pieces. stork set ( / % . -- pattern no. xxvi—see figure , page for directions for enlarging pattern. draw %” squares instead of ” squares. / / stork set . on each arm and leg piece, stitch ends together. stitch a paw piece into lower edge of each. turn. cut circles of cardboard from paw pattern (no seam). insert in end of each. . stuff to within " of top edge. turn under %" and fit to body on marked lines, adjusting stuffing. whip in place (see figure , page ). . stitch both tail pieces together, leaving straight edge open, turn, stuff, fit and stitch to back between legs as in step . . stitch tongue around curved edge, turn, stuff. stitch head pieces together, leaving opening between x marks, and turn. stuff and stitch head to neck as in step . turn front under on dotted line and insert tongue, tipping head before whipping down. . stitch one terry ear to one percale ear around curved edge. turn. turn in raw edges and whip to back of head along marks. . stitch petal pieces together by two's around curved edge. turn. gather raw edges, lap together to make flower. tack to head and cover raw edges with center piece turned under at edge of pattern. whip in place. . cut out eye and nose pieces, allowing just enough to turn under, and appliqué in place, or embroider features. make french knots evenly spaced to cover body. see chapter . . cut a strip of percale %"x ”. fold lengthwise, stitch along edge, turn, press and tie around neck. . assy tsushi. by some strange paradox the machine age has only served to intensify the value we place on handcrafts. the fine linens, the exquisite french imports that used to be, the children's clothes you “oh” and “ah” at, all have handwork to distinguish them from their mass- made brethren. you can add to your needle-and-thread versatility with a repertoire of the basic embroidery stitches. you'll find no limit to their usefulness, from making a patch ornamental, a handkerchief more per- sonal, a guest towel more inviting, to giving your vvardrobe and your house furnishings, in general, a more precious look. flossy touches / / borders made from basic stitches søsøsesg.nººsºgsp threaded running stitch, lazy daisy. ſº *** #lſº grouped blanket stitch, spoke stitch. zº. zººzº. z. z. & z zººz & zºzº. blanket stitch over rug yarn, lazy daisy. ū *] lººd o º * blanket stitch, spoke stitch, french knots. • * * cºe sº o e e e e fly stitch, french knots, lazy daisy. long and short blanket stitch. ºf , , , blanket stitch, lazy daisy. border designs s$ . % s$ . -ºš' lazy daisy, french knots. sº lazy daisy, french knots, spoke stitch. e&seeeeeeeeeeese lazy daisy stitch. s n s s s s s s s s s hºllillº, illillºliifºliºſitilitatiſfilliºſtilliºttºliaitliſtiſºlatiºni couching over rug yarn, lazy daisy. o - o o © o |ºlºl). wººlºº woven cross stitch with rug yarn, french knots. €ºx{&#xºxº chain stitch, spoke stitch. x . . . ° & herringbone stitch, couching. / / flossy touches appliqué directions appliqué designs applique commercial transfer patterns for appliqué may be used, or flower motifs may be cut from chintz and appliquéd as trimming on plain fabrics. to use the appliqué designs shown, trace off each part to use as a pattern. to appliqué, cut pieces from fabric, allow- ing ' " around all edges to turn under. turn under %", clipping points if necessary so piece will lie flat. baste close to turned edge. press. baste pieces in place and blind stitch around edges (see figure , page ). for embroidery stitches used to complete designs, see page . embroidery and appliqué designs o hearts and flowers *tn o z-s — appliqué dots and stems — o | satin stitch - leaves — short and long stitch veins — stem stitch stems — stem stitch o o flossy touches / large pieces — appliqué dots and stems—satin stitch scallop line—stem stitch (or ap- pliqué entire scalloped area) stems — satin stitch outside edge—spoke stitch large flowers—spoke stitch, satin centers medium flowers—satin stitch small flowers—lazy daisy flossy touches / ] monogramming cross stitch monograms cross stitch monograms can be made any size, depending upon the size of the x cross stitch. to make letters larger or smaller, redraw in squares of desired x size. the position of the stitches may be - z marked on the fabric, or, if threads of % fabric are pronounced, stitches may be made by following threads without .a . marking. flossy touches / smocking smocking is a decorative method of gathering fab- ric. it is very satisfactory for children's clothes and is also used on yokes of women's dresses. the thread used for smocking should be about the same thickness as a thread of the fabric. embroidery floss is often used. the width of the fabric required is about times the width of the finished piece. s diagram a diagram b diagram c foundation steps . with a ruler and a sharp pencil, mark dots on the wrong side of fabric at equal intervals both horizontally and vertically (diagram a), allowing %" between each dot on heavy fabrics and %" to " on finer fabric. . thread a needle and make a large knot at one end. foundation stitches are made from right to left on the wrong side. make a small straight stitch under each dot horizontally across each row (diagram a), leaving a long end of thread at end of row. . draw up the long ends of thread, making even folds on the fabric and having them lie flat (diagram b). tie ends of two rows securely together. smocking patterns smocking is worked from left to right on the right side of fabric. always start with a knot. several patterns are given, and these patterns may be com- bined any number of ways. rope pattern — insert needle from wrong side through the center of first fold and in line with foundation stitches of row. keeping the thread above the needle, make a stem stitch (diagram c) at center of each fold across top row. fasten end securely on wrong side. when two rows of rope pattern are made, work the following row in the same manner but keep the thread below the needle, instead of above the needle (diagram c). smocking / / life savers mending stockings mending girdles mending made easy stockings mending stockings may be a preventive as well as a corrective measure. when stockings are washed, examine for worn places and repair as follows: . reinforce worn places in foot and heel with small running stitches parallel to weave. . mend split seams with an over-and-over stitch. . bring pulled threads through to wrong side and secure with tiny stitches to prevent runs. . darn holes before they become large (figure ). figure — to darn a hole, turn stocking right side out and insert darn- ing egg under hole. trim ragged edges of hole. do not use a knot and make lengthwise threads first. leaving a short end free, take a few running stitches far enough from the hole to take in all the worn part. turn, leaving a small loop at turning. on each suc- ceeding row increase number of stitches so that when stitches come to the hole, they will cover it and also strengthen the worn part. arrange stitches so that needle comes out over edges of hole. decrease length of rows on other side - of hole. cut thread when finished and fig. turn darn around. weave stitches in the same way across the width over and under foundation stitches already made. girdles frequent laundering and attention to small details of reconditioning will result in much extra wear. to mend the elastic webbing, catch the end of each rub- ber thread that has pulled out and wrap it securely with strong thread. darn it down into the seam or fabric where it pulled. take care not to put needle / / life savers patches figure — to mend a three-cor- nered tear which is both lengthwise and crosswise, darn in same manner as for straight tear (figure ). stitches run at right angles to opening. begin at one end and darn one side com- pletely. then begin at other end and darn that side completely. stitches at corners thus overlap and are strength- ened. fig. figure — to mend a diagonal tear in which both lengthwise and crossuise threads are cut, darn with small run- ning stitches parallel to lengthwise thread, but in direction of tear. over these stitches work another set at right angles to first. fig. a thread which matches the fabric as closely as pos- sible. for woolens, a thread of fabric drawn from the hem or side makes a meat and inconspicuous darn. darn on right side. do not make a knot as there is no strain on fabric. to reinforce a worn place on a garment, cut a piece of fabric the same as garment just a little larger than worn place. baste to wrong side under worn spot and cover entire area as for darning a straight tear (fig- ure ), taking stitches through both thicknesses of fabric. on wool fabric, if a similar piece of fabric is not available, baste a piece of met under worn spot and darn as for tear. patches when hole is large, a darn would be too conspicu- ous and not strong enough. the hole should be patched with fabric the same as garment. cut a piece from hem life savers / ] or seams to obtain matching patch. if necessary, fade patch to correspond by washing in soap suds and baking soda, rinsing well and drying in the sun. a hemmed patch (figure ) is the most usual. the least noticeable is an overhand patch (figure ). figure —to make a hemmed patch, use threads of fabric as guide and cut away worn portion to make either a square or rectangle. cut patch " larger on all sides than hole after edges have been straightened. pin patch in place under hole, right side showing through. threads in patch must run same way as those in garment, and any pattern should match exactly. on right side of garment, clip corners of hole diagonally about ". turn in raw edges and baste to patch. on wrong side of garment turn in raw edges of patch " and baste to garment. press. stitch edges down by machine or blind hem (see figure , page ). a /v r figure —to make an overhand patch, straighten fig. hole as for hemmed patch (figure ). clip corners g. i do diagonally for ". turn edges under as far as pos- sible. baste. press. measure dimensions of hole with edges turned back. carefully match grain and pat- tern of patch and cut it %" larger than the hole on all sides. turn in %" allowance on one side. press down. do same on remaining sides. with patch flat, where creases come to a point, cut off triangle of fabric. put patch directly under hole. it should fit exactly. pin in place with pins at right angles to folded edges. baste with small stitches at these points. on wrong side whip patch to garment with tiny stitches (see figure , page ). overcast raw edges (see figure , page ). remove bastings. press. aſ *—e f_* i apack / life savers alterations ſ &n maows º: s/de fig. figure — to make an underarm patch, cut away worn portion in a square so that each corner comes at a seam line. straighten edges of hole. turn dress to wrong side. rip seams about / ". turn edges of hole back # " and press. cut patch # " larger all around than opening. place patch over hole right side down. allowing %" for ar/gay . seam, baste edge of patch to edge of sade hole. stitch on basting line. press seam open. overcast raw edges (see figure , page ). however, this is not very strong and should be used only on fine fabrics where there is no great wear. one of the spots where there is most wear in a dress is at the underarm. directions for a special underarm patch are given in figure . holes may also be cleverly hidden by means of appliqué. cut out flowers from printed fabric, or use original patterns or commercial transfers. see chapter , page , for designs and directions for appliqué. tips on alterations shortening or lengthening a dress . take out old hem and remove old seam binding to use again. press out crease mark from wrong side through a damp cloth (see page ). life savers / / cº, tº Čeje diagram a diagram b . put on garment, wearing shoes of a suitable heel height. mark new hemline as shown in figures – , page . finish suitably. see suggestions for hem finishes, page . when lengthening the skirt, if, after cleaning and pressing, the line of the former hem persists in showing, choose a mercerized or silk thread of matching color and machine stitch over the mark. do this before putting in the hem. shortening a full length dress . hem is marked with chalk or pencil " below point where dress touches floor, when it is hanging straight. cut off on this line. . stitch back " by machine. turn up edge another '/ " and slip stitch (see figure , page ). or hem may be roll hemmed by hand (see figure , page ). shortening a dress from the waistline (when lower edge cannot be altered) . determine how many inches dress is to be shortened. measure desired number of inches down from waistline all around skirt and mark with pins. baste around marked line (diagram a). . rip skirt from waist and rip placket from skirt. mark waistline on waist with basting. mark center back and center front of waist and skirt. rip side seams of skirt to basting line. . turn under top of skirt at basting line and, matching center points, pin to waist at waistline (diagram b). life savers / / diagram d . mark new seam lines on back and front with pins placed parallel to seam. run basting along pin line (diagram d). . place two basting lines together and sew right side seam. in same manner, sew left side seam above and below placket opening (length of zipper teeth). . finish placket (see figures and , page ). taking out bagginess at back of skirt . take out back waistline seam and side seams of skirt, taking out placket below waistline. press out folds (see page ). . raise back of skirt just enough to bring side seams into line ( / " to "), turn under top of skirt at new line, baste. refit side seams and finish placket as above. even hemline (see page ). altering a waistline which is too low follow the directions on shortening a dress from the waistline. altering the hem of a coat . rip lining from facing on inside of coat far enough to allow for work- ing comfortably. free lining from hem of coat and take out both hems. press (see page ). put on coat. . determine new hemline in same manner as for dress (see figures – , page ). mark new length on facing also. . turn up hem on coat and facing at new line (see figure , page ). . trim to %.", using a gauge (see figure , page ). shrink out ex- cess fullness (see page ). finish raw edges by pinking, running a machine stitching close to edge, and catch stitching in place (see figure , page ). or machine stitch seam binding on hem edge and blind hem (see figure , page ). material evidence / ) in milk. it is usually used in combination with wool, cottom or rayon and can be treated to re- semble any one of them. nylon — a synthetic fiber made from derivatives of coal, air and water. it is strong, elastic and non- absorbent. vinyon — a synthetic fiber made from deriva- tives of coal, air and water. combinations of two or three fibers are not uncom- mon. it is desirable, therefore, to know the fiber con- tent of a fabric and to treat it according to instructions given for the more delicate of the fibers included. terms used in describing fabrics fabrics of the same fiber may differ in construction. the differences in construction cause differences in appearance. in order to understand differences in con- struction, there are certain textile terms that should be understood. warp — the threads of a fabric that run lengthwise and parallel to the selvage. - fºvo de threads of a fabric that run crosswise from selvage edge to selvage edge. twist – the number of turns in a fiber. usually a fabric made of tightly twisted yarns has a harder, smoother finish than one made of loosely twisted yarns. thread count— the number of warp and filling yarns per square inch of fabric. it is a form of measurement to designate the quality of a fabric, but does not necessarily indicate strength. however a fabric which has approximately the same thread count in warp and filling yarns will usually wear better than one having a difference in the num- ber of warp and filling yarns. yarn dye — yarns or fibers dyed before they are woven into cloth. floats — the yarns that are carried across the surface of the fabric, for short intervals, and then caught in the weave at intervals. the presence of floats in fabrics affects the durability of the cloth, because they catch and snag easily. sizing — stiffening or dressing added to cotton or linen to give a fabric terrns material evidence ( ) name of fabric dimity –fine, crisp, lightweight cot- ton fabric, plain weave. several threads, laid parallel to one another and used as one at intervals in the warp, form cords in fabric. when such “heavier" threads run both lengthwise and cross- wise, a checked effect results. the checked fabric wears better because of more even balance of yarns. doeskin–soft, napped wool fabric resembling wool broadcloth. plain weave. drill cloth-coarse, firm, heavy, twilled cotton cloth. will take rough wear. duck–strong, closely woven, heavy cotton fabric in plain weave. lighter and finer than canvas. serviceable, somewhat waterproof. eiderdown — warm, fleecy, light- weight wool or cotton cloth, napped on both surfaces. double-cloth weave. faille – silk or rayon and cotton fabric of plain weave with cross ribbing made by heavy filling yarns. felt—wool fabric made by rolling and pressing wool fibers or hairs of cer- tain furs into a mat. filet net-cotton or linen net with a square mesh. hand netted filet has a hand tied knot at each corner of the mesh square. flannel — soft, lightweight wool fabric in twill or plain weave, slightly napped on one side. uses curtains, lingerie, dresses, blouses. suits, coats, children's coats. men's shirts, middies, blouses, suitings, linings, uniforms, press cloths. uniforms, work clothes, shirts, trousers, coats, middy blouses, awnings, shower curtains. infants' wear, negligees, bathrobes. dresses, suits, millinery, jackets. hats, belts, bags, .table mats. curtains, tablecloths, run- ners. men's and women's suits, coats, dresses, children's clothing. faille felt material evidence / / name of fabric *iuckaback — cotton or linen fab- ric with small geometric patterns in figure weave. prominent filling threads. softly spun yarn gives fabric absorbent quality. indian head — trade name for sturdy, medium weight cotton fabric of plain weave. khaki – sturdy, twilled cotton fab- ric in olive drab color. lamé–plainly woven or brocaded silk or rayon fabric. gold or silver threads are mixed with silk or rayon. lawn–sheer, fine, soft cotton cloth with a plain weave. lightly starched or sized. may be printed. longcloth — fine, soft, closely woven cotton cloth made in a plain weave. it is bleached and lightly sized. madras — firm, soft cotton cloth. usually made from mercerized yarn. fabric is usually striped or has small figures which are woven into cloth. plain or figure weave. maline – fine net silk fabric char- acterized by hexagonal open mesh. marquisette–silk or cotton fab- ric with gauze weave, having open mesh appearance. matelassÉ–raised woven designs in wool, cotton, silk, or rayon fabric. gives a blistered effect to cloth. figure uses towels. work clothes, sport clothes, uniforms, chil- dren's clothes, aprons. uniforms, work clothes, children's clothes. dresses, blouses, wraps, neckwear, trimmings. infants’ wear, dresses, blouses, neckwear, under- wear. infants' and children's dresses, underwear. shirts, dresses, aprons. veils, neckwear, evening dresses. glass curtains, dresses. dresses. amelassé marquisette madras / ) material evidence name of fabric uses ratine – loosely woven, rather stretchy cotton, silk, rayon or wool fabric made in plain weave. filling dresses, coats, suits. threads are looped and are of novelty yarn to produce a rough effect. rep – firm cotton, wool, rayon, or silk fabric with heavier filling thread than warp thread. crosswise rib is very distinct. plain weave. skirts, suits, men's and boys' wear, draperies, up- holstery. sateen-cotton fabric with a satin weave. a mercerized finish further in- creases luster. linings, draperies, cos- tumes, slip covers. satin–silk or rayon fabric with a satin weave. this weave produces the sheen that is characteristic of satin. dresses, linings, lingerie, blouses, neckwear. scrim—light, transparent cottom fab- ric in open mesh, plain weave. curtains. seersucker – lightweight, wash- able cotton fabric in plain weave with crinkly stripes running lengthwise at alternating intervals. crinkle is caused by slackening tension of warp yarns. does not need to be ironed. dresses, children's clothes, men's suits, playclothes, underwear. serge–soft, durable wool, rayon or silk cloth made from worsted yarns. a twill weave with a diagonal effect on both sides of cloth. men's and women's suits and coats, dresses, skirts, middy blouses, shirts. shantung – a heavier, rougher texture of pongee. dresses, suits, coats. surah-soft, lightweight silk fabric in a twill weave. neckties, dresses, blouses. material evidence / / name of fabric swiss (dotted)—fine, transpar- ent, crisp cotton fabric in plain weave. frequently figured with dots or small figures that are produced by a special process of weaving or by chemical application. taffeta—smooth, lustrous rayon or silk fabric of a plain weave. iridescent effect of some taffetas is caused by dif- ference in color of filling and warp yarns. terry cloth – cotton pile fabric with raised uncut loops on both sides of fabric. ticking—firm, durable cotton cloth in twill weave with yarn-dyed blue and white stripes running lengthwise. tropical worsted — light- weight worsted cloth in plain weave. tulle—soft silk or rayon net of fine mesh. tweed–rough surfaced wool fabric in plain, herringbone or twill weaves warp thread is usually composed of a two-ply yarn which has two colors, giving a soft tone to the fabric. velour-soft, strong, closely woven cotton, woolen, silk, rayon fabric with a pile. somewhat like velvet. velvet-silk or rayon fabric with a soft, thick, short pile on face and a plain back. velveteen-cotton fabric with a soft, thick, short pile on face and a plain or twill back. resembles velvet. voile — sheer cotton, silk, or rayon fabric in plain weave. - - - § - * … º - - § nn s n º uses curtains, dresses, blouses, bedspreads, neckwear. dresses, blouses, suits, millinery, slips, draperies, upholstery. bath towels, bath robes, beach robes, wash cloths. mattress and pillow cov- ering, upholstery, play- clothes. men's and women's suits. trimmings, veiling. men's and women's coats, suits and jackets, slacks, dresses. coats, suits, upholstery, draperies. dresses, suits, coats, negli- gees, trimmings, mil- linery. dresses, coats, suits, chil- dren's dresses, draperies, upholstery. dresses, blouses, curtains, lingerie. | / / material evidence terms on labels fiber content explanation of terms found on labels labels on fabrics often include information on the exact fiber content, on the finishes applied to the fabric during or after the manufacturing process, how it will wash or whetherit must be cleaned, and the colorfast- ness. fabrics carrying the brand name of a reputable manufacturer and purchased from a reliable dealer are a much safer buy than those which do not carry a label or guarantee. explanation of fiber content spun rayon — a term applied to a fabric, the rayon fibers of which have been cut the length of wool, cotton, or linen fibers and spun and woven in the manner in which wool, cotton, or linen is spun and woven. when treated in this manner rayon may be made to resemble any one of these fabrics. weighted silk — silk fabric in which the – per cent of weight lost in the production of the fabric is replaced in whole or part by metallic salts. pure silk — the label which may be used only on fabrics whose fiber content is all silk. this does not mean that the fabric does not contain either soluble or permanent weighting. “pure dye” used with “pure silk” indicates that not more than per cent of weighting has been added. reprocessed wool — wool that has never been used or worn at any time, in any way. it has been rewoven from waste clippings of cloth cut away in the wholesale manufacture of garments. reused wool — wool that has been rewoven from fibers that have received wear. virgin wool — wool made from new fleece obtained from live sheep. it is well to remember that reprocessed wool made from wool clippings of good quality may be very much superior to virgin wool of an inferior quality. material evidence / / weighted wool — wool in which short woolen fibers called flocks are felted into the cloth after it has been woven to cover up defects in the cloth and to increase weight. these fibers usually wear off, leaving the cloth lighter in weight and more loosely woven in appearance. erplanation of finishes finishes flame-proofing processes — antipyros and firechief are flame- proofing processes applied to heavy cottons such as draperies and awn- ings. a special finish which may be obtained at retail stores may be easily used on fabrics. it may be renewed after laundering. dry clean- ing will not remove finish. moth-proofing finishes — kolak, konate and lanitex are finishes applied to fabrics to prevent damage caused by moths. when consulting labels on moth-proofing, carefully note whether the finish is a durable one or whether it has to be renewed after each laundering or cleaning. also note the methods to be followed in laundering or cleaning. water repellent finishes – aqua-sec, aridex, ban-dri, cravanette, koroseal and zelan are all water repellent finishes applied to fabrics. when consulting labels on water repellent finishes, note whether the finish is a durable one or whether it has to be renewed after each laun- dering or cleaning. also note the methods to be followed in laundering or cleaning and the action, if any, of sunlight and perspiration. basco — a finish applied to cotton table damask to give it a linen-like appearance. bellmanized — a permanent finish stiffening applied on cottons to give them a crisp appearance. martinized — a process used on velvet to make it crease resistant. sanforized — a process used on cotton, linen and rayon which guar- antees that the residual shrinkage will not be more than per cent. tebilized and vitalized — crush resistant finishes applied on fabrics to make them crease or crush resistant. washable and cleanable. trubenized — a finish applied to cotton fabrics to give them stiffness. used on collars of men's shirts. / / material evidence shrinking shrinking of fabrics before cutting today, cottons, linens and wools are often commer- cially pre-shrunk. if there is no mention of pre-shrink- age on the label, or no guarantee is given by the re- tailer, at least per cent more yardage should be allowed on cottons, limens and wools. shrinkage may be taken care of at home. silk or rayon does not re- quire any shrinkage or sponging. rayons are apt to shrink in washing, but this shrinkage cannot be con- trolled by shrinking before fabric is cut. when pur- chasing rayon inquire as to its washability. white cottons or linens should be folded so they will not wrinkle, then soaked in cold water for several hours. colored cottons or linens should be rinsed in cold water. upon removal from water, do not wring fabric; squeeze water from it. hang on clothes line, and when nearly dry, iron on wrongside, ironing with the grain of the fabric. fold fabric with the right side inside, selvage edges together, and filling threads straight across from edge to fold. wools are usually commercially pre-shrunk; how- ever, all wool fabrics should be sponged either at home or by a reliable local tailor. to sponge at home, unfold fabric, clip selvages at intervals of " all along edges. thoroughly wet a sheet in cold water, ring it out and lay fabric smoothly on sheet. roll sheet and fabric together and let stand over might. unroll fabric. press ſ ) material evidence cleansing agents method powdered form of absorbent is used only on light-colored fabrics. place stained part of fabric on flat surface and cover stain thickly with powdered absorbent. with circular mo- tion rub finger gently on spot. brush powder off fabric, repeat application until no more of stain can be absorbed. cover with new layer of powder and allow to stand for several hours. brush fabric thoroughly. blotting paper or brown wrapping paper will remove grease. place paper under spot and press spot with warm iron for several minutes. brush thoroughly and repeat if necessary. place fabric right side down on blotting paper. barely moisten clean lintless cloth with sol- vent and apply lightly with straight strokes, working from outside of spot toward center. light, straight strokes prevent rings in fabric. while working, blow on damp area to speed evaporation. change blotter area and cloth as soon as they are soiled. absorbents (used to remove grease spots) a. powdered form fuller's earth french chalk starch b. blotting paper or brown wrapping paper solvents (used to re- move spots from non- washable fabrics) carbon tetrachloride— (may be purchased at drug store). this is the basis for most dry clean- ing fluids. bleaches (used to re- move stains which will not wash out of cottons) sodium hypochlorite (javelle water). it should not be used on silk, rayon or wool. hydrogen peroxide. bowl method stretch spotted portion over a bowl of water. hold fabric taut by stretching rubber band around sides of bowl. using a glass rod, moisten stain with clear water. apply cleansing agent, using second glass rod. allow to set for one minute. follow with a second application of water, using glass rod pre- viously used for water. if necessary, apply cleansing agent with third glass rod. rinse thoroughly with clear water. repeat if nec- essary. blotter method place spotted area over a blotter, spot side down. using a medicine dropper, moisten stain with clear water. apply cleansing agent, using a second medicine dropper. follow with second application of water, using dropper formerly used for water. if necessary, apply cleansing agent with third dropper. rinse thoroughly with clear water. repeat if nec- essary. . upply &o pet % n you can’t really be efficient about sewing unless you have the proper equipment. naturally this is relative —you're the best judge of your own needs. if you do a littlemending or put up an occasional hem, you hardly need the same tools as the woman who thinks nothing of making all her slip covers and a complete wardrobe for her whole family. it's an almost irresistible tempta- tion to collect gadgets, but it's pointless to clutter up your sewing box or your sewing room with anything you don't actually need. too many things get in your way, defeat your purpose, just as much as too few. so it's up to you to select from the complete list of supplies for your sewing room exactly what you need to func- tion efficiently. a ] supply depot sewing room accessories it is not necessary for the beginner to assemble all sewing equipment at one time. it is more satisfactory to choose the necessary implements first. see page for a detailed description of the necessary equipment needed to start. these should be collected in a sewing cabinet or a large sewing box so that they will all be at hand when needed. a description of desirable sew- ing equipment is listed below. many of these articles may be purchased as progress in sewing warrants the use of them. implements used in cutting ” bent trimmer (dressmaker shears)—a shears is a cut- ting implement at least " long, which has a small ring handle for the thumb, and a larger handle that is large enough for several fingers. the difference in the size of handles allows for greater leverage. a shears with bent handles insures greater accuracy and ease in cutting fabric flat on the table. pinking shears — this is a shears with blade edges that are notched. it is used on firmly woven fabrics to produce an evenly notched edge that prevents ravelling. a pinked edge is a quick and easy seam finish. scissors — a scissors is a cutting implement from " to " long. it has ring handles, both the same size, for thumb and finger. a " size is a convenient scissors for clipping threads, ripping, cutting through buttonholes and general fine sewing. razor blade — for ripping, use a single edged blade, or a razor blade holder with a double edged blade. - dressmaking board — this board is used when a large flat cutting surface is otherwise unobtainable. it can be folded for storage, or opened out flat on a bed or on the floor to provide a flat surface for cutting. dressmaker's pins — fine quality brass dressmaker's pins (size or ) with sharp points that will not mar fabrics are best. purchase by the or % lb. box. needle sizes and correct threads for various fabrics sewing needle type of fabric thread size • machine needles machine stitch size per inch =f- coarsest ( ) heavy duck, canvas, , , coarsest coating. black and white coarse ( , ) ticking, denim, sewing , , coarse , buttons on heavy material. black and white medium coarse ( ) cretonne, slip covers, wools, , , medium coarse sewing buttons on medium- black and white. heavy material. heavy mercerized thread in colors. medium ( ) percale, gingham, rayon, , , medium . linen, lightweight wool. black and white. mercerized in colors. medium fine ( ) voile, lawn. , black and medium fine , white. mercerized in colors. fine ( ) organdie, batiste. , black and fine , white. mercerized - in colors. § index / / lingerie straps, lining, , , luncheon cloths and sets, – - machine sewing, – , stitch regulation, , tension, , make-overs: - , dresses, , adult's clothes to children's and women's clothes, - , , men's suits to women's, - marking equipment, , marking fabric, – matching plaids, materials, see fabrics measuring aids, , measuring: for draperies, , , for glass curtains, – , individual, , for slip covers, – mechanism of sewing machine, mending, – , darning, , fasteners, , girdles, , grooming aids, , patches, – , stockings, , tears, – , turning collars and cuffs, mitering, , , mittens, monogramming, , napery hem, napkins, narrow hem, neckline facing, necklines, – neckwear, – needle board, , needles, , , notched collar, overcast finish, patches, – patch pocket, pattern, commercial: altera- tion, – , cutting out, – , explana- tion, , selection, pattern enlarging, pinafore, directions for, – pinked finish, pinking shears, pinning: before stitching, pattern to fabric, pins, , piped seam, piping, , and facing, , corded, , scalloped edge, , plackets: baby, , continu- ous, , dress and skirt, - , plain seam, pleats: hemming, , mak- ing, , types, pockets, , position at machine, pot holders, – practice stitching, – press cloths, , , pressing, , – , equipment, , relining coat, - - albert r. mann library cornell university iii] date due woman's institute library of dressmaking sewing materials textiles, laces embroideries and findings shopping hints mending, household sewing trade and sewing terms woman's institute of domestic arts and sciences scranton, pa. ma: j --- s wgg | , copyright, , by international educatronal publishing company copyright in great britain all rights reserved printed in u. s. a. press of intsanational textbook company scranton, pa. . preface this book is arranged for the convenience and ready reference of students, homemakers, and dressmakers, giving historical information, descriptions and uses of laces, textiles, embroideries, and findings, and showing their values, purposes, and uses in dressmaking work. it is not enough to know how to cut and fit garments unless one knows how to complete them artistically by using the proper materials for the need or the occasion. detailed illustrations and instruction are given for the mending of practical, every-day garments, as this work is required in the average home. in the study of this part of the text, it will be evi- dent that thrift and economy have been prominently considered. to mend well is not only an economy but one of the womanly arts that have come down through the ages, few women considering themselves too distinguished to do their own mending. information is given for household sewing, including the making of draperies, bed coverings, scarfs, and art needlework, as well as the miscellaneous articles that a housewife may need to mend, remodel, or replace. a dictionary of trade and sewing terms completes the volume. by a careful study of this part, fashion news will be more easily and more accurately interpreted and the vocabulary of the modiste and the fashion writer will be better understood. a mystery often surrounds dressmaking work, which some persons attribute to the terms used. to make all such words, clear, and to provide a ready reference for those interested in dress- making work, this dictionary of trade and sewing terms is supplied. contents chapter i page development of textiles origin and growth—spinning—weaving: nature and history—varie- ties of weaves—knitting—cloth finishes—bleaching—dyeing and printing—fabric characteristics. chapter ii production and manufacture—purchasing cotton materials—tests for quality—table of cotton materials. chapter iii linens nature and uses—production and manufacture—purchasing linens— tests for linen—table of linens—shrinking and setting colors in wash fabrics. chapter iv wool production—wool manufacture—first processes—manufacture of woolens—manufacture of worsteds—purchasing wool materials— tests for wool—table of wools—examples of wools. chapter v silk culture—silk manufacture—purchasing silk—tests for silk— table of silks. chapter vi history of lace—methods of making lace—varieties of lace—lace terms—examples of typical laces—judging lace—value of hand- made laces—uses of lace—care of laces—necessity for care—clean- ing washable laces—cleaning non-washable laces—preservation of lace. v contents chapter vii embroideries, findings, shopping hints .................. . . . . . . . . . embroideries—findings—shopping hints. chapter viii mending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mending conveniences—darning—patching—stockinet mending— using mending tissue—miscellaneous mending. chapter ix household sewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . aspects of homemaking—table linens—pure linen—linen sub- stitutes—size of linen pieces—linen supply—economy. applied to linens–kitchen linens—bathroom linens—mattress covers and pads—sheets—pillow cases—monograms on bed linens—bed- spreads or counterpanes—blankets—comfortables—pieced and ap- pliquéd quilts—doilies, runners, scarfs—cushions—selection of curtains—types of curtains—types of windows—measuring for curtains—preparing materials—allowance for finishes—finishing cur- tains—curtain fixtures—upholstery covers—woven rugs—braided, crocheted, and knitted rugs—mending rugs. - chapter x definitions of trade and sewing terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . development of textiles under the left arm or stuck in the belt of the spinner so that both hands were left free to work with the fiber. the spinner soon found that it was much easier to spin with a full spindle than with an empty one, so she conceived the idea of weighting it with a whorl and it then consisted of a stick with a weight on the lower end, as shown in fig. . with these two improvements in equipment, the spinster, as she was called, would draw out the fiber from the distaff with her left hand, attach the end to the spindle, and give the spindle a sharp twist with her right. she would then allow the thread and whorl to twist in the opposite direction. after twisting a considerable # length, she would wind the yarn - on the spindle, fasten it to prevent its unwinding, and begin the process again. the rock, a later improvement, was merely a dis- taff made with a standard, as shown in fig. , so that it stood on the floor beside the spinster. fig. . at the present time, the navajo indians of arizona have an interesting method of spinning. with a slender stick for a spindle, the point of which is stuck in the ground, the spinner, sitting on the ground, pulls out the fiber and twirls the spindle to twist it. the yarn, when first spun, is very slightly twisted so that it must be gone over several times before it is ready for use in a loom. - . kinds of spinning wheels.-up to the th and th centuries, the distaff and weighted spindle constituted the spinning equip- ment. then, they were replaced by the spin- ning wheel, the spinners of india fastening a wheel to a spindle and making it rotate by means of a band. this first spinning wheel fig. known to history was called the gharka wheel fig. of india. it was a very crude instrument and spun only very coarse yarns, but it had the advantage of providing a more rapid method. development of textiles . the great wheel, wool wheel, or muckle wheel, as shown in fig. , was the next to make its appearance. it was called the great wheel because it had a large wheel. as it was used extensively in scotland, it received the name of muckle wheel, muckle meaning great in the scottish dialect. the term wool wheel was applied because it was best adapted to the spinning of wool fiber on account of the shortness of the fiber and the slow, intermittent motion of the wheel. to spin with this wheel, a portion of the fiber was drawn out and attached to the spindle; then the great wheel was struck with the hand fig. or a wooden peg, the blow causing it to revolve, turn the spindle to which the fiber was attached, and twist the fiber. to wind up the yarn, the wheel had to be revolved in the opposite direction. when the spindle was full, the thread was wound off on a reel. it has been estimated that spinners who worked at this type of wheel walked as many as miles a day as they spun. the principle of the great wheel is still used in our modern wool manufacture, but the mechanism has been so greatly improved that practically all of the work is now done by the machinery. . the flax, or leipsic, wheel, shown in fig. , which is the one we ordinarily see as an heirloom, with its distaff, spindle, and flyer, and which is adapted to flax spinning, was a complicated piece of machinery when compared with the great wheel. it was a labor-saving invention in that it had a treadle for transmitting the power and permitted the spinner to sit down º while spinning. the flyer, which was not found () on the great wheel, revolved very rapidly, twist-ſº ing the fibers and winding them on the bobbin. however, the spindle's motion was held back by the spinner, who changed the yarn from one hook to the other of the flyer and gradually filled the bobbin evenly. the motion of this wheel is continuous, that is, the fiber is drawn out, twisted, and wound up at the same time. fig. . carding.—in order to have a smoothly spun, clean yarn, it was necessary to clean the fiber and make it fine and soft before spinning. this was done by means of carding. primitive development of textiles - woman used her fingers for carding, opening up and straightening the fibers into a soft lap. later, cards, which were flat brushes containing bent wires set closely together in strips of leather tacked to the wood, were made for this pur- pose. with two of these cards, one in each hand, as shown in fig. , fibers could be made very clean and fluffy and laid out to form parallel strands. . in , lewis paul in- vented a machine for carding, which consisted of revolving cylinders covered with wire cloth. john lees, in , invented an apron feed, a device that made it possible to put a large quantity of fiber in the machine at one time. richard arkwright was responsible for an invention by which the fiber was delivered from the carding machine in laps, but a short time after the apron feed was invented a funnel was attached to the card, thus making the raw material into a sliver. after being carded, either by hand or by this machine, the fiber was ready for spinning on either the great wheel or the flax wheel. . improvements in spinning.—about the middle of the th century, there came an increased demand for materials. while the improved machinery made it possible to card the fiber ready for spinning and to weave the cloth on power looms, still the yarn was spun by hand. this, of course, held up production. to john wyatt is due the honor of producing the first yarn spun with- out the use of the human fingers, a feat he accomplished in . his machine drew the fiber through two moving rollers, which also used the flyer of the flax wheel. . up to this time, but one thread was spun at a time. james hargreaves, an englishman, was the first to work out a method of spinning a number of threads at the same time. the idea came to him one day when he saw a spinning wheel overturned, leaving the spindle revolving in a perpendicular instead of a horizontal position. seeing at once the possibility of having a number of spindles revolving in this position, he made his spinning jenny, which spun eight threads at one time. it had an intermittent motion like the great wheel, but it spun thread that was not strong development of textiles enough for warp. hargreaves' invention made him very unpopular with his fellow workmen, who persecuted him bitterly, for they felt that he was taking their work from them. . the next improvement in spinning was arkwright's water frame, which was brought out in . this machine was too heavy to be driven by hand, so that mule or horse power was required. later, water power was used, which gave it the name of water frame, and in steam was employed. the action of the water frame was continuous like that of the flax wheel and that used today in ring spinning. in fact, the principles of both the modern mule and the ring-spinning frame are the same as those of the great wheel and the flax wheel. the differences lie in the mechanism that has been devised to take the place of the hands. . samuel crompton, in , patented his spinning machine under the name of the mule-spinning frame. containing the good features of both hargreaves' and arkwright's inventions, it was more valuable than either of these before steam power was used. later, when steam could be utilized for power and when whitney invented his cotton-ginning machine in , cotton spinning received a great impetus. it was when water and steam were used for power that the textile industry was taken from the home to the factory. but the principles of the machines used today in the largest factories are practically the same as those set forth in the inventions of hargreaves, ark- wright, and crompton, with merely the substitution of machinery for the hand work formerly done by spinners. weaving nature and history . weaving is the process of interlacing into a fabric two sets of threads or strips of pliable material that cross each other at right angles. the threads that run the entire length of the material and form the foundation for weaving are called warp threads, as indicated in fig. . the threads that cross and interlace with the warp threads are called weft, woof, or filling, threads. at development of textii.es one warp thread, as shown in fig. . the plain weave is used principally for light-weight goods, such as voile, muslin, gingham, fig. linen, and nainsook. it is the least expensive weave to produce and requires the smallest amount of yarn or thread. variations of the plain weave are found in the basket and panama weaves. the basket weave is made by weaving two or more weft threads over two or more warp threads. the panama weave is really a plain weave, but a different effect is gained by having the weft thread much heavier than the warp. - . the twill, or diagonal, weave is more elaborate than the plain weave. in its simplest form, the twill weave consists of one weft thread passing over two warp threads and then under one warp thread, this being sometimes called the prunella weave. twill weaves vary greatly and consequently give us a large variety of materials, such as tricotine, serge, and gabardine. in serge, which is illustrated in fig. , one weft thread passes over two warp threads and then under two warp threads, as fig. shows. in twill materials, the twill may run to either the right or the left, but in the majority of cases it runs to the right, a characteristic i ſlº tº sºls nºt ilº il tri-º- o- ſº- tl iſ nº | % fig. fig. that helps to determine the right side of twilled materials. many threads are used in the twill weave, making firm. durable materials. development of textiles . the satin, or sateen, weave, shown in the satin in fig. , is an important one for it is used in all fibers. in reality, it is a . ############### hää###" lºº hh f ttttlifttttttt t-i-t-i-t- ſº -i lºir- ſº fig. fig. form of twill, as shown in fig. , but the interlacing of the fibers is done so that the twill does not show and a smooth, lustrous surface with many loose, or floating, threads is produced. the satin weave differs from the sateen weave in that the warp threads form its surface, whereas in the sateen weave the filling, or weft, threads form the surface. usually, the satin weave is used for silk and wool fibers, and the sateen, for cotton. it is also an excellent weave for a combination of fibers, such as silk and cotton, as in cotton-backed satin. besides in satin and sateen, the satin weave is found in such materials as galatea, venetian cloth, messaline, and foulard. . curved warp weaving includes the leno weaves, the pile weaves, the double-cloth weaves, the figure weave, and the lappet weaves. . leno weaving, which is shown in the marquisette in fig. , consists of weft threads with the warp threads wound around them, ſ ſº ſº ſlº il }}}}} } w. —w fig. fig. as shown in fig. . this weave is used extensively in curtain scrim, but as it will not permit of having its threads drawn length- development of textiles wise, such material should not be purchased with the idea of hem- stitching it by hand. the leno weave is found also in silk grena- dine and marquisette. when it is closely woven, it is durable, but often it is very open and loose. . the pile weave, shown in the velvet in - fig. , is the one in fig. which the beautiful velvets of the world are produced. in this weave, the ground may be a plain, a basket, or a twill weave. as shown in fig. , there are generally two sets of warp threads, as at a and b, which are held by the weft threads, as at c. one set of warp threads forms the pile, and in weaving these are held loosely so they may be drawn over wires to form loops, which are afterwards cut to produce the pile surface. plushes, corduroys, bolivia, chinchilla, rugs, and carpets are other examples of this weave. some of the plushes and velvets are in reality double cloth, being cut between the cloth. in another group of pile fabrics, such as terry cloth, which is used for towels and wash cloths, the pile is in the form of loops of threads instead of ends. these materials should not, under any circumstances, be confused with those that are napped, such as outing flannel or broadcloth. the map is produced by brushing the loosely woven cloth until a rough appearance is obtained. in duvetyn and velour, the fabric is matted, but in the case of broadcloth, it is pressed after napping to give it a smooth, mirror-like appearance. . the double-cloth weave is used in fabrics that are woven with two sets of warp and two sets of weft threads. special warps and a double harness are needed for weaving of this kind. often, double-cloth materials are held together by means of catch- ing an occasional weft thread through to the opposite surface, and thus they become reversible, as heavy coating, polo cloth, rugs, and double-faced ribbons. other times they are made by fastening two materials together with glue or mucilage. again, they may development of textiles be woven so as to be fastened on one or both edges to make tubular materials for lamp wicks, hose, and bags. . the figure weave is a combination of the three foundation weaves—plain, satin, and twill. the simple figure weaves, such as diaper patterns, huckaback, and granite, are done on a regular loom, but for intricate figure work, such as is found in damasks and brocades, the jacquard loom is required. brocades have a right and a wrong side, whereas damasks are figured on both sides and are therefore reversible. . the lappet weave consists of a plain weave with patterns woven on the surface to resemble hand embroidery. it is done by means of an attachment called a lappet, which is applied to a regular loom. the extra threads on the wrong side are cut off after the pattern is applied. lappet weaving produces many pretty materials, dotted swiss being the principal example, but they are not very durable as the process through which they pass during the weaving weakens them considerably. . bedford cord and piqué have characteristics peculiar to themselves. they are sometimes known as cord weaves, but they may be called “backed” fabrics because they carry an extra set of warp threads at the back of the fabric. the one set of warp threads weaves in the usual way with the weft, while the extra set carried at the back of the fabric interlace with the weft threads at regular intervals, producing a lengthwise ribbed effect of a rather wide wale. sometimes, a crosswise rib is produced by reversing the warp and weft, the weft forming the filling at the back of the material. . certain materials, such as bobbinet, maline, and tulle, contain weaves that cannot be classified as any of the regular textile weaves because of their construction. they have two sets of threads that correspond to the warp and weft of other materials, but these threads are woven on lace machines that permit varying degrees of tension and therefore cause the weft, or bobbin, threads to become twisted with the warp threads. to distinguish them from other materials, they may be designated as lace weaves. development of textiles rnitting . knitting is the process of making fabrics by looping a single thread, either by hand or by machine, each succeeding line of the thread being looped into the one before it. this art has been known for centuries, our grandmothers having knitted by hand large quan- tities of wool into stockings and mittens. the modern knitting machine has a great number of hooked needles, which open and close automatically and hold each loop as the knitting is done. if one loop is dropped, the whole web is threatened with destruction. knitting yarn, which is softer and less twisted than weaving yarn, produces an elastic material that is used principally for underwear, hosiery, gloves, scarfs, etc. sometimes it is plain and other times, ribbed, the ribbed varieties being more expensive and usually better wearing than the plain ones. the chief knitted fabrics are tricolette, jersey, and stockinette. some materials, such as eiderdown and chamoisette, have a knitted background through which soft yarns are passed to make a fuzzy surface. cloth finishes . it must not be thought that a fabric is ready for use as soon as it comes from the loom or the knitting machine. just the contrary is true, for it is then in an unfinished condition and is called raw thread. it must be treated in various ways, depending on the nature of the material and the finish to be applied. . practically all materials must be scoured, or washed in hot water and soap, in order to remove any dirt, oil, or other foreign substance, such as size, a starch-like dressing put into certain warp yarns to make them easier to handle. often it is necessary to burl materials after weaving, that is, to pick out any knots, burrs, and similar imperfections found in them. . singeing consists in treating the surface of material to make it smooth after taking it from the loom. this is done by passing it over heated metal rollers to remove the loose nap. . fulling is another operation through which many woolen materials are put to give them a stronger and firmer body. this development of textiles process shrinks the threads and makes the fabric compact and smooth. in the case of broadcloths and other nap-finished mater- ials, the fulling is carried on until the fibers become densely matted and cover up the weave. tweeds, on the other hand, are fulled only to the extent of giving them a dressed surface, and certain other materials merely have their texture strengthened in the fulling. during the fulling process, the material is frequently taken out, stretched, straightened, and inspected. when it has been suffi- ciently filled, it is freed from the soap by being rinsed, first in tepid water and finally in cold water. . to raise the nāp of woolen material that has been fulled, it is teasled; that is, the surface fibers are pulled out or broken to produce an unequal nap. for this purpose, a thistle-like plant covered with a hook-like growth and called the teasle, is employed in the production of high-grade fabrics, although a metal device, also, is used to nap materials. after the nap is raised, it is cut to make it uniform. sometimes the nap is pressed, and again it is allowed to stand upright. . many materials are put through a process called calender- ing to give their surface a smooth, even finish and sometimes to glaze them, as in sateens and silesias. calendering is accomplished by running the material over warm cylinders, pressure and steam being employed in the process. the glazing of materials is brought about by putting them through rollers that move at different velocities. bleaching . before materials can be dyed or printed, they must be freed of their natural coloring matter and any oily substances that they contain. sometimes it is found sufficient to scour the fabrics, but usually bleaching is also necessary. . the process of bleaching consists of freeing textile fibers and fabrics from their natural color in order to whiten them. in ancient times, bleaching was done by exposing the material to the direct rays of the sun and wetting it at regular intervals. this method, while followed for many years, and even now used in some parts of ireland, proved unsatisfactory because of the change- development of textiles. this discovery produced a revolution in dyeing methods, for the products of coal tar, the pitch distilled from bituminous coal and condensed in the manufacture of coal gas, chief among which is aniline, have formed the basis for practically all dyeing materials since. many other discoveries followed, chemists producing from time to time materials that closely resemble the natural dyes in effect although they bear no similarity to them in chemical composition. in fact, these synthetic dyes have nearly supplanted the natural ones. a very important step in the history of dyeing was the discovery in , by a german chemist, of a way to transform an extract of aniline into alizarine, a coloring matter identical with madder, one of the most ancient of natural dyestuffs. when this material was available for the trade, it practically drove the natural product, madder, from the market. . methods of piece dyeing.—dyeing cloth with coal-tar dyes is done in three ways: by direct, basic, and vat dyeing. . direct dyeing consists in subjecting the cloth to a dye bath and, by means of frequent turnings of the cloth, transferring the color to it. dyeing of this sort is not likely to produce such good results as that done by the other methods. . basic dyeing is that which requires the services of a mordant to make the dye permanent. by a mordant is meant a substance that will fix colors. to accomplish this, it must both penetrate the fiber of the material and combine with the dye-matter in such a way as to form an insoluble compound in or out of the fiber. various substances, such as tannin, gelatine, gluten, albumen, soda, and lead salts, are used as mordants. the most common method of dyeing with a mordant is to work it into the cloth and then to apply the coloring matter. the art of the dyer consists in com- bining the cloth, the mordant, and the dye so as to obtain a color that will be chemically combined and permanent. . wat dyeing has long been in use in germany but has only recently come into use in the united states. this form of dyeing is interesting in that the cloth may not have the desired color when it is removed from the dye bath but assumes the correct color on being exposed to the air. indigo is one of the colors that develop by oxidizing, or exposure to the air. development of textiles pure form. a thorough washing in soft water completes the prep- aration for the dyeing. with the material properly cleaned and containing only a faint outline of its pattern, it is immersed in a bath of alizarine, from which it comes out a completely printed fabric. this solution has the power to produce all the colors that were printed on the material by the mordants. a final boiling in soap and water to brighten the colors brings the fabric up to its finishing processes—calendering, folding, or rolling for the market. . block printing.—the earliest form of printing was known as block printing. now it is used chiefly in art work, having been superseded by machine printing in the manufacture of fabrics. in block printing, the design is cut out on a block of wood, the parts that are to make the impression being left prominent and the rest of the block being cut away. the color is supplied to the block, which is then pressed firmly on the fabric in order to transfer the design. as can be imagined, this is a process that, while it produces extremely beautiful, artistic effects, is too slow to be used commercially. - - fabric characteristics . right side of . materials.-many materials appear practically the same on both sides and, therefore, may be used without any concern as to keeping a particular side outermost. when materials are not alike on both sides and there is doubt as to which is the right side, there are various ways of determining it. usually, the right side has a smoother and more finished or more attractive appearance than the wrong side, and any design in the fabric stands out more prominently on the right side. if only one side of a fabric is glossy, this may generally be taken as the right side. if any novelty of weave or finish is more apparent on one side than on the other, the more unusual effect is, as a rule, consid- ered the right side, even though this is sometimes contrary to the general rule that the smoother and more finished side should be kept outermost. . in fabrics of twill or ribbed weave, the ribs, in most cases, stand up more prominently on the right side. when both sides of a twill weave appear very much the same, the right side may be development of textiles determined by observing the manner in which the diagonal lines run. to determine the right side in this way, hold the piece of material up against you with the selvages up and down. in this position, the diagonal lines should run from the left down toward the right. most double-width materials are folded in the piece with the right side in so as to prevent counter soiling. . materials having “up and down” and ' right and left.”—materials are said to have an up and down when they have a nap, a pile, or figures that are not the same on their opposite ends and are not arranged in reverse positions, which causes them apparently to “run” in one direction. as a rule, a napped fabric should be developed so that the nap runs in the same direction in all parts of the garment, although there are exceptions to this rule mentioned in the instruction book that deals with the cutting out of garments. the manner in which the pile runs in a fabric may be determined by running the hand over it in the general direc- tion of the lengthwise threads; when the hand is moved against the pile, it causes a feeling or appearance of rough- ness, but when the hand is moved in the same direction as the pile, the feeling is of smoothness. . in figured ma- -i-º-º: terial, the correct posi- tion of the figures may be determined by their appearance; the portion of the figure that appears broader or heavier is usually regarded as the lower end, except in the case of natural figures or familiar objects, which should maintain their natural or familiar positions. materials are said to have a right and left when they have stripes, plaids, or figures, as in fig. , that appear heavier or darker on one side of the design than on the other. chapter ii cotton production and manufacture . cotton is a downy vegetable fiber obtained from the boll, or seed pod, of the cotton plant. this plant grows from to feet in height and is native principally to the island and seacoast regions of the tropics, although it is raised successfully in other places. a sandy soil and a warm climate are necessary for its growth. - the earliest cotton was produced in india, dacca muslin being among the first cotton fabrics ever made. india was the center of the cotton industry for hundreds of years and still produces cotton in large quantities. it was from this country, in the th century, that cotton was brought to america. although the united states was the last to take up cotton growing, for almost a hundred years it has exceeded all other countries in the production of this fiber, and at present it raises about three- fourths of the entire world's crop. . classification.—the cotton plant, the botanical name of which is gossypium, is a member of the mallow family, its flowers closely resembling the hollyhock of our gardens. numerous classi- fications have been made of its varieties, some authorities giving a large number, but the majority place all cotton in four classes, namely, herb cotton, gossypium herbaceum; shrub cotton, gossy- pium hirsutum; tree cotton, gossypium arboreum; and lintless cotton, gossypium barbadense. growers and buyers of cotton, however, prefer to classify it according to its place of growth, their chief classes being sea island, egyptian, upland, indian, and peruvian. the characteristics of these classes are as follows: cotton . sea island cotton is grown on the islands along the coast of the carolinas, georgia, and florida. it has long, silky, fine fibers and is used for making the finest cotton thread, such as that utilized for laces, sewing thread, silk mixtures, and silk imitations. . egyptian cotton ranges in color from white to brown, the brownish color being due to the coloring matter in the nile. its fiber is unusually long, from to % inches, and it is used to some extent in the manufacture of spool cotton. its greatest use, however, is in the manufacture of fancy knit goods, such as the better grades of hosiery and underwear, it being next in value to sea island cotton. - . upland cotton is grown in the united states on the uplands of some of the south atlantic states. it is a cotton that varies greatly according to the cultivation of the plant and the character of the soil in which it is grown. the fibers of this cotton range from # inch to % inches in length and form a source from which we obtain the bulk of our cotton for use as sheeting, gingham, calico, and similar materials. . india cotton is used for making very coarse yarns, such as those used in denims and drilling, as it is shorter and weaker than the american upland cotton. the united states uses very little india cotton; its greatest markets are japan and european countries. . peruvian and brazilian cotton, or south american cot- ton, as it is sometimes called, has fibers of a harsh, wiry char- acter, which make both of these varieties useful in the adultera- tion of wool. the fiber is about the same length as that of egyptian cotton. - . growth of plant.—cotton is planted some time from march until may and matures from august until the frost comes, often as late as november or december. it is ready to pick as soon as the boll bursts open and shows its downy center. the picking is practically all done by hand, for although machines are sometimes used, they are not very satisfactory because they cannot distinguish between the ripe and unripe bolls and not all the bolls ripen at the same time. each picker picks from to pounds of cotton a day. cotton . cotton ginning.—after being picked, the cotton is taken to a ginnery, where the seeds are removed from the fiber by the cotton gin. this device, invented in by eli whitney, has played a very important part in the history of the cotton industry. up to the time of its invention, the seeds and fiber were separated by hand, but this was a very slow process for no one was able to clean more than pounds of cotton in a week. now, with the modern gins in use, two men can remove the cotton from the wagon and attend six gins, which clean , pounds in a day. the cotton gin consists of a series of saw-like teeth that draw the fiber of the cotton through holes too small to permit the seeds to pass. the lint is carried on by rollers, whereas the seeds are sent to the oil presses, these being frequently installed in the gin houses, where the seeds are pressed through special machinery and yield cotton-seed oil, the hulls being used for fuel and fertilizer. . sorting, baling, and opening.—after cotton is ginned, it is generally made into bales of pounds each and shipped to a manufacturing center. owing to the difference in the length and the condition of the fiber, the cotton must first be graded. to do this, the bale is broken and the cotton is placed in a machine known as a cotton opener, which tears the cotton apart. with the fibers opened, they are sorted according to length and whiteness. bale breaking and opening are not necessary operations if the cotton is hauled from the gin directly to the cotton mill and it is to be graded at once. . carding, combing, drawing.—the cotton passes through several intermediate steps that prepare it for the carding process. by means of a machine containing a card and a comb, the action of which has been compared to that of a comb and brush on the hair, the fibers are cleaned of their impurities and laid approximately parallel. from the card, which delivers the cotton in the form of a sliver, it is run through the combing machine, if it is intended for very fine material. otherwise, it goes straight to the drawing frame, which combines several slivers and draws them out so that they are the size of one. after going through the drawing frame several times, the fibers are sent to the fly frames, where they are drawn still smaller and twisted very slightly. then the yarn is wound on bobbins. cotton . spinning.—the next step in cotton manufacture is spinning, which is usually done on an upright frame by the flyer or the ring system. a humid atmosphere is more satisfactory for cotton spinning than is a dry one. consequently, england is more suitable for this work than america, although large quantities are spun in both the southern and the new england states. the chief purpose of spinning is to unite and draw out the fibers and to twist them into yarn. there is a difference between the spinning of yarn for warp and that for weft. since the warp yarn must be stronger than the weft, longer fiber cotton with a harder twist is used for it. for the weft yarn, the short fiber is employed. the invention of the cotton gin by whitney made possible a large supply of cotton for spinning. also, improvements in spinning wheels gave a great impetus to the industry. in fact, spinning was practically taken out of the home and made a problem for factories, where it has been kept ever since. . dyeing.—as soon as the yarn is spun, it may be dyed at once, when it is known as “dyed in the yarn”; or it may be woven first and then dyed, when the material is called “dyed in the piece.” most of the cotton yarn is dyed before weaving. sometimes, the yarn is bleached and mercerized before dyeing. . weaving.—before cotton cloth is woven, the warp threads are sized to increase their strength and to make them with- stand the wear of the loom. the warp is then placed on a warp beam and each of the warp threads is drawn through its particular heald, or vertical wire containing an eye, in the harness and its space in the reed, or a heavy frame set close with straight wires, between which the warp threads pass. the reed presses the weft threads up close to the finished piece to make it firm and even. two operators are required to thread a loom for the first time, but after it is once threaded, the ends of the old warp may be tied to the ends of the new with a weaver's knot and the new warp drawn through. the pattern to be followed in the weaving is, of course, worked out before the warp is threaded in the loom. the principle of weaving is practically the same in all looms at the present time. the harnesses automatically raise and lower the warp threads and with each opening of the shed, which is the space between the warp threads, the shuttle flies through, leaving a cotton trail weft thread; then the harnesses raise another set of warp threads and the shuttle flies back. the majority of cotton weaves are plain, but twill weaves are seen in some materials, such as drilling and khaki. . cotton finishes.—the varied finishes given to cotton materials account for the large variety of cotton materials on the market. nearly all cottons are sized to some extent, the kind of material used for sizing depending on the effect desired. thus, organdie is sized to give it a very crisp appearance and percale is treated with mucilage or gum to give it a glossy finish. . by calendering, or putting the cloth between heated steel rolls and using warm dressings, a high luster may be obtained, as in the case of sateen. mulls are softened by means of oils; cre- tonnes are treated with clay to give them a solid appearance. . mercerization is a finish given to various cotton materials. it is done in either the yarn or the cloth, usually before bleaching, and consists in treating cotton under tension with a solution of caustic soda to provide a high luster. unless the yarn or cloth is stretched very tight when treated with the soda, it shrinks both lengthwise and crosswise and takes on a crinkled appearance. at one time, this was the method used for maufacturing cotton crêpe. . printing.—in cotton manufacture, printing is an impor- tant process. it consists in impressing, or stamping, a design on the surface of a woven fabric or on the warp threads before the weaving is begun. the designs in calico, percale, organdie, and many other figured cotton materials are produced by means of printing. purchasing cotton materials tests for quality . before you buy cotton fabrics, there are several tests that you should make in order to determine their quality. because of the comparative cheapness of cotton fiber, it is seldom adulterated, but an inferior grade of cotton is often made to appear heavier by the addition of dressing. to test a thin fabric for the presence of dressing, when making a purchase, simply hold it up to the light and examine it. in this position, the starch that it contains will cotton show between the threads. or, rub the material in the hands to remove a part of the dressing and thus determine the firmness of the cloth. in the laundering process, such material loses both its weight and its firmness. so, if you wish to make the most convinc- ing test for the presence of dressing, wash a sample of the material and compare it with the original piece. . fastness to sunlight and washing is a very important quality of cotton material. to test for this, cover one end of a sample with a piece of cardboard or something else that will keep out light and expose the uncovered end to sunlight for several days. if the color remains unchanged, the fastness of the color to light is practically assured. then wash the sample in a warm soap solution, repeating this process several times. if the color still remains intact, you may rest satisfied that it is fast. guaranteed, fast-color material is more expensive at the out- set than materials which are not guaranteed, because of the special dyeing process required to produce fast colors. however, the additional expense is justified by the attractiveness of the material throughout its life. . dark-colored materials that have not been properly dyed have a tendency, when worn, to crock and discolor other garments or the skin. to test for this condition, rub a sample of the material briskly on a white, unstarched cotton fabric. if the color in the dark material does not rub off with this treatment, you may feel quite certain that the dyeing was properly done. . in buying material that is desired for long service, examine its warp and weft threads. these should be in good proportion as to strength and firmness, for the unequal tension produced by threads that are too decidedly unlike will soon cause the material to split or wear. besides considering the strength and firmness of the fabric, test its quality by untwisting one of its threads and noticing the length of the separate fibers. long fibers, that is, from to # inch, provide additional strength and have good wearing qualities. table of cotton materials . the materials, or fabrics, made from cotton are large in number and variety. in order that you may become familiar with most of them, all those in common use for home dressmaking are cotton given in table i. in it the materials are listed in alphabetical order, and, in addition to a description of each, the names of the weaves, the usual widths, and the normal prices are men- tioned. also, in this table, as well as in the tables for linens, silks, and wools, trade names are omitted, except those which have become generally known through advertising, such as “flaxon,” “georgette,” etc. it is advisable to study these tables and refer to them as occasion demands. this information, together with the tests for materials, will, if you are inexperienced, assist you materially in purchasing materials. not only will you quickly learn to buy intelligently, but you will have the assurance that you are not making mistakes about prices. in addition, this information will aid you in the selection of materials for garments. table i cotton materials usual width price name weave inches per yard description batiste . . . . | plain to || c. to $ | a fine, light, semitransparent cloth made in white and a few colors. used for lingerie dresses, blouses, and underwear; coarse weave bedford used for lining. cord . . . . . cord to c. up heavy goods having raised, length- wise cords that vary in width from ſº to # inch. used for dresses, skirts, and children's coats. bobbinet. . . lace , , | c.toś . . machine-made netting woven to produce six-sided figures; com- monly called net. used for lin- ings in blouses and dresses, and for overdrapes and window draperies. buckram . . . plain c. to c. coarse, open-weave material, made stiff with glue sizing. used in garments for stiffening. chiefly used for millinery purposes. bunting... plain to | }c. up | soft, open-weave fabric used for flags and decorating purposes. also comes in wool. note.--the prices in this table are based on normal trade conditions. cotton - weave usual width inches price per yard description cambric... canton, or cotton, flannel . . canvas.... challis. . . . chambray. cheesecloth chintz . . . . corduroy. . plain plain twill plain plain plain plain plain pile and and to and and and to c. up c. to c. c. to c. c. to $ c. to $ c. to $ }c. to c. c. to $ c. to $ coutil..... twill to c. to $ closely woven, thin cloth, usually with figured designs printed on one side. used for inexpensive dresses and aprons. often called cotton print. fine fabric with a glazed finish. used for handkerchiefs, linings, and undergarments. kid-fin- ish cambric is narrower in width and cheaper in price. heavy cotton with long nap on the right side. used for children's underwear, interlining, etc. a coarse, firm material. used for stiffening coats, facings, etc.; also, for making mail bags, tents, and sails. there is also an open- weave canvas used in embroi- dery work known as cross-stitch colºlº ( s. a fine fabric, both plain and fig- ured. used for inexpensive dresses and for comfortables. light-weight material with colored warp and white filling. used for dresses, aprons, and sunbon- nets. thin, light-weight fabric. used for wrapping cheese, butter, etc.; also, for dish towels and for window decorating. colored cheesecloth is used for masquer- ade suits and dresses. material similar to cretonne, usually glazed-finished. a durable, ribbed fabric in white and colors. expensive qualities have cotton warp and silk pile. used mostly for outing suits, lounging robes, and children's coats. a stout material, sometimes in fig- ured weave, used for corsets, brassières, bed coverings, and draperies. cotton weave usual width inches price per yard description cretonne. . crinoline. . damask. . . denim. . . . diaper. . . . dimity. . . . drilling. . . flannelette flaxon . . . . gabardine. plain plain twill fancy plain satin and jacquard twill figure plain twill plain plain plain twill , , to and , , , and , , to and to , , , and to , , c. to $ c. to $ c. to c. c.to $ . c. to c. c. to c. c. to $ c. up c. to $ c. to c. c. to $ c.to $ . galatea. . . twill to c. to c. a crinkled, light-weight fabric. used for underwear, blouses, and dresses. some grades have floral and japanese designs. used for kimonos and lingerie robes. a medium-heavy cloth, usually printed in floral and striped designs. used for upholstery and draperies. an open-weave fabric filled with sizing. used in cuffs, belts coats, and hats for stiffening. a figured fabric used for table linen and towels. see damask, table ii. - strong, durable fabric in plain colors. used for overalls and for furniture and floor coverings. soft fabric, generally made with small diamond or bird's-eye pat- tern; used for towels and under- garments. corded or crossbar, light-weight material, plain and figured. used for infants' garments, undergar- ments, aprons, and lingerie dresses. coarse, firm cloth. used for men's outing suits and for interlinings. a heavy-weight, highly finished fabric. used for outing skirts and coats and for tents and awnings. a soft fabric with a slight nap. comes in white and colors. used for sleeping and baby garments and for kimonos. a mercerized lawn of fine quality. used for blouses, dresses, and lin- gerie. flaxon is a trade name. a stout material used chiefly for tailored dresses and skirts. see gabardine, table iii. a heavy, firm material for boys' clothes, outing skirts, middy blouses, and dress-formcoverings. cotton weave usual width inches price per yard description gingham. . grenadine. huckaback india linon. indian head. . . kindergar- ten cloth. linene. . . . long-cloth. madras. . . marquisette plain or leno plain leno figure plain plain twill plain plain plain plain plain leno to to to and to to to to c. to c. c.to $ . c. to $ c. to c. g. to c. c. to $ c. to c. c. to c. c. to $ c. to $ }c. to $ c. to $ c. to c. loosely woven, flimsy material, but very strong because of the weave. used as foundation for collars and yokes, but principally for bandages. see gauze, table iv. a firm material dyed in the yarn before weaving. many com- binations of warp and weft are made to form stripes and plaids. used for dresses and aprons. loose-weave fabric, usually with satin stripes. used for party dresses and for draperies. also made in silk and wool. a rough-weave cotton toweling. see huckaback, table ii. a cotton lawn in imitation of linen. name is applied to many quali- ties of lawn. used for children's dresses, aprons, and fancy work. a coarse, firm material used as a substitute for plain, heavy linen. comes in white and fast colors. indian head is a trade name. dark tan cloth. used for men's and boys' clothes, army uniforms, girls' and women's outing garments. stout, closely woven material with a smooth surface. usually instripes. used for children's clothes. sheer fabric filled with starch or sizing. used for dresses, aprons, and curtains. a substitute for linen. much like indian head, except that it is softer and has a smooth finish. closely woven, fine, bleached mus- in. used for underwear and . infant's clothes. firmly woven material, usually hav- ing stripes, which may be woven in satin, basket, or fancy weaves. soft, open weaves in fine and coarse qualities. used for dresses and curtains. coarser qualities iden- tical with scrim. cotton weave usual width inches price per yard description muslin. . . . nainsook. . organdie, or organdy. outing flannel. . percale. . . . percaline. . plain plain plain plain plain plain plain cord plain plain to to to to and to to to c. to $ c. to $ . c. to $ c. to $ }c.to c. c. to c. | c. to c. c. to $ c. to $ c.to $ . very soft, sheer, light material in white and colors. used for dress foundations, blouses, and for inexpensive party dresses. firm qualities sold under trade names of seco silk and silk muslim. a firm and loose weave, bleached and unbleached. unbleached often referred to as raw muslim or domestic. used for under- garments where durability is desired and for sheets and pil- low cases. a light-weight, soft, bleached, mus- lin suitable for dainty lingerie and children's garments. very fine, sheer, crisp material, in white and colors. used for dresses, flowers, collars, and cuffs. “permanent-finish” or— gandie retains crispness after laundering. similar to flannelette, with a nap on both sides. made in colors, stripes, and checks. used for sleeping and infants' garments. a close, firm fabric, plain and in colors. used for dresses, shirts, and children's clothes. closely woven fabric with glazed or watered finish. used for linings and for drop skirts. a firm fabric in lengthwise corded effect. used for dresses, vests, trimmings, and children's coats. fabric having fine crosswise ribs. used for draperies, dresses, and children's coats. also made in silk and wool. firm material woven with heavier weft than warp, giving it a ribbed effect. used for draperies, dresses, and children's coats. cotton name weave usual width inches price per yard description ratiné. . . . sateen. . . . seersucker. silesia. . . . . silkaline. . . soisette. . . tarlatan... terry cloth plain satin leno plain plain plain plain plain plain pile to to to to to c.to $ . c.to $ . c. to $ c. to c. c. to c. c. to c. c. to c. c. to $ c. to c. ticking. . . velveteen.. twill pile plain to and and to c.to $ . c.to $ . $ to $ c.to $ . rough-surface fabric made with knotted yarn. used for summer suits and sports dresses. closely woven material, with lus- trous, smooth finish, like that of satin. used for underskirts and linings. heavy quality known as surf satin. open-mesh weave in white, cream, and ecru; light in weight and transparent. used for curtains. a thin fabric with an irregular, crimped surface. used for dresses, coats, and underwear. a light-weight fabric, similar to percaline; soon loses its luster. used for linings. a thin, soft, glazed fabric. used for draperies and comfortables. soft, mercerized fabric. used chiefly for negligee shirts and pajamas and sometimes for com- fortables. soisette is a trade ame. a soft dress, muslin, usually in cross-bar and dotted effects. used for dresses and curtains. open-mesh, slightly stiffened fab- ric. used for christmas stock- ings, as a stiffening in garments, and for fancy costumes. cloth woven with a raised loop giving a rough surface. used principally for towels, draperies, and bath robes. firm fabric in stripes and in floral and herringbone patterns. used for pillows and mattress covers. a cotton velvet, with short, close pile. used for dresses and chil- dren's wraps and for draperies. material having hard-twisted, warp and weft threads woven in open mesh. used for dresses, lingerie, and curtains. chapter iii linens nature and uses . linen was probably the first textile woven by man, for it is known to have been in use centuries before the christian era. and the treatment given to the fibers in these early linens was so excel- lent that napkins discovered in the wrappings of mummies were not only well preserved but were able to withstand several washings. the phenicians are said to have carried linen production into ireland, where it has always been an important industry, linens from ireland being in great demand because of their beauty. . linen has ever been regarded as the textile of luxury, for its rather high price, due to its methods of production, prevents it from being used as commonly as many of the other fabrics. it is used less frequently, also, because textile manufacturers have so perfected cotton materials, producing almost indescribable colors and weaves, that, whenever it is possible, cotton, which is much cheaper and does not wrinkle so easily, is substituted for linen. however, because of its sterling properties, there are some uses for which no substitute can be found for linen. this textile is practically free from lint, absorbs water very rapidly, gives up its moisture just as quickly, is easily cleansed, has exceptionally good endurance, can be had in the finest of fabrics, has threads that are smooth, strong, and lustrous, and is pure and hygienic for constant service. in addition, because of the length of its fiber, linen does not possess the fuzzy surface that characterizes cotton and that even- tually results in a gray and dingy look through the constant accumulation of dust. linens . the cost of linen is well justified for household and surgical purposes, as well as for wearing apparel, handkerchiefs, neckwear, and fancy work. because of its long history, its reliability, its purity, its expense in production, its exclusive use for many needs, linen should receive a respect which can hardly be accorded to any other fabric. and every effort ought to be exerted to prolong the life of a piece of linen to the fullest extent. table- cloths, napkins, and other household linens should be laundered with the greatest care, as well as mended to make them last as long as possible. housewives of today may well emulate the women of olden times, who spent more time caring for the treasures they had acquired and less time in procuring new things than we do. production and manufacture . cultivation of plant.—linen is made from the fiber contained in the stalk of flax, an annual plant that may be produced in nearly all climates. practically all european countries cultivate flax for the fiber, while india and the united states cultivate it for the seed and its products. when full grown, the flax plant, which has an erect, slight, and willowy stem, ranges from to inches high, and has small flowers that vary in color in the different varieties from pale yellow to bright blue. in the cultivation of flax, successive plantings are not made in the same ground, for it requires well-cultivated and well-nourished soil, an interval of from to years being allowed between flax plantings in belgium: it is planted early in the spring, and as soon as it is a few inches high the women and children begin to weed the plants. in late july the harvesting begins, the flax being in the best state for fiber when the leaves and the stem of the lower part of the plant turn yellow and the seed pods begin to open. instead of being cut, the flax plants are pulled up by the roots a handful at a time so as to save all of the precious, long fiber possible. . removing leaves and seeds.-the manufacture of flax into linen consumes much time and, for the finer grades of linen, requires much hand work. after the flax is harvested, it is allowed to dry and the seeds are then removed from the stalks. then the stalks are rippled, that is, they are separated from the leaves and any seeds that may still be attached by being drawn through a large iron comb. - l d – linens . retting.—the next process through which the flax is put is called retting, the purpose of which is to separate the fiber from the bark and the woody core. it is accomplished by coldwater, steam, dew, or in a chemical way, but the most satisfactory method for color and strength is by cold water. this is sometimes done in the neighboring streams, as in the river lys in belgium, this being one of the best known flax-raising districts in the world. . when the cold-water method is employed, the flax is put in open crates of wood, which are covered on the four sides with jute burlap, often from , to , pounds being put into one crate. the crates are covered with fresh straw, are floated in position in the stream, and then are weighted down with stones and sod until they are entirely covered with water. they are left in the water until the flax is sufficiently fermented, usually or days, the crate then rising above the water and bubbles appearing on the surface. sometimes, for very fine fiber, the flax is removed from the water after days, dried for a part of a day, and then put back for further action. . a different method is that practiced in ireland, the flax being placed in stagnant pools of water. but the color of the linen is not so good when this kind of retting is done. in russia, the fiber is left on the field to be retted by the dew. retting is also done with the use of chemicals, but as these are apt to harm the fiber, this method is used less often than the natural ones. . breaking and scutching.—after being retted, the bundles are allowed to dry for a short time and are then turned inside out so that the air will reach all parts of the flax. as the fiber dries, it bleaches and becomes pretty well separated from the bark and woody pitch. it must be put through still more processes, known as breaking and scutching, or beating, before it is thoroughly cleaned of the particles of straw and dirt that cling to it. the linen hackle performs the service for linen that the card does for cotton in its manufacture; that is, it lays the fibers in order and removes all the short lengths of fiber that are known as tow, which is rescutched, spun like cotton, and used for coarse cloths. some- times the scutching is done by hand and sometimes by machine, but hand-scutching is considered less wearing on the linen. linens . hackling and drawing.—for very fine yarns, the fiber is sorted and cut into three divisions. the middle cut is the best and is known as cut line. before being spun, the fiber is combed many times and then put through a series of hackling machines to clean it more thoroughly and to separate the line from the tow. at the end of this treat- ment, the line is smooth, fine, and glossy. after being sorted and cut, it is again put into a machine and combed through fine wires, until it is made into a continuous ribbon or sliver. this process, which is called drawing, is repeated in other machines according to the fineness of the thread desired. . spinning.—the spinning of the flax, which is the next process, is done by the wet, dry, or semidry method, depending on the purpose for which it is to be used. the tow is treated duferently from the line, it being spun much like cotton. dry- spun flax is more silky and has a greater firmness than that produced by wet spinning, but it is not so fine. the thread produced by wet spinning is twisted tighter and the flax is more subdivided, but these points are an advantage for certain classes of thread. care must be used in wet spinning, however, to have the yarn dried quickly in order to avoid the forming of mold. . sizing, bleaching, weaving.—with the spinning of the thread completed, it is usually sized to give it strength, and then it is often bleached wholly or partly before it is woven. the weaving, as can well be understood, depends on the purpose for which the lineh is to be used. sheetings, lawn, and cambrics are done in plain weaves, while towelings usually show twills. damasks are generally woven on the jacquard loom, and these cloths can be used on either side. . finishing processes.—the finishing of linen cloth does not vary greatly for the different weaves. after being woven, the web of cloth is bleached. chemical bleaching, dew bleaching, and grass bleaching are in use. in ireland, where grass bleaching is the method used, the cloths are spread out on large grass plots, where they become a snowy white upon being subjected to the rain and sunshine. in addition to being bleached, linen is often washed, blued, starched, and mangled. linens . dressing is needed to some extent in even the best linens to bring out their designs. in poor grades, it is used to cover the defects of the linen. different dressings are used to obtain different effects in the finished material. . beetling gives linen its “leathery” feel. after the cloth is dampened, it is placed on a roll and is struck with a series of wooden mallets to give it the flat appearance that is so familiar to every one. the final processes include calendering, pressing, inspecting, folding, marking, and packing. . countries producing linen.—the linens produced in the various countries seem to possess distinctive characteristics. linen from ireland has the distinction of being the purest white of all linens, and while it is not always showy, it possesses the best appearance and wearing qualities. the dazzling whiteness of irish linen has been compared to new snow on which the sun is shining. these qualities are perhaps due to the climate in which the flax is raised, as well as to the method of bleaching, nearly all irish linen being bleached on the grass, where it is subjected to sunshine and rain. belfast, ireland, is noted for its excellent wear- ing irish linen. in scotland is produced linen that is much in favor, too, as it is usually sun- and grass-bleached, this method of bleaching being less injurious to the fibers than bleaching methods in which chemicals are employed. scotch linens, as a rule, are much heavier and more showy in pattern than irish linens. the linen made in france is noted for its beautiful patterns, and especially is this true of french table linens. the french, as a rule, spin their linen thread round and fine with the result that they are able to produce some unique weaves and designs. many linen dress fabrics are produced in france, too. belgium grows the finest flax of any country in the world, and the belgians weave many beautiful linens as a result of having splendid material with which to work; also, they manufacture the finest linen threads used in lace making. it is said that the belgians use more dressings in their linens than do the irish. the linen produced in germany and austria is silver white in color and very fine in texture and is produced in beautiful designs. germany produces great quantities of unbleached table linen, also, which many prudent housewives buy and then bleach. the bleach- s linens . another test for linen that may be quickly made consists in pulling out a thread and jerking it in two. if the thread breaks easily and the ends appear fluffy or fuzzy, similar to cotton twine when it is broken, the material is cotton. if, though, the thread breaks hard and the ends show an uneven, drawn-out break caused by the flax threads, which form the strand of warp or weft, not being broken off abruptly, it is almost certain that the fabric is good linen. pressing the material firmly between the thumb and fore- finger will help to determine whether it is all linen or contains some cotton, for if it fuzzes up, it gives evidence of cotton. . a drop of glycerine on unsized linen makes it appear transparent, but does not have this effect on cotton. this is, there- fore, a very good, as well as a very simple, test. . a test that may easily be made and that will aid in deciding definitely whether a given fabric is cotton or linen consists in plac- ing a sample in a strong solution of washing soda. both cotton and linen will shrink in this solution, but cotton will become a light gray, whereas linen will turn a faint yellow. another test is to drop the sample into a boiling solution of caustic potash, which may be purchased in any drug store, and let it remain there a few minutes. if it is linen, it will turn dark yellow, while if it is cotton it will remain nearly white or turn a light yellow. . the tests given for finding the amount of dressing in cotton can be followed to very good advantage when testing linen cloth, namely, holding the material up to the light or rubbing it in the hands. if the linen is colored, the tests given under cotton for exposing the material to the light and washing it may also be employed. table of linens . table ii gives the name, the usual width, and the usual price per yard of all linens in general use. in connection with each kind of linen are also mentioned its nature and the purpose for which it is commonly used. as is true of similar tables of materials, this information will be of valuable assistance to all women in the selection of linens for garments and other purposes. () linens shrinking and setting colors in wash fabrics . cotton materials, particularly ginghams, chambrays, and percales, as well as linen fabrics, almost always shrink and often lose their colors when washed for the first time. therefore, it is generally advisable to shrink them and set their colors before making them up into garments. if you attempt to keep correct proportions in cutting and fitting and at the same time make allowance for shrinking, you are likely to encounter difficulties, because it is hardly possible to estimate the exact amount of shrinkage. however, some materials, particularly soft, sheer fabrics, lose much of their “new- ness” in washing; so, instead of following the definite rule that all cotton materials must be shrunk and have their colors set before washing, you will do well to exercise your own judgment about the matter. also, the style that is to be followed in making a garment should influence your decision in regard to shrinkage, for this will not prove so noticeable in some designs as in others. . for material that requires only shrinking, water alone is used, but for material that is to be shrunk and at the same time have its color set, a mordant, or color-setting substance, is required. because of the different chemicals that are used in dyeing each color, it is impossible to form specific rules to follow in setting any color. therefore, before you use any solution, try out its effect on a sample of the material, letting it dry after the solution is used and then washing it to determine whether or not the color runs. you may find it necessary to experiment with several solutions, especially if the salt solution here suggested does not prove effective. . using salt to set colors.-common salt is a very prac- tical color-setting substance, because, in addition to being generally effective, it is comparatively cheap and on hand in every household. for materials containing more than one color, you will find that a salt solution is especially desirable, as other mordants are usually effective for only a limited variety of colors, while salt may be used for almost any. the effect of a salt solution as a mordant, however, is not always lasting and in some cases it is advisable to use a different solution. you can generally tell what to do by observing the quality of the material and the nature of the color, for, as a rule, in the more expen- linens sive cotton fabrics having soft or rather subdued colors, a salt solution is all that is needed to set the color. if you prefer not to shrink the material before using it and find, in washing a sample of it, that the color is practically fast, you may postpone the use of the salt solution until the garment is ready for laundering and then leave it in the solution for a short time before washing it. . to make a salt solution for setting colors, follow the pro- portion of cupful of salt to gallon of cold water. after preparing enough of the solution to cover all the material that is to be treated, place the material, folded as it comes from the store, in the solu- tion, but lift each of the folds so as to make sure that every part of the material is thoroughly soaked. let it remain in the solution for hours. then rinse it well in clear, cold water, taking care not to unfold it, and carefully press the water out with the hands. you may run it through a wringer if you fold it lengthwise a sufficient number of times to permit it to be laid out flat in the wringer and thus prevent the crowding of the material and the wrinkling that would naturally result, but do not, under any circumstances, wring it out by twisting. after the water is pressed out, unfold the material and hang it up to dry in a shady place, being very careful not to pull the straight edges out of shape. never hang a colored fabric in the direct rays of the sun, because such sunlight will take the life out of the color and often cause the material to become streaked. after the material is dry, press it on the wrong side. it will then be ready for use. material that requires simply shrinking should be handled in the manner just described, except, of course, that plain water should be used. it is not necessary to leave the material in the water any longer than complete saturation requires. . additional color-setting solutions.—following are recipes for other solutions that prove very effective for some colors. use these in the same way in which you would a salt solution. a sugar-of-lead solution is generally recommended for delicate colors, especially lavender, but it also proves effective for many darker colors. to make this color-setting solution, follow the proportion of ounce of sugar of lead to gallon of boiling-hot water. try to dissolve every particle of the sugar of lead, but should any insoluble substance remain, strain the solution in order linens to prevent the formation of streaks in the material, which may be impossible to remove. wait until the solution is cold before placing the material in it; also, let the material remain there for or hours before rinsing it. sugar of lead is poisonous if taken internally, so extreme care must be exercised in handling it. an alum solution is usually effective for green. to make it, fol- low the porportion of tablespoonful of alum to gallon of water. a vinegar solution in some cases proves very effective for pink, and in other cases it is much better for blue. in making such a solution, follow the proportion of cupful of vinegar to gallon of water. chapter iv wool wool production . origin.—wool is the soft, hairy covering of sheep and certain allied animals, clipped from the animal and manufactured into fabrics of various kinds. whether it was first produced by the egyptians or the greeks is a question of doubt, but it is sufficient to know that the sheep has been a domesticated animal from prehistoric times, for its bones have been found with those of human beings in ancient tombs. all down through the ages, to the time when cotton manufacture became an important industry, wool was the leading staple of commerce, figuring con- spicuously in the prosperity of many nations. now, it follows cotton in importance among textiles, but its production and manufacture are still leading industries in various parts of the world. . wool supply.—the wool fiber varies greatly as to length and nature, some of it being short, soft, dull, and crimpy, and other varieties being long, silky, and lustrous. the merinos, which include the spanish, the saxony electoral, and the french, or rambouillet, are prominent among the short-fibered sheep, while the leicester, lincoln, cotswold, romney marshes, and devons are among the long-fibered producers. besides sheep, the ama, the alpaca, the angora goat, the cash- mere goat, and the camel are all sources of wool fiber, some of them producing inferior grades and others, as the cashmere goat of the himalaya mountain regions, yielding the most expensive wool grown. . australia, south america, and the united states have long been the leaders in wool production. australia is noted for the wool merino with its fine, short fiber; england is the chief producer of the long, lustrous wool; russia produces coarse wools used in making carpets; the united states is known for producing a cross-bred sheep, which has a soft, strong fiber longer than the merino. numerous other countries, including france, germany, new zealand, south africa, and various parts of asia, figure prominently in sheep raising for wool production. - the raising of sheep requires considerable care if fleece of the best quality is to be had. sheep breeders work for a good, dense fleece that contains as few burrs and other impurities, such as dirt, dust, and straw, as possible. the shearing life of a sheep is about years. then, it is usually fattened and sold for mutton. . the variation in wool fiber, which runs from to inches, was formerly responsible for the two kinds of wool material produced—woolens and worsteds. the short, curly fibers, which contain many serrations, or scales, were used for woolens because they are inclined to pull up together when subjected to moist heat. it is just this shrinking quality that is needed in the making of such materials as broadcloth and flannel. the long fibers were used for the worsteds, which are made of tightly twisted yarn and consequently show the pattern of their weaving plainly, as in the case of serges, prunellas, and similar materials. now, however, machinery has been devised that can comb the very shortest yarns, so the difference between woolens and worsteds has become a matter of the way in which the yarn is prepared. wool manufacture first processes . the first step in the manufacture of wool into cloth is the removing of the fleece from the sheep. formerly, this was all done by hand, but now much of the sheep shearing is done by power. skilful handling of the animals is needed to prevent cutting or injuring them in the shearing. - the fleece is cut so that it is all left in one piece, a fleece averag- ing from to pounds, although the fleece from a heavy merino often runs as high as pounds. these fleeces are tied securely wool in a bundle and put into a large sack, which, after being packed full, is fastened securely and shipped to the market. . sorting.—when the fleeces arrive at the mill, they are very dirty and greasy, and often contain burrs, straw, and even anthrax germs. the wool must first be sorted into its different grades by a worker known as a wool sorter. this is a very dis- agreeable task, but it is an extremely important one, for on it depends much of the beauty of the finished yarn. in separating the fleece, which is a hand process, the sorter places it in piles or bins according to its quality. from these, it goes to the cleaning machines, each process forming a part of a train of machines which prepare the wool for spinning. . dusting.—very often wool contains so many impurities that it must be relieved of some of them before it can be washed. in some mills, it is put through the duster, which opens the fleece by means of coarse teeth, or spikes, and then removes much of the dirt by means of a fan. . scouring.—when the fleece is taken from the sheep, it contains a greasy substance, known as yolk, which is caused by the animal secretions and the perspiration of the skin. the removal of the yolk is accomplished by the scouring process, which consists in putting the wool through various baths of warm water and certain chemicals, such as potash, ammonium carbonate, and soda, each mill having its own formula for the desired results. much care must be used in scouring or the fiber may be harmed. from the last bath, it comes out thoroughly rinsed and then, unless it is to be dyed wet, it is dried, first in a cylindrical container by means of a whirling motion, which drives out excess moisture, and then by being carried over hot pipes or by mean of hot air. . carbonizing.—when wool contains a great many burrs, it must be put through a process that removes these before it can be carded and spun. carbonizing, which consists of treating the wool to a solution of sulphuric acid that is not strong enough to injure the fiber and yet will singe the vegetable matter, is con- sidered the best method of removing the burrs. the wool is then rinsed in a solution of soda and water and finally baked until the vegetable matter is destroyed. to remove the dried vegetable material, the wool is dusted. wool . blending.—with the wool relieved of its impurities, it is usually blended to produce a combination of colors or of varieties of fiber. this is a process that requires considerable experience, for the blender must understand the mixing of colors in order to produce the desired effects. . oiling.—by this time, the wool has lost practically all of its natural oil and it must be reoiled in order to pass through the remaining processes easily. the oiling may be done by hand or the wool may be sprayed with machinery as it passes from one machine to another. various oils are used for this purpose, chief among which are olive oil and tallow oil. manufacture of woolens . after the oiling of the wool fiber, the processes for the manufacture of woolens and worsteds begin to differ. when wool fiber is intended for woolens, such as underwear, flannel, broadcloth, and similar materials, the processes through which it passes are fewer in number and of a simpler nature than when it is to be made into worsteds. this is due to the fact that, for woolens, the fibers need only be cleaned and mixed, whereas for worsteds they must also be combed sufficiently to make them lie entirely parallel. . picking.—the fibers are usually in a rather entangled condition after scouring and drying, so they must be put through a machine that opens them and then mixes them in preparation for the next process. this is known as picking. - . carding.—the process of carding, which usually involves the use of three machines, is the most important one in the manu- facture of woolens. the first machine is sometimes provided with an arrangement whereby the fiber is mixed, and it always contains some means of combing the wool into a fine, even feed, or sliver, so that it passes easily into the next machine. in the second card, the wool is often transformed into a wide sliver and then laid diag- onally into the feed, which deposits it so that one layer is half over the other and still alongside of it. in the third machine, the wool is fed from the side of the sliver so that it becomes well mixed and is prevented from lying in the parallel rows that the teeth wool of the card naturally produce. from the last card, the fiber is put through rub rolls and then wound on bobbins in a slightly twisted form ready for spinning, or it is sent to the drawing frames where it is further prepared to be spun. . spinning.—the mule frame is generally employed for the spinning of woolen yarn because its intermittent motion makes it especially adapted to the twisting of soft, short yarns. in the spinning frame, the yarn is wound on bobbins ready to be woven. . weaving.—if the yarn is to be dyed before weaving, it is first wound into skeins and then dyed. either undyed or dyed, it is woven into materials of various kinds, including broadcloths, flannels, chinchillas, blankets, as well as numerous sorts of knitted and crocheted goods. the chief characteristic of woolen weaves is that they are soft and practically concealed. . finishing processes.—after woolen cloth is woven, it must be put through certain finishing processes before it is ready for the market. fulling shrinks it and makes it appear more closely woven. napping, which is done by a machine having wire- cloth rollers, raises the nap of the material. then, it is often sheared if a smooth, glossy material, such as broadcloth, is desired. pressing and calendering follow, after which the material is bolted and ready for the market. manufacture of worsteds . the chief difference between woolens and worsteds is that in the making of worsted yarn the fibers must be combed to make them lie parallel before they are twisted into thread. this involves much more work and the yarn must be put through many more processes than for woolens, so worsteds are usually more expensive fabrics. they are characterized by a firm, even, close-twisted yarn and by weaves that are usually distinguishable, as in the case of serges. . carding.—the process of carding, while it forms a part of the manufacture of all worsteds, is not so important as in woolens. for very long yarn, the fibers are put through only one carding process for the purpose of straightening the fibers in preparation for the comb. if a short yarn is to be used, it must be carded oftener. wool . gilling.—the purpose of the gilling machines is to prepare the fibers for the combs. often, a number of slivers are united and then they must be straightened and laid parallel so that they can be fed properly into the combing machine. . combing.—the combing of the fiber is the most important step in worsted manufacture. the comb separates the fiber into the long, straight wool, which is called tops, and the short, curly wool called moils. the tops, which are the ones used for worsteds, are sent to another machine that lays the long fibers as nearly parallel as possible. the noils are removed and then either com- bined with pure wool for certain materials in the mill itself or sold to other manufacturers. when the wool leaves the combing and gilling machines, it is in the form of a good-sized sliver wound into a ball that can be easily unwound. . drawing and doubling.—the yarn must be consider- ably reduced in size to make it suitable for spinning, so it is put through the drawing and doubling machines. these processes are repeated as many times as necessary to make the sliver the right size. in some yarns, a slight twist is given to the wool at this time, but in many the twisting is not done until just before the spinning. the wool is next wound on bobbins. . spinning.—in the spinning of worsted yarns, two methods are followed: the english and the french. the english system oils the wool before combing and consequently produces a smooth, lustrous, tightly twisted yarn. the french method uses very little oil and so is often called dry spinning. it uses a much shorter fiber than the english system and produces a soft, dull, loosely twisted yarn. . finishing processes.—from the spinning frames, the yarn comes on bobbins and is ready for dyeing, weaving, and sizing. if it is to be dyed before spinning, it is run off into skeins or hanks and then wound again after the dyeing. sizing, which strengthens the yarn and which is done in the case of most single yarns, may be done either before or after weaving. as worsteds depend for their beauty on their weave, the weaving of them, as well as the finishing processes of napping, shearing, boiling, steaming, and pressing, differs somewhat from that of woolens and at the same time requires much care and skill. wool purchasing wool materials tests for wool . all wool fabrics should be carefully examined to see whether they are absolutely clean and free from signs of shop wear, such as faded lines on the outside folds, spots, dust streaks, or pulled thread. such goods may often be bought at a lowered price and, if time is not at a premium, may be cleaned, sponged, and pressed so that they appear satisfactory. the color of wool fabrics, also, should receive attention. note whether they are dyed evenly and whether the color is such that it will withstand the sponging and pressing required in both the making and the renovating of the garment. it is always well to examine material by daylight or “daylight lamps” in considering its color. . fiber test.—sometimes wool materials are adulterated by cheaper materials, such as shoddy, cotton, and the waste from silk and wool machines. if you wish to know whether a material is all wool, ravel a little of it and examine the fibers. you will find that wool fiber is kinky, whereas other fibers are usually straight. then try breaking a thread. the wool fibers pull apart rather than break, whereas cotton fibers, upon breaking, have tufted, fuzzy ends. . physical condition.—much can be told from the “feel” of a material. a pure-wool fabric feels soft to the touch, whereas a wool mixture feels harsh and stiff. it is true, of course, that worsteds are stiffer than woolens, but there is a vast difference petween the “feel” of worsteds and that of a wool material contain- ing cotton or other substitute. every effort should be made to train the hand to recognize the “feel” of the best wool, for this ability comes chiefly through experience in handling materials. . design and weave.—in the selection of wool materials, the design and weave should be carefully examined. a good plan is to place the cloth between you and the light, for then the design can be seen to advantage and any imperfections it may contain can be easily detected. l. d – wool . the weave of woolen fabrics affects the wearing quality, the color, the construction, and the success of the finished garment itself. a close, twilled weave makes a firm, durable material, while loose, open weaves are apt to lose their shape and wear poorly. on the other hand, the close weaves, although they wear better and are less likely to catch on rough surfaces or sharp projections, become shiny rather quickly. looseness of weave can be detected by pulling the material back and forth. if, when pulled apart, the threads separate easily and show daylight through them, you may consider the weave too loose to wear well. weakness in the material may be due to imperfections in weaving or to too great a difference between the strength of the warp and the weft threads. exposing the material to the light or pressing it firmly with the thumb and the fingers will help to detect such weaknesses. crushing the material in the hands and rubbing it together will show, with a fair degree of accuracy, how the fabric will wear, for roughness of the surface will be brought out just as in wearing. materials having cords or ribs running one way are weaker than those in which the cords or ribs run in both directions, for if cords are to be brought out prominently one of the threads must be combined with threads that are finer and more loosely woven. . test for shoddy.—until recent years, shoddy was looked down on because it was thought to be only waste thrown off in wool spinning. this, however, is a mistaken idea, for shoddy is in reality the shredded wool of old cloth reduced to short fibers for the purpose of being used again. a small amount of shoddy mixed with new wool is not a serious detriment, provided the shoddy is good, for some very splendid materials contain shoddy. the best shoddy is made from clippings of new cloth, such as those received from tailoring establishments, but discarded wool of other kinds is cleaned by manufacturing processes and then worked up again into actually serviceable materials. the necessity for testing wool materials for shoddy is not that they should be avoided, but that their price be commensurate with the shoddy used. the distinguishing feature of shoddy is that it has very short fibers, so short that they cannot be combed. this is one of the ways by which it can be detected. sometimes, shoddy is felted on the back of poor broadcloth to make it appear thick and wool heavy. whether or not this has been done can be determined by brushing the back of the material. if a dust is raised, the use of shoddy is a certainty. an excessive amount of shoddy in material makes it less elastic than pure wool. so, examining a fabric to determine its elasticity is another test for shoddy. table of wools . table iii is given to help in the selection, purchase, and use of wool fabrics. as in the case of similar tables, the weave, the width, the usual price, and a brief description are given for each material mentioned. in reusing materials, especially wool fabrics, many women find uses not mentioned here, for this table, like the others, considers the appropriate uses of only new fabrics. these however, need not serve when economy must be taken into consid- eration. table iii wools usual width price inches per yard º name | weave description albatross...| twill to c., soft, loosely woven, crêpe-like $ to $ . material, sometimes made in fancy weaves. closely related to nun's veiling. used for shirred and draped dresses. alpaca. . . . . plain to || c. to $ || strong, elastic fabric with the gloss of silk, and having fine cotton and wool-like hair filling. used for men's summer suits, and for skirts and coat linings. armure....| figure | to || $ to $ || similar to alpaca and used for the same purposes. woven in bird's-eye and diamond effect, sometimes in two colors. astrakhan. pile to |$ . to $ |a woolen or silk material in imita- tion of real astrakhan. used for coats for men, women, and chil- dren; for caps, muffs, and scarfs. barathea. . . plain to $ to $ fine, soft, close weave in pebble or broken-rib effect. generally made with silk or cotton warp and worsted filling. excellent for dresses and light-weight suits. wool name weave usual width inches price per yard description batiste... . bedford cord . . . . bengaline.. bolivia cloth.... brilliantine broadcloth plain cord plain pile twill plain twill jacquard to to to to to $ to $ $ . to $ $ to $ $ . to $ $ to $ $ to $ $ . to $ . brocade... camel's cashmere.. plain twill and to and $ to $ $ . to $ $ to $ light-weight, all-wool material with even warp and weft in plain colors; sometimes called tamise; in very light-weight, called chiffon batiste. used for afternoon and evening dresses. material with lengthwise cords, that is, raised surface with plain stripes between; in cotton and wool. used for tailored skirts and suits. firm, light-weight goods having silk warp and heavy woolen fill- ing forming ribbed effect heavier than poplin. also made in cotton and silk. a soft, all-wool material woven like velvet. used for coats. medium-weight fabrichaving rough but soft surface produced by nub, or loop-yarn, filling. used for coats. wiry, silk-wool fabric, similar to alpaca, but of higher luster; made from angora-goat hair. used the same as alpaca. this is the fine weave of mohair. smooth, soft-finished, closely woven fabric with a nap. generally popular for dresses, suits, and coats. soft material woven with raised patterns. used for dresses and wraps. sometimes silk and wool. a fabric with a hairy surface made entirely or partly of camel's hair. in cheaper grades, cow hair is used. used for coats, over- coats, and horse blankets. a soft fabric in beautiful shades and sometimes woven in figures, especially paisley. attractive for women's dresses and for chil- ren and infants' wear. wool name challis. . . . charmeen. cheviot. . . chinchilla. covert cloth. . . . crépe, wool doeskin. . . drap d'alma. . duvetyn. . eiderdown. Épingle.... weave plain twill pláin and twill pile twill plain twill twill plain knitted usual width inches to to to and to to to to to price per yard description $ to $ $ . up $ . to $ . $ . to $ . $ to $ $ . to $ $ up $ to $ $ . to $ $ to $ plain to $ . to $ . light-weight, soft material. has beautiful, plain, and printed color combinations; wears satisfac- torily; and is easily cleaned. ex- cellent for dresses and negligées. a very fine, closely woven material resembling poiret twill, but finer. charmeen is a trade name. material with slight map; usually heavy-weight. requires care in tailoring, especially in pressing. used for suits and coats. very fine, closely woven fabric in imitation of fur. used for heavy coats and for men's overcoats. smooth-finished material of firm, diagonal weave. usually in light tan; wears well and tailors nicely. used chiefly for outing suits and wraps. material having tightly twisted weft thread giving a crinkled ef- fect; sometimes called éponge. ex- tensively used for dresses. some crêpes come in silk and wool. a compact, woolen fabric with a texture that is pliable without being flimsy. used for gloves, skirts, coats, hats, wraps, and for linings in heavy fur coats. light-weight material of soft tex- ture in ribbed effect. used for dresses and suits. soft, medium-weight material with a short, downy nap. used for children's coats and women's suits and coats. soft, knitted foundation usually of cotton threads with a thick, soft, wool surface. used for bath- robes, children's coats, and baby-carriage robes. smooth, ribbed weave, the rib running across the material. used for dresses and light suits. wool name etamine. . . usual width weave inches plain price per yard $ . felted is to $ to $ flannel. . . . gabardine. granite. . . . henrietta. . homespun. hopsacking jersey cloth rather - than woven plain and to || c. to $ twill twill to $ to $ . figure , , $ . to $ twill to plain to plain and $ to $ $ up $ . to $ . twili and to c. to $ plain knitted to $ to $ . description light-weight, glossy, loosely woven fabric. used for dresses. also made in cotton. a thick, firm-packed, smooth fab- ric. used for table covers, pen- nants, cushions, and similar purposes. plain, soft, loosely woven material with warp and weft threads of equal size. used for infants' clothes, women's wear, and men's shirts. firmly woven cloth in fine, di- agonal-ribbed effect. used for women's skirts, coats, and suits. hard-twisted woolen yarn woven in pebbled effect; light and durable. used for skirts and suits. re- quires care in tailoring. the cheaper grades have a cotton warp. a fabric similar to cashmere, but with a harder, coarser weave. used the same as cashmere. a loose, rough material of plain weave and coarse, soft yarn. formerly made on hand looms at home; now imitated by machine. the soft, even warp and weft threads lend themselves to tailor- ing. used for outing suits and men's clothes. rough-surface material, usually of coarse weave and similar to bag- ging. use for coats and suits. a stout material made. with hard cotton warp and a low-grade, wool filling. used for work trousers, uniforms, and boys' suits. serviceable woolen or silk mixed material having elastic proper- ties. used for undergarments, petticoats, dresses, and suits. comes frequently in tube form. wool name weave usual width inches price per yard description ottoman, wool . . . . panama... poiret twill polo cloth. poplin . . . . prunella... ratiné. . . . plain plain and basket twill plain plain twill and satin plain to and to to to to $ to $ $ to $ $ . to $ $ to $ $ . to $ $ . to $ $ . to $ $ to $ . serge . . . . . serge, cheviot . serge, french.. serge, storm... plain twill twill twill twill to to to to to c. to $ c.to $ . $ . to $ . c. to $ . a firm fabric in ribbed effect. used for coats and suits. a light-weight, smooth-finished, wiry fabric made of hard- twisted yarn. used for skirts and light-weight suits. a firm, twilled, worsted having an appearance much like french serge except that its twill is more pronounced, as in gabardine. used for dresses, suits, and coats. double-faced, soft, and loosely woven, woolen cloth; it has an evenly cut nap. used for coats. medium-weight material having fine, crosswise ribs. used for skirts and suits. a soft, fine, closely woven fabric. used for dresses, light suits, and clergymen's robes. satin- weave prunella used for shoe tops. a loosely woven fabric, the weft threads of which are looped to give a rough, uneven weave. used for dresses and suits. firm material woven with a cross- wise, corded effect. used for skirts and suits, for men and boys' clothes, and for draperies. soft, durable material that tailors well. popular for suits, coats, and dresses. also made in silk. fabric having a pronounced di- agonal weave. used for skirts and suits. very fine, soft weave; easily tai- lored; wears splendidly, but in wearing produces a shine more readily than other serges. used for dresses, skirts, and suits. hard, full fabric resembling cheviot. it is usually a coarser material than french serge. wool name weave usual width inches price per yard description sicilienne. . silvertone . soleil . . . . . tartan.... tricotine. . tussah.... tweed . . . . velour . . . . plain plain twill twill and basket twill plain plain plain to to to to to to to c. to $ $ . to $ $ to $ c. to $ $ . to $ $ . to $ . $ to $ $ . to $ venetian . . whipcord.. wool taffeta... zibeline ... twill and satin twill plain plain to to to $ . to $ $ . to $ . $ . to $ . $ to $ coarse weave of mohair. see mohair. a velour-like fabric having a limited quantity of real or artificial white silk mixed with the stock and producing a shimmering effect. a smooth, highly finished fabric in ribbed effect. used for dresses and light-weight suits. soft cloth similar to serge but woven of different colors to pro- duce checks and plaids. some- times in plain colors. also made in basket weave in plaid designs. |used for dresses. a soft, firm material showing a very narrow, inconspicuous, diag- onal twill that gives a knitted effect. a light-weight, lustrous cloth used for dresses. rough, unfinished, open texture, in homespun effect. usually several shades are mixed, and the pattern is not defined. very ... serviceable for suits and coats. soft, closely woven, smooth fabric. used for suits, coats, and capes. velour has a close-shorn nap. fine, smooth fabric used for skirts and coats. material in raised, corded effect and semidiagonal weave. cord varies in width from extremely narrow to $ inch. used for skirts and suits. fabric having a closely woven, smooth weave. similar to pana- ma but of a much finer quality. used for dresses, skirts, and suits. material filled with glossy hair, which gives a #- to -inch nap. used for suits and overcoats. º º º º - - º º ºft º º º º º º º º º º ºº:: ºº: º º º - º º: º º º pepper and salt º º - - º º º º ..º º: º º º twº- gabardine astrºn granite ſae bedford cord matelasse chinchilla. mohair etamine soleil flannel fig. wool examples of wools . in presenting new materials each season, manufacturers often make use of certain features that have been popular in the past. they effect changes in materials by using softer or firmer yarns, by introducing nub, or knotted, yarn in weaving, by chang- ing the width of the ribs or cords, and by varying a pebbled surface slightly. such differences produce new fabrics that carry trade names. the most popular of these remain in demand long enough to become commonly known and eventually are adopted as standard fabrics. as it requires some time for such materials to become standard and as novelty fabrics appear each year, which are bound to be | / | | w h | pcord ſ / | fig. short-lived because of their impracticability, it is sometimes neces- sary to group materials, as in figs. and , under names that represent effects, rather than to give the actual names of the materials. such names may appear in various grades of fabrics and often cover cotton, silk, and wool materials, but they are a help in classifying materials and aid the shopper greatly in explain- ing to salespeople the kind of fabric desired. . among woolen materials, there are certain standard fabrics having characteristics that distinguish them from all other goods. wool the names of such materials are sometimes used in classifying new fabrics. examples of the best known of these are shown in figs. and . a careful study of these illustrations not only will help to acquaint you with the appearance of these fabrics, but will enable you to classify new materials that have similar features. double-faced chinchilla fig. . the term double-faced fabric covers a variety of materials, many of them being produced in different effects. in fig. appears double-faced chinchilla, which shows the characteristics of all such goods. . novelty suiting is a term applied to a variety of suiting materials that do not fall definitely under any other class. originally the term referred to a fabric of plain, homespun weave with rough, irregular filling of different colors. the name is frequently applied to checks, brocades, and other unusual fabrics, regardless of the weave. such materials are used chiefly for outing suits and coats. . water proofing is a general term covering many different processes of rendering materials—cotton, silk, and wool especially —impervious to moisture. one of the best known and successful of these methods is known as cravenette, named for the inventor, a man called craven. it consists in applying to the material a solution of secret formula which causes the fabric to repell water rather than absorb it. it has the advantage also of leaving the cloth porous by not filling up the spaces between the threads. chapter v silk silr "culture . origin.—because of its interesting history and the place it holds in the industrial world today, silk is a textile of the first rank and deserves unlimited attention. just how it became known is a matter about which there is doubt, but tradition has it that the wife of one of the emperors of china discovered the possibilities of the silkworm in b. c. in addition to her discovery, she devised a method of reeling the silk and weaving it into cloth. for this work she was deified by the chinese people and is still wor- shipped, after all these years, as “the goddess of silkworms.” at the annual festival held in her honor, the feeding of the worms is an important feature of the ceremony. . spread of culture.—for hundreds of years, the source of supply of silk and the method of manufacturing it were kept secret in china. the material, however, was sold to the persians, who, in turn, carried it to southern europe and sold it to the greeks and afterwards to the romans. the people who bought the silk believed it was made from fleeces growing on trees or from flowers, in accordance with the slender facts concerning cotton and flax. during the reign of the roman emperor, justinian, he commanded two nestorian monks to go into china and return with the secret. although in china it was a crime, punishable by death, to sell silkworm eggs or allow them to go out of the country, these two monks, while apparently engaged in their pious occupations, studied the whole industry and secreted several thousand eggs in their hollow staffs. these, together with a thorough knowledge of silk the industry, they carried back to rome, where, during justinian's reign, the silk culture became a royal monopoly. later, it spread into greece, sicily, spain, france, and, in fact, over all of southern europe, where it still continues to be a thriving industry. attempts have been made to raise silkworms in america, but these have not been successful enough to indicate that their produc- tion will ever become a profitable industry. silk manufacture from raw silk imported in arge quantities from europe and asia is america's part in this great work. . life history of silkworm.—silk is a substance formed by certain worms in great quantity at a particular time in their life history and secreted beneath the mouth from two long sacs along the inside of the body. the silkworm, which belongs to the family bombycidae, or spinners, exists in four states—egg, larva, chrysalis, and adult, or moth. the egg is very tiny, scarcely # inch in length, and when first laid is yellow. the hatching, which takes place when the mulberry trees begin to leaf, requires about days, the worm that emerges being black and no longer than its shell, and having sixteen legs. at first, the worms merely pierce the leaves of the mulberry and suck the sap, but very soon they become large enough to eat the leaves themselves. the worm holds the leaf with its three pairs of forward legs and cuts from the edge a piece to be eaten. this cutting causes only very slight noise in the case of a single worm, but sounds like the falling of rain when a large number of worms are feeding at the same time. . the skin molts four times because the worm grows so rapidly that the skin cannot keep pace with it. in the molting process, the worm stops eating, grows a little lighter in color, and fastens itself firmly to some object by its last five pairs of legs. then it holds up its head and the front of its body for about two days. the skin breaks at the nose, permitting the head to emerge and the worm, by moving its body, to work off the old skin. after the last molt, the worm is about % inches long, a wonder- ful growth considering the size of the worm when hatched; then it begins to spin its cocoon in a quiet corner, the glossy filament emerging from two orifices and thus making a double thread that hardens upon being exposed to air. the worm moves its head in the shape of a figure in one part of the cocoon; then it moves to another section and spins in the same manner. within a day's silk time, the worm is out of sight, but the spinning continues from to days. the result is a fuzzy, oval ball about the size of a pigeon's egg. in three more days, the worm within the cocoon changes into a chrysalis, which in a few weeks changes again into a grayish-white moth that emerges from one end of the cocoon. . in a certain number of the cocoons, which are chosen as being perfect, the moths are allowed to come to maturity to be used for breeding purposes. as cocoons from which the moths are allowed to escape are pierced where the moth comes through, they are worth very little in the trade. so the large majority of cocoons are preserved intact by “stowing,” or stifling, the moths within, that is, subjecting the cocoons to sufficient heat to kill the moths. they may then be kept indefinitely, or until it is possible to begin the reeling. . wild silk.-silk is obtained from both the cultivated and the wild varieties of worms. very great care is given to the rearing of worms that are to be used for making the very finest grades of silk. but there is also a large market for the silk obtained from the wild silkworms, which usually feed on oak leaves. little attention is given to them, so they spin their cocoons in trees and similar places and the fiber is consequently of a darker, coarser, and rougher nature. tussah silk is the chief variety of wild silk. the irregular- ity of the filament found in pongee is a characteristic of this sort of . silk. silk manufacture . the second stage in the silk industry is the manufacture of silk, that is, the working of the fiber into thread and fabric. remov- ing the filament from the cocoon is not a difficult process, but it requires considerable care and skill. the cocoons are first soaked in boiling water to soften the gum that holds the fibers together. . silk reeling.—with the gum softened, the cocoons are immersed in fairly hot water, a few at a time, ready to be reeled, that is, unwound from the cocoon. it is in this way that the best silk is prepared. the reeling process consists in unwinding the cocoons and uniting the long, fine threads. so fine are the threads that several of them must be combined to form a thread strong enough to reel. the cocoons are so arranged in the basin that ld – silk the threads from four to eight cocoons are gathered together and as the reeling proceeds, are easily made into one thread, for the natural gum of the silk makes them stick together. if the reeling is done by hand or by foot power, the silk is called re-reel silk, but if power machinery is used, the silk is known as filature silk. there is much waste in this process, for neither the first nor the last threads can be used. . doubling and twisting.—after being reeled, the silk is skeined and sorted according to color, and then pressed into oblong packages called books. it is then wrapped and shipped to a manufacturing plant, where it must be sorted according to fineness. the skeins are soaked for or hours in warm soapsuds to remove as much of the natural gum as possible; then they are dried, the thread is wound on bobbins, and these are sent to the doubling machine. in the doubling process, which is known as silk throwing, threads from a number of bobbins are wound on one bobbin in order to make the thread stronger. . it is sent to the spinner next, where the threads that were brought together by the doubling process are twisted into one. the way in which the threads are twisted depends on the purpose for which the silk is to be used. single filaments of reeled silk that have not been twisted are called singles. if the silk receives only a slight twist in spinning, it is known as tram, but if it is tightly twisted, it is called organzine. tram is used principally for filling, while organzine is used for warp. . spun silk.-in addition to reeled silk, which the long filament makes, the waste product is gathered and used for spun silk. for this, the short fibers taken from the outside of the cocoons, silk from imperfect cocoons or those from which the moth has escaped, and various other sorts of waste silk from reeling are col- lected, boiled to remove the gum, and then cut, combed, and spun in a way similar to cotton. though of an inferior grade, spun silk has many uses, such as for knitted fabrics, for fancy effects in cotton and wool materials, and for embroidery and knitting silks. . dyeing.—after being reeled or spun, the yarn must have all of the gum removed in preparation for dyeing. the greater part of the gum, of course, is removed in the first cleaning, but every particle of it must be extracted in order that the fiber may be silk dyed smoothly and evenly. after the boiling-off of the gum, a lustrous, creamy-white fiber remains. degumming takes away a great deal of the weight of the silk so that a certain percentage of weight must be added if it is desired to replace its original weight and thickness. in most piece-dyed silks, the materials are dyed and finished after the boiling process without being weighted. however, many silks are weighted by means of salts of tin, iron, and lead, particularly if they are dyed in the yarn. in the case of blacks, a large additional weight is often added. after the silk fiber is dyed, it is wound on bobbins preparatory to warping and weaving. . weaving and finishing processes.—the weaving of silk does not differ greatly from that of the other fibers. the jacquard loom is used extensively for the fancy brocades. finally, the silk is put through the finishing processes, which consist of dressing, mangling, and calendering. pure silk does not require dressing, it being finished by pressing alone. the silk and cotton materials and the poorer grades of silk are the ones that require both dressing and pressing. . printing.—the printing of silks is an important part of the manufacture of this material. this is done either directly on the warp threads after the fabric has been woven, engraved copper rollers or blocks being used as in the case of cottons, or in the piece, when it may be done direct or by the discharge or the resist process. stencils are used to a great extent by the people of asia in their printing. . artificial silk.-for many years, the fiber closely resem- bling silk in its luster has been variously known as “artificial silk,” “fiber silk,” “art silk,” “vegetable silk,” and similar terms. recently the industries and associations interested in it have given it the generic name “rayon.” this fiber is produced from cotton and from wood pulp by various chemical processes, the three most extensively used producing fibers known technically as nitrocellulose silk, cuprate silk, and viscose silk. all of these, as well as fibers produced by other processes, are included under the name rayon. rayon is popular because of its luster, its wearing qualities, and its comparatively low price. it has not the fine, soft, even quality of silk, but forms a very acceptable substitute. for the protection of the buying public, all materials containing rayon must be so labeled. silk table iv silks name weave usual width inches price per yard description alpaca . . . . armure. . . bengaline.. broadcloth brocade. . . canton crêpe. . . . charmeuse chenille chiffon. . chiffon. . . . plain figure plain plain jacquard plain twill plain and pile plain to and to to and and $ to $ $ to $ $ . to $ $ . to $ $ . to $ $ to $ . $ to $ $ . to $ . $ . chiffon taffeta . . china silk. plain plain and to $ to $ c. to $ a highly lustrous, smooth-surface silk. slightly wiry. used for dresses, coats, and suits. a heavy, soft fabric with a semi- lustrous, pebbled surface. used for hats and dresses. a fabric in ribbed effect, heavier than poplin. wool is used in the filling. used for coats, suits, dresses, and trimmings. a firmly woven silk, somewhat ustrous. used for blouses, sports and children's dresses, and men's shirts. a fabric showing raised patterns of flowers; often enriched with gold and silver. used as trimming and for evening gowns and wraps. a highly finished material with fine silk or wool warp and heavier fill- ing forming light cross-ribs. heavier than crêpe de chine. used for dresses and wraps. a soft, dull, satiny fabric. used for dresses, especially draped dresses. a fabric of chiffon basis having floral and conventional motifs in pile weave, like velvet or chenille. used for dresses and linings for evening wraps. a very soft, flimsy, transparent material. used for trimmings, overdrapes, and waists and as a foundation under lace dresses. a light-weight taffeta of good quality, with a soft, lustrous finish. used for fancy work, dresses, and suits. a thin, transparent fabric with a luster. used for linings, under- wear, and sometimes for Öresses. silk name weave usual width inches crépe meteor. . crêpe satin faille. . . . . flat crêpe. foulard. . . plain satin plain twiſ satin plain plain twill to to and and to $ to $ $ . to $ . $ . to $ $ . to $ $ . to $ $ to $ . $ . to $ $ . to $ fur cloth. . georgette crêpe . . . pile leno plain and to c. to $ $ . to $ description a thin, semitransparent fabric, finely crinkled, and having either irregular or long, parallel ridges. black in this material is used ex- tensively for mourning purposes. smooth, high-luster fabric with lacquer-like finish. used for hats and dress trimming. light-weight or medium-heavy, washable, all-silk fabric with un- twisted warp, giving a lustrous, finely crinkled effect. used for waists, dresses, linings, and underwear. a lustrous silk crêpe with a fine- twilled face. used for dresses. a two-faced fabric, one side satin, the other a dull crêpe surface. made in different grades. a fabric having a light, crosswise grain or cord and a slight gloss. used for suits, dresses, blouses, hats, and children's coats. a firm fabric with lustrous, slightly crêpe-like surface. pliant. used for dresses and blouses. a soft, serviceable silk, plain and figured, for dresses and blouses. deep-pile fabric made to resemble various kinds of fur. tussah silk, silk fiber, and mohair are generally used in making it. used for coats and trimmings. fine, transparent goods, flimsy but very strong. used as backings to lend support and for over- draping and veils. sometimes called gossamer. sheer material similar to chiffon, but woven of a more firmly twisted thread giving it a crêpe- like surface. used for dresses, blouses, negligées. silk name weave usual width inches price per yard description gold cloth. gold tissue. gros de londres. grosgrain.. habutaye.. japan silk. khaiki. . . . liberty satin. . . . louisine... madras.... maline. . . . twill plain and jacquard plain and jacquard plain plain plain plain plain satin plain and basket plain and figure to and and to to and to c. to $ $ . to $ . $ . to $ . $ to $ $ up $ to $ c.to $ . c. to $ $ to $ $ to $ . $ to $ lace c. a fine, closely woven fabric having a soft luster. the filling may be cotton or wool. used for um- brellas and men's shirts. a shiny material made of metal warp and silk weft. used for trimmings. similar to gold cloth but soft and transparent. used for overdrap- ing and trimming. highly finished, pliable fabric having fine, flat ribs running crosswise. used for dresses and hats. - a stout, durable, corded silk; cords run from selvage to selvage; comes in colors. used for coats and trimmings. a fine, washable japanese silk; smooth and even in texture. used for summer dresses,blouses, skirts, and automobile coats. this name covers a variety of jap silks; commonly applied to cheaper qualities of habutaye. coarser weave than china silk. used for blouses, summerdresses, and kimonos. fine, light-weight jap silk. used for dresses and scarfs. a very soft, closely woven material. |used for linings and trimmings. a plain, durable silk; soft glossy texture. used for dresses, coat linings, and trimmings. a durable wash silk, usually striped. used for tailored blouses and men's negligee shirts. a soft, thin, perishable, gauzy fabric, similar to net in weave. used for neckwear, trimmings, and as drapery for evening gowns. sometimes called tulle. silk name weave º º description marquisette leno $ . to $ |an open-mesh fabric, appearing much like voile. used for over- drapes and evening gowns. messaline... satin $ . to a soft, closely woven, lustrous $ . satin. used for dresses, slips, and linings. moiré. . . . . plain to || $ . to a watered effect produced on a $ . ribbed fabric. used for coats, mousseline dresses, suits, and trimmings. de soie. . . plain c.to $ . . a transparent material. when slightly stiffened, it is called pineapple cloth. used for collar foundations; similar to gauze. mull. . . . . . . plain to c. to $ | very soft, sheer material. used - for foundations of dresses and blouses, and for inexpensive party dresses. heavy quality called seco silk, a trade name. ottoman . . . plain to $ to $ thick, corded, lustrous silk. used for wraps, dresses, and trim- peau de mings. cygne. . . plain $ to $ | a fabric of soft, lustrous finish in - pebbled effect. used for dresses, suits, and coats. peau de soie plain $ to $ | a soft, durable fabric with dull, satiny finish, showing cross-ribs on one or both sides. used for persian or tailored dresses and trimming. paisley. satin and , , $ to $ | a silk of many colors and designs. plain used chiefly for dress ornament. plush . . . . . pile $ . to $ . a rich fabric with a pile face and a coarse, woven back. plush pile is longer than that of velvet. pompadour used for coats, capes, neck or dres- pieces, and muffs. den. . . . . plain $ to $ || a flowered silk, usually taffeta; sometimes in rich colorings. used for party dresses, linings, and fancy work. pongee. . . . plain and || $ to $ | a plain, washable, light-weight fabric, having a slightly rough surface. usually made of the natural raw silk. used for sum- mer suits, dresses, and blouses. silk name weave usual width inches price per yard description poplin. . . . radium . . . roshanara crêpe. . . . satin. . . . . . satin, skinner's satin, wash. . . shantung.. silver cloth silvertissue plain plain satin satin satin plain plain and jacquard plain and jacquard twill plain lace plain and to and and and to to and $ to $ $ . to $ . $ . to $ . $ . to $ $ . to $ $ to $ $ . to $ $ . to $ . $ . to $ . $ . to $ $ to $ a heavy warp fabric having well- pronounced crosswise cords due to heavy weft. comes in many varieties. satisfactory for suits, dresses, and children's coats. a firm silk resembling silk broad- cloth. washable. used for underwear. a heavy silk and wool crêpe, giv- ing the effect of an irregular cord weave. tailors well. used for dresses, suits, and coats. rosha- mara is a trade name. firm, basic weave with a glossy, smooth luster on the face and a dull back. comes in many va- rieties. . used for dresses, coats, linings. heavy, durable satin with luster. used chiefly for linings and dresses. this is a trade name. soft, white, or light-colored satin used for collars and lingeries. it has the advantage of giving a good appearance after washing. a heavy pongee silk. rough, plain, washable fabric of natural color. used for dresses and blouses. a shiny material made of metal warp and silk weft. used for trimmings. the cheaper grades are imitations of the metal cloths, and the more expensive ones are made of metal but are transparent. soft, pliable fabric without dress- ing. used for dresses and hats. satin surah is a high-luster silk. a fine, smooth, glossy fabric with considerable body; alike on both sides. may be plain, figured, striped, or plaid. fine, fluffy, machine-made net. used for millinery, drapery on dresses, and party frocks. silk name weave usual width inches price per yard description velvet. . . . . velvet, chiffon. . velvet, croise... velvet, lyons... velvet, mirror. . velvet, nacré. . . velvet, panne. . . vestings . . pile pile pile pile pile pile pile figure plain , , to , , to to , , to | $ . to $ $ . to $ $ . to $ $ to $ $ . to $ $ to $ $ . to $ . $ to $ $ . to $ has a short, soft, thick-pile face and a plain back. may be all silk, or all cotton, or have a silk face. used for dresses, suits, coats, and trimmings; extensive- ly used for millinery purposes. the lightest, softest velvet known. used for elaborate dresses, suits, evening gowns, hats, and wraps. has coarser back than lyons vel- vet; so woven as to hold the pile firmly. used extensively for trimmings. velvet of finest quality, made in lyons, france. distinguished by the fact that the foundation material is visible through the pile. silk or linen back only, never cotton. either flat or erect pile. a shimmery velvet, made of long, soft pile pressed in different directions. used as trimming and for millinery purposes. a velvet with a back of one color and a pile of one or two others, which gives a beautiful, change- able shading. used for evening gowns and wraps, and as trim- ming, especially for millinery. velvet having a soft pile pressed downwards in one direction. used for gowns, wraps, and hats. heavy, fancy materials usually in highly colored, persian effects. used for vests and trimmings, and for men's ties. open-mesh, semitransparent silk or silk-and-wool goods. used for overdrapes, evening dresses, and fancy blouses. chapter vi laces history of lace . from its very beginning, lace has been regarded as woman's treasure, and its production, as the fine art in which she has most excelled. both old age and youth alike are conscious of its charm and beauty, realizing innately the power of this network of threads to enhance their appearance and provide a softening touch. and never has the value of the raw material entering into a product been so much increased by skill and industry and with so slight an expenditure of tools as is true of hand-made laces. just consider, a little flaxen thread, a needle, a design drawn on a piece of parch- ment, plus the skill and infinite patience of a woman, and the result is a product almost beyond price—“a thing of beauty and a joy forever.” lace made by machine can never aspire to the distinction won by most of the hand-made varieties, but it is very often so dainty and so good an imitation that it not only demands our attention but arouses our respect and admiration. . while very few of us will ever have the privilege of possessing many, or perhaps any, pieces of good hand-made lace, we need not be deprived of knowing its characteristics, for there are excellent collections of these laces in the museums of art throughout the country, which are open to all for study and enjoyment. by examining these collections, or even by making a careful study of clear, distinct photographs of them, we may come to know the difference between a well and a badly designed piece of lace, whether hand- or machine-made. it is all too true that the machine can not entirely give us the beauty and variety of texture we find in a needle-point or a bobbin- made ground or toile; still, we can learn to select the best pattern laces available and also to distinguish the qualities in lace that give it enduring worth and make it a continual pleasure as long as it lasts. . whether made by hand or by machinery, lace is an open- work fabric or network of linen, silk, cotton, or similar threads made with a needle or bobbins or by machinery and usually ornamented or figured. most women know, these facts regarding laces, but not every woman is familiar with the names of the laces, their wearing qualities, and the appropriateness of their design and weave to certain garments. it is the purpose of this chapter, therefore, to give a brief history of the evolution of lace, to illustrate its various kinds, and to give an explanation of their distinguishing features and uses, so as to enable the woman unfamiliar with laces to gain a knowledge of them, and thus be in a position to select laces in an intelligent manner and to keep them in the best possible condition as long as they are useful. by having a correct idea of the different weaves, their wearing qualities, and the purpose for which different laces are used, a woman will be able to recognize nearly any kind of lace when she sees it; and, aside from knowing what to select for her own use and how to help others, she will understand better the descriptions of gowns in fashion publications, which frequently contain excellent suggestions for the artistic use of laces of all widths and qualities. . origin of lace.—as the term is now understood, lace was first made and worn in the th century. the place of its origin has been much disputed, several different countries, notably italy, france, spain, flanders, and even the far east, claiming the distinc- tion. the frailness of the specimens that remain makes it somewhat difficult to trace the history of this beautiful fabric, but these, together with pictorial art and sculpture, have practically settled the question that to italy belongs the honor, for it is definitely known that needle-point lace was made and worn there before . investigations indicate that bobbin, as well as needle-point lace, was made in belgium by barbara uttman at about the same time. lace derived its origin from netting, and not, as is often thought, from embroidery. . growth of lace making.—at first, the lace-making industry was confined to the religious orders, it being made by both monks and nuns. gradually, however, the nuns taught the art to laces their pupils and in this way it spread among the other classes of people. numerous countries, france, spain, belgium, germany, and england, gradually took up the making of lace, each one producing certain varieties and becoming proficient in the making of them. wherever lace has been produced, the industry has thrived at times and declined at others, the severity of the laws passed concerning it being largely responsible for this change. therefore, while one would expect a story of continuous prosperity in so beautiful a craft as lace making, its development has been continually arrested and hampered. consequently, while we like to think of lace as a simple, graceful, womanish fabric, it has often been influential in affecting the finances of a whole nation. . for many years, lace was made chiefly out of silk and linen thread, but in cotton thread was first substituted for flax. this produced a less artistic lace, but it afforded increased facility for the makers, as they found the cotton thread cheaper, more elastic, easier to handle, and less liable to break. . during the th century came also the invention of machinery for the making of net having a fast mesh, that is, one that would not unravel, for in john heathcoat invented a machine that produced bobbinet. at first, only -inch strips, which had to be joined together, were made, but gradually machinery was perfected that would produce -, -, -, and -inch widths. with the introduction of machine net, all the traditions of lace making were upset, and by lace makers produced all kinds of simple motifs which they applied to net, thus demolishing the old methods of lace making and practically ending the history of old laces. . another notable event in the history of machine-made lace was the application of the jacquard attachment to the lace machine. this device had been used for the weaving of silk, cotton, and linen goods from the time of its perfection in , but it was not until that it was successfully applied to lace making. from this time on, machines were able to duplicate practically every pattern of hand-made lace, so laces steadily grew in production and decreased in price. . lace making at present.—after the first novelty of the machine-made lace had worn off, a slight reaction in favor of old lace set in both in england and on the continent. in france, laces laces were cleaned, cut, and adapted to modern fashion. thus, within the last half century, the taste for good lace has again become almost general in both england and france. the reason for such a reaction is not strange after all. while almost every descrip- tion of lace is now made by machinery and produced so perfectly that it is often difficult for the practiced eye to detect the differ- ence, still we can never overlook the fact that the finest and most artistic machine-made laces can never possess the intricacy of pattern nor the beauty of design that characterize laces made by hand. . in america, however, the hand-made lace industry has not progressed so well as in foreign countries, although in this country rapid strides have been made in the manufacture of lace by machinery. the reason for this should be clear. the intricacies of hand-made lace designs require long, tedious hours of labor, and as such work in europe is done mostly by peasants, who work for very low wages, the cost of production is not so great there as it would be in america, where a higher standard of wages is the rule. in this day of commercial rush and competition, the time expended in making a bit of hand-made lace is hard to realize; yet, to see a piece of real hand-made flemish lace without associating patience and labor with it would display lack of conception, for some of the designs made by the belgians are marvelous so far as beauty and workmanship are concerned. - methods of making lace . to understand thoroughly the varieties of lace and their uses, it will be necessary for one to become familiar with the principal ways in which it is made. as has already been explained, lace refers to ornamented open work of threads of flax, cotton, silk, gold, or silver, and occasionally hair or aloe fiber. these threads are looped, plaited, or twisted together in several ways, the method used determining the name to be applied to the lace as follows: . hand-made lace, or lace made by hand with the needle and with bobbins. this includes: . needle-point lace, or lace in which the threads are worked by hand with a needle. laces . bobbin lace, or lace made with bobbins. this is made on a pillow, often being inaccurately described as pillow lace. . machine-made lace, or lace made by machinery. imi- tations of both needle-point and bobbin lace patterns are produced in machine-made lace. machine-made lace is of two varieties, which are: . woven lace, in which two sets of threads are used—warp and weft. . embroidery lace, in which a pattern is embroidered on a ground, which is often burnt out afterward. . needle-point lace.—in the true sense of the word, needle-point lace is made with the needle alone, although there are a number of laces to which the term “point” is applied that are com- binations of both point and bobbin lace. it originated as an evolution of cut work and developed into net lace. in the making of needle-point lace, the design is drawn on parch- ment, which is kept straight by being stitched to heavy linen. threads are then laid along the lines of the pattern and sewed down through the linen and parchment. by means of fine stitching done with a needle and a single thread, the entire design, both the solid filling and the open work, is worked on the threads already laid, the button-hole stitch being generally employed. . bobbin lace.—the method of bobbin-lace making is an exceptionally interesting study and one of the most important in the field of hand-made lace. the lace is made on a pillow or cushion by twisting and plaiting threads wound on bobbins. it is sometimes called pillow lace, but this is not a distinctive title for it since needle-point and knotted laces are also supported on a pillow. the chief characteristic of bobbin lace, in addition to its being made with bobbins, is that the threads in it are plaited. in fact, it is the plaiting and twisting of the threads that help to characterize bobbin lace. at first, instead of pillow, bobbins, and pins, the hands were used, each finger serving as a peg. occasionally, the hands of several assistants were required to furnish sufficient pegs for a broad border. . as with needle-point lace, the pattern is first drawn upon a piece of paper or parchment, which is then pricked with holes. the pricked pattern is placed on the cushion, which is sometimes laces a circular pad backed with a flat board in order that it may be placed upon a table and easily moved as the worker may wish, and other times a well-stuffed short bolster, flat at both ends. on the upper part of the pattern are fastened the ends of the threads unwound from the bobbins, which thus hang across the pillow. these bobbins are thrown and twisted with regular precision in order to form the fabric of the ground and pattern. the wider such hand-made lace and the more intricate the pattern, the more bobbins are required to do the work; and as this work means the expenditure of much time and the exercise of skill, the price of such laces increases with the width and the intricacy of the design, the wider laces being more expensive in proportion to their width than the narrow ones. . many bobbin laces are finished with bead edging, which consists of tiny buttonhole loops of thread edging the lace. this needle-point edge is, in effect, applied to many kinds of machine- and hand-made laces. it adds much to the attractiveness of a lace design, as it tends to impart the daintiness so much sought in laces. bobbin lace finished in this manner is frequently referred to as needle-point lace. bobbin-made lace has a fine, soft quality that distinguishes it from needle-point lace, which has a much harder and crisper appearance. . woven lace.—as early as , efforts were made to invent machinery that would produce lace and thus take the place of the hand workers. william lee, a weaver in nottingham, england, struggled to produce a machine for this purpose, but his efforts met with opposition from the authorities because they con- sidered machinery to be a detriment to the interests of the working classes. however, continued efforts by other inventors finally resulted in the production of the heathcoat machine in , which made successful net. john leavers, of nottingham, england, greatly improved this machine, and although it has had improve- ments since his day, it is still called by his name. the application of the jacquard attachment has made it possible to duplicate the patterns of hand-made laces. . as the leavers machine makes a woven lace, it requires two sets of threads, warp and weft threads. the warp threads are held in reels, while the weft threads are wound on flat bobbins laces and run at right angles to the warp threads. the bobbins are made flat to allow them to pass between the warp threads and the two sets are twisted together by means of both a mechanism that controls the tension of either set of threads at will and an oscillating mechanism. as the tension on each set of threads can be made tight or loose, the slack threads on one are permitted to twist about the other as the pattern requires. nottingham, england, and calais, caudry, and lyons, france, produce large quantities of woven laces. . embroidery lace.—the other variety of machine-made ace, which includes plauen and st. gall laces, is made on an embroidery machine called the schiffli machine. the industry first started by the making of oriental laces. eventually, it was discovered that by using a ground of one material and an embroidery thread of another, the lace could be treated to an acid bath that would destroy the ground without affecting the pattern. the schiffli machine works on the same principle as the sewing machine, having two threads, one carried underneath on a bobbin and the other on top in a needle. the early machines were operated by hand, several needles being controlled by a pantograph, an instrument for reproducing the design, but later it was found possible to use a jacquard attachment to reproduce the pattern and greatly increase the number of needles on the machine. plauen in saxony and st. gall in switzerland are the centers for the manu- facture of this kind of lace. varieties of lace lace terms . in the subject of lace, as in most subjects, it will be found that there are many terms that are purely technical; that is, terms that pertain exclusively to this particular subject. these must be understood if a thorough understanding of laces would be had. to make them clear and at the same time enable you to take up the following examples of laces in the most intelligent manner, an explanation of the terms most frequently met with is here given, arranged in alphabetical order for easy reference. l d – laces a jours.-the filling or ornamental work introduced into enclosed spaces. appliqué.-either needlework or bobbin lace in which the pattern is made separately and sewed onto a net ground. bead edge.—another name for beading, which is the simple heading on pillow lace. - bobbins.—small elongated reels, either wooden or bone, on which thread is wound for the purpose of lace-making. often they are weighted with such articles as beads, coins, seeds, etc. brides, brides claires, and bars.--small strips used to connect the parts of a design and employed instead of a groundwork of net. they consist either of threads overcast with buttonhole stitches or of twisted or plaited threads. brides ornees.—brides ornamented with picots, loops, or pearls. - cartisane.—a strip of parchment used to give a raised effect to the patterns in lace. it is covered with silk or gold or other metal thread. as it is not durable, the less it is used the more the lace is esteemed. continuous inner pearl.—a stitch used in honiton and other braid laces to ornament the inner side of any leaf that is not filled with stitches. cordonnet.—the thread used to outline the designs in lace. sometimes, it consists of a single thread, other times, of several threads worked together, and again, of a thread or horsehair over- cast with buttonhole-stitches. couronnes.—the cordonnet is sometimes ornamented with stitches known as couronnes. the english form of this term is crow s. - dentelé.-a french term meaning a scalloped border. engrèlure.—the edge of a lace by which it is sewed on the material it is to decorate. same as heading or footing. entoilage.—the french term for a plain mesh ground. entre deux.-the french term for insertion, whether of embroidery or lace. fillings.-these are fancy stitches used to fill in enclosed spaces in needle-point and bobbin laces. fond.—the groundwork of needle-point or bobbin lace as distinguished from the pattern. other names for it are champ, entoilage, reseau, and treille. laces gimp. —the pattern of lace which rests on the ground or is held together by brides. it is not the same, however, as the material gimp, which was formerly called guipure. grounds.-two forms of ground are found in laces—the bride and the reseau. the bride ground consists of bars that con- nect the ornaments forming the pattern. the reseau ground is a net made either with the needle or with bobbins. guipure.—formerly, a lace-like trimming of twisted threads. now, it is applied to all laces having a tape-like pattern on them. insertion.—strips of lace or embroidered muslin or cambric on which both edges are alike. jours.-ornamental devices found in various parts of lace. in venetian point lace, jours are introduced in the center of the flowers. mat or math.-the closely worked portion of a lace; the toile. passement.—the pricked parchment pattern upon which both needle-point and bobbin laces are worked. pearls or purls.-bars or brides. pearl edge or purl edge.—a narrow edge consisting of pro- jecting loops and sewed to lace as a finish. picot.—tiny loops worked on the edge of a bride or cordonnet or used to beautify a flower, as in the case of rose point. - pillow lace.—bone lace, or bobbin lace, made on a pillow by twisting or plaiting the threads with bobbins. point lace.—properly, only lace made with the point of a needle, needle-point lace. however, the term is often misapplied, numer- ous laces, such as point d'angleterre and honiton point being made with bobbins and not with the needle. point de raccroc.—a stitch used to join reseau ground. point plat.—a french term for flat point lace having no raised cordonnet or outline cord. pricker.—a short instrument with which holes are pricked in the pattern used for bobbin lace. reseau.-ground of small, regular meshes made both on the pillow and with the needle. samplers.--small samples showing patterns of lace. they originated in the th century when not every one could buy pattern books because of their scarcity and high price. they were also used to show the skill of the worker. sprig.—a detached piece of lace which is appliquéd to a net foundation or joined with other sprigs by means of bars. laces ties.—like bars, ties are the connecting threads worked across spaces in needle-point and bob- bin laces. toile.—the substance of the patterns of lace as distinct from the ground. treille.—another name for the ground or reseau of lace as distinguished from the pattern which they surround. -º-º-º-º-º-º: - - - examples of typical laces . following are the names and descriptions of a large num- ber of laces together with illus- trations of many of them. not all the laces in existence are in- cluded here, but practically all of the laces that are used by the woman who sews are dis- cussed. with these illustrations and descriptions firmly fixed in the mind, no woman should be at a loss to recognize any kind of lace when she sees it; rather, she should be able to make proper selections for garments on which lace is to be used, and she should know whether it will give the service she desires of it. . in studying the laces here mentioned, it should be re- membered that the manner in which they derive their names is by no means consistent. many of them are named according to the locality in which they have machine-made alençon - fig. been, or are, made, or the nation- laces ality of the people who make them, as antwerp lace, brussels lace, armenian lace, bohemian lace, belgian lace, and so on. the same kind of lace is made in many countries, but the threads of which it is made vary to some extent, owing to the process of manufacture of the thread itself in these different countries. then, again, the implements used in the manufacture and the method of making have much to do with the naming of laces, as bobbin lace, point lace, and so on. . alençon lace, often referred to as point d'alençon, is a needle-point lace having a sheer net ground and a pattern that is outlined with a thread covered with buttonhole-stitches to produce £ % º º º - º º: º º º º º º machine-made all-over net - machine-made all-over lace fig. a cord effect. this lace, which was the first to use a net ground, has a closer, firmer pattern than any other lace and a very clear, fine ground. when hand-made, it is very expensive, but the machine-made variety, an example of which is shown in fig. , is inexpensive and is used extensively on ready-to-wear garments. . algerian lace is a narrow, flat, ornamental lace of gold and silver threads. it is used in outlining designs on garments and in draperies and fancy work. . all-over lace, fig. , is any lace that has both edges finished the same and a pattern that repeats the entire width and º-º-º-º: ſº x- º - º : - -- º rº-- rºº nºyº vº . Ž º ſºil mºſºmº º º º zºº & isiºn ºliº º - - Žº Žº º £º machine-made antique fig. machine-made appliqué frc. laces length. it comes in beautiful designs in silk, and is made also in very cheap grades. sometimes it contains merely a dot, and again, an elaborate pattern. it is used for dresses, blouses, flounces, yokes, and sleeves, as well as for millinery. . aloe lace is a coarse kind of lace made from the fibers of the alpe by the peasants of albissola, italy. this lace is not much in demand as it becomes mucilaginous, or gummy, in washing. although it is usually executed in tatting, the threads are sometimes twisted and plaited. such work is also done by the natives in - paraguay, south amer- ica. tatting is done in aloe thread at manila, philippine islands. . antique lace, fig. , is a hand-made bobbinlace of heavy linen thread in large, open, square, knotted mesh. it has the appearance of a coarse form of darned work done on an open- mesh weave, and is often referred to as darned lace. antique lace usually has rare patterns, all kinds of designs being worked in the net by darning, machine-made arabian - * - fig. and, as it is hand-made, it is expensive. imitation antique lace is sometimes used for draperies and similar purposes. . antwerp lace, a bobbin lace resembling mechlin, was first made at antwerp in the th century; it is sometimes known as flanders lace, also. it was made in order to supply the increased demand for mechlin lace. in one variety, the design is worked on a ground and in the other the sections of the design are merely attached by means of brides or bars. the chief charac- teristic of this lace is a pot or a vase of flowers, which varies in its size and its details. sº wºº yº wºº & zºº. **.*.* & :* ºº:: *º-ºº: º, nº - ********* -º- tº sººt * * * ~ * º: §§§ *.*....; ׺ - ** * * ***** hand-made baby laces machine-made baby laces fig. : i º --- tº %%yº - machine-made battenberg fig. machine-made bobbinet machine-made tosca net fig. laces . appliqué lace, fig. , is a lace made by sewing hand- made flowers or sprigs, which may be either needle-point or bobbin- made, on a machine net. sometimes, the designs are made of net or thin muslin and are outlined with a chain-stitch after being applied. appliqué lace made in belgium is characterized by very fine net with small dots sprinkled over it. this lace is imitated very beautifully by the machine, as fig. indicates. . arabian lace, fig. , is a curtain lace. its color is usually drab and it is corded with heavy, darker-drab cord. the price of arabian lace is regulated by the nature of its design. imitations, as a rule, are cheap and shabby in appearance, due possibly to the cheap- ness of the drab dye used in dyeing them. ºſºvºº º ºº:: º º - - àº. º º tº: - º º s & & l º . argentan lace is a needle-point lace first º º &º º º © º º made at argent a n, ğ &º france. it resembles alençon, as it is probable that the same workers were employed in the manufacture of both, but it has a larger and more striking patternand there is a noticeable distinction in the net ground. this is hexagonal in shape - - hand-made bohemian and is larger and stiffer fig. than any other because the sides of the mesh are covered with fine buttonhole-stitches, ten on a side, which are often so small as to be indistinguishable. . baby lace, several examples of which are illustrated in fig. , is a name for nearly any simple, narrow, dainty lace, whether of cotton or linen. numerous varieties, such as val, filet, torchon, irish crochet, and armenian, are made in the narrow widths suitable for baby lace. such lace is chiefly used in making layettes, and on dainty dresses and undergarments for little folks. laces . battenberg lace, fig. , is a form of renaissance lace but of a coarser quality, and consists of a braid, or tape, usually of fine linen thread, woven together with linen - º º º nº machine-made bohemian fig. thread into all kinds of designs. it is made by machinery and by hand. machine-made batten- berg is very cheap, but the hand-made is ex- pensive, the price being governed by the delicacy of the pattern. the hand-made pieces are used as collars and cuffs on women and children's coats, and the coarser designs, for draperies and fancy work. . b on de lace was originally a heavy, closely woven bobbin lace produced in spain and made of unbleached silk, from which it took its name. later, the term was applied to silk laces in white, black, and col- ors made at chantilly, france. it has a ground of fine, twisted silk and a toile, or pattern, worked entirely with a broad, flat strand that produces a soft, silky effect. . bobbinet, fig. , is the net made by the bobbin as distinguished from that made by the needle. modern bobbinet is a machine imitation of the original hand-made bobbinet. it has hexagonal, or six-sided, holes but no designs and is used for dresses, dress foundations, overdrapes, and draperies. the price of laces bobbinet depends on the firmness of the mesh, the coarser weaves being less expensive than the finer ones. a kind of bobbinet, called tosca net and shown in fig. , is more open than ordinary bob- binet, but it is very firmly woven, and consequently very durable. . bohemian lace, fig. , is a bobbin lace that is made in bohemia and may be recognized by the tape-like effect in the pat- tern. as a rule, this lace is too coarse in weave and design to be suitable as dress trimming. it is hand-made bruges machine-made brussels fig. fig. both hand-and machine-made, the machine-made variety being very effective for it often imitates the designs of the old bohemian laces. . bruges lace, fig. , consists of fine lace tape woven together with fine thread. the real lace is made in much the same way as duchesse lace, but it is, as a rule, somewhat coarser. the fine weaves of this lace are suitable as dress trimmings, and the coarser, cheaper grades are used for table-cover finishes and º - º: º º - º :::::::::::::::::: hand-made appliqué carrickmacross machine-made appliqué carrickmacross fig. draperies. . brussels point lace, fig. , is a lace of exquisite fineness in which the designs are made separately and then assembled and ap- plied to a net ground. formerly, the ground was worked with bob- bins around the flowers, but later the flowers were sewed to a machine net. at one time, brus- sels lace was smuggled into hngland and called point d'angleterre to avoid the duty. the earliest brussels point resembled alençon lace in that the designs were outlined with a cord, but this outlining thread was not covered with button- hole-stitches nor was the lace so close and firm. in the lace trade, brus- sels point is a name given to very fine laces, regardless of the pat- tern. it is called rose point when its pattern contains rose motifs, and point gaze when its designs are of a very fine, open, delicate kind. . carrickmacross lace is of two kinds—appliqué and guipure. appliquécarrickmacross, fig. , is made by placing sheer laces material over plain net and applying designs to the net with the buttonhole-stitch or the chain-stitch, and then cutting away the surplus material so as to leave the outline of the design clear. guipure carrickmacross, fig. , which is a heavy lace, closely resembles cut work. it is made by working the outline of the design over a foundation and then connecting the motifs or designs with crocheted brides, or loops, or loops ornamented with petals or picots, as in irish crochet lace. the centers of the flowers, in hand- made carrickmacross, are cut away and the openings filled with lace stitches and the detached parts of the pattern connected with bars. hand-made carrickmacross, which is rather expensive, machine-made guipure carrickmacross fig. . is used for whole dresses and as trimming for dresses, and the machine-made is used for inexpensive curtains. . chantilly lace, fig. , was named from the town of chantilly, france, but it is now made in the towns of bayeaux, grammont, and calvados. it is bobbin lace characterized by fineness of ground, light, open-work flowers, and thick, silky threads outlining the patterns. black chantilly, which is said to have no rival in the lace realm and has a fine ground and elegant floral patterns, appeared in the th century made out of a grenadine, or non-lustrous silk. - hand-made chantilly machine-made chantilly laces the imitations of chantilly follow closely the designs of the original laces, and while they are not equal in quality to the real lace and are generally made of cotton thread, they are extremely effective. chantilly lace is used for dress trimmings, flounces, overdrapes, and dresses. it is expensive at the outset, but it is very durable and may be used again and again. . cluny lace, fig. , is a coarse-thread bobbin lace made of a heavy, strong, tightly twisted thread in linen and cotton. it machine-made cluny fig. is named from the museum of antiquities in the hotel cluny, paris, because it is supposed to have an antique look. it is similar to torchon lace, but is distinguished by its geometrical designs, which often take the form of wheels and paddles. the machine-made cluny has reached such a degree of excellence that it is sometimes difficult even for experts to detect the difference between the real and the imitation. however, there are three distinguishing points: ( ) machine-made cluny is made of two l d – laces sizes of thread and hand-made, of one; ( ) its threads have a crinkly, irregular look instead of a straight, taut one, as in hand- made; ( ) the thread used is generally cotton, while linen thread is used in the hand-made. fine weaves of cluny lace are used in lingerie blouses and dresses; the coarser weaves, for pillows, centerpieces, and so on. the durability of hand-made cluny makes it inexpensive, even though - - the original cost may seem exor- º ". º ſº. -- . craquelé net, fig. , º ºfflº º \ mesh that is sometimes used in fig. |\! º | shadow lace of good quality and * resembles the crackle in old pot- tery. it has beautiful designs, which make it attractive for overdrapes and all-lace dresses. it is more expensive than plain net. . crochet lace is lace which, in the hand-made variety, differs from other hand-made laces in that it is made with a crochet hook and but a single thread. it is similar to needle-point lace, but does not equal it in fineness. in their designs, crochet laces usually imitate needle-point laces, such as venetian and honiton. irish crochet, fig. , is probably the most popular variety of crochet lace. the distinguishing mark of this lace, which is difficult to imitate, is the crochet-stitch or the buttonhole-stitch, which is followed by every thread of the work. as shown in the illustration, this lace comes in a heavy variety known as heavy irish crochet, the designs of which have an outlining cordonnet, and a fine, flat variety, known as baby irish and in which the cordonnet is omitted. this kind of irish lace is closely imitated, as shown in fig. , in both pattern and width. real irish lace is distinguished by its thread, linen thread generally being used, and it has a stiff, starchy feel rather than a soft, puffy one as in the imitation. the best irish lace is made in ireland, but much of this lace, and good qualities, too, comes from armenia, austria, germany, italy, china, and france. irish lace of both kinds is used chiefly as trimming for women and children's dresses. hand-made irish crochet hand-made baby irish machine-made baby irish fig. laces . curtain lace, which is all machine-made, comes in many different varieties. probably the best known kind is found in brussels lace, or nottingham, curtains. on a foundation of machine-made net, a design is worked either by hand or by machine. saxony brussels curtains are characterized by a double net in the design, while swiss brussels curtains have a single net throughout and a machine-made chain-stitch that forms the designs. the lace-curtain industry in america has been making rapid strides for a number of years, so that many beautiful curtains are now made here. . cut work is made by cutting spaces out of closely woven linen, buttonholing around the sides to prevent them from fray- ing, and then partly filling in the space with ornamental stitches. it is tedious to make, a fact that accounts for the expensiveness of hand-made pieces. cut work is used on linen collars and cuffs, as well as in fancy work. cut work was known in the earliest stages of lace making. in the old specimens of this work, elaborate embroidery was worked on plain linen. gradually, more of the linen was cut away and more elaborate designs were filled in until only threads were left. these were buttonholed over and what is known as reticella lace was produced. . drawn work is a kind of ornamental work which dates from early times and is produced by drawing certain threads out of a piece of material and then securing the remaining threads by a series of continuous hemstitching stitches. many threads may be drawn and designs formed in the remaining threads by weaving, darning, or tying with other threads. drawn work is an attractive finish for lingerie garments, but is chiefly used in fancy work. hand drawn work is not overly expensive, because it can be made at home with little effort and outlay. machine drawn work is rarely desirable. dresden point lace, which was made during the th and th centuries, was a kind of hand drawn work. . duchesse lace, fig, , is a bobbin lace in which the ground is one of brides and bars rather than net. some sections of the design, which consist of flowers, leaves, and sprays, are closely woven, imparting to this lace a tape-like effect similar to that of battenberg lace. duchesse lace is rather expensive, but its wear- laces ing qualities are good. it has some exquisite patterns and is therefore suitable as trimming for elaborate gowns, especially bridal robes. the motifs of duchesse lace are imi- tated in princess lace, but not much similarity is seen because these motifs are applied to a net ground in princess lace. . egyptian lace is a fine, hand-made, knotted lace that is some- times ornamented with beads. it is expensive and therefore rarely used. when it is used, it is made to serve as trimming. . english point lace, often referred to as point d'angleterre, is an extremely beautiful lace equal in design and mak- ing to many of the point laces of france and italy. the mesh is always made with bobbins, but the pat- tern is usually made in needle-point. raised ribs, which are produced by twisting or plaiting the bobbins, are some- times seen on the leaves or other parts of the de- sign. the ground shows - - machine-made duchesse much variation, fine fig. needle-point fillings often being used and bobbin-made brides, or connecting bars, also being employed. laces a mistaken idea that point d'angleterre originated in belgium existed for some time. this was due to the fact that at one time in england the importation of laces was forbidden. however, much more lace was needed to fill the demand than could be supplied in england, so the english lace merchants bought up the finest brussels laces and smuggled them into england under the name of english point or point d'angleterre. the original lace, how- ever, is purely an english lace and the chief portion of the finest varieties was made, in england. . fiber lace is made from the fibers of the banana and the aloe plant. it is a frail, expensive lace, and is not practical for many ... " purposes. however, both banana-fiber and aloe- fiber ace are used as dress trimming, especially on sheer organ dies and chiffons. . filet lace, fig. , is a darned or em- broidered net woven into squares with a contin- uous thread, there being a knot at each corner of the square mesh. it is perhaps one of the most attractive and practical of the lingerie laces, and is excellent for blouses and dresses. real filet machine-made filet - - - fig. lace is expensive, but it wears indefinitely. chi- nese filet lace is coarser and consequently cheaper than the other varieties. beautiful imitations of filet lace may be purchased at very reasonable prices. . guipure lace was probably a bobbin or needle-made lace of gold, silver, or silk threads, but now this term is usually applied to all large-patterned laces having coarse grounds, flowers joined by brides or coarse stitches, and no delicate groundings, and --- - - a-a-ta-tº-r --------------------------- - - --- - -- - machine-made honiton fig. laces includes duchesse, honiton, maltese, and venetian laces. the word guipure is derived from guipe, which means a thick cord around which silk is rolled. this padding, which was known as cartisane, was not durable as it would not wash and shrivelled up with heat, so the pattern was soon destroyed. in time, it was replaced by a cotton thread and gradually the lace came to be made with heavy tape rather than a rolled cord. . honiton lace, fig. , a pillow lace originally made at honiton, england, consists of round, heavy motifs or sprays of hand-made limerick fig. finely woven braid joined with a needle. honiton lace is either appliqué or guipure. the appliqué honiton is made by applying the motifs to a ground that is usually machine-made net. honiton guipure is characterized by large flower patterns joined by needle- made bars. it is similar to duchesse lace, but is heavier in effect. the chief use of honiton lace is as a dress trimming. the machine- made varieties usually show a tape-like effect. . lille lace is a french lace that resembles mechlin, except that the sides of its mesh are twisted, whereas in mechlin they are braided. its designs are of a simple nature, being usually outlined machine-made macramé fig. ----- º::::::::: ºść ºat º § wººt jº ºš º º ſº º º º * . º nº. §º 'º. . º: --- - - - sº ... ºº º *-**** tº sº i ºzº machine-made maltese fig. laces by a thread of flat, untwisted flax, and its ground is sometimes sprinkled with dots. . limerick lace, fig. , is not a real lace but consists of delicate patterns embroidered on net or muslin with either a chain- - stitch or a darning- stitch. real limerick lace is beautiful as a dress trimming, but ::::::::::::::::::: ------- - ºº:::::::::::::::::::::: ºr-----~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º: fºº-º-º-º-º-º-º-º: --~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - ºº:: - º -º-º: - § § % as a rule it is expen- § sive; machine-made limerick, on the other hand, is more ordina- ry in appearance and less expensive, but it makes an effective dress trimming. -- º: . mac r a mé lace is of spanish origin. it is a surviv- § # % - : : º: # # § § : # : § : º: § : º % º º sº º: º machine-made mechlin hand-made mechlin fig. al of knotted point lace and is woven usually in geometrical designs down from the selvage, many ends being woven togetherand then tied to form the pattern. macramé cord, which is made out of close- twisted . cotton thread, is manufactured for this purpose. fre- quently, the threads are allowed to hang loose and form a fringe. fine silk macramé is used for scarf and shawl ends and the coarse laces carpet-warp kind is used for finishing the edges of bedspreads, table scarfs, etc. macramé wears indefinitely, and the machine- made kind, which is illustrated in fig. , though rather expensive, is excellent when a heavy lace is desired. . maltese lace is a bobbin lace of more open we a ve th a n either mechlin or valenciennes, but it is not un- ike either of these laces. it has no regular ground and, as a rule, the patterns include a conven- tionalized mal- tese cross and do t s ca ed “mosca.” it is made both in thread and in black and white silk. the ma– chine made vari- ety, fig. , is m o de r a tely priced, wears well, and is used for dresses and lingerie garments. . mechlin lace, fig. , is a very fibery, ---------ºº-º-º-º: º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º: -º-º-º-º: -º-º-º-º-º-º-º: -> £-º-º-º-º-º: hand-made medici --- fº :::::::::::::::::::sº º º º º º machine-made medici fig. beautiful, bobbin lace. the patterns, which are chiefly flowers and buds and resemble those of brussels lace, are outlined with a thread of flat, silky flax. the net ground has hexagonal meshes in which four of the sides consist of two threads twisted and the other two, fourthreads machine-made metal lace fig. laces plaited. the making of this lace requires great skill, so it is rather costly, but it is closely imitated on the machine and the machine- made variety may be purchased at reasonable prices. mechlin lace makes a very beautiful trimming for non-washable dresses, the nature of the mesh and the fineness of the thread preventing it from washing satisfactorily. . medici lace, fig. , resembles cluny, but it is usually made of finer thread and has one of its edges finished with scallops. it is characterized by closely woven work alternating with an equal amount of open work. it is rather difficult to imitate this lace on the machine, and still there are some machine-made varieties that are very well done. - medici lace is used for the same purposes as cluny lace. . metallace, fig. , which is made both by hand and by machine, is developed out of gold or silver threads. the hand-made variety, which is very rare and conse- quently expensive, is a gui pure lace, whereas - machine-made metal naº, lace lace consists of a net - foundation in which are woven all kinds of designs with metal threads. it is used as trimming for evening dresses and robes and in millinery work, many beautiful effects being created with it. . nottingham lace, one kind of which is shown in fig. , is a term that includes all of the machine-made laces made at nottingham, england, the center of the machine-made lace district. curtain laces are produced in large quantity, but there are also clever imitations of many hand-made laces, such as valenciennes mechlin, and chantilly. - laces made at nottingham are both white and cream and are used largely for curtains, but the finer weaves are employed for dress trimmings. laces ------ - ~~-u ...:•-， va i---- ğ Ģ ģ Ë ë Ě Ě Ě Ě Ē Ē Ģ ģ Ķ Ķ Ķ Ķ ğ Ģ ģ Ķ Ķ Ķ Ķ Ķ Ķ Ģ ģ Ķ Ķ Ķ Ķ ķ È Ě Ě ----çığ （） "， . ‘e Ș „№- .:-: 'e-№, r:: ）„e ºs ∞· ebo<d § © ® Èá· -e†† = '';· e. :）, （Ů - . „sg od ~ № tÈ# ¿ $¢ £ ºg ă ğ Ë ·qsĄ tĘ ę Ę Ģ Ģ % É e bÞß § º £ ' e e ? ±+→ . f "cĂ „eſă , ; 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the illustrations of machine-made reticella, fig. , and machine- made venetian, fig. . . point de gaze lace, fig. , is a very fine, delicate, gauze-like lace that bears a resemblance to alençon. part of the pattern is made in close, and part in open, stitch, the open work hand-made point de gaze fig. being ornamented with dots. it is distinguished from alençon, nowever, in that its designs are not outlined with buttonholing but are merely emphasized with a thread. . point de paris lace originally resembled brussels and nad a distinctive hexagonal mesh and a flat design. now, the term is generally applied to machine-made cotton lace resembling l d – laces val but of simple pattern and inferior quality, as shown in fig. . its figures, consisting of flowers and leaves, are outlined with a heavy cord. . princess lace, fig. , is a delicate, beautiful lace made in imitation of duchesse lace, but often bearing little resemblance machine-made point de paris fig. to it because of its net ground. in the best type, the parts of the lace are made separately and then applied by hand to a machine- made ground. as in the case of duchesse lace, princess lace is used chiefly for dress trimming. . ratiné lace, fig. , is an inexpensive machine-made lace having designs that consist of a groundwork of heavy loops, resem- princess lace fig. i laces bling turkish toweling. it is generally used on wash dresses that are made of heavy, rough material. - sº-ſº lºs º: w". º - | º ratiné lace fig. hand-made renaissance fig. . renaissance lace, fig. , consists of linen tape woven into motifs and the parts then fastened together with twisted bars, laces . spider wheels, and other flat stitches. it is lighter than batten- berg lace and not so rich in appearance. the fine weaves of renaissance lace are used for dresses, and the coarser weaves for draperies. . reticella lace, fig. , was the earliest of needle-point laces, being originally a development of drawn and cut work. brides and picots were introduced and simple geometrical outlines followed. later, the foundation fabric or cut work was abandoned and the needlework constituted the entire design. the machine- made reticella resembles the real lace in design, but is in reality a plauen lace produced on the schiffli machine. real reticella lace is very expensive, but good imitations hand-made reticella machine-made reticella fig. may be procured at a reasonable price. reticella lace is used for collars and sometimes in millinery work; the finer weaves are employed as dress trimming. . shadow lace, fig. , is a thin filmy lace of fine weave, having an entirely flat surface and rather indistinct designs. it may be of any design or character so long as it is shadowy in appear- a ce. shadow lace is extensively used as a dress trimming, its soft, lacy appearance making it desirable for draping purposes. it is not an expensive lace, its price usually being regulated by the fineness of the thread and the design. º # º º º º %;º - º º º º º º ºft º º ! §§ º º % %. ºº fº x. §§ fºº º % fig. spanish lace fig. laces . spanish lace, fig. , is a machine-made lace, usually in silk fiber, in imitation of the old spanish laces, which are made of real silk. it comes in all-over patterns and in flouncings and is char- acterized by floral de- signs and sprays on a ground of craquelé net. spanish lace of this variety is used chiefly for afternoon and even- ing gowns. . st. gall lace, fig. , is one of the varieties of lace made at st. gall, switzer- land, the lace center of that country. many of these laces are simi- st. gall lace fig. lar to those made at plauen, being both good and poor imitations of some of the lovely real laces, but st. gall also makes beautiful hand-made laces. the variety shown here has teneriffe characteristics. the machine- made varieties produced at st. gall are made on the schiffli machine and then burnt out to pro- duce the pattern. . tatting is a form of knotted lace made with an oblong shuttle, around which the thread is wound and by means of which loops and knots are worked. the name is derived from tattie, an indian matting, which it slightly resembles. tatting is made in the form of a simple edging, as in fig. , and in elaborate machine-made tatting edging fig. fig. laces designs, as in fig. . beautiful patterns are often produced in this lace, it being lighter and more lace-like than any other variety of knotted lace. many american women are proficient in making clover-leaf and wheel designs, and hand-made tatting of this nature may be purchased at a very reasonable price. imitation tatting in --- ºw * %iº § . w sº % º fº º: - º º º machine-made torchon fig. no way compares with hand-made tatting, which is desirable as trimming for lingerie dresses and garments. tatting is used also on children's clothes and in making fancy work. . torchon lace, fig. , is one of the plainest of the bobbin laces and is made by peasants all over europe. the better grades laces - - - -- -- - - __ zº º - **. º * machine-made german val fig. of torchon are made of linen thread, and the cheaper qualities, which are commonly called beggar's lace or bavarian lace, of cot- ton. the coarser weaves of torchon are much used in fancy work, and the fine weaves are employed in lingerie dresses. torchon lace is inex- pensive when its wear- ing qualities are taken into consideration. . tulle is a fine, gauzy machine net. it is fluffy and beautiful when fresh, but is so frail that it has a very short life. tulle is used on even- ing dresses, as a hat trimming, and in places where fluffy, airy bows are desired. it is sometimes called maline or illusion. . val lace, fig. , the common term for valenciennes lace, is a bobbin lace in which the ground and the pattern are woven together. its designs are flat, but they are very beauti- laces was made in venice as early as the th century and at first resembled the early reticella except that the cut-like character was abandoned and the needle stitches were used alone. it consists of needle-point motifs or designs joined with an irregular network of brides. the three principal varieties of venetian lace indicate the different stages in the development of this lace and the time when it was in vogue. they are: - . raised point, which is also known as gros point and includes rose point, is characterized by raised or padded portions produced by means of working over cotton padding. in the rose point, which is a general favorite, the design consists chiefly of small roses held to- gether with connecting brides. . f at venetian point, or point plat de venice, differs from raised point in that it contains no prominent raised work and has smaller designs. its chief variety is coraline point, the designs of which resemble coral forma- tions and are connected by many brides. this lace is less beautiful than raised venetian point for its designs are irregular and then not so well connected. . grounded venetian point has its designs arranged on a net ground and lacks ornamentation, thus almost losing its identity as a venetian lace. burano point is an important example of this variety. the machine-made varieties of venetian are in reality plauen and st. gall laces. by means of the schiffli machine, it is possible to reproduce the beautiful designs of the real venetian laces, but owing to the chemical treatment in the process of manufacture, the lace is not of a very durable kind. fig. laces venetian laces are used chiefly for dress trimmings, but they are also seen on curtains. . wool lace, fig. , is a woven lace of varied designs, in which wool thread is used for either the warp or weft thread or for both. the example shown here is of the filet variety. lace of this kind is used chiefly for dress trimming. judging lace . if one intended to make an exhaustive study of the subject of lace, it would be necessary to know how to determine, so far as hand-made lace is concerned, whether it is needle-point or bobbin, at what period it was produced, where it was made, etc. a study of this kind, however, would require more time than the majority of women can give it. and, too, only a few persons are fortunate enough to possess hand-made lace in any quantity, so it is not to be expected that many women will desire to make such an extensive research. usually, it will be sufficient to know, in regard to lace, whether it is hand-made or machine-made. sometimes it is not an easy task even for the experienced eye to detect this difference, but generally it can be determined by applying the following tests, which embody the chief points of distinction. . hand-made lace is characterized in the following ways: . in needle-point lace, buttonhole-stitches occur in infinite variety. these are never seen in machine laces for no machine has ever been invented that can produce this stitch in even its simplest form. . any padding that is required in hand-made lace is worked with a slanting stitch. - . in hand-made lace, it is difficult to unravel the threads. in fact, in some varieties, the unplaiting is a tedious process. . the mesh of hand-made net is square, hexagonal, diamond- shaped, or a combination of hexagons and triangles, as in chantilly and similar grounds. . machine-made lace may be distinguished by the following characteristics: . the threads have a twisted and compressed look. laces . if there are any raised ornaments, the padding is worked over and over straight. . the threads, upon being unravelled, come out easily. . the mesh ground is perfectly round and even. value of hand-made laces . rare, hand-made laces, unlike their clever imitations, have no fixed value on the market. the prices they bring depend on the condition of the piece, the rarity of it, and the amount of bidding that is done for it, most of these laces being sold through auction houses. however, some idea of what has been paid for some good specimens of real lace can be had from the prices obtained for a collection of laces sold a few years ago at christie's in london. it will be noted, that venetian point laces are the most costly. a fine piece of rose point is almost priceless because it is very fragile and can be obtained in only small quantities. even the smallest piece is eagerly bought up by dealers or collectors. point de venice, -inch length, inches wide $ , . rose point, -yard length, inches deep . . . . . , . point d'alençon, yards, inches deep . . . . . . . , . point d'alençon, -inch length, inches deep. . point d'alençon, yards, inches deep . . . . . . . gros point de venice, yards, inches wide . . . reticella, yards, % inches wide . . . . . . . . . . . . . reticella, four short lengths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . old flemish guipure, yards, inches wide . . . old genoese, yards, yard deep . . . . . . . . . . . . . point d'argentan, yards, narrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . point d'argentan scarf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mechlin, yards in odd lengths, narrow . . . . . . point d'angleterre, yards, inches wide . . . . . old brussels scarf in two pieces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . brussels appliqué, yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . point gaze parasol-cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . honiton flounce, yards long, inches deep ... . honiton lace, yards long, inches deep . . . , . . the authorities at the south kensington museum, london, have given the following prices on some specimens shown there: laces venetian point altar-frontal, feet long, feet wide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ , . venetian chasuble, stole, maniple, and chalice veil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . venetian flounce, yards long, yard wide . . . . . gros point collar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . brussels lappet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . drawn-thread jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . linen cut-work tunic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . uses of lace . laces have ever been particularly cherished by women; for their loveliness, the refinement they suggest, and perhaps their association with romance and history combine in their appeal to feminine fancy. although, in various periods, laces were used to adorn garments for men, modern ideas favor them merely for women's wear, and it does seem that their delicacy fits in very well with the charm and grace usually attributed to women. for women and girls of all ages, few fabrics or trimmings can be employed with greater becomingness than lace. filmy lace of delicately traced design brings out the loveliness of youth and softens the lines of age, while lace of more decided character, if artistically arranged, provides a notable distinction in a costume. . like other fabrics and trimmings, laces are not always in decided vogue, but each season favors some kinds of lace and intro- duces new uses for them. sometimes lace seems to be a dominat- ing note in fashions and it is used not only for trimming but for entire dresses, for wraps, for hats, and for many dress accessories. again, merely touches of lace will be noted, but its value in dress designing keeps it always an important factor in fashions and ever gives the assurance that an exquisite piece of lace is a treasure of practical merit. the revolving wheel of fashion gives preference first to one kind of lace and then to another, but invariably returns the various types, so that almost any kind of lace may be used again and again, or as long as its wearing qualities permit. . lace always has a place as a trimming for underwear, lingerie, and children's clothes. also, for household linens and decorations, it is truly indispensable. laces tion, and purpose than the choice of other fabrics and trimmings. the application of laces, especially those of the more exquisite or handsome variety, is very important, for unless they are made more interesting by their arrangement and none of the beauty of their design is concealed, except by subtle suggestion, their use is hardly justified. . texture, as applied to the selection of laces, need not be considered so much for its suitability to type as for the effect it would give in the costume. if daintiness is the effect desired, lace of soft, fine character with delicately traced designs is needed to carry out this suggestion. sometimes, elegance would be pre- ferred and, as an aid to this effect, lace very rich in quality and appearance, with designs of a rather intricate nature, might be chosen. other times smartness or decided character in the costume might be aspired for; prominent or unusual designs in lace of a type that is in decided vogue might be used to excellent purpose for this effect. dainty designs that will be serviceable and practical are the ones to be sought in expensive laces that must be preserved for several years' wear, for large, coarse patterns of lace not only are more difficult to make up attractively but also appear unduly conspicuous in seasons when their vogue is not pronounced. a gown of choice lace is well worth remodeling and should be preserved carefully until the time when fashion favors the use of such lace. then it is deserving of all the care, skill, and becomingness with which it may be fashioned. . the foundation of a lace dress is also of decided impor- tance, for if it is not right, it is bound to detract considerably from the beauty of the lace. as a general rule, a filmy lace of delicately traced design appears best when used with a foundation of self- color or one that does not contrast decidedly, while lace having large and comparatively solid designs is especially lovely over a foundation of sharply contrasting color that throws the designs into bold relief and gives a richly brocaded effect. l d – laces care of laces necessity for care . laces, though many of them are exquisite and conse- quently of very great value, are subjected, through use and wear, to the ravages of dirt and soil, just as is the fabric of a garment. and since lace, even in the machine-made varieties, is usually a treasured possession, it should be kept just as clean and fresh as possible. nothing evidences carelessness in woman's attire more quickly than a soiled piece of lace, and nothing is more expressive of the right appreciation of this delicate fabric than the greatest care exercised to keep it in perfect condition. . the method applied to the cleaning of laces depends, of course, on the kind of lace. some laces may be washed in water with the proper sort of soap, while others cannot be submitted to this form of cleansing because of the material used in their making or the frailty of their texture. therefore, before attempting to clean a lace, make sure that you know what method to use and then follow explicitly the directions given for it. the chief point to remember in the cleaning of laces is that they should never be twisted nor wrung nor rubbed together harshly, for they cannot stand rough handling. rather, they should be squeezed gently and patted until all the dirt is removed even though this process requires longer time and considerable patience. cleaning washable laces . at best, washing is a somewhat difficult process so far as laces are concerned, so it is well to keep a piece of lace clean as long as possible before resorting to laundering. one method of temporary cleaning consists in laying the lace in a piece of blue tissue paper, sprinkling freely any soiled places with finely powdered magnesia, and then wrapping the lace up in the paper and putting it away for a few days. when the magnesia has been shaken out, the lace will appear quite clean. . washing durable laces.—in spite of the greatest care, however, the time will come when this sort of cleaning will not laces suffice and the lace must be subjected to a more vigorous treatment. a precaution to take is not to put off the cleaning of the lace too long, for if the dirt is permitted to work into the fabric it is very difficult to remove. the most satisfactory way to clean washable laces is with soft water and a pure soap, such as ivory or castile. if soap flakes can be obtained, these will be found very satisfactory for they dissolve quickly and are easily handled. for laces of durable quality, such as linen and heavy cotton laces, make a strong suds of soap and water and into it put level teaspoonful of borax to each quart of water. squeeze the lace gently in this until it is clean and then rinse it well in lukewarm water, handling it gently in the rinsing as well as in the washing. always lift all the lace up at once rather than pull it out by one end, for pulling the lace will break the fibers more quickly than anything else. . in the case of very frail laces, as well as chiffon and net, the same method may be followed, but much more care must be taken. make the suds only about half as strong and squeeze the lace very gently in it until the dirt is removed. if the lace is exceptionally frail, it may be put in a bottle with the warm suds and the bottle then closed securely and shaken vigorously for a few minutes. . still another plan to wash delicate lace successfully consists in winding it arounda bottle after this has first been wrapped with cheesecloth so that the ends of the lace can be secured. when the lace is in place, it may be covered with another layer of cheesecloth if its delicacy is such that it would seem to require this extra precaution. place the bottle in warm soapsuds and let it stand for a while. then shake it vigorously so that the dirt may be removed. for lace that is very much soiled, put the bottle with the lace wrapped around it in cold water containing small pieces of soap or soap flakes and bring the water to a boil. as the water becomes dirty, remove it and replace with clean, cold water and more soap, repeating this process until the water does not show any more dirt. then rinse in clean cold water and set the bottle aside until the lace is thoroughly dry. . if the lace is too large to be wound on a bottle and too delicate to be washed in the ordinary way, baste it securely and laces smoothly to a piece of cheesecloth and cover it with another piece of cheesecloth. then wash it according to the directions for washing lace on the bottle, but, after rinsing, pat it and press it to remove the moisture rather than wring it. . still another method of washing lace makes use of a smooth board that has been covered with linen. baste the lace firmly to the linen and then wet it with warm water by means of a sponge, taking care not to rub the lace but merely to dab it. when it is thoroughly saturated, dab it with a warm soap solution, con- tinuing this until the lace is perfectly clean. rinse the soap away by dabbing it with clear, warm water and remove the remaining moisture by means of a dry sponge. set aside to dry, when it will be found that the lace will be properly shaped and sufficiently stiff so that no ironing will be necessary. . stiffening laces.—very often stiffening is not needed in laces for enough is acquired by ironing the laces before they are entirely dry. however, there are some cases where a slight stiffening will improve very much the appearance of a lace after it is washed. the proper stiffening may be secured by dipping the lace into a very thin, clear, cooked starch. or, if it is desired not to use starch, dip the lace into a solution consisting of teaspoonful of granulated sugar or gum arabic to quart of water or into rice water prepared by soaking cupful of rice in quart of water for # hour. do not wring the lace after stiffening, but lay it in a flat mass in the palm of the hand and pat it thoroughly with the other until the starch is well worked out. then roll it carefully in a towel and set it aside for a few hours before ironing. . tinting and bleaching laces.-in the washing of colored laces, particularly those of ecru tint, some of the color is very often lost. if it is desired to restore this, the process should take place immediately after the lace is washed. in the case of ecru lace, dip it in a solution of clear coffee and tea mixed together in equal proportions and stretch it immediately. the color of the liquid as seen through a tumbler held up to the light should be the same as that desired in the lace. laces may be tinted other colors by means of any of the com- mercial dyes that you have found to be satisfactory. laces . sometimes lace becomes yellow with age when it has been laid away for a long time. often it will be sufficient to expose the lace to strong sunlight after it has been washed. if this is not successful, place the lace in a vessel, cover it with sour milk, and then let the milk containing the lace simmer for a few minutes. it will be necessary, of course, to submit the lace to the form of wash- ing it requires after it has been taken out of the milk. . drying laces.—the method of drying lace depends largely on the form of washing used and the nature of the lace. if lace is washed on a bottle or between pieces of cheesecloth, it should be dried before it is removed, the cheesecloth being stretched sufficiently to keep the lace from appearing wrinkled. then, ironing is usually unnecessary, for the lace will be found to be properly shaped. a simple way of drying lace washed according to the ordinary method is to lay it out flat on a soft towel and then roll it up in the towel until a part of the moisture has been absorbed by the towel. . very good results can be had in the drying of lace by making a pad over which to stretch the lace. over an ironing board, pin a bath towel folded several times, or if the lace is in a large piece, two bath towels stretched full length. this will provide a firm but soft foundation. pin the lace over this pad, shaping the design carefully and using enough pins to hold the lace in place well. allow to stand until thoroughly dry and then shape each point of the edge with the fingers. this is the method applied to irish lace and point laces for they should not be ironed at all. . lace curtains are most satisfactory when they are dried on curtain stretchers. if these are not available, sheets may be stretched on the floor and the curtains pinned carefully to these. . ironing laces.—if it should be found necessary to iron lace, as is sometimes the case with linen and machine-made aces, the chief aim should be to have the pattern stand out as clearly as possible on the right side. to accomplish this and to prevent a shiny, worn look from appearing on the surface, always iron the lace on the wrong side and on a soft, substantial pad. fine white flannel makes an ideal covering for an ironing board on which to press lace, but good canton flannel or a fine turkish towel may be substituted with very good effect. laces after securing the flannel or the towel, lay the lace on it, right side down, and pull each part out very carefully so that it assumes its correct shape before the ironing is begun. have the selvage of the lace, if there is one, next to you, and in ironing, work away from the selvage toward the edge so as to shape the lace properly, the selvage usually being tighter than the edge. . to avoid the risk of scorching the lace, use an iron of moderate temperature. rub the iron over every bit of the lace until it is entirely dry. then pull out all picots and small points into their original form by means of a pin or needle. if a wrinkle should be pressed into the lace in the ironing, sponge it with a little starch water and then iron it out. if the lace has a raised figure, rubit gently on the wrongside with a lace awl or any blunt tool that is smooth and will not injure the fabric. this process relieves it of any stiff, starched look it may have and makes it as pliable as new lace. finally, pass the iron lightly over the entire piece of lace. . unstarched laces may have a little stiffening imparted to them in the ironing, which will make them look like new. to do this, place the lace right side down on the flannel or towel and rub it gently with a piece of material that contains sizing, such as organdie that has been dipped in water until it is soaked. or, a cloth dampened with thin starch water will do very well as a substitute. when the lace is damp enough, iron it slowly with a moderately hot iron so that the moisture will evaporate slowly. when entirely dry, remove from the board. . cleaning black lace.—black lace should not be washed as are other laces because it loses much of its color and takes on a gray look. however, it may be cleaned by putting it in strong tea and squeezing and working it just as if the tea were soap- suds. a small amount of gum arabic added to the tea will stiffen the lace and give it the appearance of new lace. coffee may be used for this purpose, but tea is generally preferred because it contains no greasy substance. very good results are also produced by dipping the lace in a solution of parts lukewarm water and part vinegar. chapter vii embroideries, findings, shopping hints embroideries . embroidery is made in two ways, by hand and by machine. hand embroidery is, of course, that which is made by hand and is usually made for special orders or by those who desire it themselves. machine-made embroidery intends to imitate hand embroidery as closely as it is possible to do so and in many cases the imitations are very beautiful. this is the kind that is on sale in the stores. hand-finished, machine-made embroideries are very satisfactory and, while they have an appearance similar to hand-made embroi- dery, they are not nearly so expensive. . in purchasing embroidery, make sure of a substantial edge and endeavor to have its background in keeping with the weight of the garment on which it is to be used, avoiding always the use of a heavy edging on a light-weight garment. cheap, tawdry embroi- deries should not be used unless they are employed to decorate a garment of like nature; otherwise, they are an extravagance and, unless the design is suitable, are an evidence of poor taste in selec- tion. . embroideries divide themselves into several types because of the materials on which the design is worked and the thread with which it is done. . organdie embroidery is sheer, crisp embroidery made on different grades of organdie; the finer the organdie, the thread, and the design, the more expensive the embroidery, just as is the case with chiffon and fine voile embroidery. all of these embroi- deries serve chiefly for dress trimmings. s embroideries and findings . batiste embroidery is generally considered a dainty embroidery suitable for fine work, such as trimming for infants and children's clothes, for undergarments, and for lingerie dresses. the grade varies so much, however, that one must be cautious about design, width, and texture to make sure that the embroidery is appropriate for the garment on which it is used. fine batiste embroidery is durable and one of the most generally used embroid- er s. - . nainsook embroidery may be made on fine or coarse nainsook, may have a dainty or heavy design, and may be done with fine or coarse thread. fine nainsook embroidery is often used rather than batiste embroidery, especially when an attractive, appropriate design is available. it is less expensive and usually very satisfactory for wearing and laundering. . cambric embroidery is often called convent embroidery because it was made by the convent sisters long before machine embroidery became popular. real convent embroidery is beauti- ful and very valuable, but it is rarely procurable. the cambric embroidery used today is of fine or coarse quality and is made on a closely woven cambric. the design is closely buttonholed or “satin-stitched” by machine so that a durable finish is the result. such embroidery is occasionally popular for petticoat flounces, for pillow-case ends, for children's under- garments, and sometimes for collars and cuffs to be worn on tailored r-— blouses and dresses. . beading.—beading is a form of embroidery that is in — constant demand. it comes in several different varieties and widths and has different uses according to the kind that is selected. “. fig. . seam beading, shown in fig. , consists of a narrow embroidery beading made on batiste, nainsook, or cambric. it is sold also under the names of veining and entre deux. the chief use of seam beading is on hand-made baby clothes, blouses, and lingerie dresses, where it is used in joining the sleeves to the armhole, skirts to yokes, and for other similar purposes. embroideries and findings . double beading, shown in fig. , is that which contains openings between two beading edges, the openings being long enough to permit ribbon or tape to be run through. such beading is used for children's clothes, undergarments, and occasionally for –— — trimming on lingerie dresses. - -** …, --- ----------------------- - - | a as as s as ºs sº º sºns sº gº ºn º * * * * * * * * * * * * * * : * $ ºn s * : * * & * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ******************** ****** fig. . embroidery-edge beading, shown in fig. , contains openings for ribbon or tape but has embroidery-finished edges. it is used at the top of flounces, on yokes of night dresses, and for children's clothes. it is usually applied by being stitched flat between the beading and the inside of the embroidery edges. findings . a thorough acquaintance with dress findings, that is, the various small accessories such as buttons, lining, etc., used in dressmaking, and a knowledge of their use and convenience will save much time for the dressmaker in two ways. in the first place, she will know just what is right for a particular need so that she can use it rather than a substitute; and secondly, she can plan to have the necessary findings ready so as to facilitate her sewing. many women take much pride and satisfaction in having a stock of findings always at hand and, when any standard article is used, in replacing it on the next shopping trip. this is an excellent plan that can be recommended to all who do sewing on either a large or a small scale. a visit at least every season to a store having a well-stocked notion department is time well spent, for often new things are brought out by manufacturers to help in accomplishing certain ideas demanded by fashion. a definite acquaintance with such novelties, in addi- tion to saving time, makes possible the achievement of certain style effects that might otherwise be tedious. . to help you become familiar with findings, those in general use are here listed in alphabetical order as well as described and, embroideries and findings in most cases, illustrated. only standard findings are considered, for the novelties can always be found prominently displayed at the counters where notions, or findings, are sold. . belting.—belting, which is an essential finding, comes in two general varieties, canvas and cambric. if the canvas belting is firmly woven, it requires no boning, but if it is of the soft variety, it is usually boned for stiffness. cambric belting is made of cambric cloth and is always boned for stiffness. both canvas and cambric belting are either straight or shaped and are sold by the yard at notion counters. the width varies from to inches, according to fashion requirements, straight lines requiring straight, narrow belting, and fitted lines, curved or shaped belting. . boning.—in dressmaking, the term boming means the stiffening, or staying, of one part of a garment so that it will retain its shape and act as a support for another. whalebone was formerly used for this purpose, but it is rather expensive as well as some- what difficult to use. an excellent substitute for whalebone has been found in feather- bone, which is made of strips of feather quills woven together with linen thread. featherbone is not expensive, is very pliable, and may be sewed through readily and without injury, thus permitting it to be secured in place with very little effort. hook-and-eye bone is a special kind of featherbone woven a little closer than the covered bone and made a little softer so as to permit easy sewing. it is used chiefly in waist openings, where it is generally inserted in casings. boning may be purchased by the yard or the roll, and may be had with silk, satin, or cotton covering. as boning is generally put in places subject to considerable wear and strain, it is advisable always to employ a very good quality. the cheaper grades are liable to break before a garment is worn out, making it necessary to replace them. . boning and stays for collars.-boning and stays for collars usually consist of narrow widths of covered featherbone in both black and white. in fig. are shown two varieties, that in (a) being covered with silk ribbon and the one in (b), with floss. embroideries and findings besides collar featherbone, which is sold by the yard, there are celluloid collar stays and, as shown in fig. , covered wire ones called serpentine. these are made to inches in length and * *% | *} .'. } - *s- t - / º zºº. . }ſ\/\/\/\/\ſ (b) v.zºº ) v. fig. fig. - are usually covered with silk or cotton thread. they may be purchased on cards having six collar stays on each card, or the serpentine variety, attached to a binding, as here shown, may be purchased by the yard. . tubular cording, shown in fig. , is very popular for holding out tunics and skirts when bouffant styles are in vogue. it consists of strands of a composition substance or of a metal- covered thread woven into a narrow, pliable, tubular strand. . braids.—braids and edgings are considered together because they are, for the most part, finishings, even though their uses may differ. . fancy braids are novelty trimming or finishing braids. these vary greatly in width and appearance and are often designed so elaborately as to be very handsome and expensive. rat-tail, or mouse-tail, braid is a round, smooth, slender, silk braid. braids of this kind, as - well as fancy metal braids, are used when fashion decrees. . finish in g braid, shown in fig. , is a narrow white tape about inch wide, on which feather-stitching or some other fancy stitch is applied either in white or in colors. it may be purchased by the -yard piece at a very small cost. finishing braid is used as decoration or for finishing the top of ruffles instead of bias facing. - fig. embroideries and findings . soutache braid, shown in fig. , is manufactured in both cotton and silk, but the width is always the same. it is sold by the -yard piece, and is used for ornamenting dresses and suits. when applied by a sewing machine with the braiding attachment, a much more even and perfect result is obtained than when it is applied by hand. fig. . button molds.—when buttons are desired only for ornament, they are often made by covering molds, one of which is shown in fig. , with material, and then they are used plain or decorated with beads or stitches. the molds, which may be had in either wood or bone, come in all sizes and are for sale by the string, by the dozen, or by the one-third dozen. fig. . buttons.—the first purpose of buttons is usefulness, and the second, ornamentation. because they often lend distinctiveness to garments on which they are placed, care should be exercised in their selection. they are made of various materials, including pearl, bone, and composition, and they are fig. fig. made up with two or four holes, as in fig. , or with shanks, as in fig. . the shank may be of the same material as the button, as in (a), or it may be a metal shank, as in (b). cloth is often used as a shank for cloth-covered buttons, especially when they are to be sewed close to the garment or are used for trimming more than for service. . pearl buttons are usually thought of as wash buttons, though very beautiful pearl buttons, because of their luster, are often arranged, as in fig. , so that when the garment is washed, they can be removed as protection to the button. . bone and composition buttons are tailored buttons. the real bone button at present is rarely seen, for most of the embroideries and findings so-called bone buttons are made from the seeds of the american palm tree. these seeds, which are shipped to the united states from the tropics in great quantities, are easily dyed, polished, cut, and engraved. . cable cord.—a softly twisted cotton cord, varying in size from , inch in diameter to the thickness of a lead pencil and called cable cord, may be purchased for corded shirrings and for cordings to be used as an edge finish or for making ornaments. if a quantity is to be used, as for trimming the edges of a dress, it may be pur- chased in -yard bolts, but it may be procured by the yard also. cable cord comes in black and white only. . c a b oc h on found a ti on s.—in the making of bunch bouquets and various other or n a ments, whether of ribbon or other materials, cabo- chon foundations, as shown in fig. , will be found useful. cabo- chon foundations are merely small pieces of (b) buckram pressed into a fig. - - - dome or similar shape, as here shown, those in (a) being white buckram and those in (b), black. in (a), the cabochons shown at a and b have not had their edges cut, while those at c, d, e, and f have been trimmed. . dress shields.--to prevent perspiration from soiling dresses under the arms, dress shields have been devised. these are commonly made of two thicknesses of a very firm, closely woven muslin, between which is placed a rubber substance that prevents the perspiration from passing through to the outside of the shield. embroideries and findings dress shields usually come in black and white, but flesh-colored, transparent ones may be purchased for wear with sheer dresses or blouses. they may be purchased by the pair in sizes from to , and they vary in shape from small quarter moons to very large three-quarter moons. in one type of dress shield, the flaps are of equal size, while in the other they differ, the small flap being placed in the sleeve and the larger flap in the blouse. the range in price is quite decided in dress - shields, the small ones being cheaper than the large ones. . elastic.—two gen- ; - * ~ * : . eral kinds of elastic, round (b) and flat, as shown in fig. , fig. are always to be had. the small, round, hat elastic, shown in (a), is so called because it is used extensively for children's hats. the flat elastic, shown in (b), which may be had in various widths from # to inch, is used for bloomers, garters, and waist lines of garments, especially those for children. both varieties may be purchased in black or white. . hooks and eyes.—hooks and eyes, which may be had in black or white, range in size from no. , the smallest, to no. , the largest, size no. being most commonly used for placket open- ings and for fastening dresses and other garments. as shown in fig. (a), some hooks have a hump that serves to hold the eye and prevent the hook from slipping out, (a) (b) and others, as shown in (b), are perfectly straight. the eyes are of two kinds, too—the straight eye, such as is shown in o-o - º (c), and the round eye, which is shown (c) (d) in (d). fig. hooks with a hump are more difficult to hook up and to unhook than humpless hooks, and for this rea- son should not be used on garments that fit close; for such garments, the humpless hook is best. the straight eye is used with the hump hook on garments where there is not much strain, and the round eye is employed on belts, girdles, and tight linings, and in almost every case with a humpless hook. l d – embroideries and findings . hook-and-eye tape.—when it is desired to save time or to have hooks and eyes sewed very close together, as in the case of a close-fitting garment, hook-and-eye tape, shown in fig. , will be found very © = satisfactory. on this tape, which may be - purchased by the yard, hooks and eyes are spaced % inches apart, and they are fast- ened in it very securely. hook-and-eye tape is usually sewed in place with whip- ping-stitches. . seam binding.—two kinds of seam binding for the covering and seams and edges may be purchased, cotton and silk. fig. . cotton binding, which is cut on the bias and has its edges turned, as shown in fig. , is more familiarly known as bias binding. it is much easier to apply than unfolded bias binding cut by hand and consequently is more popular. bias binding of this kind comes in sizes to and may be obtained in -yard pieces in cambric, lawn, percale, or taffeta, and in white, plain colors, and stripes. its range of widths and materials - l makes it a great convenience in sewing, where it has many uses. fig. . silk seam binding resembles a very light-weight taffeta ribbon. it may be purchased in -yard pieces of various widths, and it comes in colors as well as in black and white. its chief use is to finish the seams of woolen garments. . snap fasteners.-in places where a substantial, flat closing is desired, snap fasteners, shown in fig. and commonly called snaps, are very satisfactory. they come in black and white and range in size from # to $ inch in diameter. @ medium-sized snaps are the ones most commonly used, for they are large enough for most purposes @ : and they fasten easily and hold securely. snap fasteners come in numerous makes, but those having a flat under piece and an upper piece containing a small spring are usually considered the most service- able because they do not pull apart readily. fig. embroideries and findings to test the quality of snap fasteners, close them and then try to open them; if you find it a little difficult to pull them apart, you may know that they are a good make, for the best snaps close tight and thus insure a substantial closing for garments. . snap-fastener tape, shown in fig. , which corre- sponds to the hook-and-eye tape previously described, is frequently found very useful. both edges of each part of this tape are usually sewed flat to the garment by means of whipping-stitches. fig. . tape.—three varieties of tape, which find many uses in dressmaking, are shown in fig. . - . cotton diagonal tape, shown in (a), is used for braid trimming, to run in casings, to bind armholes, and for many purposes where a strong tape is desired. is it may be purchased by the -yard piece in widths from # is sº-sº-º-º-º-º: (a) to inch. occasionally, it may - - – be obtained in colors, but it is * ______ usually either black or white. nº . linen tape, shown in * (b), does not twist so easily as cotton in laundering and hence finds for itself a place in the dressmaker's findings. it may be bought in -yard pieces. fig. . the so-called lingerie tape, shown in (c), is a finely woven cotton tape that has a firm edge. it is used extensively in underwear and lingerie as a substitute for ribbon, because it wears so much better and can be laundered with the garment. lingerie tape may be purchased by the piece in light blue, flesh, pink, or white, and comes in several widths from ſº to inch, the widest width being used for shoulder straps of vests and bodices. the narrow widths may be purchased by the - or -yard bolt and the wider widths by the yard. . weights.-considerable use is made of weights and weighted tape, particularly in tailored garments of all kinds. embroideries and findings . coat weights, one of which is shown in fig. , are round, oval, and oblong, and they vary in size from no. to no. , the largest being about the size of a half dollar. such devices are used to give weight to the lower edge of coats, to panels in coats, and to parts of woolen dresses. - . shot - t . fig. w e i g h t tape, £ - shown in fig. (a), consists of (a) closely woven cotton material in which small shot is held. it is used in the bottom of tunics, the ends of sashes, etc., in order to make them hang correctly. – j - -** . flat-weight tape, shown in fig. (b), is used where more weight is desired than the shot-weight tape provides. shopping hints . to be a successful shopper, you should have a definite idea of what you want before you start out to buy. you will find it advantageous to carry a notebook containing measurements and samples of goods to be matched, provided you can procure such samples beforehand. by being so prepared, you will save much time in making selections and will generally command interested assis- tance from clerks, or salespeople, who are usually willing to help, but are often handicapped because some shoppers have no idea of what they want. frequently, salespeople are held responsible for unsatisfactory purchases when really the customer is at fault. you can usually avoid unpleasant occurrences if you decide as nearly as possible on the materials, as well as the amount you want, before you con- sult the clerk, and if you apply to the materials, before you buy them, whatever tests are possible. . choosing the right grade of material.—if you are choosing between two grades of the same type of material, consider the quality rather than the price. often a fabric that costs just a trifle more will give you much longer and more satisfactory service embroideries and findings than a cheaper grade, and in this way more than compensate you for the additional expenditure. . widths of material to select.—you will always find it advantageous to take the width of the material into consideration. in some cases, wide material may be cut to better advantage than narrow and thus result in a saving even though the price per yard is considerably more. sometimes, you will find that it is more economical to buy double- width materials than single-width, as double-width goods usually cut to better advantage than single-width, and the quality, as a rule, is better. - . buying trimmings to suit materials.-if you must exercise economy in selecting materials, you will do far better to spend nearly all your money on the material and leave only enough for very simple ornamentation. it is evidence of the poorest taste to wear garments laden with a quantity of cheap trimming. trim- mings should be of the same quality as the material chosen; if they do not so agree, one tends to cheapen the other. . buying colored material.–in buying colored material, you should try to see it in the light in which you will use it, that is, in daylight or artificial light, so as to be sure that the color is just what you wish. many stores have two kinds of lamps, one that shows daylight and the other, artificial light, so as to help their customers in determining the suitability of the color. thread and trimmings should likewise be matched by the proper ight to insure their being right. . procuring samples.—often you may have to send away for samples, especially for trimming. as a matter of fact, thousands of women in sections remote from large cities usually obtain samples from two or more stores in different cities at the same time so that they may compare both qualities and prices. when you write for samples, state as nearly as possible the nature of the material you desire, its width, color, and weight, and the approximate price you wish to pay. such information will facilitate replies from stores and will usually result in a much better assort- ment of samples from which to choose. you should always know as definitely as possible what you want and what could be substituted as a second choice. chapter viii mending mending conveniences . few women appreciate the importance of mending, forget- ting entirely the old proverb, “a stitch in time saves nine.” every housewife should form the habit of doing the weekly mending each week instead of allowing it to accumulate until it becomes a burden. carefully mended garments denote thrift, industry, and economy; therefore, every woman and every girl should take pride in know- ing how to darn a pair of stockings, to patch a worn garment, and to mend a tear. stockings and undergarments may be mended after washing, but outer garments should always be mended before they are laundered, because laundering helps materially to conceal the patch or the darn, as the case may be. - too much time may be spent in mending an old garment if the fabric is much worn. for this reason, it is well to exercise judg- ment so that no time nor labor is squandered. wearing apparel may often be mended on the sewing machine, but dainty outer garments should always be mended by hand if possible. . for convenience, it is advisable for you to provide yourself with a mending basket or a mending bag and to equip it with the necessary tools for mending, such as needles, thread, darning cotton, scissors, a darning ball, etc. you can quickly make a mending bag from any straight piece of firm material yards long and # yard wide. fold the material through the center, crosswise; lay the folded piece out on the table and pin the sides together, pinning up from the fold; sew up the sides; turn a -inch hem at the top and stitch it; and then run another row of stitching # inch from the first stitching on the hem so mending as to form a casing. next, cut and work a vertical buttonhole inside of the hem on each side of the seam between the two stitchings. when these buttonholes are made, run a smooth cord three times as long as the bag measures at the top around through the casing twice, and where the ends meet lap them and sew over and over the lap so that the joining will be smooth and strong. finally, pull one loop of cord out at each buttonhole. by taking hold of each of these loops and pulling outwards, you can draw the bag together at the top, or close it easily and quickly. to open the bag, simply insert one or two fingers of each hand into the shirred opening and pull it apart. the bag or basket, whichever is used, should be kept in a handy place, so that you can take up your mending quickly or carry it on while resting from more strenuous housework. you will be amazed at what you can accomplish by picking up a stocking or some garment and mending it while you are waiting for something to bake or while you are visiting with a neighbor. with so many demands on a person's time, it is valuable to know how to economize time, and one good way in which to do this is to systematize the home sewing and mending. darning . several methods are employed to repair worn and torn places in articles of wear. one of the most important of these methods is darning, by which is meant the repairing of a tear or a hole by weaving a thread back and forth. patching, another mending method, which is considered later, should not be resorted to unless the holes are too large to be darned. . darning floss.-for darning in the home, you may use darning floss almost exclusively. this should always match the article that is being darned as near as possible, both in color and in texture. cotton and mercerized-finish darning floss may be had in spools of approximately yards each, and silk, in -ounce spools. cotton-finish floss, which is cheaper and heavier than the others, is used for darning underwear and heavy cotton hose, but for silk or lisle garments of the same character, silk- or mercerized- finish floss is preferable. two, three, or four strands of floss come in each thread. so, if the hole you wish to darn is small, it is mending advisable to separate the strands and use only one, two, or three of these. - . reinforcing a worn spot.—a few carefully placed stitches used to strengthen a worn spot will save the garment as well as time later. therefore, rather than wait until a hole is formed, strengthen the worn spot or weak place with reinforcing stitches, which will appear less clumsy than a hole that is darned or patched. you may use one or two strands of darning floss for reinforcing a worn spot in a stocking or an undergarment; but if the repair is to be made in any other garment, use a raveled warp thread of the material, if possible. a raveled thread of wool is often difficult to work with, but you may improve it by waxing it or twisting a fine cotton or silk thread of matching shade with it. raveled threads for such work need not be long; short threads, especially if they are of wool, will prove more satisfactory. if you cannot procure a suitable wool raveling for such a repair, use silk thread that is one shade darker than the material and split the silk into thirds. silk, however, because of its luster, will make the stitches more prominent. human hair can be very satisfactorily substituted for either silk or wool and used in the same manner. to make the reinforcing stitches, use a needle as fine as the thread will permit and run it back and forth over the worn spot, following the weave of the material as closely as possible so that the stitches will be very inconspicuous. do not start the work with a knot, and do not fasten the ends of the thread. rather, leave them free, and clip them close to the garment when the work is finished. . darning a stocking or an undergar- ment.—a darner, or darning ball, like that shown in fig. , is very useful in darning stockings and making neat darns in undergarments. it is placed under the hole while the repair is being made and serves to prevent the darning threads from drawing tight as well as to keep them firm and sepa- rated enough so that every other thread may be picked up when the weaving process is begun. fig. mending when the entire space is covered with lengthwise threads, turn the work and take crosswise stitches in a similar manner; but where- fig. ever the crosswise threads cross the warp threads, weave them by slipping the needle under and over, as at d. catch the frayed fig. edges of the material in with the weaving so that they will be firmly secured. there is an advantage in leaving the frayed edges mending around a hole to be darned, for the unevenness which they cause around the edge helps to make the darned place less conspicuous. after filling in the entire space, as in fig. , secure the thread with a few back-stitches; also, cut off the projecting thread ends and any frayed ends that were not caught in the weaving process. it is not always necessary that darning threads run parallel with the warp and weft threads or ribs of the material. when a hole is to be darned in a part of a garment or stocking where elasticity is desired, as at the knee, the darning threads may be run diagonally so that the darned portion will “give” when necessary. . darning reinforced with net.—if the hole in a garment is very large and the material is of the kind that will not permit fig. readily of patching, such as sheer knit material, a neat, even darn may be made with the aid of net. baste a piece of cotton net under the hole and then fill the net portion with darning-stitches in the manner shown in figs. and . these illustrations show such a darn made on a foundation of cotton bobbinet, or net, the right side of the darn being shown in fig. and the wrong side, in fig. . . darning a straight tear, or slit.—a straight tear, or slit, in a garment made of rather firmly woven cotton, silk, or woolen material, may be darned in the manner shown in fig. . baste the material to a piece of paper, placing the right side to the paper. this will held the material securely in place and prevent the stitches from being drawn too tight. use thread that matches, both in color and in texture, the material that is to be darned. a mending to the wrong side and trim the edges of the patch so that they may be turned under the same amount as the edges of the hole and a finish fig. similar to the hand fell formed. hem the edges of the patch with very fine stitches. if you do such patching carefully, being sure to fig. match both the thread and the material as perfectly as possible, the patch will be scarcely noticeable on the garment. mending . overhand patch.-the right side and the wrong side of an overhand patch are shown in figs. and , respectively. this patch is even less noticeable than the hemmed patch, but it requires more skill in its making to avoid puckering or tearing. the overhand patch is used chiefly on garments that are not laundered frequently and in places where raw edges are not objec- tionable. - for the overhand patch, cut and match a piece of material in practically the same manner as for the hemmed patch and pin it in position under the hole in the garment. with a tracing wheel, trace around the hole # inch from the edge. remove the pins from one side of the patch and cut the edge of the patch # inch beyond the traced line; then, on the traced line, turn back to the wrong side both the edge of the patch and the edge of the hole. in this condition, the edge of the patch and that of the garment will be turned in opposite directions on the under side, as shown in fig. , and the folded edges will just meet. on the right side, overhand these folded edges together with small, even stitches, and clip the corners on the wrong side so that the edges will lie perfectly flat, as at a, fig. . finally, overcast the raw edges in the manner shown, thus, forming a finish that is neither bulky nor conspicuous. mending . darned, or set-in, patch.-the darned, or set-in, patch, examples of which are shown in figs. and , is very satisfactory for mending table linens or woolen materials having a nap. table linens have a double weave that makes it possible to conceal some of the stitches that hold the patch in place, and the nap on woolen material also aids in concealing the stitches. to weave in the patch, select, if possible, thread that matches the material; but if such thread cannot be pro- cured, use a thread of the material itself. if the patch is to be inserted in woolen material, you may use human hair for the darning. begin such patching by carefully basting the right side of the material to a piece of paper and then inserting in the hole a patch of the same material. be sure that the patch fits the hole exactly and also that it matches the weave and the figure in the material. then, beginning in the center of one side and working on the wrong side, darn the patch in place with short, close stitches that run back and forth. keep these stitches from going through the material as much as pos- sible, so that the joining will be inconspicuous on the right side. when all the stitches are made, remove the bastings that hold the garment to the paper. ld – fig, fig. mending as fig. shows, you will find it almost impossible to make all the darning stitches in table linens inconspicuous. if, however, when you insert a patch in woolen material of very firm and rather heavy weave, you run the stitches from the wrong side through the center of the thickness of the material, as shown in fig. , they will not be at all discernible on the right side. . darned, or underlaid, patch.-fig. illustrates a mending method in which an underlaid rather than a set-in patch is held in position with darning-stitches. such a patch may be used for repairing a large hole in a stocking or in a garment that is very loosely knitted. to make a neat repair by this method, use a patch that matches as closely as possible the color and the texture of the stocking or the gar- ment. cut the patch a trifle larger than the hole that is to be mended, and baste it to a piece of paper. place this under the worn part of the article to be mended and baste carefully. secure the edges of the hole to the patch by darning back and forth over the lapped edges, weaving them closely together, and catching all the frayed ends of the material. fig. . flannel patch.--to repair garments of flannel or of any material that does not fray, provided you want a good, substantial patch, prepare the hole in the material and also the patch as for a hemmed patch, that is, by squaring up the edges and matching stripes or figures if necessary. place the patch over the hole and cut the edges so that they extend from to $ inch beyond the hole. baste the patch in position, but do not turn under the edges of either the hole or the patch. next, catch-stitch the edges of the hole to the patch from the right side, as shown at a, fig. , using ¿¿.*¿¿.*¿¿.* · ·：·º·：·º·：·º·：·º·：·º·：· ·º·:·º·:· ~~~~~ ！！ ！！ ！！ ！！ ！！ ** ~º： :：： ~~~~ · ºrgº *: -- *** º fig. º fig. x: --~~ |-?|-·-· ：:， ：, ’：’， ：， ’:’， ：,，,，，，,, ，，，*， ， ， ， ）; · · ******-º-º-º-º--º-~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~ ·|- ， ， ，，，，，，，，，，，，， - mending silk thread of the same color as the material, if possible. then turn the garment over and, on the wrong side, catch-stitch the outside edge of the patch to the garment material, as shown at a, fig. , being very careful to take very small stitches so that they will not show any more than actually necessary on the right side. stockinet mending . stockinet grafting.—tears in garments of knitted or stockinet weave, such as ribbed stockings, undergarments, and sweaters, require a special kind of mending in order that the repaired spot will not prove unduly conspicuous. such mending may be done by grafting the edges of a tear together with loop-stitches in imita- tion of the weave of the material. fig. illustrates this method, called stockinet grafting, applied in the mending of a crosswise tear in stockinet. it may likewise be employed for shortening knitted undergarments, leggings, and sweaters that are too long and can- not be shortened satisfactorily on the edges. in shortening a garment, prepare it for the grafting stitches by cutting out, on a true crosswise grain, a section of material sufficient in size to remove the desired amount of length. then pick the loose ends of thread from the loops in the cut edges of the garment so that each edge will show a continuous row of loops. . for the mending, use thread or yarn of a color and texture that matches as nearly as possible the color and texture of the mending board and around all the edges of the hole lay narrow strips of mending tissue, taking care that they do not extend, even the very slightest amount, inside of the edges of the hole. such a precaution is necessary to prevent an unsightly mark on the right side of the material after the patch is pressed. next, place the patch carefully in position and press it with a hot iron until it adheres to the garment. miscellaneous mending . repairing broken stitches in a stocking.—one or two broken stitches in a stocking sometimes result quickly in a large opening. but broken stitches can be very easily repaired if you give them attention before the threads have a chance to run. to repair a hole caused by broken stitches, catch the projecting loops of the opening together, using for this purpose a very fine needle and thread and forming a grafting-stitch if possible; then run the stitches a trifle beyond the loops in order to hold them securely. be careful not to draw the stitches very tight, or they will have a tendency to break the -------- nº. threads in the stocking. º. \####### . mending a - - “run” in a stock- ing.—overhanding- stitches may be used to catch together the edges of a “run” in a stocking. a very im- portant point in repair- ing such a fault is to catch securely the loop at each end of the “run” so that it will not have an opportunity to extend farther. machine stitching may likewise be employed for such mending. with the aid of a sewing machine, a run can be quickly and satisfac- torily repaired, but the precaution must be taken to stretch the seam while the stitching is being done so as to keep it sufficiently loose. --º - - .: mending of material in the new heel. then cut the center-back line of the new heel, shaping it the same as the center back of the original heel and making allowance for a seam, as at a. shape the line above the heel and also the sides of the new stocking foot the same as the part cut off, making allowance for a seam, as at b, but instead fig. of shaping the toe portion the same, cut it in the manner shown at c, being sure to provide sufficient length in the stocking foot. by cutting the new foot in this way, you eliminate the seam d at the center front, which might prove uncomfortable in a footed stocking. although the shape of the toe portion in the new foot is decidedly changed, it may be very easily adjusted to a corresponding part of the stocking leg; also, it contains sufficient width to make it fit properly. - after the foot portion has been cut, stitch a plain seam at the center back, using the sewing machine for this purpose in order to catch each of the stitches securely and prevent them from dropping. trim the seam edges to within § inch of the stitching, press the seam open, and then catch-stitch it through the center, as at a, fig. , so as to hold the edges open and prevent them from forming a ridge. next pin, baste, and stitch the foot portion in position, turn the seam edges to one side, and, without turning under the edges, hem or whip them to the stocking, as at b. fig. shows the wrong side of the stocking after the new foot has been applied. the seams in this case are made on the wrong side, but if you prefer you may make them on the right side and give them a neat finish. . a stocking that is worn merely in the heel portion may have the worn part cut away and the new heel portion shaped with mending the aid of the part that was removed and applied in the manner suggested for putting a new foot in a stocking. a new toe portion may be applied in a similar manner. , mending an opened seam in a kid glove.—as a general rule, the stitching in the finger tips of kid gloves has a tendency to break before the gloves show decided signs of wear at any other point. do not delay in repairing even a very tiny open- ing in the seam, for this opening, unless securely mended, will quickly enlarge because of the readiness with which the broken stitching runs when there is even the slightest strain on it. to mend the finger of a glove, insert in it a glove stretcher, a pencil, or the finger, to prevent the stitches from catching in the opposite side, and sew the seam edges together with fine overhand- ing-stitches, using for this purpose silk thread that matches the color of the glove. start to make these stitches # inch or more below the open seam and extend them an equal distance beyond the opening in order to catch the original stitching of the glove and prevent it from pulling out again. . mending a tear in a glove.—because of the slight strain on the lengthwise seams in the fingers of kid gloves, they usually remain intact for some time, especially if they have been sewed with a firm, good quality of thread. however, there is considerable strain on the kid at the base of the fingers, and this often causes the kid to rip close to the seam where it has been weakened by the stitching. such a tear, if merely overhanded together, will cause still greater strain on the kid and consequently will soon become an unsightly rent. in mending such a tear, follow a method similar to the one illustrated in fig. . first, work all around the edges of the hole with buttonhole twist or heavy sewing silk, using single-purl buttonhole-stitches for this purpose. fill in the open space by mending working one or more rows of these stitches, according to the number that are needed. take each new row of stitches through the loops of the preceding row. decrease the number of stitches toward the center and draw the stitches together at this point. then run the thread back through the lacework to the edge of the opening and fasten it securely. the buttonhole-stitches will provide the elasticity that is needed to prevent too decided a strain on the kid around the repaired space. . mending the finger tips of silk or cotton gloves. although the finger tips of both silk and cotton gloves are generally made double, they usually show signs of wear very quickly. you can prolong the life of such gloves and also save considerable time and labor in mending if you take the proper precautions as soon as the tips appear a trifle thin. for reinforcing finger tips, use darning-stitches in the same manner as for reinforcing thin spots in stockings or garments. use a very fine needle and very fine matching thread in doing this work, so that there will be no great strain on the threads in the glove . material when the needle is being drawn through; also, be sure to follow the weave of the material and make the stitches very small. if a portion of the outer layer of the finger tip is worn away, secure the free edges of this to the under portion of the tip with darning-stitches, and then, with reinforcing stitches, cover the entire space over which there is only one thickness of material. . mending net, laces, and veiling.—if there is a tear or a small worn spot in net, lace, or veiling, you may fill it in by simply using thread of a corresponding color and texture and imi- tating as closely as possible the mesh or pattern of the material. this method of mending, however, will prove tedious if the hole is large. in such a case, procure a patch of the same material, if possible, and apply it in the manner illustrated in fig. . to do this, cut the patch considerably larger than the opening and place it over the opening on the right side so that, at the sides of the hole, the mesh or pattern of the patch matches exactly the mesh or pattern of the net or lace. then, without turning under the edges of the patch, secure it to the net or lace underneath on the mesh lines or on the outline of the design. for this purpose, use a fine needle and fine thread of a color that exactly matches the color of the lace, and make tiny overhanding-stitches over the mesh, as at mending a, and single-purl buttonhole-stitches around the outline, as at b. do not follow a definite line in doing this work; rather, take the stitches in an irregular manner, as the illustration shows, in order to make the joining as inconspicuous as possible. after the patch has been secured on all sides, cut away the net or lace that extends outside of the stitches taken to hold the patch in position, cutting close to these stitches so that no frayed edges will remain. also, cut away, close to the stitches, the surplus underneath the patch. fig. in this condition, the mesh or the design in the fabric should appear unbroken. the illustration shows only a part of the surplus cut away. this method of mending net or lace may be applied likewise to piecing or seaming net or lace when an inconspicuous joining is desired. . mending torn or worn curtains.—a quick and satis- factory method of mending curtains consists in dipping a piece of matching material in cold starch, applying it wet over the hole so that the grain of the material or the mesh and pattern outlines match, and then pressing it with a hot iron. the pressing will cause the patch to adhere to the material and make the mended spot mending less conspicuous than a patch applied with stitching. you will have to repeat this process, however, each time the curtains are laundered, for the water will moisten the starch that holds the patch and cause it to loosen. . mending the worn lower edge of a skirt.—often a skirt wears out around the bottom before it becomes shabby anywhere else. its appearance can be considerably improved and its period of usefulness lengthened if the worn part at the lower edge fig. is removed. to accomplish this, take out the stitches that secure the hem, turn the lower edge up a trifle more, and make the hem deeper; or, if necessary, cut the hem off at the lower edge and apply a facing. if, for some reason, you consider it impractical to remove the stitches that secure the hem, you may follow the method illus- trated in fig. . split the hem at the lower edge and turn the outside portion under # inch or a trifle less, as at a. slip a narrow bias strip of light-weight material, such as cambric, as at b, under this folded edge so that the edge of the strip is even with the fold, and baste this to the turned portion. then catch-stitch the raw edge of the turned portion to the cambric, as at c, catching merely the turned portion and the stay strip. finally, turn under the mending inside portion of the hem, as at d, so that it extends to within § inch of the lower edge and secure this with slip-stitching to the turned outside portion, as at e, taking care not to catch the stitches through the outside portion of the hem. . altering clothes for growing children.—the prob- lem of continually altering garments is one that confronts practically every mother who has growing children. it is a simple matter to let down the hem in a skirt or a sleeve, provided sufficient allowance was made for such an alteration when the garment was originally cut, or to apply a facing if this will provide the necessary length. but to add even more length or to add width is a problem that must be carefully con- sidered in order not to mar the appearance of the garment. . to lengthen a skirt, if the lower edge of the hem is consider- ably worn or if the under side of the hem appears brighter than the right side, you may follow the method illus- trated in fig. . stitch a narrow tuck near the original hem turn, as - at a; then apply the facing and secure the upper edge by turning it under just below the row of stitching that holds the tuck and stitching this edge, as at b. do not take this row of stitching through the tuck; rather, take it under the tuck, as at c. the tuck, besides including the worn part of the hem, will make less noticeable the difference in the appearance of the two parts of the dress. the only disadvantage of this method is that it does not provide all the additional length that the letting down of a hem ordinarily gives; but, if you do not require the full hem width, you will find this method very satis- factory. when an extra piece of material must be used to provide suffi- cient length, conceal its joining in a tuck placed either above the fig. mending so that they will not tear out in the laundering. in doing the darning, be careful to take the stitches only through the interlining of the collar or cuffs and not through to the opposite side. thus, the fact that the collar and cuffs are mended will not be evident from the right side when they are reversed. . to remedy badly worn sleeves and cuffs on a boy's blouse, cut off the sleeves at the elbows and simply hem the lower edge of the short sleeves that remain. such blouses are suitable and very comfortable for summer wear and, besides, the short, loose sleeves provide greater freedom and relieve the strain across the shoulders, thus prolonging the life of the blouse. . to mend a man's shirt at the neck, where it is worn thin but not definitely broken through at the tender places by the points or edges of the collar, cut a piece off the tail of the shirt, place it neatly underneath the worn spots so that the stripes or figures match, and carefully darn this in place. if the places are badly worn, the most satisfactory way to mend them is by means of a set-in patch. . to mend a hole or tender place where buttons are pulled out, carefully darn a small piece of material underneath so as to give strength. then, when the button is sewed directly over the darned place, the mend will scarcely be visible. . to mend a man's summer underwear, which is usually made of soisette or coarse dimity, it is better to strengthen the torn place than just to sew it up. the most favored way to do this is to put a piece of soft muslin underneath, make a long stitch on the sewing machine, and darn back and forth with the machine stitch until the patch is neatly and securely attached to the garment. sometimes, such garments have a knitted section straight across the back of the waist line. the tearing of this usually indicates that the garment is short in the back, and a strip of material, say to inches in width, should be seamed in to prevent another tearing. ld – chapter ix ehousehold sewing aspects of homemaking . a simple but satisfactory branch of sewing consists in the making of attractive fabric furnishings for the home. even if there is only one room that one may call one's home and that a bedroom, a cozy, home-like atmosphere may be given to it by choosing the proper window decorations and floor coverings and by giving thought to counterpanes, pillows, scarfs, and other necessary furnishings, all of which can be made at home. . these articles have such a definite appeal for almost every one and as a result fashion has come to play an important part in their regulation. consequently, although fashion changes are not so rapid as in dress, they are of sufficient concern to necessitate their being considered and followed if rooms are to have a con- sistent, satisfying tone. to keep in touch with style changes in home furnishings should prove a simple, yet fascinating matter, as stores or departments carrying art goods, the home departments of magazines, and various catalogs offer, in season, many helpful suggestions and practical ideas. the displays will help the observing woman in exercising her own ingenuity to the end that, with sewing skill and right color combinations, delightfully satisfying results may be obtained. this is especially true if she is enthusiastically interested in achiev- ing a definitely planned effect. . to make attractive articles for the home, it is essential to apply dressmaking skill to the sewing of them and artistic taste to their color and arrangement, ever remembering that cushions, over-draperies, scarfs, coverlets, and, in fact, all household furnish- household sewing ings require more thought as to sewing deftness and color appro- priateness than as to sewing exactness. the same principle applies here as to millinery, for instance, for it is a well known fact that an artistic milliner can often produce more unusual, yet satisfying, results than a dressmaker who may be tempted to plan and sew for service rather than for effect. . this chapter is designed to help you by advising you as to materials and styles for articles that are made in the home, as well as to explain such construction details as the correct widths of hems, the required amount of fulness, and the right proportions for them. it is expected that the sewing skill you acquire from the instruction books will qualify you to develop any of the articles described or any others that you may especially desire. table linens pure linen . fresh linen a sign of hospitality.—much romance is associated with the white, satiny cloth of hospitality—linen. every home, however, cannot afford beautiful linens, and yet all homes can be hospitable with a clean cloth always in readiness for even the unexpected meal-time guest. . scope of linens.—when linens are considered, you perhaps visualize the exquisite french linens that are so beautifully designed and are so leathery and firm to the touch. or you may think of the table linens that are elaborately embroidered and trimmed with real lace, such as lunch, breakfast, and tea cloths. then, too, you may think of dinner cloths that are monogrammed but not often lace trimmed, or banquet clothes that are usually the reverse. all such linens have their place, but the average woman is con- cerned chiefly with the selection of much less pretentious linens. if she can have only one dinner cloth, she should choose this with the greatest care as to appropriateness, endeavoring to make the best selection from the many designs and qualities offered. . some housewives buy unbleached linen and bleach it them- selves by wetting it and placing it on the lawn in the direct rays of the sun. this is a very practical way of saving money and prolonging the life of linen. artificial bleaching often weakens the household sewing linen fiber, and although not all linens are bleached in this way, a stronger fabric may be had if the bleaching is done at home. . table linen may be procured silver-bleached as well as unbleached. the former has three different grades, quarter, half, and three-quarters. in the purchase of linen, either unbleached or silver-bleached, it is well to remember that a good, medium quality has threads to the inch. linen substitutes . mercerized damask.-good linen is expensive, so many housewives purchase mercerized damask or cotton for table cloths. for ordinary use, these substitutes prove very satisfactory, but as the mercerization disappears with laundering, the cloths become dull and often present an unsatisfactory appearance. a linen cloth for which one pays only a third to a half more than for a mercer- ized one is usually less expensive, and certainly more gratifying, in the long run because of its appearance and the length of time it can be used when carefully laundered and mended. . heavy cottons.—certain heavy cottons, both white and colored, such as crash or imitation linens of plain or novelty weave, make interesting cloths or runners with napkins to match, and they add an attractive touch to the porch, lunch, or tea table. these may be finished with a crocheted edge, with a cross-stitched or blanket-stitched hem, by drawing threads of the material and replacing them with colored threads to form a hem line or design, or in any of the numerous other ways that fashion may suggest from time to time. size of linen pieces . table cloths.-the size of table linens depends on the size of the dining table. the following measurements are given to help you when selecting cloths: width length inches inches to to to - to to household sewing lunch and breakfast cloths are smaller than dinner cloths. they may be square, round, or oblong, and their sizes are generally , , , , and inches. the materials used for these cloths include heavy crash, round-thread linen, and cotton substitutes. runners or oblong cloths are very pretty, their size depending on the kind of material selected. crash and certain other kinds of linen may be purchased in narrow widths suitable for this purpose. . napkins.—the ideal arrangement is to have napkins of the same pattern as each table cloth. this is not always possible, but it is advisable to match the cloth in the same material. an important point to remember is that lunch napkins should be used with lunch cloths and dinner napkins with dinner cloths. the size of napkins varies from the small breakfast napkin to the large dinner size, as follows: inches square breakfast napkins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to lunch napkins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to dinner napkins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to in many of the novelty-cloth napkin sets for special occasions, however, the napkins are made in - to -inch squares. . lunch sets.—lunch sets of madeira or italian embroidery or of other hand work make pleasing additions to one's linen store. the madeira and cluny sets usually come in four sizes, the tumbler doily, the bread-and-butter doily, the plate doily, and one large doily for the center of the table. the three smaller sizes are generally to inches, to inches, and to inches, respectively. a dozen of each size of doily is generally included in a set, but when the family is small, it is unusual to serve more than eight people at lunch. consequently, many women, when making doilies, make but eight of each kind and one center doily, a set comprising rather than pieces. . the italian sets usually consist of an oblong or a square centerpiece and oblong plate doilies, which are large enough for the plate, the tumbler, and the butter plate. the usual size for this style is to inches for the large piece and to inches for the small ones. household sewing . cotton materials of a heavy quality are made up in a great variety of colors and in square, oblong, oval, and round doilies. the japanese printed designs in blue have periods of popularity. linen supply . the bride-elect often wonders how much linen she should prepare for her new home. she does not wish to lay in a stock that would not be practical, neither does she want to lack any needed pieces when entertaining. . linen for entertaining.—the question of entertaining really has a great deal to do with the choice of linens. for example, if afternoon tea is served regularly, tea cloths and napkins are essential. also, they are equally necessary for evening parties where small tables are set for refreshments. the quantities of extra linen needed will have to be decided by the person herself and will depend entirely on the extent of her entertaining. . linen for general use.—for ordinary use in most house- holds, the following list includes what would be practical: large dinner table cloth dozen napkins to match and every-day table cloths change of every-day napkins lunch cloths and sets of doilies change of lunch napkins or to every-day table cloths to changes of napkins such a supply will probably be considered small by some house- wives and generous by others, but to the inexperienced woman it will give a working basis for the planning of her supply of linen. economy applied to linens . use of two small cloths.--an idea that some house- wives find economical is to use two small cloths of the same pattern instead of a large dinner cloth by lapping the edges under a large centerpiece. the small cloths are easily laundered and can be household sewing used occasionally for every-day wear to keep them white. as an economical measure, this is worth trying, but there is, of course, a charm about an unbroken length on a dinner table which can be produced only by the use of one cloth. . saving linens from wear.—there is also the matter of getting the maximum wear out of linen. table cloths usually wear out where they fall over the table edge and along the creases in which they are habitually folded, leaving some parts only half worn. many women use the better sections of the cloth to make napkins and tray cloths for every-day use. a good way to prevent a line of wear along the creases is to cut inch from one end and one side of the cloth, just as it begins to wear, so as to bring all of the creases in new places, and then to refinish these edges. kitchen linens . articles included under kitchen linens.—in many households, kitchen linens do not receive their due share of atten. tion, but they are of sufficient importance to demand considera- tion. these linens fall naturally into several classes: dish towels, dish cloths, hand towels, and oven towels, if one does not use pot holders. . dish towels generally include checked glass toweling, crash toweling, and flour and sugar sacks. . glass toweling makes very satisfactory towels because it leaves no lint on articles wiped with t. it is, however, rather light in weight and soon becomes wet. . crash toweling has, in many homes, been entirely supplanted for dish towels by flour and sugar bags, and not unjustly so, for the cost of these bags is small and after a few launderings the material is as soft and absorbent as the crash toweling. . some housewives find the cheap grades of turkish towels, or terry cloth, most satisfactory for dishes. these towels are soft to handle, absorb moisture quickly, and leave no lint. . hand towels of linen crash find favor in most homes. household sewing . dish cloths should be of some porous material, such as cheesecloth, that can be wrung very dry when necessary. knitted cloths of soft cotton are ideal, or the good parts of worn towels may be hemmed for dish cloths. in some stores, it is possible to pur- chase dish cloths of square mesh that are most satisfactory. oven cloths may be of the same material as dish cloths. . weekly supply of kitchen linens.—the essential thing in preparing kitchen linens is to provide a supply that will be suffi- cient to insure absolute cleanliness. the following is a good basis on which to begin: dish towels may be glass towels may be crash towels oven cloths hand towels dish cloths . applying tape hangers.-for convenience, kitchen and hand towels should be provided with hangers. these are fig. generally made of tape and are applied merely at one corner or at two corners that are directly opposite, in the manner illustrated in fig. . after turning the hem but before securing it, pin a piece of tape about inches long in position, as at a, taking care that the loop end folds, as at b, next, turn the ends at c inside the hem. household sewing . wash cloths.-turkish face cloths made of unworn parts of old towels, finished with plain hems or crocheted edges are very satisfactory for wash cloths. if you prefer, face cloths made of knitted material or terry cloth may be purchased ready-made. . bath mats.-bath mats are generally made of very heavy terry cloth or a soft cotton pile fabric resembling velvet carpet. they are woven in attractive designs or plain colors and vary considerably in size. it is generally advisable to purchase such mats ready-made. bed linens and furnishings mattress covers and paids . mattress covers.—covers for mattresses are usually made of a good, heavy grade of unbleached muslin, and consequently can be laundered easily and often. to keep the ticking of the mat- tress fresh and clean and thus add to both its appearance and its hygienic value, mattress covers have been devised. . to make a mattress cover, cut two pieces of muslin the width and length of the mattress to be covered, plus % to inches for seams so as to insure an easy-fitting cover. then cut two long strips of muslin the length of the mattress and the width of the depth of the mattress plus seam allowance and two shorter strips equal in length to the width of the mattress and as wide as its depth plus seam allowance. sew the long strips to the sides and the shorter strips to the ends of the large pieces with a plain or french seam to form a boxed cover. one end should be left open so that the mattress may be slipped in and the cover then closed with coarse hand sewing or strong snap fasteners. . mattress pads.-many housewives find the use of pads a satisfactory protection to mattresses and use them either alone or in addition to mattress covers. pads are made somewhat smaller than the mattress over which they are used—about inches both in width and in length—and they are finished in much the same way as a quilt except that they must be more closely and firmly quilted. occasionally, the knotted pad is used, but it must be very closely tied to make it satisfactory. mattress pads may also be purchased ready-made for regulation-sized beds. household sewing . another practice often resorted to as a mattress protection is the use of worn quilts. after a light-colored cotton quilt has become worn, the sides and ends may be cut away and the edges neatly bound. these quilts, of course, are not so firm and pad-like as the regular pads, but they afford a very satisfactory protection. sheets . materials.—linen is the luxurious material for sheets and pillow cases, but few housewives can afford it for general use. cot- ton sheeting, if of medium weight, is more economical and gives perfect satisfaction. light-weight muslin becomes wrinkled and wears out quickly, while the heavy grades are often hard to handle in laundering. . measurements.-one of the most important things to remember, when making or buying sheets, is to have them suffi- ciently large to cover the mattress and to tuck under on all four sides. then they can be put on with mitered corners in true hos- pital style. to meet all its requirements, a sheet should be # to # yard longer and wider than the mattress. sheeting may be purchased by the yard in various widths. in the stores in some localities, the sales- people speak of the width of sheets in the number of quarter yards in width; that is, -inch sheeting would be called “seven four;” inches or yards, “eight four”; and so on. sheeting may be obtained in - and -inch widths, also. . sheets may be purchased ready-made, if desired, in sizes that are right for regulation-size of beds. the sizes are as follows: sizes sizes inches inches by by by by by by by by . repair of sheets.—occasionally, a sheet becomes torn in the corner where it comes in contact with the spring of the bed. the best method of mending this kind of tear is to patch it neatly. household sewing single-bed sheets become very thin and sometimes tear through the center while the outer edges are still very strong. an easy method of repairing such a sheet is to cut it in half lengthwise through the thin section, lap the two selvage edges about ; inch, stitch them down flat with the sewing machine, and then hem the raw edges. the life of the sheet may be prolonged considerably when repaired in this way, for the selvage edges will receive the hard wear and the worn part will be tucked under at the sides. in cases where large sheets are badly worn in the center, it is often economical to cut them down to fit smaller beds by splitting them through the thin portion, joining the two selvage edges as previously suggested, and then cutting away as much as possible of the worn part before hemming the raw edges. pillow cases . material for home-made slips.—some persons use linen for pillow cases, especially if they are embroidered or trimmed in some way, but generally pillow cases, or pillow slips, are made of muslin tubing that is woven double without a seam. the tubing comes only in - and -inch widths, so that if neither of these fits the width of the pillow it is better to make cases from ordinary muslin. . ready-made slips.-ready-made slips may be pur- chased in stock sizes. in a good grade, they are very satisfactory, but they are more expensive than home-made ones. another dis- advantage is that they are sometimes made on the cross of the material, a feature that makes them difficult to iron and also takes away from their life. the sizes of ready-made pillow cases are: sizes inches by by by % . repairing of pillow cases.—if pillow cases made of tubing are worn thin in the center, their life may be lengthened by cutting across the seam end, turning the lengthwise creases, or household sewing either in blocks or in strips. then, too, there are the attractive crocheted spreads made of alternate strips of linen and coarse crochet. unbleached muslin spreads with strips of cretonne as a trimming and those having appliquéd or embroidered designs are sometimes in vogue and often used to carry out a definite color scheme. flounced counterpanes, usually of light-weight material, are used for colonial or box beds. . it is sometimes the fashion to make a light-weight counter- pane from to yards longer than a regulation spread so as to be able to draw it up over the pillows. when used in this way, it is tucked in at the bottom and top of the pillows and gives the appear- ance of a roll. unattached pillow spreads to match the counterpane may be made of a separate strip of material. these are usually the width of the counterpane and from # to yard wide. . manufactured spreads.-the manufactured bedspreads are of four types: marseilles, satin marseilles, piqué, and seersucker, the latter being generally termed dimity spreads. . marseilles spreads are heavy and are made of a soft cot- ton thread, generally in stripes or honeycomb effect, and, as a rule, have elaborate raised floral designs and a background of slightly raised figures. . satin marseilles spreads are lighter in weight and very much firmer in texture than marseilles spreads, and have a smooth background with figures that stand out very plainly. these spreads have a highly mercerized finish that gives them a smooth, satin-like appearance. . piqué spreads have, as would be supposed, a fine, rib- like effect. . dimity spreads are light in weight and have a striped, crinkled appearance. such spreads are frequently used in hospitals because they are so easily laundered. . sizes of manufactured spreads.—these manufactured spreads are woven in the following sizes: household sewing . blanket sizes.—blankets are manufactured in the follow- ing sizes: sizf's inches for single bed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . {. by or s mgle pe by for three-quarter bed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { # . : for double bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ſº by by . repairing blankets.-the mending of blankets can best be accomplished by darning. by the time a blanket is in a condition necessitating mending, most of the nap has worn off so that the darned place does not appear very different from the blanket itself. in some cases, a set-in patch may be necessary, and if the patching is neatly done it will prove very satisfactory. comfortables . material.--so attractive are the materials for home-made comfortables and so pleasing are the results that can be gained, that many homemakers make their own comfortables. materials that may be used for this purpose are cotton challis, silkaline, seco silk, cheesecloth, and even light-weight cretonne. many persons prefer the cheesecloth for wool-clipping filled com- fortables, for they can be washed easily. cotton or wool batting and sheet wool are also used as fillings. down is a very soft, light filling found in some of the ready-made comfortables and much used in home-made ones. these materials may be bought in large bats of two or three pounds, which unfold into a square and prove especially satisfactory for comfortables that are to be tied because they insure a smooth, unbroken surface. . quilting frames.—one of the essentials in the making of comfortables and quilts is a quilting frame. such a frame consists of four sticks, each about feet long and on one edge of which narrow strips of ticking have been tacked, and four clamps for holding the sticks together at the corners. the frame should be placed so that its corners have the proper support and it is held at a height that is convenient for the worker. the backs of chairs make very good supports for this purpose. household sewing with the frame in position, the edges of the comfortable or quilt, with its lining and filling, are sewed or pinned firmly to the ticking strips. when the entire quilt is attached, the material is held firm by the sides of the frame, which are securely clamped to hold it in position for working. . size of comfortables.—ready-made comfortables gen- erally come in one size, which is large enough for a double bed— by inches. however, when comfortables are made at home, a size that fits a particular bed can be made. it is well to have a comfortable a generous # yard wider and # yard longer than the mattress. this size gives sufficient material for cutting off and refinishing the ends when they become badly soiled, without making the comfortable too small. . protection for comfortables.—to protect comfortables from becoming soiled along their upper edge, a piece of cheese- cloth may be attached there. simply cut a strip of white cheese- cloth about inches wide and sew it over the end of the comfortable. many thrifty housewives use the same method for the protection of their best blankets. . making comfortables.—a comfortable should run lengthwise of a bed. this means that for a double bed two widths and part of a third of -inch material are needed. set up the quilting frames as directed in art. and pin the comfortable to the frames, as in fig. , which shows how it will appear after it is partly pinned in the frames. be very careful about the pinning, as shown at a, fig. , in order that all the edges may have the same tension and the comfortable material may not be pulled apart. l d – household sewing . tying comfortables.—when a comfortable of figured material is to be tied, usually the pattern can be used as a guide for the placing of the ties. when plain material is employed, a paper guide, as shown in fig. , should be made. fig. decide on the number of inches you wish between the ties, this usually varying from to inches, and then cut a strip of paper of this width and notch it at the proper intervals. for example, if the distance between the ties is to be inches, the paper strip fig. . should be cut inches wide and as long as the width of the comfort- able and then notched on each edge every inches. place one edge of the guide along the edge of the comfortable and pin it securely in place. then put in the ties at every notch indicated on the guide. household sewing . thread for tying comfortables.—for tying com- fortables, various threads are used, such as wool yarn, ribbonzine, heavy mercerized floss, and even baby ribbon. occasionally, dexter cotton and wool yarn are used together, the cotton tying the two thicknesses of the comfortable together and the wool being used to make small rosettes that are tied with the cotton to the comfortable. these rosettes, when cut, are very fluffy and give a desirable finish to the comfortable. the tiny bows of ribbonzine shown at b, fig. , make very attrac- tive ties. to prevent the bow from coming untied, it is advisable to take an extra stitch through the bow, as indicated by the needl at c in the illustration. - . edge finishing for comfortables.—after the tying of the comfortable is complete, the edges must be finished. for fancy comfortables, the two raw edges are turned in flat and sewed together by the machine or by couch-stitching. sometimes two to five rows of machine or hand stitching are placed around the entire edge of the comfortable, the spacing between the rows of stitching being made from to inches apart. a binding is a very common method of finishing. then, too, if the lining, or the back, is made or % inches larger than the top portion, the lining can be turned over the top to give the appearance of a binding. pieced and appliqued quilts . the term quilt is generally used to designate a bed covering made by stitching together, in a certain design, two layers of cloth or patchwork and an interlining. the stitching, or quilting, may be worked over the surface in plain figures or it may follow very complicated designs, and it may be done by hand or by machine. . filling for quilts.—for filling quilts, ordinary cotton batting may be used, but for quilts upon which very fine work is to be done, cotton sheet wadding is preferred because of its smoothness and lack of bulkiness. oftentimes worn blankets may be very satisfactorily used as the filling for quilts. . origin of pieced quilts.-few of the present generation have a large store of pieced quilts, as those were made in bygone days when materials were considered more valuable than time or household sewing at least as much so. then, all materials were woven on hand looms, and naturally the scraps that were left after the finishing of a garment were prized. the larger pieces were generally used for patchwork quilts, while the smaller pieces were cut and sewed for carpets and rugs. though comfortables have largely supplanted quilts, it is not unusual to find persons at the present time who make very beautiful patchwork quilts. many elaborate patterns are used for these pieced quilts. some of them have appliquéd, or top-sewed, patches, as they were called when fashion introduced them. . piecing of quilts.—quilt piecing has always been considered good as practice work for beginners in sewing because of the accuracy that is necessary in cutting and stitching. to have a wholly satisfactory quilt, jagged joinings must not exist. a careful worker will take great pains to have all blocks the same to hºs inch, which means that each piece for a block must be cut true with the grain of the cloth and sewed together with even seams. then, in putting the blocks together, more care than in piecing is necessary so that the blocks will meet exactly at all points. to insure this, many pins should be used along the line of seaming. . the piecing of a quilt usually follows some geometric design, unless it is of the crazy-patch type, where the pieces, just as they are, are sewed together or basted on a lining large enough to form the quilt. the edges of the joinings in pieced quilts are often covered with catch-stitching or other fancy embroidery stitches. at one time, all pieced quilts were made entirely by hand, but at the pres- ent time quilts are often pieced by machine. . material for back of quilt.—the back of a quilt of wash material may be white or of a color that matches the promi- nent color or tint in the piece-work. the material of the back should be soft and in keeping with that used in the piecing, as fabrics similar in texture will quilt together much more easily than if one is over-firm or flimsy. . setting up the quilt.—for hand-quilting, the pieced top is set together complete, the size of this determining the size of the bottom piece. when the bottom piece is seamed together, both the top and the bottom should be pressed carefully from the wrong side so that both are entirely smooth. then the bottom household sewing piece is put in the frames with the seams up and covered with a very smooth, thin layer of cotton or filling. the top is carefully laid on so as not to disturb the cotton in any way and it is neatly stretched in place just the same as for a comfortable. . marking for quilting.—when this is done, the markings should be made for quilting. these are usually made with faint- colored chalk, the idea being to use a color of chalk that will not discolor the fabric enough to be evident after the quilting is com- pleted. some use the chalk free-hand in marking a design, but the safer and more accurate way is to prepare a pattern of heavy-weight paper, shaping it just as you want the quilted lines to appear, and then use this as a guide in marking the design, which may be square, diamond, fan, or feather shape, the feather shape being, perhaps, one of the most difficult designs to do. if the top is an appliquéd one, the marking may be omitted as the quilting may be done around the appliqué designs and the spaces between then filled in with square or diamond quilting. . procedure in hand quilting.—after the design is marked, thread a no. or sewing needle with medium-weight thread, usually white. the good quilter takes just enough thread in the needle at one time to do one marking or space, so that she has fresh thread for each row and no beginnings in the middle of a row of quilting. to start the quilting, tie a small knot in the thread and pull the knot through the fabric so that it is imbedded in the cotton and entirely concealed. proceed then with the quilt- ing, which is, in reality, running-stitches, always making sure that each stitch comes through all thicknesses. the left forefinger usually follows underneath to make sure of this; consequently, it is advisable to wear a small piece of adhesive tape or a bandage or a second thimble to protect the finger from needle pricks. when the row of quilting is done or the needleful of thread is used, finish it over with two or three tiny back-stitches, which should hold it securely. - . procedure in machine quilting.—quilts of plain mate- rial are often quilted by machine in squares or diamonds, or with lengthwise stitching, the quilting being done easily with a quilter as a guide. to prepare the quilt for machine quilting, put it in the frames in the regular way. after it is stretched tightly in place, start household sewing window draping is governed chiefly by the general character of the room, in which figure conspicuously the height of the ceilings, the amount of light admitted, and the number, size, position, and architecture of the windows. since these details vary greatly in different houses, no decided rules can be given. with the proper care exercised, however, the material may be selected and the arrangement planned so as to give the appearance of good taste and still not exceed the right cost. types of curtains . an idea of the kinds of curtains in general use and the usual type of windows should prove helpful in deciding the style of decoration best suited to certain windows. . glass, or sash, curtains, which hang close to the win- dow glass either from the top or from the center are made of very sheer material, are hung straight, and are usually finished with a wide, plain hem. they should just touch the window sill. . panel curtains furnish a means of decorating windows where it is advisable to have curtains without fulness. such cur- tains are hung from the top of the window, close to the glass, and are woven in various widths in many attractive patterns. . draw curtains are often used as a substitute for roller shades. these may be used as overdraperies and drawn together over the net curtains, or they may be made of pongee or other soft, light-weight material and serve as the only decoration for a window. this idea is very often carried out in the treatment of sun-parlor and casement windows. in this way, they serve the twofold purpose of insuring privacy and providing an attractive means of decoration. - this arrangement of curtains also proves satisfactory as a covering for built-in book-shelves and for french doors, and thus affords an opportunity to introduce a pleasing color scheme into a room. . in making draw curtains, it is necessary to sew small rings at equal distances to the back of the heading, as shown in fig. , placing them far enough below the top of the heading to conceal them. about yards of cord is required for a window of ordi- nary size; also, two pulleys and two small weights to hold the household sewing ends of the pulley-cord in place are needed. the cord is run over one pulley, as at a, and through the rings to b, where it is tied in a single knot. then it passes through the rest of the rings over the other pulley, as at c, and back through the rings to d, where it is tied again. then it passes through the rest of the rings and over the first pulley again. pulling one of the weights closes the curtains and pulling the other one opens them. the curtains should be secured to the window frame in the upper left- and right-hand corners to hold the outer edges of the cur- tains in place when the cord is drawn. this wº-iſ-ſlº may be done by placing = £ . two small hooks in the a || || || window frame and fast- ening a small ring in each corner of the cur- tain, as shown here. . over draper- : | | | | || ies. – the length of * g ! overdraperies depends to a great extent on the height of the room. in some cases, where the ceilings are low, it is advisable to decorate the windows so as to give the appearance of height. this may be accomplished by hanging the draperies to reach the floor. - in other cases, the ceilings may be too high. then it would be necessary to arrange the overdraperies so that they disguise this feature. draperies hung to reach just below the sill will prove satisfactory in such rooms. overdraperies should be hung over the window frame, the rods being placed at the extreme outside edges. fig. . curtains or overdraperies that are to be held back with cords or bands should be cut sufficiently long, say to extend about inches below the sill, so that when they are hung in place the inside lower edges will just reach the sill. these edges will appear shorter than the outside edges, as the extra length is taken up when the curtains are drawn back. . valances.—when thought of in connection with curtains, valances are short draperies across the top of the window or door. household sewing they furnish a special means of giving windows an individual touch and vary from the straight gathered ruffles, known as the shirred valances, or dutch effect, to the fitted, shaped finishes trimmed with puffings or braid and hung plain or having their fulness laid in plaits of various kinds. these may be put on a rod if the design permits, or they may be fastened to valance boards, which are especially made to fit in box-like fashion over the top of a window. | types of windows . door windows. in the approach to a home, fig. ing should be such as to create a pleas– || ing impression. | numerous window designs are found in doorways and each presents an || interesting problem. the doorway || illustrated in fig. gives an idea for the treatment of a center- and side- window arrangement, but the same idea may be carried out where there || ||. is only one window. sheer net cur- º tains are shirred top and bottom on tº rods having a -inch heading above and below the rods. this heading gives an attractive finish, but it may be omitted if desired and the curtain shirred on without a heading. household sewing this treatment may be varied by hanging panel curtains at the windows and by using a plaited valance, rather than a shirred one. . french doors.-the french door affords an opportunity to add an artistic touch to a room. this is especially interesting in the summer home where the doors open into a sun parlor. a very effective treatment is shown in fig. , where net is shirred on rods at the top and bottom of the door, with a heading above and below the rods. these curtains cover only the glass in the doors. the overdraperies, if used, may be made with a shirred or plaited heading and hung from a rod placed just under the cornice, or top of the door. if, desired, the net curtains may be hung from a top rod and left free at the lower edge. . the glass curtains are some- times omitted, especially in country homes where the outlook is pleasing. | in such a case, bright-colored curtains | in harmony with the surroundings prove very satisfactory. . kitchen windows.-in many homes, it is considered a needless expense to hang curtains at the kitchen windows, but even if only a kitchenette is to be considered, there is probably no other room in the house in which more time is spent and which, therefore, should be made as cheerful and attractive as possible. and curtains help considerably to give an air of coziness that is very delightful in this room. curtains of firm scrim, marquisette, fine gingham, light-weight unbleached muslin, swiss, voile, or a good quality of cheesecloth are suitable for kitchens and will hold up under the strain of frequent laundering and the steam vapors that are inevitable in a kitchen. . the easiest and most satisfactory treatment for kitchen windows is to hang the curtains straight from a rod at the top of household sewing the window to the sill. this method, which permits the curtains to be laundered with less labor, is always followed when the windows are small and high, as over a sink or other kitchen equipment. in the case of windows of regu- lar size having both upper and lower sections, the curtains are often hung from the middle sash over only the lower part. but if | the light admitted is too intense |, and it is advisable to keep the | upper half of the window covered, | two sets of curtains may be used | | | effectively, as shown in fig. , one hanging from the top to the middle sash and the other from the middle sash to the sill. fig. . bathroom windows. the window treatments discussed for the kitchen may be satisfac- torily applied to bathroom win- dows also. the chief require- ments are to have the arrange- ment simple and the material such as can be laundered easily. - - |||||||||||||||||| ||||||||||||| |hººgºº, | t tt. ht t ſ || || ſº +\il. . bedroom windows. another interesting problem is planning for the bedroom win- dows. the outstanding feature of such windows should be dainti- ness, and probably no treatment emphasizes this point better than ruffled curtains, as shown in fig. . such curtains may be hung straight or held back with a novelty or a ruffle-edged band, as illustrated. if hung straight, they should just clear the sill, but when held back they should measure about inches longer in order to allow for drawing back. ºf ttt º fig. household sewing . bedroom-window curtains are especially attractive when made of dotted swiss or cross-bar marquisette. the width of the ruffle is a matter of choice, but % to inches is a good general width. the outer edge of the ruffle may be turned in a narrow hem or it may be picoted and the other edge gathered and joined to the curtain in a fell seam. this gives a neat, smooth finish. another method of making the ruffle consists in finishing both edges alike and then gathering the ruffle on to the curtain so as to leave a tiny heading beyond the stitching. this gives a very pleasing effect and requires only one row of stitching. if ruffled curtains are not desired, simple straight curtains with plain hems, lace, or braid are very satisfactory for bedrooms. . casement windows.-many housewives have the inter- esting problem of decorating casement windows. fig. shows a very simple but pleasing treatment of such windows. the curtains, which are made of net, have no head- ing and reach just to the sill of the window. they are placed on the inside rod. the valance and side curtains are made with a heading and are placed on the outside rod. in this case, the over- draperies should come at least to the lower edge of the window frame. this treatment of a group of windows may be successfully used also where casement windows are placed above built-in furniture, such as bookcases or buffets. curtain maring measuring for curtains . accuracy in measurements is absolutely essential to insure correct results in finished curtains. a yardstick should always be used in preference to a tape measure as the tape is apt to stretch and cause incorrect measurements. in the taking of measurements, consideration must be given to the type of window and the position of the fixtures. usually, household sewing measurements are taken from the top of the rod the desired length of the finished curtain and to this measurement is added sufficient allowance for hems and headings. preparing materlals . cutting.—the most important point in preparing material for curtains is to cut it straight. all materials are woven evenly, but in the process of bleaching or finishing or placing them on a bolt, they are sometimes stretched and appear crooked when measured off. if this is the case, pull the material carefully on the bias, and then measure the proper length on the selvage and draw a thread. this crosswise mark will serve as a guide for accurate cutting. . preserving the freshness of materials.-as a great deal of handling deprives material of its “new look,” it is advisable to handle the material as little as possible in the making of the curtains. this can be accomplished by basting only where abso- lutely necessary. by pinning the hems in place and pressing them with a moderately hot iron, much basting can be omitted and the material will retain its stiffness instead of looking limp and stringy when hung. soft materials that have no body require careful basting to hold the hems in position. allowance for finishes . width of headings.-the proper allowance for head- ings is an important feature of curtain-making. for the average or ordinary window, this allowance is governed by at least three fac- tors, the weight of the material, the fulness of the curtain, and the position of the fixture on the window. a good standard is inch, although heavier materials may have a wider heading. in no case should the heading be allowed to extend above the window frame nor made so wide that it will droop over. . width of casings.-a common error in curtain making is to have the casing too narrow for the rod to slip through easily. this point cannot be too strongly emphasized, for if the casing is tight the curtain will be damaged when the rod is inserted. an allowance of % inches at the top of a curtain permits a -inch heading and leaves a generous casing that will accommodate either household sewing be too narrow. in such an event, it is necessary to cut the material so as to obtain the proper fulness. . for overdraperies, the material usually measures to inches in width. if -inch material is used, a full width is needed for each side curtain, provided the material is soft and light in weight. heavy materials must be cut narrow enough to hang gracefully. while -inch material is more expensive, it often proves more economical in the end as it can be split for side curtains and thus requires less material than narrower widths. it is always neces- sary, of course, to consider the size of the window and the kind of material that is to be used before cutting the widths for over- draperies. - finishing curtains . in the making of curtains, both hand and machine stitching play an important part. because of the evenness of the stitching and the necessity for less handling, machine stitching is usually preferred to hand stitching, except in cases where unusual lace bandings or medallions, which seem to require hand work, are to be inserted. if the machine is to be used, however, the stitch should be fairly loose and should be lengthened enough to prevent puckering. - . applying lace.—when a lace edge is applied to a cur- tain, it is placed in just far enough on the curtain to hold securely. great care must be taken to ease the edge when applying the lace in order to have the curtains hang properly. if the edge is held tight, it will cause the curtains to draw up and hang very unevenly. . applying braid.—two methods may be employed in applying braid. in the first, the braid is applied by machine to the outer edge of the curtain. as in the case of lace edging, the braid should be eased a trifle to prevent drawing. fringe, also, may be applied in this manner. in the second method, the braid is placed in on the curtain the width of the hem. if you wish to use this method, baste the hem in position and then baste the braid along the same line. next, secure the braid and hem at the same time with very small run- ning-stitches on both edges of the braid. in turning the braid at the corner, miter it. l d – household sewing is necessary. if space between the plaits is desired, it is usually made the same as the width of the plait. . the pinch-plaited valance is made in the same way as the box-plaited valance, but the finished box plaits are pinched up into three or more equal parts that stand out rather than lie flat. these plaits are tacked together for from to inches below the top of the valance so that they hold securely. a valance of this type is hung on the rod by small rings sewed to the back of each plait far enough below the top of the heading to conceal them. this method of providing fulness may be used at the top of curtains as well as in valances. it is especially appropriate for draw curtains. . the plain valance is more difficult to make than the other valances, because in nearly every case it requires a facing and a wooden or beaver-board frame to which the valance may be secured. many attractive designs may be worked out in a valance of this type by shaping the lower edge in various ways. curtain fixtures . curtain rods are made either round or flat, and may be had in single-, double-, or triple-rod fixtures. such fixtures should be placed as close as possible to the outer edge of the window frame, as it is advisable to have all of the frame covered by the curtains. . the single-rod fixture is used where there are no overdraperies or where the dutch-window treatment is used. . a double-rod fixture may be used where the valance hangs between the overcurtains. in using this fixture, place the glass curtains on the inner rod and the overdraperies on the outer rod. . when the valance of the overdraperies extends the entire width of the window, it is advisable to use a triple-rod fixture. in such a fixture, the inner rod is for the glass curtain, the middle one, for the overcurtains, and the outer one, for the valance. if it is not convenient to purchase a fixture of this type, a double-rod fixture may be used for the glass curtains and overcurtains and the valance secured to a frame placed above the window, as in the case of the plain valance, or fastened to the outer rod by means of hooks. chapter x definitions of useful terms . familiarity with the numerous terms and expressions that pertain to sewing and dressmaking is of importance to every one engaged in this work. to the woman who sews for others, a knowl- edge of such terms is particularly valuable, for very often her cus- tomers are thoroughly conversant with these matters and naturally expect her to be master of them as well as of her technique. on the other hand, it is her privilege to help those of her customers who are not familiar with the intricacies of the subject, for they really look up to her for such information. then, too, a professional dressmaker occupies a much higher place in her profession if she is well versed in everything pertaining to her work. such knowledge is also of considerable value to the woman who sews merely for herself and her family. seldom has she any one on whom to depend for help and she must be able to read the fashion magazines intelligently if she wishes to make the most of her dress- making skill. it has often been said that those engaged in sewing and dress- making are more negligent about just such matters as these than the members of other professions, but dressmakers can easily dispel ideas of this kind by exerting every effort to become true masters of their art. - . with this need in view, the list of terms that follow was pre- pared. included in it are words and expressions pertaining to the subjects of sewing and dressmaking in general, as well as many of those used in fashion publications and by manufacturers. familiarity with this list will therefore provide you with a key to fashion language and will make fashion information much more accessible to you. - definitions of useful terms a abbé cape (à-ba'). a small shoulder cape like that worn as a part of an abbot's costume. accessory. anything that aids the principal agent in a subordinate way; an accompaniment. accordion plaits. narrow, straight plaits like those in the bellows of an accordion. they range in width from # to # inch and are put in by means of steam. agaric (äg'à-rik or ā-gár'ik). a cotton fabric of loop-yarn construction having a surface similar to fine turkish toweling. aigret (a-grèt' or ā'grét). see egret. a jours (ā'zhur). a french term meaning open-work and applied to embroidery, knitting, etc. albatross. a soft, loosely woven, crêpe-like woolen material in black, white, and colors, similar to nun's veiling; also made in fancy weaves; used for dresses. albert cloth. reversible, double-faced woolen material, each side having a different color. used for coats, suits, and wraps. - alençon lace (à-lèn'sön; f. a-lān-són'). a needlepoint lace having a sheer net ground and a solid design whose edge is outlined with a cord. it is very expensive but is imitated in an inexpensive machine-made lace that is much used on ready-to-wear gar- ments. all-over lace. any wide lace, silk or cotton, having both edges finished the same and containing a pattern that repeats the entire width and length. it has many uses, being employed for entire dresses or for parts of a dress. alpaca (äl-pák'a). a strong, elastic, wiry fabric. of plain weave with cotton warp and alpaca or hair filling. used for men's summer suits and coat linings, and for women's tailored skirts. analogous harmony (à-nāl'o-gūs). har- mony produced by associating dis- tant but related tones of colors. thus, when two tones from two related scales are brought together, an analogous harmony results. angora wool. the wool of the angora goat, used in the making of mohair. antique lace. a hand-made pillow lace of heavy linen thread in large, open, rectangular, knotted, and sometimes irregular mesh, which gives it the appearance of darned lace. it usually contains rare pat- terns, all kinds of designs being worked in the net by darning, and as it is hand-made, it is expensive. imitation antique lace is sometimes used in draperies. antwerp pot lace. a very rare bobbin lace characterized by a vase or basket of flowers in its design. it was formerly made and worn to a great extent by the women of antwerp as a trimming for their caps. appliqué (à-ple-kā'). any ornament in cloth, wood, or metal that is laid on and applied to another surface. it may be a band or a separate design, such as leaves, figures, etc. apron. an article of dress made of cloth, leather, or other material to protect or adorn the front of a per- son's clothes. aprons were worn in england as early as the th century. later, they became a part of fashion- able dress, being made of very fine materials, ornamented, and edged with lace. in queen anne's time ( – ), silk aprons trimmed with gold lace were worn, and in george ii's reign ( – ), long plain aprons were popular. aprons of fine lace were worn with formal costumes in colonial times. service- able and ornamental aprons continue to be worn up to the present day. apron tunic. an ornamental article of attire resembling an apron and a feature of modern modes. arabesque (ār-à-bêsk'). a scroll effect or design usually made with cords, stitchery, or applied pieces outlined and perfected by arabian or kindred artists. arabian lace. a curtain lace, usually ecru or drab in color and corded with a heavy, darker ecru or drab cord. imitations of this lace are usually cheap and shabby in appear- a ce. arc. any part of a line that forms a circle. ſ) efinitions of useful terms armure (ärmär). a large variety of dress materials made of botany wool, mohair, cotton, or artificial silk or combinations of these fibers. it is woven in bird's-eye and in diamond effect, and sometimes in two colors. like alpaca, it is used for linings, skirts, and suits. arrowhead. an ornamental stitch resembling the head of an arrow and used on tailored garments at the corners of coat collars, pockets, and pocket laps, as well as at the termi- nation of seams, tucks, and plaits, at the end of machine stitching, and at a given point on tucks. art linen. a variety of linen having a flat thread and used for stenciling and embroidery. artificial silk. an imitation of natural silk produced by treating cellulose until it becomes a gummy solution, and then pressing it through tiny holes so that it comes out a fine thread with a glistening, white, silky appearance. a number of these fine threads are joined and twisted to make the commercial sizes used most. it has a field of its own, but fabrics in which it is used should never be represented as true silk. artois (ār-twā'). a very long cloak with lapels and three or four capes, the lowest being cut to a point in the center of the back. this style of wrap was worn by women in england and america during the reign of george iii ( – ). astrakhan (ás’tra-kān). ( ) a woolen or silk material of considerable warmth having a long, closely curled pile that imitates the fur of the real astrakhan lamb. used for coats, caps, muffs, and scarfs. ( ) the skins of very young lambs from astrakhan, russia, of which muffs, collars, and coats are made. b a name used to designate any narrow, dainty, light lace, whether cotton or linen. it is used chiefly in the making of layettes and for trimming dainty dresses and undergarments for children. baby lamb. the fleece of very young persian lambs, having a finer curl than persian lamb itself. baby lace. baby ribbon. a term applied to the narrowest of ribbons, much used for children's garments. back-stitching. a sewing operation made by taking a very short stitch forward and then putting the needle back each time into the end of the last stitch, always advancing from the under side of the material. badger. a coarse, long-haired, wooly fur in light beige with black and white tips. also called blaireau. balkan blouse (bā /kān). a blouse that is gathered into a wide band around the hips. this blouse came into fashion during the balkan war, – . band. a flat, flexible strip of any kind of material used for a binding. in the th century, ruffs were called bands. they were made of linen or cambric, and were stiffened with starch, underpropped, or else allowed to fall upon the shoulders, when they were called falling bands. our term bandbox comes from the original use of such boxes as were used for bands and ruffs. bandeau (bān-do’ or bân'do). a de- vice of various shapes made of buck- ram and wire and used to adjust a hat to a particular head-size or to raise it from the head at a certain angle. also, a narrow band or fillet encircling the head. bangkok (bång-kök'). a hat woven of wood. it is so termed because it suggests the national head-gear of siam, whose capital is bangkok. bangs. a portion of the front hair cut off short and even and worn hanging down over the forehead. bar. ( ) a group of cross-threads covered ić the buttonhole-stitch or the over-and-over-stitch and used to stay the ends of a but- tonhole and prevent them from run- ning out, to form a trimming at the end of the seam, and to take the place of an eye, when it is sometimes called a loop. ( ) it is also used in connection with lace, when it refers to the threads that connect the solid parts. here, it consists of two or more strands that are either corded or covered with buttonhole-stitches. other names for it in this use are pearl, leg, tie, and bride. definitions of useful terms barathea (bār-à-the'â). a material of fine, soft, close weave in imitation pebble effect. it is made with silk warp and worsted filling or with cotton warp and silk filling. used for dresses and light-weight suits. barré (bā'ra'). a french term applied to fabrics having stripes or bars running from selvage to selvage. barret (bår'ét). an ancient flat mili- tary cap. basket cloth. a cotton material of basket weave used as a foundation for embroidery. basket weave. a weave in material made by crossing two or more warps and fillings each time. basque (bäsk). a woman's tight- fitting dress-waist made separate from the skirt and having the waist- line finish attached to the waist ortion. it was originally copied rom the costume of the basque peasants of france and spain. basting. a sewing operation consist- ing in the sewing together of two thicknesses of material or the mark- ing of stitching lines by means of long stitches. in even basting, all the stitches are the same length; in uneven basting long and short stitches are used; in diagonal basting, the upper stitches are long and *gº. basting cotton. cotton thread used for basting, similar to sewing cotton except that it is weaker and is not ãºd so smoothly. batavia. a light-weight woven fabric made of wood fiber and cotton and used for summer hats. it comes from batavia, the capital of java, in the dutch east indies. bateau neck line (bā-to'). a broad neck line, also known as the boat neck line, which widens out on the shoulder and exposes a part of it. batik (bā-tik'). the javanese process of coloring fabrics, consisting in pouring melted wax over the pro- posed patterns and then dyeing the cloth, after which the wax is re- moved. the waxed portions will not take the dye. batiste. ( ) a fine, light, semitrans- parent cloth made in white and a few colors. in the fine weave, used for underwear, lingerie dresses, and blouses; and in the coarse weave, for linings. ( ) a light-weight, all-wool material with even warp and weft in plain colors similar to challis, except that it comes in plain colors only. sometimes called tamise cloth; in very light-weight called chiffon batiste. used for dresses. ( ) a sheer, plain or figured washable silk fabric similar to silk mull. used for summer dresses and inexpensive dress foundations. bats. women's heavy, low shoes, laced in front and worn in england and america in the th century. the word is still used in some parts of england for similar shoes. battenberg lace. a tape lace, made both by hand and machinery, con- sisting of a fine linen braid or tape woven together with linen thread into all kinds of designs. hand- made battenberg is used for collars and cuffs on women and children's coats, while the coarser, machine- made designs are found in draperies and fancy work. this lace is a form of renaissance, which it resembles closely in design and workmanship, although it is not so fine. bayadere (bā-yā-der'). an effect ob- tained by weaving material with the stripes running across the goods or by sewing on trimming hori- zontally. beads. small perforated spheres, balls, cylinders, etc., strung on a thread or attached to a fabric for decoration. beading. ( ) a form of narrow em- broidery made on batiste, mainsook, or cambric and used for the joining of seams and the finishing of edges. also called seam beading, bead edge, veining, entre deux. ( ) a form of trimming made by applying beads in a row or a design. beaver. the fur of the beaver, which is light-brown in color. beaver cloth. a soft-finished, woolen fabric similar to kersey. the face is napped, laid down, and closely shorn and the back is napped. used for coats. beaver hat. a hat made of beaver fur and considered very fashionable during the th century. though these hats have never gone com- definitions of useful terms letely out of use, the present beaver É. are usually made of a silk material or imitation fur. bedford cord. material with length- wise, raised cords and plain stripes between the cords; made in cotton and wool. used for dresses, skirts, and children's coats. beige (bezh). the color of undyed, unbleached wool. bell sleeve. a sleeve that is full and flaring at its lower edge, like a bell. bengaline. a corded material with heavy, filled crosswise cords of wool or cotton covered with threads of silk or silk and wool. used for skirts, suits, coats, and collars. beret (bér'ét). a round, flat cap of soft material, with a full crown, worn by the basque peasants. bermuda fagoting. a fagoting similar to single feather-stitches placed on the wrong side of sheer material so that their shadow shows through. it is used on any sheer material as a simple, practical trimming. bertha. a form of collar for a bodice extending around the neck and over the shoulders in imitation of a short shoulder cape, which was formerly called a bertha. binder. a sewing-machine attach- ment by means of which a binding is applied to the edge of material. biretta (bi-rét'à). a sectional cap, usually having a tassel at the center and worn by ecclesiastics of the the roman catholic church and by some doctors of divinity, heads of university faculties, etc. this form of crown is much used in women's hats at different times. bishop sleeve. a sleeve similar to that used in a bishop's robe, being loose at the hand and having fulness at the armhole. blanket-stitch. an embroidery stitch used to ornament and secure the edges of certain parts of garments, particularly the edges of appliqué patterns. it is really a buttonhole- stitch with a single purl and the stitches taken a short distance apart. blanket-stitch couching. a stitch con- sisting of one or more threads lying flat and held in position with the blanket-stitch. like the plain couch- ing-stitch, used to outline borders. blanket-stitch seam. a method of joining two edges of material in an open seam by means of a single-purl buttonhole-stitch, threestitches being taken on one side and then three on the opposite. blistering. the name given in eng- land in the middle of the th century to a form of trimming produced by slashings in waists and sleeves, through which the under garments came in the form of puffs or blisters. blonde. a type of person having flaxen or golden hair, blue, gray or brown eyes, and clear complexion. blonde-brunette. a type of woman having light chestnut or brown hair, hazel, gray, blue-gray, or brown eyes, and medium complexion. blonde lace. a form of closely woven bobbin lace, originally made in white and cream colors only; in the trade, however, the term is applied to silk bobbin lace of all colors. bloomers. an article of dress resem- bling knickerbockers and worn with or without an overskirt by women, usually for athletic purposes. they are the result of an unsuccessful effort made in by mrs. amelia bloomer, of new york, to establish a costume consisting of loose trousers drawn in at the ankles with elastic bands and a short petticoat. blouse. a general term referring to almost any kind of waist worn by women with a suit or a separate skirt. it may be belted or allowed to extend over the skirt. also, the long, loose smock of the english work- man and the french peasant. blucher (blóð'cher). a high shoe or half boot named for field-marshal von blucher, who commanded the prussian army at waterloo, . also, a shoe made on the same lines as the water-tight shoes, with the tongue and the vamp cut in one. blue. one of the chief colors of the spectrum, the color of the clear sky. bobbin. a small slender spool, or a thin, deeply grooved disk, that fits in the carrier under the needle plate of a double-thread, or lock-stitch, machine and carries the lower thread. also, one of the wooden cylinders that carry and steady the threads in pillow-lace making. definitions of useful terms bobbin lace. lace woven over a design on a pillow or cushion by means of bobbins. bobbinet. a net having hexagonal or six-sided holes but no designs. it was originally made by hand with bobbins, from which it was named to distinguish it from net made with needle-point stitches. it is used for dresses, dress foundations, over- drapes, and draperies. bodice. the waist of a woman's dress. originally, the word referred only to tight-fitting waists, which were sometimes laced both in the back and in the front and were spoken of as a pair of bodices. bodkin. an instrument that is blunt at one end and has an eye at the other. it is used to draw tape through a hem or a series of eyelets. body lining. a coat lining that extends merely to the waist or a trifle below it. bohemian lace. a bobbin lace whose pattern is characterized by a braid or tape-like effect. it is imitated in machine-made lace, which is very effective. it is sometimes used for dress trimming, but as a rule the designs are too large and coarse for this purpose. bolero (bo-la'rö.) a spanish jacket of short length with or without sleeves and without lapels, worn open in front over a bodice or waist of light material. bolt. a roll of ribbon approximately yards long. it is by the bolt that the manufacturer sells ribbon. also, a roll of material of a definite number of yards. a roll of white cloth, as sheeting, is from to yards. bombazine (böm-bā-zen’). an eng- lish dress goods made of silk warp and worsted filling in serge weave and dyed in the piece. it is usually black and is much used for mourning purposes. boa. a long, round scarf of fur, feathers, etc., for the neck. bonnet. a covering for the top and back of the head as distinguished from a hat, which covers the top of the head only. a typical bonnet has ties, is without a brim, and leaves the face uncovered. boot. any form of shoe that extends above the ankle. the dainty, high silk shoes of our grandmothers' time were called boots. botany wool. a fine merino wool grown around botany bay, australia. bouclé (böö-kla'). a medium-weight, soft, twilled material, made of cotton or wool, having nub, or loop, yarn for filling that produces a surface similar to that of astrakhan. used for coats and capes. bouffant (böö-fān"). having a full, puffed-out effect, as in the drapery of a skirt or in puffed sleeves. bound buttonhole. a buttonhole whose edges are bound rather than worked with buttonhole twist. buttonholes of this kind are bound with either material or braid. box coat. a plain, loose coat, fitted only at the shoulders and having a box-like appearance. this type of coat was worn by coachmen in england during the th century, and it is probable that the origin of the name can be attributed to the fact that these men sat on the box, or raised seat, of english coaches. box plait. a plait, that has a fold turned toward both sides, formed by folding a piece of material so that two edges come together on the wrong side at a point directly behind, or under, the center of the outside part of the plait. box plait- ing made in leather ornamented the armor used in ancient rome. an tnverted box plait is simply a box plait reversed. a double box plait is one having two folds on each side. a triple box plait is one having three folds on each side. braid. a narrow, flat tape or woven strip forbinding the edges of fabricsor for ornamenting them in other ways. braided-band-stitch. an embroidery stitch formed by weaving threads back and forth in diamond-shaped form to fill in the space of a band or a border. brassière (brå-syer'). a close-fitting corset-cover, either plain or trimmed. bretelle (bre-té '). a sort of cape or decorative shoulder-strap extending from the belt in front over the shoulders to the belt at the back of the waist. definitions of useful terms breton sailor (brèt'on or bre’t&n). a hat with a rolling brim similar to that worn by the peasants of brittany. brickwork. embroidery work that produces an effect resembling a brick wall. parallel rows of padding- stitches are joined with connecting threads. it is used in both fancy work and dress decoration for bands and borders and where a large sur- face is to be covered. brides. ( ) the threads of warp or weft connecting parts of the pattern in lace. ( ) a loop or a tie made in lace or needlework. brilliantine. a very fine silk-wool fabric, similar to alpaca but of higher luster, woven with cotton warp and luster worsted or mohair filling. used for men's suits, women's dresses, linings, etc. broadcloth. smooth, fine, soft-finished, closely woven, all-wool or worsted warp fabric with an up and down, or nap. the surface has a velvety feel and a little gloss and the back is twilled. used for dresses, suits, and coats. broadtail. the skin of a lamb of the broadtail family, which has been taken from its mother, she having been killed for the purpose. brocade. the collective name for a large variety of silk, wool, and other dress fabrics woven with raised figures, usually in a different color and often of an embossed character. gold and silver threads are fre- quently used on a taffeta, satin, or twill foundation to produce brocade. used for dresses, suits, trimmings. broché (brö-she'). having raised de- signs or elaborate figures woven on the surface of the material, as brocade. also, decorated with threads that are introduced with the warp but that do not form a necessary part of the structure itself. brogue (brog), or brogan (bro'gān). lately, many low-heeled, square- toed walking shoes ornamented with stitching have been called brogues. formerly, brogues were coarse shoes worn by the natives of ireland and the scottish highlands. tradition tells us that a hundred years or more ago some one said that the thick speech of an irishman sounded as though he were trying to talk with a brogue on his tongue. and we still say that the irishman speaks with a brogue. bruges lace (brú'géz; f. brūzh). a fine tape lace woven together with a fine thread; it resembles duchesse lace but is somewhat coarser. the real lace is suitable for dresses, but the coarse weaves are more effective for table-cover finishes and curtains. brunette. a woman or girl having dark complexion, hair, and eyes. brunswick. a lady's riding habit said to have been introduced in england from germany in . brussels point lace. a net lace with designs made separately and appli- quéd to a machine-made ground. the designs are sometimes made with bobbins, while the net is needle- point, the lace then being known as . point d' angleterre. both the real and the fine machine-made brussels point are used for dress trimmings. buckram. coarse, open-weave ma- terial, filled with glue sizing and used for stiffening purposes, chiefly in millinery. it is also used without being sized for underlining and for stiffening clothes. - - bugles. tube-shaped glass, jet, or composition beads now used for trimmings. in queen elizabeth's time, ( — ) “bugles, beads, and other jewelry” were worn in the hair. bulgarian embroidery. a kind of embroidery that is alike on both sides and is made on coarse black or white muslin by means of bright- colored silk and cotton threads or with gold and silver threads. bullion-stitch (bööl'yūn). an em- broidery stitch, at one time called the post-stitch and named from its resemblance to the heavy, twisted, gold-bullion fringe used for tassels, badges, and similar articles. it is made by winding a firmly twisted thread around and around the needle and then pulling the needle through and inserting it into the material. it is a very desirable stitch for wheat designs, tiny forget- me-nots, small sprays, etc. definitions of useful terms six single purl buttonhole-stitches are worked by means of a second thread brought out a certain dis- tance below the bar-stitch and fastened at a point directly opposite on the other ribbon. buttonhole twist. a silk thread especially prepared for making but- tonholes and eyelets. byzantine (bi-zán'tín or biz'in-tín). relating to the arts, architecture, and modes of the byzantine empire, which extended from to the fall of constantinople in . c bunting. a soft, open-weave cotton or wool fabric used for flags and for decorating purposes. burnoose (bár-nóðs'). a sleeveless, woolen cloak, worn by arabs and monks. buskin (bùs'-kin). a kind of half-boot laced with cord or ribbon and worn in ancient greece. buskins came into fashion in france with many other greek styles during the time of the first republic ( – ). they remained the vogue through the empire period ( – ), and were also worn in england and in rare cases in america. bustle. a pad or frame worn by women on the back below the waist to distend the skirts. fashionable from to . butcher's linen. a heavy, stout, bleached linen of durable quality; comes in gray and bleached and is used for butchers' aprons, fancy work, dresses, and suits. button. a knob of bone, metal, glass, or some composition, with a shank or with holes through which it is sewed to garments for trimming or for service. button molds. a mold made of wood or bone to be covered with material and used as an ornamental button. buttonhole. a slit made in a garment to receive a button and usually covered by means of a particular stitch known as a buttonhole-stitch. a horizontal buttonhole runs crosswise, a vertical buttonhole, up and down, and a diagonal buttonhole, diagonally. buttonhole cutter. a tool used to cut buttonholes for tailored garments, cutting both a straight buttonhole and an eyelet with one operation. buttonhole gimp. a very firm, small cotton cord, # inch in diameter, closely wound with silk thread and resembling in appearance fine, silk- covered hat wire. it is used by tailors to strengthen buttonholes, being held around the opening so that the buttonhole-stitches can be taken over it. buttonhole tied-stitch. a decorative, open-seam stitch used to join the edges of ribbon. on a bar-stitch that joins the ribbons, from four to l d – cable cord. a softly twisted cotton cord in black and white, used for corded shirrings or finishes. comes in various sizes. cable-stitch. a chain-stitch made of heavy rope silk but not forming a perfect chain, for the needle, instead of being inserted in the preceding loop, is put in a scant # inch to the right and below it. it is used as a braiding stitch, frequently on dresses and blouses and also in fancy work. cabochon (kā-bö-shôn'). a small piece of buckram pressed into a dome or similar shape and much used in the construction of ribbon flowers and ornaments of like nature. calendering. a finishing process in which the fabric is passed between heated steel rollers to produce a smooth, glossy surface. calico. a plain, closely woven, cotton cloth with figured design printed on one side. it is used for dresses, aprons, and wrappers. it is often called cotton print. cambric. a fine fabric, both linen and cotton, with a glazed finish; used for handkerchiefs, linings, and undergarments. camel's hair. a fine, soft, warm fabric with a high, glossy finish, woven of long staple wool and having loose hair on the surface made entirely or partly of camel's hair. used for coats, overcoats, and horse blankets. camise (kā-mes'). as part of the dress of the early saxons, the camise was an undergarment worn next to the skin. after the normans invaded britain, in the th century, it was definitions of useful terms decorated with embroidery, espe- cially when worn by nobility. the camise and the tunic as worn by roman women were probably the earliest forms of underclothing. camisole. a dainty form of corset cover usually made of nearly straight pieces of material cut without shoulder portions, ribbon straps or separate bands of material being applied for shoulder support. in france, this word refers to a form of jacket or under vest. very short sleeves or shoulder caps were a dis- tinguishing feature of the camisoles worn a few years ago. these more nearly resembled a jacket than the present-day camisole, which often has only straps over the shoulders. canton crêpe. a highly finished crêpe made with fine silk or cotton warp and heavier filling that forms light, cross-ribs. it is made of canton silk and is heavier than crêpe de chine. used for dresses and blouses. canvas. a coarse, firm cotton or linen material, used for stiffening coats, skirts, facings, etc. a heavy weave is used for mail bags, tents, and sails. capuchin (kāp'u-shen). a hooded cloak resembling the hooded gar- ment worn by the capuchin monks. caracal (kār'ā-kāl). the fur of the caracal, or persian lynx of south- western asia and the greater part of africa, slightly larger than the fox; reddish brown in color, with long upright black ears tipped with black hairs. carrickmacross lace (kär-ſk-mâ-krós'). an irish lace in two varieties, appliqué and guipure. the appliqué carrickmacross is made by placing sheer material over plain net, apply- ing designs to the net with the buttonhole-stitch or the chain-stitch, and then cutting away the surplus material so as to leave the outline of the design clear. the guipure carrickmacross, which is more of an embroidery than a lace and resembles cut work, is made by working the outline of the design over a founda- tion of fine mull or lawn and then connecting the motifs or designs with brides or loops. the hand- made carrickmacross, which is rather expensive, is used for whole dresses and for dress trimmings and the machine-made lace, for inexpensive curtains. artridge plaits. plaits made to re- semble a cartridge belt. they are similar to french gathers but are usually larger. cascade. an arrangement of lace or other trimming to resemble a cascade or waterfall. cashmere. a soft woolen material made from the fine, glossy wool of the cashmere goat, which is native to the state of cashmere in the western himalayas. used for dresses and for children and infants' wear. cashmere shawls were exceedingly popular with empress josephine and the ladies of her court. castor. a beaver hat or one made of cloth resembling beaver fur. also, a light brown color resembling the color of beaver. catch-stitch. a stitch sometimes called the herringbone-stitch because of its resemblance to a herringbone; used to fasten the edges of seams securely, or to make flat hems when the back of the material is not to be in evi- dence. one part of the stitch is taken through the seam or hem allowance and the other through the material. caul (köl). a net used to confine the hair and worn during the middle ages. later, large head-dresses cov- ered with gold net, or an embroid- ered pattern resembling net, were also called cauls. after the th century, the back of a woman's cap and also part of a wig were termed a caul. cellophane (sê 'o-fan). a material of gelatinous composition ranging in width from inch, which is used for trimming purposes, to yard, which is used for entire hats. cerise (sé-rez"). a cherry-red color. chain-stitch. a loop-stitch, a series of which, looped one after another in a row, form a chain, each loop resembling a link of a chain. it is made by a chain-stitch machine, but its most frequent use is in em- broidery work, when it is made by hand. definitions of useful terms challis (shā '). a fine, light-weight material in both cotton and wool having beautiful plain and printed combinations; in wool it is used for dresses and negligées and in cotton, for quilts and comfortables. chambray. a plain-weave, light-weight cotton fabric, consisting of colored warp and white filling and having a white selvage. it is used for dresses, aprons, and sunbonnets. chamois (shām'í). a soft, pliable leather originally prepared from the skin of the chamois, but now obtained from the skins of sheep and deer. chantilly lace (shān-tí 'i or shan-ti-yi'). a lace having patterns outlined with thick, silky threads. it is much used for all-lace dresses and overdrapes. black chantilly is said to have no rival in the lace realm. it is an expensive lace, but it is durable and may be used again and again. the machine-made chantilly laces often resemble very closely the real lace in both design and fineness of the work. chapeau (shā-pô'). the french term for hat. chaplet. a wreath or garland of flow- ers worn on the head; also a string of beads or a necklace. charlotte corday hat. a mushroom hat worn by charlotte corday, who was guillotined in france in for the murder of the revolutionary leader marat. charmeuse (châr-mâz'). a soft, dull, satiny fabric having a twilled back. used for dresses, especially draped dresses. chartreuse (shār-tráz'). color. cheesecloth. thin, light-weight fabric in plain weave used for dish towels, window decorating, wrapping cheese, butter, etc. chemise. a form of undergarment that combines a corset cover and short petticoat and is worn over the corset by american women but next to the skin by french women. an envel- ope chemise has a flap in the lower part of the back that buttons on the front and thus closes the gar- ment. a pale-green chemise frock. a simple, straight dress that hangs from the shoulders like a chemise. chemise dresses, which came into favor during the first empire ( – ) in france, were fashioned of the sheerest of mate- rials, were worn with almost no underclothing and were made tight to show the form. the more modern chemise frock is a revival of these only in name. chemisette. a woman's light under- garment for the neck and shoulders; a sort of small or partial chemise. chenille. a cotton, wool, or silk cord used for embroidery and decorative purposes. it has a pile that pro- trudes all around at right angles to the central threads and thus resembles a hairy caterpillar, from which it gets its name. chenille lace. an th century, french needle-point lace having the patterns outlined with white chenille on a ground of silk net having six- sided meshes. cheviot. an all-wool, twilled, closely napped fabric made with cheviot yarn, so called from the shaggy wool of the cheviot sheep. used for suits and coats. chic (shik). originality and taste as exhibited in ornament, decoration, or dress. “what chic really means is neither 'style,' 'form,' nor ‘fashion,” so called, but originality combined with correct taste and complete absence of affectation.”—new york tribune, march , . - chiffon (shif'on). ( ) a very soft, flimsy, transparent, silk fabric. used for trimmings, overdrapes, waists, and as a foundation under lace dresses. ( ) a term used in con- nection with other textiles, like velvet, broadcloth, etc., to denote a soft, draping quality. chiffon batiste. see batiste. chiffon taffeta. a light-weight taffeta of good quality; with soft, lustrous finish. used for evening gowns, street dresses, and suits. chiffon velvet. the lighest, softest velvet known, and owing to its draping qualities, perhaps the prettiest. used for elaborate dresses, suits, evening gowns, and wraps. definitions of useful terms signs often take the form of paddles, but this feature cannot always be relied on as a distinctive point. at the present time, machine-made cluny has reached such a degree of excellence that it is sometimes impossible to detect the difference between real and imitation lace, but in the cheaper grades two sizes of soft thread are employed. the fine weaves of cluny are found in lingerie blouses and dresses, while the coarser weaves may be seen in pillow-cases, centerpieces, and similar articles. coat. an outside garment for wear on the upper part of the body, con- taining sleeves and usually worn by men but also worn by women, especially when it is of greater length. coatee. a short-tailed, close-fitting coat. cocarde (ko-kärd'). a cockade or rosette of plaited ribbon used as a trimming feature on both hats and dresses. cockade. a rosette or knot of plaited ribbon or other material used as a hat ornament. formerly, these were worn on hats to designate some form of service or as a party badge. the white cockade of the bourbons was a favorite hat trimming during the french restoration period in the early th century. cocked hat. a hat turned up jauntily at one side. the dandy of the cavalier period in the th century often cocked his hat in several places. coffer head-dress. a form of head- dress in the shape of a coffer or box, worn by women from the th century on through the middle ages to . coif (koif). a close-fitting cap or hood, extending down over the forehead and sometimes widening out at the sides. coiffure (koif'ur or f. kwā-für'). an arrangement or dressing of the hair. also, a head-dress, generally of lace. cold color. a color in which there is a predominance of blue. collarette. a standing collar with a wide ruching around the top like those worn by catherine de medici and mary queen of scots in the th century. color gray. color card. a card issued from time to time by dealers in dress materials, textile manufacturers, and dyers to acquaint the public with the various color names that are applied to materials for dress. the color produced by mixing two or more tertiary colors. color harmony. a pleasing effect that gives the impression of unity and that is produced by certain colors brought close together, side by side. color value. the amount of dark or light expressed by a color. combination-stitch. a stitch consisting of several running-stitches and then one back-stitch. commode. a wire frame over which women piled their hair in curls about . complementary colors. those colors, which, by their union, will produce white. this can be done with colored light rays, but with pigments only a neutral gray can be produced. complementary harmony. harmony produced by associating comple- mentary, or opposite, colors. concave curve. a curve that rounds inward. continuous placket. a placket made either in the center of a gore or on a seam and finished with a straight strip of material % to inches wide. contrasted harmony. harmony pro- duced by the association of any of the colors with the neutrals, white, black, and gray, and with gold or silver. convex curve. a curve that rounds outward. coolie jacket. a kind of short box coat reaching just below the waist. in shape, these jackets are like those worn by chinese and east indian burden bearers, or coolies. coque (kök). a french term meaning cock. applied to cock feathers, which are much used in millinery. coquille (kö-kel'). having a fluted or scalloped edge like a shell, from which the term is derived. cord seam. a seam having a corded effect produced by turning both seam edges to one side and then stitching through the three thick- nesses of material. definitions of useful terms corded. a term used to describe fabrics having ribs running lengthwise, pro- duced by the warp; crosswise, pro- duced by the weft; or diagonally, produced by the twill weave. cordelière (kór-de-lyer'). a knotted girdle. cording. the stitching of cords on to various garments; also, the cords so stitched. cordonnet (kör-do-ne'). the raised, heavy edge of a millinery braid or a lace design. corduroy. a ribbed cotton fabric with a close pile in white and colors. some expensive qualities have cotton warp and silk pile. coronation braid. a firmly woven, highly mercerized, cotton braid with alternating thick and narrow places. coronet. any kind of chaplet, wreath, or other ornamental circlet for the head. coronets are also worn by certain nobles and denote, by their form, degrees of rank less than a sovereign. corsage (kör-sàzh'). the waist or bodice of a dress. also, a bouquet, real or artificial, worn at the waist- line. corset. a close-fitting garment worn for the purpose of supporting or giving shape to the figure. in the middle ages, corsets had skirts and sleeves. as now made, they extend from bust to hips, are stiffened by strips of steel or whalebone, and are - usually tightened by lacing. corsetiere (kór-se-tyer'). a corset maker or merely one who sells and fits corsets. costume. all of the garments worn at one time. also, the dress belonging to a given country, time, class, or calling. costume suit. a costume consisting of a dress and coat or jacket of the same material. cothurnus (kö-thūr'nās). a buskin or half-boot with very thick soles worn by actors in ancient athenian tragedy. cotton back. applied to silk fabrics, mostly satins and velvets, made with a cotton back. cotton crêpe. a crinkled fabric of light weight used for underwear, blouses, and dresses. some of the heavier grades have floral and japanese pat- terns and are used for kimonos and lingerie robes. cotton flannel. heavy cotton having a twilled surface on one side and a long nap on the other and used for children's underwear, interlinings, etc. also known as canton flannel. cotton print. see calico. couching-stitch. an over-stitch that serves to hold down close to the material one or more threads lying flat and with them form a flat, unbroken outline. it is used chiefly for border outline work. coutil (köö'-til'). a linen or cotton canvas for corsets and brassières. couturier, mas. (kū-tū-rye') } a cos- couturiere, fem. (kū-tū-ryer')ſ tu me designer in france. a few of these creators of attire in paris hold abso- lute sway over the dress of the ultra- fashionable ladies. many materials and types of garments have been named for the great couturiers who brought them into fashion; as, the georgette sailor, georgette crêpe, roider fabrics, wirth gowns, etc. covert cloth. a woolen material of firm, diagonal-twilled weave, usually in light tan. used chiefly for outing suits and wraps. crape. a thin, transparent silk or cot- ton fabric that has been rendered crimpy in the process of manufacture. it may be had in white, black, or colors. the black, being peculiarly somber in appearance, is much used for mourning purposes. crape of this kind is woven of hard-spun silk yarn in its gummy or natural condi- tion, the crimp being produced by pressing the fabric between heavy steel rollers, the surfaces of which are creased and indented so as to pro- duce the pattern desired. craquelé (krák'le). an effect in lace, silk, or net, resembling cracked or broken glass. craquelé net. a net consisting of a firm thread woven in zigzag effect that resembles the crackle in the glaze of old pottery. this mesh is sometimes used in shadow lace of good quality. it has beautiful designs that make it attractive for overdrapes and all-lace dresses. definitions of useful terms cutting gauge. a device usually in- cluded in a set of machine attach- ments. it is applied to the point of a pair of scissors to provide a quick method of cutting strips of uniform width. d damask (dām'äsk). a fabric, both cotton and linen, in twilled and satin weave, and sometimes in brocaded figures. used for towels, table linen, and napkins. in the d century, syrian weavers developed methods of weaving which produced a figured fabric patterned by its own warp and weft threads and having the name of the syrian capital damascus reflected in its name. darned lace. a term including all net effects with the pattern applied in needlework, such as filet lace. darner. a hard, smooth, ball-like or egg-shaped article used to put under a hole while darning it. gourds make good darners. dart. a place in a garment from which a tapering piece has been cut to make it fit the figure. also, a measurement from the waist line to the fullest part of the hips. décolleté (de-köl-e-te'). a style of neck opening that is cut very low in order to expose the neck and shoulders. denim. strong, durable, washable cotton fabric of uneven twilled weave. it comes in plain colors and is used for overalls, furniture, and floor coverings. design. an arrangement of forms or colors, or both, intended to be applied to a fabric or an ornament to beautify it. diaper. a white linen or cotton fabric, made with small diamond or bird's- eye pattern in a twilled weave. it absorbs water readily and is used for towels, fancy work, children's dresses, etc. dimity. light-weight material, corded or cross-bar, plain and figured. used for infants' garments, aprons, and lingerie dresses. directoire (di-rék-twär'). a distinct style of the period of the french directory, ( – ,) characterized by exaggeration and eccentricity. doeskin. a fine, soft, compact, twilled, woolen material having a very soft, short-napped face. used for gloves, skirts, coats, hats, wraps, and linings in heavy fur coats. dolly warden costume. a costume consisting of a dress with tight bodice, short quilted petticoat, and flowered chintz panniers, and a large, drooping, flower-trimmed hat. this is the costume associated with dolly varden, a character in dickens' novel, “barnaby rudge.” dolman. a wrap resembling a cape with openings for the hands. dol- mans were originally patterned after a long turkish outer garment. dominant harmony. harmony that is produced by associating different tones of the same color. double chain-stitch. a chain-stitch consisting of two links or loops of thread combined as one. it is used when a heavier effect than that pro- duced by the single chain-stitch is desired. - double-faced. a term applied to fabrics that can be worn or used either side out. double-stitched seam. a finish for a plain seam consisting of two stitch- ings on each side. double-stitched welt seam. a welt seam having a second row of stitch- ing added at the seam turn. doublet. a close-fitting garment with sleeves and sometimes a short skirt. worn by men from the close of the th century to the middle of the th century. - draft. an outline drawing of a pattern. drafted pattern. an outline drawing produced by the aid of a tailor's square or some other device from a combination of measurements that are governed by the rules of pro- portion. drap d' alma (drä-d'â 'mă). a soft, closely woven, double-diagonal- twilled wool or silk mixed fabric. suitable for dresses and suits. origi- nally made in black for mourning purposes. drapery. the materials with which anything is hung or draped, particu- larly the hangings or loose garments often represented in sculpture and in painting. definitions of useful terms drawn work. a form of decorative work that consists in pulling out parallel threads of a fabric to obtain an open space and then hemstitching the edges of this space so as to hold the remaining threads securely. it is used to ornament table and bed linens, draperies, collars, cuffs, and lingerie blouses. dresden. a small flower design in pastel shades. dress. the modern outer garment of a woman or a child consisting of a skirt and a waist, either separate or united. also, used in a broader sense to designate the various gar- ments worn as a covering for the body. dress improvers. the hooped panniers of the time of louis xiv, xv, and xvi in the th and th centuries were often called dress improvers. dress linen. a plain, firmly woven linen in white and plain colors. drilling. coarse linen or cotton twilled cloth used for men's outing suits. duchess satin. a close, firm, but soft fabric of high luster. used for dresses and evening wraps. duchesse lace. a rare old bobbin lace that, while not made of tape, has a tape-like appearance. it resembles honiton lace, but is worked with a finer thread and has a greater amount of raised or relief work and daintier and finer designs. it is used as a trimming on elaborate gowns, such as bridal robes. there are various imitations of duchesse lace, one of which is known as princess lace. duck. a strong, closely woven, plain material, lighter and finer than canvas; used for outing shirts and coats and for small sails, tents, and awnings. dust ruffle. a ruffle sometimes added to the bottom of a petticoat to pro- tect the edge of the flounce from hard wear and prevent it from becoming soiled. dutch neck. a square or round neck line cut only inches below the throat. duvetyn. a very soft woolen fabric resembling velvet and having a fine, short nap that is raised during the process of finishing and gives the material a silky appearance. used for coats, suits, and dresses. dye bath. the dye solution prepared for the dyeing of materials e écru (Šk’röö). the natural color of cotton, wool, or silk; that is, the color of unbleached linen or hemp. edge-stitcher. a sewing machine attachment that makes it possible to stitch an edge perfectly, to join lace, and to apply piping. egret (šg'rét). ( ) the heron from which light, floating feathers are obtained. ( ) the feathers obtained from the egret and used as a trim- ming for women's hats. egyptian lace. a fine, hand-made knotted lace sometimes ornamented with beads. as it is expensive, it is rarely used, but when use is made of it, it serves as a trimming. eiderdown ( '-dér down). a soft, elastic, knitted fabric made of thick, soft, spun yarn and heavily napped on one side. also, a soft, twilled, cotton-filled fabric with a long-wool nap, sometimes on just one side, when it is called single-faced, and sometimes on both sides, when it is known as double-faced. used for children's garments, carriage robes, lounging robes, and bathrobes. embroidery. ornamental work done with the needle on cloth, canvas, leather, and other materials by hand or by machinery. threads of vari- ous kinds, such as cotton, silk, silver, gold, etc., are used in this work. embroidery darning-stitch. a filling-in stitch consisting of even basting- stitches, every second row alternat- ing, and used for filling in bands and borders. embroidery hoops. round or oval wooden hoops, the inner one often padded with felt; used to hold a piece of material firm and smooth so that embroidery can be applied with facility. emery bag. a small bag filled with emery powder and used for the polishing of needles that have become rough or rusty. definitions of useful terms empire. a short-waisted gown with full short sleeves and a long, flowing skirt, showing the empress jose- phine's ideas. popular during the first empire in france ( – ). entre deux (ān-tr" du'). a fine, narrow beading or veining used to make a substantial finish for seams, espe- cially in hand-made lingerie garments and infants' clothes. epaulete (öp' - ét). a trimming that falls over the shoulders like a small cape. in queen elizabeth's time ( – ), padded ornaments called epaulets were worn on the shoulders by both men and women, and sleeves, which were often made separate from the restof the costume, were tied to these. in modern times, any kind of ornament for the shoul- ders of a woman's dress and orna- mental badges worn on the shoulders as a part of the full-dress uniform of officers of most navies of the world and by army officers of rank and some subordinate officers are called epaulets. épingle (e-pin'gl). a french term used to designate a fine, lustrous, corded effect, in silk dress material, often alternated with heavier ribs. also, a silk dress goods made with rib effect. eponge (e-pông'). a dress fabric made of cotton, wool, or silk. loop yarn is used for the warp and plain yarn for the filling. ermine. the fur of the ermine, which is white with a black tail-tip. when prepared for ornamental purposes the black tail-tips are attached at regular intervals on the white. etamine (§t'à-men). a soft, light- weight, glossy, woolen dress material in plain, open weave. it is also made of hard-spun cotton yarn. suitable for dresses and skirts. eton jacket. the eton jacket, as used in modern costume, is short and is usually cut square at the hips. this type of jacket made of black broad- cloth and worn with a wide stiff collar was originally used by boys of eton college, england. eyelet. a hole made and worked in a garment to hold a ribbon, a tape, or a cord, the size depending on the purpose for which the garment is intended. buttonhole eyelets are first overcasted and then worked with the buttonhole scallop-stitch. embroidery eyelets are both oblong and round and are finished with merely overcasting-stitches made very close together. f fabric. a general term designating any cloth, irrespective of its weave. most fabrics have two sides: the right side, which is known as the face of the material, and the wrong side, which is known as the back. facing. a form of dress finish applied to edges in place of a hem; also, the lining of a garment on parts exposed by being turned back. facing silk. material, such as taffeta, messaline, percaline, or sateen, cut into lengthwise strips to be used in the making of tailored plackets. fagoting-stitch. a decorative open- seam stitch used to join narrow ribbons, bands, or folds of material, or lace insertion, which must first be basted # to # inch apart on firm paper. faille (fāl). an untwilled silk fabric having a light crosswise grain or cord wider than grosgrain and very little gloss. used for dresses, suits, blouses, and children's coats. fair-skinned mature woman. a type of mature woman having gray or white hair, blue, brown, or gray eyes, fair complexion, and good coloring in lips and cheeks. farmer's satin. a high-luster fabric made with cotton warp and worsted or cotton filling. used for linings and petticoats. farthingale. a contrivance resembling a hoopskirt or crinoline, worn by women of the th and th centuries to extend their skirts. fashion. the prevailing mode or style in things that are subject to change, especially dress. fastness. the ability of a dye to retain its color when exposed to the rays of the sun or subjected to wash- ng. - featherbone. a substitute for whale- bone, prepared from the quills of feathers. - definitions of useful terms feather-stitch. a decorative stitch somewhat resembling a feather. the single stitch is made by bringing the needle up through the material from the wrong side, placing it in at the right so that with the thread it forms a triangle, pulling the thread through, and then taking a similar stitch to the left. this work- ing back and forth is continued until the row is completed. combina- tions of two, three, four, or more stitches are often used in feather- stitching. fell. a method of finishing a seam that is intended to be neat and flat. in a hand fell, the edges of the material are lapped so that the seam lines meet and are then basted through the center. each edge is then turned under so that it meets the basting and is finished with the hemming-stitch. the machine fell consists in making a plain seam, trimming away the under edge, and then turning the other edge under and stitching it. felt. a firm-packed, smooth fabric consisting of entangled and matted fibers of wool, fur, mohair, and cotton, which are thoroughly mixed, carded, hardened, and made into felt with the aid of moisture, heat, and pressure. it is sometimes made by weaving or knitting a coarse body, raising a heavy nap, and then felting this. used for hats, table covers, pennants, glove linings, etc. fiber lace. a lace made from the fibers of the banana and the aloe plant. it is a frail, expensive lace, and not practical for many purposes. however, both banana-fiber and aloe-fiber laces are used as dress trimming, especially on sheer organ- dies and chiffons. fibers. filaments, or threads, used as raw material for textile fabrics. they are classified as animal, vege- table, mineral, and artificial fibers. fibula (fib'd- á). an ornamental brooch that fastens like a safety pin; used to hold the greek chiton and the roman stola in place. archeologists say that fibulas were common as early as the bronze age. fichu (fish'oÖ). a draped scarf or cape having long ends that fall from a knot at the breast. fichus were fashionable in france during the reign of louis xvi ( – ), in england while george iii was on the throne ( – ), and in america during the first years of the new republic. findings. the various accessories used in dressmaking, such as belting, boning, buttons, braids, hooks and eyes, etc. filet lace (fi-le'). a darned or embroid- ered net woven into squares with a continuous thread and thus appear- ing decidedly unlike the spiderwork form of irregular darning. it is attractive and at the same time practical for lingerie blouses and dresses. real filet, while expensive, wears indefinitely. beautiful imita- tions of filet lace may be purchased' at reasonable prices. . fillet (fil’ét). a narrow band encircling the head or binding the hair. fillets were worn in ancient egypt and were a feature of the greek and roman head-dress. during the em- pire in france ( – ), joseph- ine wore beautiful fillets of gold in imitation of those used in classic times. - filo silk. a soft, untwisted embroidery silk that comes in skeins of to yards each. it is very satisfactory for satin-stitches, as it blends well and makes a smooth design. fishbone-stitch. an embroidery stitch resembling the backbone of a fish and consisting of a series of diagonal single-purl buttonhole-stitches made first to the left and then to the right. it is used chiefly as a braid-stitch or a border-stitch. fishtail train. a dress train that resembles the tail of a fish in shape. fitch. a mottled brown fur with yellow spots. flannel. a plain soft, loosely woven, light-weight, woolen material with warp and weft threads of equal size. extensively used for infants' petti- coats and sacks and for men's shirts. flannelette or flannelet. a cotton fabric with a slight nap in white and colors and floral designs. used for sleeping garments and kimonos. flap pocket. a type of tailored pocket having a flap as a finish for the opening. definitions of useful terms flare. a widening or spreading out in some portion of an article of dress. flat-stitched continuous placket. a placket especially desirable for wash garments, as it lies flat when laundered, is not bulky, and makes a neat closing. flax. the soft, silky fiber taken from the bark of flax plants and used in the production of linen fiber. flaxon. a trade name for a fine quality of mercerized lawn. used for blouses, dresses, and lingerie. fleur-de-lis (flûr-dé-le'). the french name for the iris. the fleur-de-lis design that we know so well resembles this flower, but it is a heraldic device of disputed origin, ... best known as the bearing of the royal family of france. louis vii is said to have adopted it as his seal in . the fleur-de-lis, which is of frequent occurrence in egyptian and oriental art, has been variously explained as the flower of the lotus, the white lily, and the iris. florentine neck line. the broad, round neck line much worn during the italian renaissance in the th century. it extends out over the shoulders, but is not so straight as the bateau, or boat, neck line. florid brunette. a type of person having black or dark-brown hair, black, brown, or gray eyes, dark complexion, and highly colored skin. flounce. a gathered or plaited strip sewed by its upper edge to a dress or a petticoat, especially along the bottom, the lower edge being left free. flues. the feathery fibers, or fronds, extending from each side of the stem of a feather or quill. fontange (fön-tänzh'). a high head- dress made of lace and ribbon and invented by mademoiselle fontange of france in the th century. foulard (föö-lärd'). a soft, serviceable, satiny silk with a fine twill; plain and figured. it came originally from the far east. used for dresses and blouses. foundation pattern. a pattern of the very simplest type, having normal seam lines and no fulness or designing lines of any kind. french chalk. soapstone used for marking on cloth, as by tailors, or for removing grease from clothing. french gathering. a method of gather- ing in which the running-stitches consist of a long stitch on top and a short stitch underneath so that there seems to be less fulness on top and still the fulness underneath is secured. french knot-stitch. an embroidery stitch made by bringing the needle up through the material from the wrong side, winding the thread around its point two, three, or four times, drawing it tight, and then inserting the needle into the material as close as possible to where it came out. it is much used on dresses and in fancy work. french seam. a seam made by stitch- ing # inch from the seam edge, trim- ming off the frayed edge, reversing the fold so that the edges come within the fold, creasing the edge flat, and then stitching on the seam line. french serge. a very fine, soft weave of serge, the cheaper grades of which have cotton warp. produces a shine more readily than do other serges through wear. used for dresses, skirts, and suits. fringe. any ornamental border of pendant threads, cords, or tassels. the first fringes of which we have any knowledge are those used in ancient egypt as early as b.c. they were made by fraying the edges of the cloth from which gar- ments were made. the threads of such fringes were often tied in ingenious ways, which greatly en- hanced their beauty. frock. the principal outer garment or dress of women and young girls. formerly, a plain loose robe worn by monks. today, almost any kind of dress is termed a frock, but the idea of simplicity is still associated with the word. an elaborate dress made of expensive materials is called a gown rather than a frock. frog. an ornamental button and loop, each surrounded with braid, used to fasten a cloak or coat. fur cloth. deep-pile fabric made to resemble various kinds of fur and used in place of fur. definitions of useful terms º glycerined feathers. feathers treated with glycerine so as to give them the appearance of being wet. godet (go-de'). gores that are wider at the bottom than the top, ranging from to inches at the top and to inches at the bottom. used only when skirts are wide, they add length to the figure and fulness at the bottom. goffer. to form plaits, flutes, or crimps in, as a ruff. leather is very often ornamented with a design in relief, which is called goffering. gold cloth. a metal cloth made of metal warp in gold color and silk weft. used chiefly in the making of evening gowns. gold tissue. a transparent metal cloth consisting of metal warp in gold color and silk weft. it comes also in a cheaper quality, which is an imita- tion of metal cloth. goose. a tailor's heavy smoothing iron, ranging in weight from to ounds and so named because its andle resembles the neck of a goose. gore. a shaped section of a woman's skirt containing two or more such sections. gorget (gór'jët). a variety of collar or ruff. in the middle ages ( – ), a kind of wimple draped closely around the neck and well up to the chin. gossamer. ( ) a very soft, cobwebby silk gauze used for veils. ( ) a light silk fabric waterproofed and used for wraps. gown. the outer dress or garment of a woman, especially when long and loose. also, the official or distinc- tive robe of certain officers, pro- fessional men, and scholars. granite. a woolen material made of hard-twisted woolen yarn woven in pebbled effect; light in weight and very durable. used for skirts and suits. grebe (greb). a bird of the duck family, from which are taken beau- tiful, soft feathers used for making entire turbans, as well as feather breasts. the natural color is ivory, flecked with brown. the plumage is thick and downy, and silky and smooth in texture. green. a color in the spectrum between blue and yellow; the color of spring foliage. grenadine (grén'à-den). a fine, open fabric, made of silk or wool mixed with cotton and having more or less elaborate warp stripes. used for overdrapes and evening dresses. gros de londres (gro de n'dre.) a light-weight silk fabric woven with alternate narrow and wide flat ribs. it has a glossy finish and comes in colors and in changeable effects. much used for hats and dresses. grosgrain (grö'grân). a ribbon or a stout, durable corded silk with cross-ribs or cords that run from selvage to selvage and that are heavier than poplin but lighter than faille. comes in colors. the fabric is used for coats. guide pattern. a pattern made of cambric or some similar material, cut with the aid of a foundation tissue-paper pattern and fitted to the figure. it serves both to test the accuracy of similar tissue-paper patterns and to guide one in cutting and fitting. guimpe (gimp, gānp, or gāmp). a chemisette or under waist worn with a low-cut gown to fill in the neck. guimpes are also made with sleeves and worn with jumper dresses. guipure lace (ge-pur'). lace in which the designs are held together by means of brides or bars; in other words, lace having no net ground. duchesse, honiton, venetian, and maltese, though differing from onean- other, are examples of guipure laces. gusset. a triangular piece of material inserted in a garment to fill an open angle or to strengthen it or give in ore room. h habit-back placket. a kind of placket so called because it is used in finishing the plain back of a woman's riding skirt or habit. habutaye (hâ-bu-ty'). a very soft, light-weight, closely woven, brilliant japanese silk, smooth and even in texture. it is woven with a heavy sizing on both warp and filling, which is afterwards boiled out. used for summer dresses, waists, skirts, and automobile or traveling coats. definitions of useful terms medici collar (mēd'i-che). a large fan- shaped collar worn by the medici queens in the th century and wired or stiffened to stand up and out from the neck in the back. medici lace. a french bobbin lace re- sembling cluny to some extent but usually made of finer thread. it is much like insertion in effect, except that one edge is finished with scal- lops. it is characterized by plain, close-woven work with which open- work alternates and produces a good contrast. medieval (me-di-e'vål). belonging to, or descriptive of, the middle ages, which include the period in the history of europe from the downfall of rome in to the beginning of the modern age, usually reckoned to be about the time of the fall of constantinople in . mélange (ma-länzh'). a french term meaning mixtures of color applied in weaving; also, mixtures of cotton warp and wool weft. melton. athick, heavy material named for melton, england, and made of all wool or cotton warp and woolen weft. it is finished without pressing or glossing, the nap being raised straight and then shorn to show the weave clearly. used for outing suits and overcoats. mending tissue. a semitransparent rubber substance that melts when heat is applied to it. used for mend- ing dark silk and woolen materials. mercerization. a chemical process of rendering cotton threads lustrous and strong by treating them with a caustic alkali under tension. it was invented by john mercer, an english calico printer. mercerized cotton. cotton fiber treated with a solution of caustic soda or potash at normal temperature under tension to prevent shrinking. the fiber thus treated has an increased attraction for coloring matter and is characterized by a silky luster. mercerized cotton thread. a cotton thread with a soft, glossy finish, con- taining from two to six strands in a thread. it comes in skeins and on spools and is a very satisfactory thread for embroidery work. merino. ( ) a woolen goods made in england of shoddy, obtained from soft woolen or worsted dress goods. ( ) an all-wool fabric, made of very fine, single merino yarn having either the face and back twilled alike or the face twilled and the back plain. used for women's dresses. messaline. a soft, light-weight, closely woven satin having a brilliant luster. comes usually in solid colors. used for dresses, petticoats, and linings. metal cloth. a fabric woven of cot- ton or silk, combined with various threads of gold, silver, or copper. metal lace. both a hand-made and a machine-made lace consisting of a net foundation on which are woven all kinds of designs in either gold or silver threads. it is used as a trim- ming for evening dresses and robes and in millinery work. middy. an unbelted blouse that reaches to the hips and has a sailor collar. such blouses were originally suggested by those worn by midship- men or cadets in the united states navy. midinette. a shop girl in france. milan hat. a hat of fine straw originally manufactured in the pro- vince of milan, italy. military braid. a black silk braid used for binding purposes, also for trim- ming tailored dresses and suits. comes in various widths. millinery. a collective term embracing all varieties of female head-wear. mink. the valuable fur of the mink, very close, soft, and even, and usually seal-brown in color. the japanese mink is darker than the natural northern mink. mirror velvet. see velvet. mistral. a worsted material whose twisted warp and weft threads are woven to give a crêpe effect. mitering. a method of joining two pieces of material, such as lace, insertion, embroidery, or finishing a hem, at an equally divided angle, as a cornet. mitt. . a kind of glove, often of lace or knit-work, worn on the hand and wrist but containing no fingers. hdefinitions of useful terms nuance (nü-ăns'). a shade of difference in color; an effect often achieved in costumes by draping one color over another. nun tuck. a tuck two or more inches wide and placed horizontally in a skirt. nun's veiling. ( ) a narrow, filmy, black veiling made of cotton, silk, or wool warp and a woolen filling and having a border on one side; used for mourning purposes. ( ) a heavier fabric of the same composi- tion and wider in width; sometimes known as wool batiste. used as dress goods. nutria. the fur of a south american, beaver-like animal. it is used as an imitation of beaver and can be dressed to resemble sealskin. o napery hem. a hem, sometimes called the french hem, used on table linens and handkerchiefs, blending with the threads of the material and having the same appearance both on the right and wrong sides after launder- ing. the hem is creased on the fold and secured in position by means of fine overhand-stitches. needle. a small, slender, pointed steel instrument containing an eye that will carry the thread and a point that will permit the needle to pass through a fabric. in sewing needles, which range from to , no. being the coarsest and no. , the finest, the eye is at the head, while in sewing-machine needles, which are designated by letters and numbers, the eye is at the point. milliners' needles, known as sharps and betweens, are very long. em- broidery or crewel, tapestry, and darning needles have long eyes. needle bar. the needle-bearing bar on a sewing machine, which gives an alternating motion to the needle. negligée (nég-li-zhā'). a loose gown worn by women, generally hanging free from the shoulders and often held in at the waist line with ribbon or a girdle. also called kimond. neopolitan hat. originally, a tall, conical hat, made of woven fiber or a sheer, lacy horsehair braid, worn in naples. now, any hat made of such braid. normal color. the foundation color of a scale of tones, the tones getting darker or lighter from this foundation. notch collar. a coat collar applied so as to produce a notch at the joining of the collar and the lapels. nottingham lace. any machine-made lace made formerly or at the present time in nottingham, england, the center of the machine-made lace trade. various laces, such as val, point de paris, cluny, torchon, and curtain laces, as well as numerous kinds of net, are products of the nottingham district. novelty suitings. a name applied originally to plain homespun weaves with rough, irregular fillings of different colors, but now referring to all weaves, especially brocaded or jacquard effects. olive. greenish yellow, or the color of the foliage on the olive tree. olive brunette. a type of person having dark-brown or black hair, clear- brown or black eyes, dark com- plexion, smooth skin, and very deep-red lips. one-piece dress. a waist and a skirt combined into one garment. opossum. the dusky, grayish fur of the opossum, having coarse white hair and often used as a trimming on coats. orange. one of the colors of the spectrum; a reddish yellow. organdie. plain, very fine-weave material, in white and colors, char- acterized by crispness. used for dresses, aprons, collars, and cuffs. organzine. the fine silk yarn used for warp in the weaving of silk fabrics and for which the best grade of reeled and twisted silk is used. it consists of two strands of raw silk twisted together and formed into a strong, firm warp by doubling it and twisting it again. oriental costume. the costume in the countries east of the mediter- ranean, the striking characteristics of which are loose, baggy, gathered- in-at-the-bottom trousers and skirts worn by the women and brilliant colors used in both costumes and ornaments. oriental influence is evident in modern modes. definitions of useful terms oriental laces. in the historical sense, the lace products of the east, including china, india, japan, persia, and turkey, which are remarkable for the labor expended on them, their great cost, and the originality and boldness of the idea and coloring that characterize them. in another sense, oriental laces are both machine-made and hand-made laces, in which the design is woven through and through the net and thus be- comes very firm. they come in many designs and widths and are much used on dresses, curtains, bed sets, shams, and the like. ornamental buttonhole edge. a stitch used to ornament a plain edge and made by working three buttonhole- stitches over each of a series of loops formed around the edge. otter. a fur similar in color to beaver, but in characteristics more like seal. it is often dyed as seal, but lacks much of the luster. ottoman. a heavy, plain fabric with flat, crosswise ribs. the filling may be silk, worsted, or cotton. wool ottoman is used for dresses, skirts, and suits. silk ottoman is used more for wraps and as a trimming than for dresses. outing flannel. a cotton material similar to flannelette with a nap on both sides. made in colors, stripes, and checks. used for sleeping and infants' garments. outline-stitch. a simple embroidery stitch used to outline designs in embroidery work. it is really an overcasting-stitch with the stitches laid one above the other but not overlapping and taken away from the worker instead of from right to left. it is sometimes called the compact overcast-stitch. overblouse. an elongated blouse worn over the skirt instead of inside of it. overcasting. a sewing operation con- sisting of loose, slanting stitches taken over the raw edges of a seam to keep them from raveling. overcoat. an extra outdoor coat worn over a suit; a top coat or a great coat. overcoating. a variety of medium- weight or heavy woolen or worsted fabrics, woven especially for over- coats. overhanding. a sewing operation used . to fasten two edges together, usually selvages, where a flat seam is desired. with the two edges basted and the material held in the left hand, the edges between the thumb and the forefinger, overhanding con- sists in placing the needle in from the back, pointing it toward the left shoulder, and taking the stitches over and over the edge until the seam is completed. overskirt. a skirt or drapery worn shorter than the skirt of a dress and over it. oxford shoe. a low, laced shoe tied at the instep. probably so called because it was worn by students of oxford university, england. p padding cotton. a cotton thread in various colors having four to six strands and used for padding in embroidery work. padding-stitch. an embroidery stitch made on the surface of a fabric to form a foundation, or groundwork, for a raised design, being covered entirely by another stitch and serv- ing to make the design appear heavier and more attractive. paillette (pāl-yét'). a spangle, espe- cially one of a bunch of hanging spangles. paisley. ( ) a wool fabric of many designs and colors, made in paisley, scotland, in imitation of cashmere; used for dresses, shawls, and trim- mings. ( ) a soft silk, patterned after the wool fabric; used princi- pally for dress trimmings and blouses. pajamas. loose trousers with coats to match, used as sleeping garments. pale brunette. a type of person having black or dark-brown hair, brown, gray, or blue eyes, clear complexion, fair skin, and varying color. paletot (pâl'e-to). a loose overcoat for inan or woman. paletot sac. a straight-line top coat. palla (pāl'à). the outer garment worn by the women of ancient rome. panache (pā-nāsh'). a plume or bunch of feathers, louis xvi style, expe- cially when used as a head-dress or an ornament on a helmet. definitions of useful terms panache de coque. feathers. panama. ( ) a fabric usually made of hard-twisted yarn in plain weave. sometimes coarser yarn is used and a basket weave produced. ( ) a fabric made of cotton warp and double filling and producing an effect similar to the texture of panama hats. used for skirts and suits. panama hat. a hat made of the young leaves of the stemless screw-pine of central america. panel. a piece of material inserted, applied, or allowed to hang free in a garment and generally used as a designing feature. panne velvet (pân). see velvet. pannier (pán'yer). a light framework formerly worn for extending a woman's skirt at the hips; now, a drapery over the hips to produce a similar effect. pantalets. long drawers formerly worn by women and children. pantalets were first worn about with the transparent dresses then in fashion. pantalets for young girls were often only loose ruffles tied on below the knee with a draw string. paradise plume. the long, soft, grace- ful plume of the bird of paradise. paraguay lace (pār'a-gwa). a lace formed of spider web effects woven of single threads and then woven together. very fine paraguay laces are used for dress trimmings, while the coarser weaves are found in fancy work. parasol. a small, light umbrella used as a sunshade. passée (pā-sa'). past the prime; old- fashioned; worn out. passementerie (pás-mên'tri). a term applied to heavy embroideries or edgings, particularly those made of rich gimps, braids, beads, silks, and tinsel. pastel (pās-tê '). a name applied to very soft, delicate tones of colors. patch pockets. a type of pocket con- sisting of a piece of properly shaped material stitched to the outside of a garment in a way similar to a plain-apron pocket. a plume of cock patten. a thick-soled shoe like a clog or chopine. sometimes worn over slippers to protect them. pattern. a model or a plan that serves as a guide in forming something else. in dressmaking, it refers to a guide used for cutting garments. paux (póks). a lappet, revers, or tab. pearling. a very fine, narrow picot edge used as a finish for dress linings and the like. peasant costumes. the form of dress worn by the peasants of europe. in some sections, these have been the same for hundreds of years, but in many cases they differ widely. the characteristics of peasant, costumes are often seen in present-day styles. peau de cygne (po-de-se'nye). a satin- weave fabric of soft, lustrous finish in diagonal weave with a prominent cross-thread. the name means “swan's skin.” used for dresses, suits, and coats. peau de soie (pó-de-swā'). a firm, soft, durable silk fabric in grainy weave with dull, satiny finish. made in both single and double face. used for dresses and trimmings. peg top. this term was originally used as the name of a boy's pear-shaped spinning top. the name is now applied to trousers and skirts that are made wide at the hips and nar- row at the bottom. pekin. a satin fabric, in which the stripes run with the warp. pelerine (pé 'er-in). a long, narrow cape, usually pointed at front. pelisse (pé-lès'). a long outer cloak. originally one of fur or lined with fur; in fact, the term comes from the word pelt. these coats were very fashionable during the french revo- lution ( – ) and the periods immediately following it. peplum. in ancient greece, a close- fitting gown extending from the neck to the feet. the term is now applied to a small ruffle, flounce, or short skirt on the bottom of a blouse. percale (per-kāl'). a firm, close cotton fabric, plain and in colors. used for dresses, shirts, and children's clothes. percaline. a plain, closely woven cotton fabric, with glazed, watered finish. used for linings. definitions of useful terms perfected harmony. harmony pro- duced by associating colors in such proportions that their admixture produces white, or approximately white, the combinations formed being nearly equivalent to com- plementary colors. periwig (pêr'í-wig). a head-dress of false hair worn for ornament or as a mark of rank or dignity. periwigs were first worn in england during elizabeth's reign ( – ); they became very large and elaborate during the cavalier period ( – ); and the fashion began to wane in the reign of george iii ( – ). persian. a silk, light in color and printed with large flowers. used chiefly for linings and trimmings. peter pan collar. a round turn-down collar, sometimes stiffly starched. these collars embody the very spirit of youth, which barrie so charmingly pictures in his story of peter pan. peter thomson dress. a kind of dress worn by young girls, the waist of which is made in exact imitation of a sailor's blouse. this style of dress derives its name from its creator, peter thomson, who was a tailor in the navy and later conducted a tailoring shop in philadelphia. petticoat. a word that has strayed far from its original meaning. when men first began to wear short coats, or jackets, in england, these garments were called petticoats. at the close of the th century, men wore petticoats, or small coats, beneath their long coats or gowns. in certain parts of scotland, women's skirts are still called her coats, and this was perhaps so throughout the british isles at one time. during the elizabethan period ( — ), gowns were left open in front to show handsomely decorated petti- coats. in the cavalier period ( – ), petticoats were also called plackets. now, a loose under- skirt worn by women and girls. piccadilly. a large ruff with points around the edge. it is said that piccadilly in london took its name from the sale of these ruffs, which was first started by higgins, a tailor, in a house near what was then the western extremity of this street. picken dressmaker's gauge. a sewing convenience whose purpose is to save time and insure accuracy in the marking of scallops, the width of tucks and the space between them, hems, plaits, and the spacing of ruffles, buttons, buttonholes, hooks and eyes, and snap fasteners. picot (pi-có'). in fabrics, loops along the selvage to form a finish on one or both sides. in laces, small loops decorating the edge of the pattern. a picot edging is produced by cut- ting machine hemstitching in half. pile. regular and closely set nap in which the threads stand up close together to form a uniform and even surface. pinafore. a sleeveless apron worn by children to protect the front of their dresses. pinking. a form of notched finish done by means of a pinking ma- chine and used to a large extent on seams. - pinners. aprons or pinafores popular during the reign of queen anne in england in the early th century. piping. a bias fold or cord put on the edge of a band or garment as a finish. piqué (pe-ka'). a firm fabric in lengthwise corded effect, used for dresses, skirts, vests, cravats, and children's coats. placket. the opening, or slit, left in the upper part of a woman's skirt for convenience in putting it on. during the cavalier period ( – ), petticoats were sometimes called plackets, and the opening in them was called a placket hole. plaid. a large variety of twilled cot- ton, woolen, worsted, or silk fabrics, woven in tartan patterns and con- sisting of colored bars crossing each other at right angles and forming large squares. plait. a trimming made by folding the material over on itself. the varieties of plaits include box plaits, double and triple box plaits, kilt plaits, knife plaits, accordion plaits, sunburst plaits, and cart- ridge plaits. definitions of useful terms rambler-rose-stitch. a close embroid- ered flower made by working loose stitches around and around a center of french knots. it is used for small flowers and for designs con- taining clover blossoms, bachelor buttons, etc. rat-tail braid. braid resembling a rat's tail. for trimming purposes. ratiné (rá-ti-ne'). a loosely woven fabric, made in cotton and wool, the weft threads of which are looped to give a rough, uneven weave. used for dresses and suits. ratiné lace. an inexpensive machine- made lace with a groundwork of heavy loops, resembling turkish toweling. it is used on wash dresses made of heavy material. raw silk. a term applied to the fiber produced by the silkworm in the form of cocoons. it also means the thread produced by reeling a given number of cocoons together, each thread thus being composed of a number of filaments. red. a color seen at the end of the spectrum opposite the violet end and notably that of fresh human blood and the ruby. redingote (réd-in-got'). a corruption of the term riding coat. a woman's outer garment cut princesse style and showing a skirt front beneath, it being cut away in front like an old-fashioned riding coat. reefer. a short jacket like a short box coat. remodel. to remake in conformity with a model or pattern. renaissance (rén-è-såns'). a revival of the greek and roman methods of design, which remained dominant during the th and th centuries. from this period comes much of the color influence for which the art of that time was largely famous. renaissance lace. a modern tape lace, the tape being woven into motifs, which are fastened together with twisted bars, spider wheels, and other flat stitches. the fine weaves are used for dresses and the coarser weaves for draperies. renovate. to make material or a garment of any kind as good as a small, tubular silk used new, to refresh it, or put it in good condition. rep. a cotton, wool, or silk fabric woven with heavier weft than warp and producing a crosswise ribbed effect. used in skirts and suits and in clothes for men and boys. reticella lace (rét-i-ché 'a). the ear- liest form of needle-point lace; characterized by geometric designs. in the original form, it contained cut and drawn work with button- holed edges connected with brides. reticella lace is used for collars and sometimes in millinery work. the finer weaves are employed as dress trimmings. reticule (rét'i-kül). a small bag originally made of net work, but now made of other material and used by women in which to carry small articles. reticules were fash- ionable during the directory, con- sul, and empire periods in the th century being called ridicules. revers. see lapel. reversible material. a material that has not a pile, ply, nap, nor pattern running in one direction and there- fore capable of being used on either side. or, a material that is double- faced and therefore can be used on both sides. ribbon. a band of silk, satin, or velvet, similar to silk, except that ribbon has a cord finish along both edges, whereas silk has a selvage. rice braid. a braid similar to corona- tion braid but smaller in size. its thick parts are so spaced as to give it the appearance of grains of rice lying together. rice net. a woven net of coarse cotton thread stiffened by sizing and used for hat foundations. rickrack braid. a form of open-work trimming made with serpentine braid. ripping knife. a small knife having a blade of hard steel and used to rip seams apart. rococo (ro-kö'có). a style of hat of the victorian era. the brim dips slightly at the front and back, and it is usually tipped over the face; really one of the most graceful and feminine of styles. x) efinitions of useful terms on its manner of weaving and the treatment it receives afterward be- tween heated cylinders. it comes in many varieties and is used for dresses, coats, and linings. satin-stitch. an embroidery stitch, either flat or raised and repeated in parallel lines close enough to- gether so as to produce a satiny appearance, but not so close as to overlap. sometimes the stitch is divided and worked in two sections, as in a leaf or a scroll design where the space is too wide for the regular satin-stitch or the leaf is to be sewed. it is the most widely used of all the embroidery stitches. scallop. one of a series of circular 'curves or projections along an edge. scallop buttonhole-stitch. an em- broidery stitch used in the forma- tion of scallops; in reality, the single-purl buttonhole-stitch applied to scallops. it is made by inserting the needle on the inside line of the scallop and bringing it up outside of the padding on the outside line so that the thread is kept to the left and runs under the needle in each stitch. scallop-finish edging. an edging about # inch wide having one side scal- loped and used as a finish for gar- ments that require frequent laun- dering, such as children's underwear and dresses. scarf. a broad band of fabric worn loosely over the shoulders or about the neck. scissors. a cutting implement rang- ing from to inches in length and consisting of a pair of blades having handles and pivoted face to face so that the sharpened edges may be brought together on the thing to be cut. buttonhole scissors range from to inches in length and have blades which are regulated by a screw. their edges stop short of the pivot, so that a slit can be made without cutting the edge of the cloth. scotch plaid. dress material contain- ing plaids and originating in scot- land but now used almost every- where. formerly, in scotland, the colors of these plaids were arranged with the greatest nicety, so as to preserve the patterns, or sets, as they are called, each of which represented a different clan, tribe, family, or district. thus, a stuart, a macdonald, a campbell, etc., was known by the color and the pattern of his plaid or tartan. scratch felt. a cheap wool with long arns woven in, producing a camel's- air effect. scrim. a cotton material having an open-mesh weave, in white, cream, and ecru, light in weight, trans- parent, and used for draperies. sealskin. the skin of the fur seal when prepared as a fur by removing the coarse hairs and dyeing it a dark brown. seam. the line where two parts of a garment are joined. seam binding. material for finishing edges, and made in narrow strips, and yards long. comes in black, white, and colors. cotton-binding, or bias-binding, has its edges turned ready for application. silk seam binding resembles light-weight taffeta ribbon. seam placket. a placket in a seam made by applying a straight strip of material to each of the seam edges. secondary colors. the colors produced by a mixture or union of pigments of two primary colors. the secondary colors are orange, green, and violet. seed-stitch. an embroidery stitch resembling a tiny dot and made by taking a very small back-stitch. it serves as a filling-stitch in small flower designs, borders, initials, and similar places where other filling- stitches, such as knot-stitches, are too large. seersucker (ser'súk-Ér). a light-weight wash fabric in plain weave having an irregular, crinkled surface pro- duced by making that part of the warp very slack. used for dresses, coats, and underwear. selvage. the edge of woven fabrics, consisting of one or more stronger cords or a narrow border so woven or finished that it will not ravel nor need hemming. semifitted. in reference to clothes, a term that means only partly con- forming to the shape of the figure. definitions of useful terms sequins (sê'kwin). a form of dress trimming made of very small metal disks or spangles in bands from # inch to yard or more in width. serge. the most popular of all woolen materials and made since the th century in great variety. it has a clear finish in an even-sided twill, producing a flat, diagonal rib effect. the best grades are made of worsted warp and woolen filling or all- worsted and are used for suits, dresses, and coats. set-in sleeves. sleeves that are set in the waist at the armhole. shade. a dark tone of any color; that is, one approaching black. this term, however, has been replaced by black. shadow embroidery. a form of em- broidery consisting of single fagot- ing-stitches so made on the wrong side of very sheer material that they show through on the right side in shadow effect. it is generally used for narrow petals and leaves that have an even outline and no turnovers. shadow lace. a machine-made lace of a light, filmy character. its sur- face is entirely flat and its designs are rather indistinct. it is used exten- sively for draped dresses and as a dress trimming. shako (shāk'ö). a high military hat, originally of fur. shank button. a button having a pro- jecting piece or loop on its under side by which itisattached to thematerial. shantung (shān-tung"). a rough, plain, washable fabric of natural color; in reality, a heavy grade of pongee silk used for dresses and blouses. shawl collar. a collar whose edge has no notch. sheaf-stitch. an open-seam stitch made by tying groups of threads together in such a way as to give them the appearance of sheaves. the thread that does the tying runs through the center of the space between the ribbons to be joined and gathers up several cross-threads and fastens them with a knot. shears. a large pair of scissors, being inches or longer and usually hav- ing one small handle for the thumb and one iarge handle for several of the fingers, thereby permitting con- siderable cutting without tiring the hand. sheath gown." a straight, close-fitting gown that first came into vogue under that name during the directory period ( – ). sheen. a glistening brightness, espe- cially a faint luster, as from reflec- tion. sheet wadding. sheets of corded cot- ton, used for padding garments, bed covers, etc. sheeting. a wide cotton or linen fabric, twilled or untwilled, bleached or unbleached, used for making sheets for beds. shield. a piece of moisture-proof fabric worn to protect a part of the clothing liable to become soiled. shirring. a sewing operation in which two or more rows of gathers are used where considerable material is to be gathered into small space. the stitches in the second and third rows are made directly in line with those in the first row and from # to # inch apart. shirring plate. a sewing-machine at- tachment used with the ruffler to produce shirring in material. shirt. a loose undergarment for the upper part of the body, made of cot- ton, linen, silk, or wool and formerly worn by both sexes. now, commonly restricted to a garment worn by men and boys and having collar and cuffs either attached or separate. shirting. cotton or linen material used for making shirts. shirtwaist. a belted waist resembling a shirt in plainness of cut and style and worn by women and girls. also called a blouse. shoddy. formerly applied to the waste thrown off in wool spinning, but now applied to the shredded wool or old cloth reduced to a fibrous condition to be remanu- factured. silk shoddy is similar to wool shoddy in origin and con- sists of the recarded fibers from manfactured silks. shoe satin. a very strong, tāurable fabric having a dull back and a smooth, semiglossy face and used in making footwear. definitions of useful terms short-lapped placket. a placket cut in the center of a gore or skirt section on a lengthwise thread of the material and made only or inches long. shot silk. changeable or iridescent silk produced by having a weft of one color and a warp of another. shuttle. ( ) in weaving, a device used to carry the weft thread, or filling, to and fro between the warp threads. ( ) the sliding thread holder in a two-thread sewing ma- chine which carries the lower thread between the needle and the upper thread to make a lock-stitch. ( ) a thread-carrying device used in tatting and embroidery. sicilienne (si-sil-i-èn'). ( ) a coarse weave of mohair having cotton warp and wool or mohair weft, which gives a wiry finish. used for men's dusters and summer coats, also for women's wear. ( ) a plain-woven silk fabric with heavy weft ribs; now made with silk warp and a heavier cotton or wool filling in plain weave, forming cross-ribs, simi- lar to poplin. silesia (si-le'shā). a stout light- weight, twilled cotton material with a glossy finish, similar to percaline. used for linings. silhouette (sil-ć -Št'). the outline of a solid figure; also, a profile drawing or portrait having its outline filled in with uniform color, usually black, and its other features with lighter lines. the best way to study the proportion of a costume is to think of it in silhouette with- out taking into consideration any details or accessories. silk. a fine, frail, glossy, fibrous sub- stance, produced chiefly by the silk- worm in the formation of its cocoon. the cocoon is yellow or white in color, because of the gum secreted by the worm, but it becomes white or pale cream upon being boiled in soap and water. the wild silk, the worm of which feeds on certain oak trees in china, india, and japan, is ecru colored even after the gum has been removed. silkaline. a soft, glazed cotton used for draperies and for comfortables. l d – silkatine thread. a cheap, twisted cotton thread with a high luster in imitation of silk. it does not pro- duce the effect that silk thread does, nor does it launder so well as mer- cerized cotton, but it is commend- able for practice work. silver cloth. a metal cloth made of metal warp in silver color and silk weft. used for trimmings, chiefly on evening dresses. silver tissue. a transparent metal cloth made of metal warp in silver color and silk weft. in the cheaper grades, merely an imitation of metal cloth. silvertone. a velour, velvet, or plush having a limited quantity of real and artificial white silk mixed with the stock to produce a shimmering effect. the term originated in , but the idea is much older. simplicity knot-stitch. an embroidery stitch that resmbles a knot and is made by two small back-stitches placed next to each other. it is .# popular for border and outline work. simulated. applied to dressmaking, a term that means having the appearance of or in imitation of something else; as, a simulated buttonhole, pocket, hem, etc. simulated buttonhole. a buttonhole made on the material for trimming purposes in imitation of a button- hole, no slit being used. sometimes called a blind buttonhole. simultaneous contrast. the effect produced by bringing together pale and dark colors that are not com- plementary to each other. single-stitch seam. an attractive finish for a plain seam consisting in basting both edges back from the seam and then stitching accurately on both sides. singles. see thrown silk. skinner's satin. a heavy, durable satin having a high luster. used for dresses and also for linings. skirt. that part of a coat, dress, or other garment that hangs below the waist. skirt gauge. a device used in mark- ing the desired skirt length. definitions of useful terms sponge cloth. a piece of cloth, such as unbleached duck or drilling, about # to # yard in size, used to dampen materials before they are pressed. sports suits. articles of wear especially adapted as to style and material for sports wear. spun silk. inferior silk made from short, waste fibers and from im- perfect cocoons. used for knitted fabrics, embroidery and knitting silks, and in combination with cotton or wool. st. gall lace. a machine-made imita- tion of venetian lace. it is produced with machinery by embroidering with cotton or silk thread on woolen material. when the embroidery is completed, it is chemically treated to dissolve the wool and leave only the cotton or silk embroidery, which takes on the appearance of lace. stand pocket. a type of tailored pocket having an upstanding part as a finish for the opening. stays. the stiffening pieces of a corset; also, corsets themselves, especially the early form of corsets. these were originally almost instru- ments of torture, but early in the th century they began to receive the attention of manufacturers and they have gradually been improved until they are now pliant and elastic, giving the desired freedom and yet defining the figure satisfactorily. steinkirk. a lace cravat worn in a negligent way and taking its name from the battle of steinkirk ( ) in belgium, where the french had to fight with disarranged cravats. stem-stitch. an embroidery stitch sometimes called french stemming and made by first padding the outline or stem with the running- or the outline-stitch and then whipping this over and over with very even stitches made straight with the grain of the fabric or worked diagonally. it is used when heavier or more elaborate work is required than can be done by the outline-stitch. stiletto (sti-lèt'o). a small, sharp- pointed instrument made of ivory, bone, celluloid, steel, aluminum, or other metal and used for punctur- ing eyelet holes in material. stock. a broad, stiffened collar or cravat. the stocks worn during the georgian period ( — ) were tied in so many complicated ways that a book was published con- taining numerous diagrams and charts describing many different styles. stockinet weave. a knitted fabric, often in tubular form, largely used for underwear. stola (sto'lá). the gown worn by the women of ancient rome draped around the figure and containing sleeves. stole. a long, narrow scarf, usually fringed at the ends and worn over the shoulders; often made of fur. a part of the vestments of the clergy of roman catholic, oriental, and anglican churches. stomacher (stüm'īk-ér). an article of dress, usually of rich material and elaborately ornamented, for the breast and upper abdomen, having the gown laced over it. worn in the th and th centuries. stom- achers were sometimes padded. storm serge. a very light-weight serge of hard, fine weave with nap made from comparatively low stock with single yarn for both warp and filling. used for dresses, skirts, and suits. stowing. a term applied in the tailor- ing trade to the joining of two edges. it means to pack the edges together closely so that the joining is scarcely visible. stranding thread. tailors' gimp or a thread, usually linen, twisted and waxed and used to strengthen the edge of a tailored buttonhole before it is worked. strap seam. a plain seam with a good seam allowance, over which a bias or crosswise strap of the same or contrasting material is placed on the right side after the seam has been pressed open. straw braids. the braids used in making straw hats, which are largely imported, the finer braids coming from south america, italy, and switzerland and cheaper kinds from china and japan. they range from # inch to inches in width. definitions of useful terms stroking. a sewing operation that consists in laying the gathers after they have been drawn up. it is done by drawing a needle down be- tween the gathers from above the gathering thread and pressing the little plaits under the thumb. style. as related to clothes, style pertains to the motif, the treatment, or the design, in contrast with fashion, which refers to the popu- larity of a certain style, the common trend, the prevailing mode. suède (swäd). undressed kid; that is, a skin from which the outer part has been rubbed off or skinned. used largely for gloves, but occasionally employed as a dress trimming. sugar-loaf hat. a hat in the shape of an old-fashioned sugar-loaf, which was conical and rounded at the top. suit. a combination of two or more garments constituting a single article. sunburst plaits. a form of accordion plaiting in which the plaits are very narrow at the top and wide at the bottom, thus producing a flare. surah (sū'ră). a soft, light-weight, all-wool dress fabric woven in nearly invisible cords or twills or in fine basket-weave effect. also a light- weight, soft, twilled silk. surcoat. a loose garment worn by men over armor during the middle ages. sometimes embroidered with the wearer's coat-of-arms. also, an outer body jacket for women, often trimmed with fur, in the th and th centuries. swatch. a small piece of material, especially one cut off for a sample. swiss. a dress muslin usually in dotted or cross-bar effects. used for dresses and curtains. t tablier (tā-bli-e'). an apron-like part of a woman's dress. taffeta. a fine, smooth, glossy, un- twilled fabric, having considerable body and alike on both sides. formerly, it was a very rich, strong, and somewhat stiff fabric, but at the present time it is made very pliable and lustrous. it may be plain, figured, striped, plaid, or changeable. used for dresses and general garmeut purposes. chiffon taffeta is a light- weight variety of good quality and soft, lustrous finish and is much used for evening gowns. tagal straw (tā-gål'). a straw of which hats are made. it bears the name of a dutch province in northern java. tailleur (tā-yūr'). a french word meaning tailor or tailoress. a tailor- made suit or dress is now called a tailleur, just as one speaks of a “tailormade’’ in english. tailored fell. a tailored seam made in a way similar to a hand fell but stitched by machine rather than by hand. it is used extensively in making unlined coats and skirts, especially tailored wash skirts. tailors' chalk. chalk used by tailors for the marking of all lines in their work. tailors' tacks. see mark-stitching. tamise cloth. see batiste. tam o'shanter. a cap of scotch origin fitting tight around the brows but large and full above, sometimes having a flat top and often a knot or a tassel. tape. a narrow strip of firmly woven cotton or linen. lingerie tape is a finely woven cotton tape which comes in light colors and is used as a ribbon substitute. tape measure. . a tape line usually inches in length and # to # inch wide, and divided into inches, half inches, quarter inches, and eighth inches. tapestry darning-stitch. an over-and- over embroidery stitch that re- sembles darned work when finished but gives a solid effect in alternated stitches. it is used as a border for towels, table covers, etc. and in conventional designs in fancy work and dressmaking. tarlatan. . an open-mesh, slightly stiffened fabric used for christmas stockings and as a stiffening in gar- ments. tartan. originally, scotch twilled woolen or worsted plaids with dis- tinctive designs and colors for each highland clan. these tartans ap- peared in the shawl worn over the shoulders and in the kilt. now used for suits and skirts. definitions of useful terms torchon lace (tôr'shön). a coarse bob- bin lace made of strong, soft, and loosely twisted thread, linen thread being used for the better grades and cotton, for the cheaper ones. the cotton varieties are sometimes called beggars' lace, or bavarian lace. the wearing qualities of this lace are very good. the fine weaves are used on lingerie dresses and the coarse ones in fancy work. tosca net. a form of net that is more open in design than ordinary bob- binet. it is firmly woven and very durable. touffe (tòóf). a tuft, bunch, cluster, clump, wisp; used with regard to flowers and aigrets when they are employed in millinery. tracing wheel. a toothed wheel used to trace lines. it is invaluable as an accurate marker and effects a great saving of time in basting. train. an extension at the bottom of a dress skirt that trails at the back or is thrown over the arm in walking. a train is often made separate and attached either at the back neck or back waist line. tram. loosely twisted silk yarn used for filling in the weaving of silk fabrics. it is softer and weaker than organzine and is made of the lower grades of silk. transfer patterns. tissue-paper pat- terns on which are stamped em- broidery designs that may be trans- ferred to the material that is to be embroidered. triangular buttonhole-stitch. an em- broidery stitch consisting of a blank- et-stitch run diagonally to fill in an embroidery design, forming small triangular sections in the design. tricorne hat(tri'körn). a three-cornered hat with upturned brim, as the marquise or continental. tricot (tre'kö). a weave showing a very narrow, inconspicuous stripe like a knitted effect. it is usually made in wool, but sometimes comes in silk. a soft, firm, tricotine (tri-ko-ten'). woolen material showing a very narrow, inconspicuous diagonal twill that gives a knitted effect. used for dresses and suits. trio filling-stitch. an embroidery stitch sometimes called the thousand- flower stitch and consisting of three stitches grouped together to form a design, the center one vertical and the other two diagonal. it is used to fill in borders or large designs. trotteur (trö-tür'). trotting or walk- ing. as applied to dress, it refers to a somewhat plain, substantial article that is suitable for walking or out-of-doors purposes. trousseau (tröö-s '). a bride's outfit, especially her clothing. tubular fabrics. fabrics knit or woven in the form of seamless tubes. tucked seam. a seam sometimes called an open welt, finished with a tuck by stitching from # to inch from the edge of the seam. tucked-seam placket. an incon- spicuous placket made on a tucked seam and stitched so that it ap- pears to be a continuation of the placket. tucker. ( ) a vest or guimpe worn with low-cut dresses late in the cavalier period ( – ). ( ) a sewing-machine attachment for making tucks. tulle (tòol). a fine, fluffy, machine- made net of silk or cotton. the meshes, which are small, are round or have regular or irregular sides and corners. used in millinery and for drapery on dresses and party frocks. also called illusion. tunic. a section of a modern garment similar to an overskirt and either fitted or gathered at the waist line. the greek chiton was sometimes called a tunic, as was also the under- garment worn in rome. the tunic without the toga was worn by roman soldiers in camp, a fact which ac- counts for an undress military coat being called a tunic even in modern times. among the saxons, the tunic was an outer garment reaching about to the knees, made with sleeves and open half way down the breast and on the sides from the hip to the bottom. tunics of uneven length and beautifully ornamented were worn in byzantium toward the end of the roman empire in the d century. definitions of useful terms underproper. a wire arrangement that held up the huge ruffs worn in the th and th centuries. undersleeve. a separate sleeve of light material worn under the sleeve of a woman's dress. v - v neck. a neck line shaped like the letter v in front. valenciennes lace (vá-lān-syên'). a bobbin lace commonly called val, in which the same thread is used for both the ground and the pattern. the mesh is very open and of great regularity, being hexagonal, square, or diamond-shaped, with natural or conventionalized flowers or trailing patterns. a distinguishing feature of the real val is the absence of any outlining thread, the lace being flat and worked in one piece. van dyck, or vandyke, collar(vän dik'). large collars of lace or linen with lace in deep points on the edge. these collars were worn by so many of the people who appear in portraits painted by van dyck that they are called the van dyck collar. vegetable ivory. material produced from the seed of a tropical american palm and used in the making of buttons. it can be cut, engraved, polished, and dyed more effectively than any other button material. velour (ve-lóðr'). a large variety of soft, stout, closely woven, smooth fabrics with raised and shorn nap. used for coats, suits, capes, and dresses. velvet. a silken fabric having a short, soft, thick pile surface and a plain back. introduced in the th cen- tury in italy, taking its name from the italian word “velluto,” meaning woolly to the touch. it may be all silk or it may have merely a silk face with a cotton or linen back. it is used for dresses, suits, coats, and trimmings, and for millinery pur- poses. velvet, croisé. a kind of velvet hav- ing a coarse back and woven so as to hold the pile firmly. thus, it is suitable wherever a durable velvet is desired. it is much used for trimmings. velvet, lyons. a kind of velvet hav- ing a short nap that is not secure in its back or foundation. used chiefly for draperies and bows, and in millinery, for which it seems especially adapted. velvet, mirror. a velvet having a shimmery appearance. it is woven like plain velvet and then has its pile dressed down. used for trim- ming and millinery purposes. some- times called paon velvet. velvet, nacré. a velvet with a back of one color and a pile of another, which gives a beautiful changeable shading resembling mother-of-pearl, from which it gets its name. it is used for evening gowns and wraps, and as a trimming, especially in millinery. velvet, panne (pân). a kind of velvet much the same as mirror velvet in appearance, except that, in the case of panne velvet, the nap is all laid in the same direction in the weaving. velveteen. a cotton velvet with short, close pile used for dresses, children's wraps, and draperies. it is of english origin, being originally a twilled cotton with raised pile. venetian. ( ) a fine woolen cloth somewhat similar to covert because of the fine diagonal that characterizes it. sometimes venetian cloth re- sembles whipcord and again it has considerable nap and little twill, like broadcloth. used for spring topcoats and suits and in lighter weights for skirts and dresses. ( ) a very closely woven, strong cotton fabric woven in satin or twill weave, usually mercerized and dyed in the piece. it has a glossy finish imitat- ing silk and is used for linings, skirts, and bathing suits. venetian lace. guipure needlepoint lace made in venice, reticella being the first variety. later, punto in aria, “stitches in the air,’’ was the beginning of point venice. it con- sists of needle-point motifs or designs joined with an irregular network of brides. it is used for dress trimmings and curtains. venetian ladder work. a form of embroidery work that consists in outlining a design with two parallel lines of buttonhole-stitches and con- definitions of useful terms necting these with a series of cross- stitches at regular intervals in ladder fashion. it is used principally for border work in conventional de- signs. vertical hemming-stitch. a hemming- stitch taken at right angles to the hem it is securing. it is used when a very neat and inconspicuous hem turn is desired or to secure a plain hem over gathers on the right side. vest. formerly, only a close-fitting under jacket, which showed in the front opening of a top coat. now, an extra piece of trimming in the front of the waist of a woman's gown. vestee. a small vest used in the front of a woman's dress. vestings. heavy, fancy materials, usually highly colored and in persian and colored effect. used for vests and trimmings and for men's ties. violet. a color or class of colors seen at the end of the spectrum, opposite the red end. virago sleeves (vſ.-ra'go). very full sleeves tied in at intervals to form puffs. such sleeves were worn in the elizabethan period and are a feature of the extravagant dress of cavalier times. voile. ( ) a plain, sheer fabric with hard-twisted, warp and weft threads woven in open mesh. used exten- sively for dresses. ( ) a sheer, open-mesh, semitransparent fabric of silk or silk and wool. used for overdrapes, evening dresses, and fancy blouses. w waistcoat. a vest, now commonly sleeveless, covering the waist and chest and worn under a coat. wallachian embroidery (wó-la'kí-àn). a kind of embroidery consisting of a single-purl buttonhole-stitch used to form both eyelets and leaves. wardrobe. wearing apparel in gen- eral; all of a person's clothes. warm color. a color in which there is a predominance of yellow. warp. the threads that run the long way of a fabric, between which the weft, or filling of cross-threads, is woven. the selvage way of the material. wash satin. white, cream, or flesh- colored satin used for lingerie, collars, and sports skirts and so treated as to present a good appear- ance after washing. washable knot-stitch. an embroidery stitch produced by making a loop as for a chain and then fastening the loop down with a couching-stitch. its chief use is as a border-stitch or an outline-stitch. waterfall. a silk fabric having the luster of velvet and consisting of a thin, slightly open foundation ribbed with velvet pile so woven as to form stripes about $ inch wide and to show warp threads between. it drapes beautifully and is used for evening wraps, scarfs, and millinery. waterproofing. the processes by which cotton, wool, or silk, as well as other closely woven fabrics are rendered impenetrable by means of various insoluble substances without altering the chemical or physical construction of the fibers or the yarns. the process must not alter the pliancy of the cloth nor prevent the admittance of air. the materials used most for waterproofing are rubber, gutta percha, oils, fats, varnishes, wax, acids, and oxides. watteau (wā-to"). a pattern or design similar to those produced by watteau, an artist during the reign of louis xv ( – ). the most popular watteau styles were the watteau back, which is a style of woman's dress in which the fulness of the back is confined at the neck in plaits or gathers and falls from there to the hem of the skirt, some- times forming a long train; the watteau bodice, having a square neck and short sleeves terminating in a ruffle; the watteau mantle, which was a cape with loose-plaited back; and the watteau hat, which was flat on top and raised toward the back by a bandeau. watteau plait. a box plait at the center back of a princesse gown laid from the neck to the waist line and then permitted to hang free to the bottom of the skirt. weft. see woof. definitions of useful terms wool crêpe. a woolen fabric having a crinkly surface formed by using alternately right-hand and left- hand twist yarns in the filling. used for dresses. wool taffeta. a wool fabric in a closely woven, smooth weave. similar to panama but of a much finer quality. used for dresses, skirts, and suits. woolens. fabrics made from short, staple wools. worsted (wöös’těd or woor'stěd). ( ) a woolen yarn used in making cloth and having its fibers laid parallel rather than crossed. ( ) a loosely twisted yarn for knitting. worsteds. fabrics made from long, staple wools. wrap. an article of dress intended to be wrapped around the body. in the plural, outside garments. wrapped skirt. a skirt designed so that one side is folded or wrapped over the other side. y yarn. a continuous strand of twisted fibers, whether animal, mineral, or vegetable, for use in weaving and knitting. by some, it is restricted to woolen yarn only. yellow. the color of the spectrum between green and orange, similar to that of brass or gold. yoke. the portion of a waist which is fitted over the shoulders and to which the rest of the garment is sewed. a skirt yoke is a piece of material fitted over the hips and the rest of the skirt is gathered or plaited on it. z zanella cloth (zá-nēl'ā). see gloria. zibeline (zīb él-in). a thick, woolen material of plain weave entirely covered with glossy hair, which gives a nap # to inch long. it is similar to camel's hair except that the hair is cut evenly. used for suits and overcoats. zephyr gingham. see gingham. index a. a jours, definiti albatross, inition of, albumen as a mordant, in dyeing, use of, alençon lace, , , , alizarine, , all-over lace, allowance for curtain finishes, for curtain shrinkage, for fulness of curtains, aloe lace, alpaca, , p altering clothes for growing children, alum solution for setting colors, angleterre, point d’, , , angora goat, angular tear, darning an, aniline, antique lace, , antwerp lace, , appliqué carrickmacross, definition of, honiton lace, lace, , - appliquéd quilts, pieced or, applying braid to a curtain, lace to a curtain, tape hangers, apron feed, arabian lace, , argentan lace, arkwright, richard, arkwright's spinning frame, - water frame, armenian lace, , armure, wool, silk, art linen, artificial dyes, origin of, astrakhan, illustration of, attachment for lace machine, , austrian linen, jacquard, baby irish lace, , lace, , back of quilt, material for, backed fabrics, bag, mending, baling, cotton, barathea, bars, definition of lace, basic dyeing, basket weave, weave, illustration of, bath mats, towels, bathroom linens, windows, curtains for, batiste, cotton, embroidery, wool, battenberg lace, , , , battening in weaving, bavarian lace, bay window, curtains for, bead edge, definition of, edging of bobbin laces, beading, double, embroidery, embroidery-edge, seam, bed linen, position of monograms on, linens and furnishings, linens, monograms on, linens, style of monograms on, sheets, sheets, repair of, sheets, size of, bedford cord, cord, cotton, cord, illustration of, cord, wool, bedroom windows, curtains for, bedspread, dimity, marseilles, piqué, satin marseilles, iv index cotton filling for woven rugs, finishes, flannel, gin, ginnery, ginning, gloves, mending the finger tips of silk or, indian, material, calendering of, material, mercerization of, material, printing of, materials, purchasing, materials, table of, materials, tests for quality of, opener, opening, peruvian, , plant, classification of, plant, growth of, production and manufacture of, rugs, roving for, sea island, sorting, south american, spinning, thread in lace-making, upland, weaving, cottons, table of, counterpanes, bedspreads or, countries producing irish crochet lace, producing linen, producing wool, couronnes, definition of, coutil, covers and pads, mattress, buffet, furniture, upholstery, covert cloth, crape, craquelé net, crash, , , toweling, , cravenette, crépe, canton, de chine, effect in wool material, illustration of, georgette, meteor, wool, cretonne, , , crinoline, crochet lace, lace, countries producing irish, lace, irish, crocheted rugs, croisé velvet, crompton, samuel, cuffs on a boy's blouse, mending worn sleeves and, on men's shirts, darning of collars and, on men's shirts, turning worn collars and, cultivation of flax plant, culture of silk, curling, preventing rugs from, curtain, applying braid to a, applying lace to a, casings, width of, finishes, allowance for, fixture, single-rod, fixture, double-rod, fixture, triple-rod, headings, width of, hems, weights in, hems, width of, lace, making, making, preparing materials for, materials, preserving the freshness of, rod, sash-, rods, shrinkage, allowance for, valance, box-plaited, valance, pinch-plaited, valance, plain, valance, shirred, valances, making, curtains, allowance for fulness of, brussels lace, cutting materials for, draw, finishing, for bathroom windows, for bay windows, for bedroom windows, for casement windows, for door windows, for french doors, for kitchen windows, for living-room or dining-room windows, glass or sash, measuring for, mending torn or worn, nottingham lace, panel, saxony brussels lace, selection of, swiss brussels lace, types of, curved-warp weaving, cushions, index v cut line, work, cutting materials for curtains, d : d'alençon, point, damask, , mercerized, d'angleterre, point, , , darned lace, or set-in patch, or underlaid patch, darner or darning ball, darning, a stocking or an undergarment, a straight tear or slit, an angular tear, ball, darner or, floss, of collars and cuffs on men's shirts, reinforced with net, day slips, decorations, window, definition of a jours, of appliqué, of bead edge, of brides, of brides claires, of cartisane, of cordonnet, of couronnes, of dentelé, of engrélure, of entoilage, of entré deux, of fond, of gimp, of jours, of lace, of lace bars, of lace bobbins, of lace fillings, of lace samplers, of mat, of math, of passement, of picot, of pillow lace, of point de raccroc, of point lace, of point plat, of reseau, of sprig, of ties, of toile, of treille, definitions of useful dressmaking terms, oſ useful sewing terms, l d – denim, dentelé, definition of, design and weave of wool material, devon sheep, dew bleaching of linen, diagonal effect in wool material, illustra- tion of, weave, diaper, patterns, weave of, dimity, bedspread, dining-room windows, curtains for living- room or, dinner napkins, size of, discharge dyeing, dish cloths, towels, distaff, , doeskin, doilies, door windows, curtains for, doors, curtains for french, dotted swiss, double beading, cloth weave, , -faced chinchilla, illustration of, -faced fabric, -faced ribbons, -rod curtain fixture, doubling and twisting silk, of yarn for worsteds, drawing and, drap d'alma, draw curtains, drawers, adding length to bloomers or, drawing and doubling of yarn for worsteds, cotton, frame, of flax, hackling and, drawn work, dresden point lace, pompadour or, dress findings, linen, shields, dresser scarfs, dressing of linen, . dressmaking terms, definitions of useful, drilling, drop box in weaving, use of, drying laces, duchess satin, duchesse lace, , , , duck, dusting of wool, dutch valance, duvetyn, , viii index handerchief linen, hangers, applying tape, hargreaves, james, , harness of loom, , hat elastic, headings, width of curtain, heald of loom, heathcote, john, , hemmed patch, hems, weights in curtain, width of curtain, henrietta, herringbone effect in wool material, history of lace, of silk culture, of silk worm, life, of weaving, holland cloth, home-made pillow slips, material for, -made rugs, homemaking, aspects of, homespun, honiton guipure, lace, , , lace, appliqué, point lace, hook-and-eye bone, -and-eye tape, hooks and eyes, hopsacking, horizontal loom, household sewing, huckaback, , weave of, illusion, india linon, indian cotton, head, indigo, inserting contrasting material to lengthen a skirt, irish crochet lace, crochet lace, countries producing, lace, baby, linen, ironing laces, j jacquard attachment for lace machine, , loom, japan silk, jean, jersey, cloth, jours, definition of, judging lace, k. karakul cloth, kersey, khaiki, khaki, kid glove, mending an open seam in a. kindergarten cloth, . kinds of sheep, kitchen linen, weekly supply of, linens, articles included under, windows, curtains for, knitted rugs, knitting, i, lace, alençon, , , algerian, all-over, aloe, antique, , antwerp, , appliqué, , appliqué honiton, arabian, , argentan, armenian, , baby, , baby irish, , bars, definition of, battenberg, , , , bavarian, beggar's, belgian, blonde, bobbin, bobbin, definition of, bobbinet, , bohemian, , , bruges, brussels point, , , , burano point, carrickmacross, , chantilly, , , characteristics of hand-made, characteristics of machine-made, characteristics of needle-point, cleaning black, cluny, , collections, coraline point, countries producing irish crochet, craquelé net, crochet, curtain, curtains, brussels, curtains, nottingham, curtains, saxony brussels, curtains, swiss brussels, darned, "index - lace, definition of, definition of pillow, definition of point, dresden point, duchesse, , , , egyptian, embroidery, embroidery machine-made, english point, fiber, filet, , fillings, definition of, flat venetian point, flemish, gros point venetian, ground, kinds of, grounded venetian point, guipure, , history of, honiton, , , , , honiton guipure, , industry in america, hand-made, irish crochet, , , judging, kinds of hand-made, lille, limerick, , machine, jacquard attachment for, machine, origin of, machine-made, macramé, , making at present, making, cotton thread in, making, growth of, maltese, , , mechlin, , , , medici, , metal, , method of making bobbin, methods of making, needle-point, , nottingham, oriental, origin of, origin of bobbin, origin of needle-point, paraguay or teneriffe, , pillow, , plauen, , , , , point d’ angleterre, , , point de gaze, , point de paris, , point de raccroc, preservation of, pricker, princess, , -producing centers, raised venetian point, ratiné, , renaissance, , lace, reticella, . , rose point, rose point venetian, st. gall, , , samplers, definition of, shadow, , spanish, , tatting, , , teneriffe, , terms, to a curtain, applying, toile of, torchon, , tosca, , uses of, valenciennes, , , , , varieties of, venetian, , , , weaves, wool, woven, woven machine-made, laces and veiling, mending net, bead edging of bobbin, care of, characteristics and uses of modern, cleaning non-washable, cleaning of, cleaning washable, drying, examples of typical, ironing, - method of making embroidery, necessity for care of, selection of, stiffening, tinting and bleaching, values of hand-made, washing durable, washing frail, lansdowne, lappet weave, , laps, lawn, , lead salts as a mordant, salts in dyeing, use of, leavers, john, lee, william, lees, john, leicester sheep, leipsic wheel, length to bloomers or drawers, adding, lengthen a skirt, inserting contrasting material to, lengthening a skirt, a slip or underwaist, leno weave, liberty satin, life history of silk worm, x index lille lace, limerick lace, , lincoln sheep, linen, a sign of hospitality, fresh, austrian, beetling of, belgium, bleaching of, calendering of, chemical bleaching of, countries producing, dew bleaching of, dressing of, finishing processes of, folding of, for entertaining, for general use, french, german, grass bleaching of, hackle, heavy cottons as a substitute for, inspecting of, irish, mangling of, marking of, napkins, size of, nature and uses of, packing of, position of monograms on bed, pressing of, production and manufacture of, pure, scotch, sizing of, substitutes, supply, table cloths, sizes of, tape, tests for, weaving of, weekly supply of kitchen, linene, linens and furnishings, bed, bath-room, economy applied to, from wear, saving, kitchen, monograms on bed, purchasing, scope of, style of monograms on bed, table, table of, lingerie tape, living-room or dining-room windows, cur- tains for, llama, long-cloth, looms, egyptian, greek, harness of, , horizontal, jacquard, vertical, looped fabrics, -surface material, illustration of, louisine, lunch cloths, size of, napkins, size of, sets, lyons, france, velvet, - m machine, combing, for making bobbinet, jaquard attachment for lace, , -made embroidery, -made embroidery, hand-finished, -made embroidery lace, -made lace, -made lace, characteristics of, -made woven lace, quilting, procedure in, schiffli embroidery, , , macramé lace, , madras, cotton, silk, making bobbin lace, method of, comfortables, curtain, curtain valances, lace, methods of, mangling of linen, maline, , , maltese lace, , , man's shirt at the neck, mending a, summer underwear, mending a, manufacture, first processes in wool, of cotton, production and, of flax, production and, of linen, production and, of woolens, of worsteds, silk, manufactured bedspreads, bedspreads, repairing, bedspreads, sizes of, marking for quilting, marquisette, cotton, curtains, , , silk, weave of, marseilles bedspread, mat, definition of, matelassé, , illustration of, xii index nacré velvet, nainsook, , embroidery, nap, napkins, cotton, sizes of, nature and history of weaving, and uses of linens, needle-point lace, , -point lace, characteristics of, -point lace, origin of, net, characteristics of hand-made, craquelé, curtains, , , darning reinforced with, laces, and veiling, mending, tosca, , noils, non-washable laces, cleaning, nottingham, england, , lace, lace curtains, novelty suitings, nun’s veiling, o oiling of wool, opener, cotton, opening, cotton, organdie embroidery, or organdy, finish of, organzine, oriental lace, origin and growth of textiles, of artificial dyes, of bobbin lace, of dyeing, of lace, of lace machine, of needle-point lace, of pieced quilts, of silk culture, of weaving, of wool, ottoman, silk, wool, outing flannel, , overdraperies, overhand patch, p pads, mattress covers and, paisley, persian or, panama, weave, panel curtains, panne velvet, paraguay or teneriffe lace, , passement, definition of, patch, darned or set-in, darned or underlaid, flannel, hemmed, overhand, stockinet, patching, with mending tissue, paul, lewis, pearl buttons, definition of continuous inner, edge or purl edge, definition of, pearling, , pearls or purls, definition of, peau de cygne, de soie, pebble effect in wool material, illustra- tion of, pepper-and-salt effect in wool material, ii- lustration of, percale, , finish of, printing of, percaline, perkin, peruvian cotton, persian or paisley, picking in weaving, of woolens, picot, definition of, or feather edge, piece, dyed in the, dyeing, methods of, pieced or appliquéd quilts, quilts, origin of, piecing of quilts, pile, in rugs or carpets, peplacing worn, weave, , pillow cases, cases, repairing of, lace, lace, definition of, slips, material for home-made, slips, ready-made, pinch-plaited curtain valance, piqué, , bedspread, plain curtain valance, weave, - plauen lace, , , , , switzerland, , plush, , point d’alençon, , d’angleterre, , d'angleterre smuggled into england, de gaze lace, , de paris lace, , index xiii point de raccroc, definition of, de venice, honiton, lace, brussels, , lace, coraline, lace, definition of, lace, dresden, lace, english, lace, grounded venetian, plat de venice, plat, definition of, poiret twill, polo cloth, , pompadour or dresden, pongee, poplin, cotton, silk, wool, position of monogram on bed linen, preparing materials for curtain making, rags for woven rugs or carpets, preservation of lace, preserving the freshness of curtain ma- terial, preventing rugs from curling, pricker, lace, princess lace, , principles of weaving, 'printing, block, of cotton material, of fabrics, of fabrics, dyeing and, of silk, procedure in hand quilting, in machine quilting, processes for woolens, finishing, for worsteds, finishing, in wool manufacture, first, of silk, weaving and finishing, production and manufacture of cotton, and manufacture of flax, and manufacture of linen, wool, protection for comfortables, prunella, purchasing cotton materials, linens, silks, wool materials, pure linen, purl edge, definition of pearl edge or, purls, definition of pearls or, q quality of cotton materials, tests for, quilt, material for back of, setting up the, quilting frames, marking for, procedure in hand, quilting, procedure in machine, quilts, filling for, origin of pieced, pieced or appliquéd, piecing of, r rags for woven rugs or carpets, prepar- ing, raised point venetian lace, rambouillet sheep, rat-tail braid, ratiné, cotton, lace, , wool, raw thread, ready-made pillow slips, reed of loom, reeling, silk, refooting stockings, reinforcing a worn spot in clothing, renaissance lace, , rep, cotton, for cushions, wool, repair of bed sheets, repairing a tear with mending tissue, blankets, broken stitches in a stocking, manufactured bed spreads, of pillow cases, selvage edge of rug, replacing worn pile in rugs, or carpets, worn fringe of rug, re-reel silk, reseau, definition of, . resist dyeing, reticella lace, , retting, rib effect in wool material, illustration of, ribbons, double-faced, rickrack braid, right and left, materials having, side of materials, - ring spinning, rock, rods, curtain, romney marshes sheep, rose point lace, point venetian lace, round elastic, -thread linen, roving, for cotton rugs, rug, mending frayed edge of, repairing selvage edge of, replacing worn fringe of, rugs, braided, cotton filling for woven, index xv silk, re-reel, seam binding, seco, spun, tests for, throwing, tussah, weaving and finishing processes of, wild, worm, history of, silkaline, , silks, table of, silver cloth, tissue, silvertone, singeing, single-rod curtain fixtures, singles, sizes of blankets, of comfortables, of manufactured bedspreads, of napkins, of pillow slips, of sheets, of table cloths, sizing, of linen, skein, dyeing in the, skinner's satin, skirt braid, inserting contrasting material to lengthen a, lengthening a, mending the worn lower edge of a, sleeves and cuffs on a boy's blouse, mend- ing worn, slip or underwaist, lengthening a, slit, darning a straight tear or, sliver, slub, dyeing in the, snap-fastener tape, fasteners, soda as a mordant, in dyeing, use of, soisette, soleil, , illustration of, solution for setting colors, alum, for setting colors, salt, for setting colors, sugar-of-lead, for setting colors, vinegar, sorting, cotton, of fleeces, of wool, soutache braid, south american cotton, spanish lace, , merino sheep, spindle, , spinning, cotton, spinning, early development of, english. method of, flax, frame, arkwright's, frame, mule-, french method of, jenny, of woolens, of worsted yarns, ring, wheel, bobbin of, wheel, distaff of, wheel, flax, , wheel, flyer of, wheel, gharka, wheel, great, , wheel, leipsic, wheel, muckle, wheel, spindle of, spinster, sprig, definition of, spun silk, stays, celluloid collar, for collars, serpentine collar, stiffening laces, stockinet cloth, grafting, mending, patch, stocking, mending a run in a, or an undergarment, darning a, stocking, refooting a, repairing broken stitches in a, storm serge, straight tear or slit, darning a, -line warp weaving, substitute for linen, heavy cotton as a, substitutes, linen, sugar-of-lead solution for setting colors, supply of linen, wool, surah, swiss, , brussels lace curtains, dotted, , synthetic dyes, t tabby weave, table cloths, size of, cloths, use of two small, linens, of cotton materials, of linens, of silks, of wool, runners, - taffeta, weave, xvi index tannin, as a mordant, in dyeing, use of, tape, cotton diagonal, flat-weight, hangers, applying, hook-and-eye, linen, lingerie, shot-weight, snap-fastener, tapestry, tarlatan, tartan, tattie, tatting, , , with aloe thread, tear, darning an angular, in a glove, mending a, or slit, darning a straight, with mending tissue, repairing a, teazeling, teneriffe lace, paraguay or, , terms, definitions of useful dressmaking, definitions of useful sewing, lace, terry cloth, , , , , , , test for shoddy, for wool, fiber, tests for linen, for quality of cotton materials, for silk, for wool, textiles, development of, origin and growth of, thread for tying comfortables, in lace-making, cotton, raw, throwing, silk, ticking, ties, definition of, tinting and bleaching laces, tissue, gold, silver, using mending, toile, definition of, of lace, tops, torchon lace, , torn or worn curtains, mending, tosca net, , tow, toweling, crash, , glass, , linen, turkish, , towels, bath, dish, towels, guest, hand, , size of, supply of, turkish, , , tram, treille, definition of, tricolette, tricotine, , illustration of, trimmings to suit materials, buying, triple-rod curtain fixture, tubular cording, tulle, , , turkish toweling, , towels, , , turning worn collars and cuffs on men's shirts, tussah, silk, tweed, illustration of, twill effect in wool material, illustration of, twisting silk, doubling and, tying comfortables, comfortables, thread for, u undergarment, darning a stocking or an, underwaist, adding width to an, lengthening a slip or an, underlaid patch, darned or, underwear, mending men's shirts and, mending a man’s summer, up and down, materials having, upholstery covers, upland cotton, , uses of laces, of linen, nature and, of modern laces, characteristics and, |uttman, barbara, v valance, box-plaited, dutch, pinch-plaited, plain, shirred, , valances, making curtain, valenciennes lace, , , , , values of hand-made laces, varieties of lace, vat dyeing, veiling, mending net, laces, and, veining, velour, , , index xvii velvet, chiffon, croisé, lyons, mirror, nacré, panne, weave of, velveteen, venetian cloth, , lace, , , , lace, gros point, lace, raised point, lace, rose point, point lace, flat, point lace, grounded, venice, point plat de, vertical looms, vestings, vinegar solution for voile, , , , printing of, setting colors, w warp beam of loom, of material, wash cloths, , fabrics, shrinking and setting colors in, - satin, washable laces, cleaning, washing durable laces, frail laces, water frame, arkwright's, weave, basket, cord, diagonal, , double-cloth, , figure, , lace, lappet, , leno, of brocade, of diaper patterns, of granite, of huckaback, of wool material, design and, panama, pile, , plain, sateen, , satin, , tabby, taffeta, twill, , weaving and finishing processes of silk, battening in, carpet, cotton, curved-warp, weaving, history of, nature and history of, of linen, of woolens, origin of, picking in, principles of, shedding in, straight-line warp, use of drop box in, weft of material, weight of fleeces, weights, coat, in curtain hems, whipcord, illustration of, whitney, eli, , whorl, wide-wale effect in wool material, illus- tration of, width of curtain casings, of curtain headings, of curtain hems, to an under waist, adding, widths of material to select, wild silk, window decorations, windows, curtains for bathroom, curtains for bay, curtains for bedroom, curtains for casement, curtains for door, curtains for kitchen, curtains for living-room or dining-room, types of, woof of material, wool, blankets, blending of, carbonizing of, countries producing, dusting of, dyeing in the, fiber test for, fiber, variation in, for woolens, carding of, for worsteds, carding of for worsteds, combing of, for worsteds, gilling of, lace, manufacture, first processes in, material, design and weave of, material, illustration of bird's-eye effect in, material, illustration of brocade effect in, material, illustration of cord effect in, material, illustration of crêpe effect in, xviii index wool material, illustration of diagonal effect in, laterial, illustration of hair-line effect in, material, illustration of herringbone effect in, material, illustration of pebble effect in, material, illustration of pepper-and-salt effect in, material, illustration of rib effect in, material, illustration of shepherd's-check effect in, material, illustration of twill effect in, material, illustration of wide-wale effect in, material, physical condition of, materials, purchasing, oiling of, origin of, scouring of, sorting of, supply, table of, taffeta, tests for, yolk of, woolens, carding of, finishing processes for, manufacture of, picking of, woolens, spinning of, weaving of, worn curtains, mending torn or, fringe of rug, replacing, pile in rugs, or carpets, replacing, . spot in clothing, reinforcing a, worsted yarn, spinning of, worsteds, carding of wool for, combing of wool for, drawing and doubling of yarn for, finishing processes for, gilling of wool for, manufacure of, woven lace, machine-made lace, rugs, rugs, bottom filling for, rugs, material for, | rugs or carpets, preparing rags for, wyatt, john, y yarn, dyed in the, for worsteds, drawing and doubling d spinning of worsted, yolk of wool, z zibeline, , illustration of, ing of, mending torn of, " replacing, ºr carpets, replaciº g, reinforcing a l; pinning of, g of wool for, . ool for, oubling of yar: * ises for, for, ce, ing for, º, preparing rags #! y wing and doº d, tx .c iomestic art in woman's education. iutman library aii harvard university library of the graduate school of education domestic art in woman's education for the use of those studying the methoi of teaching domestic art and its place in the school curriculum by anna m. cooley, b.s. assistant professor of iomestic art in tae teacaers colleie, columbia university new york charles scribner's sons hasvako uimivtk.sity fi&wuate school of eiucation ttt&m, c iutman ubrajjt ■'my library of the graduate school of education i { copyaiiat. i»i i, by charles scribner's sons to my grandmother anna maria cooley preface the permanency of domestic art as a feature in the education of woman is assured. it is so vital an expression of her nature that any curriculum which does not include training for the home sphere ignores the very centre about which her life revolves. many of the home talents are innate and develop naturally, but many he dormant because untrained. when woman begins to preside over her own home, she soon discovers her limitation if she has not had the advantages of training along the lines of household arts and economics. this book is not an argument for the introduction of domestic art, for that is un- necessary, but it is hoped that it may be of value to those who do not see its relationship to other ele- mentary school subjects nor the place it may occupy in high schools, colleges, or trade schools. domestic art has suffered because many have tried to teach it who were not fully prepared to do so, and who have failed to see the vital relationships and the thought content involved. the subject has vii viii preface been so poorly presented in some places that it has naturally lost favor, but this is not because it lacks content. it is hoped that this little book may be of assistance to those who, knowing the practical tech- nique of domestic art, may seek for more light on methods of presentation of subjects and planning of courses of study in various types of schools. it is also hoped that it may offer suggestion of the content which is involved in the study of domestic art. the author wishes to express her thanks to the students in her classes who have kindly permitted the use of some of their class plans, illustrative of courses of study suggested for different kinds of schools, and to her friend and teacher, mary schenck woolman, for her enthusiasm and inspiration which prompted this work. anna m. cooley. january, . contents part i. some problems confronting those interested in teaching domestic art chapter pate i. the field of domestic art ii. the relation or domestic art to education iii. the necessity for study of the pupil. . iv. problems connected with the presentation of domestic-art subjects v. the study involved in planning a domes- tic-art lesson or series of lessons . vi. the economics of domestic art .... vii. how to keep in touch with progress in the domestic-art field part ii. domestic art in the elementary school viii. division of subject-matter for the ele- mentary school ix x contents ix. the factors involved in planning a course of domestic-art work for the ele- mentary school (a) course of study for grades - , showing use of many lines of hand-work of which domestic art is but one phase. (b) course of study for new york elementary school, grades - , showing use of domestic-art work. (c) course of study showing use of textile phase of industry as one line of industrial thought for grades - . (d) course of study in domestic art for ele- mentary school, grades , , , with emphasis on the vocational aspect of the work. (c) course of study in domestic art for ele- mentary schools, grades , , , . part iii. the relation of domestic art to secondary education x." can domestic art contribute to the gen- eral aims of secondary education? . xl the selection and planning of work for the secondary schools (a) part of household arts course for secon- dary school of classical type. (b) domestic-art course for manual training high school. (c) domestic-art course of study for manual training high school. (d) dressmakers' course in technical high school. contents xi part iv. domestic art in higher education chapter pate xii. domestic art as a part of college training for women xiii. domestic art in other higher institutions of learning a selected bibliography of books helpful in the study of the various phases of domestic art domestic art in woman's education part i some problems confronting those interested in teaching domestic art chapter i the field of domestic art the term domestic art as applied to part of woman's education has been in use for about twenty confusion of years. during the past five or six years terminology. a confusion f terminology has arisen, and throughout the west the term domestic science is used to designate all the arts centring about the home. in another section of our country, especially the middle west, household arts is used synony- mously with domestic science, so that naturally one often hears the questions, "what is domestic art?" "what is domestic science or domestic economy?" domestic art and "what is meant by household arts?" the last title is probably the one which should be made the general term to include all the arts and sciences which centre about home-making. this seems large enough to include all of the following subjects, which may be classified thus: physics and chemistry. physiology and hygiene. chemistry of foods and dietetics. cooking and serving of meals. bacteriology and biology. laundering. economics and sociology. history of foods, preparation, and manufacture. home nursing and invalid cookery. keeping household accounts, of food, shelter, and clothing, etc. domestic service. household sanitation and decora- tion. institutional and home shopping. repairing and renovating. history of home, sociology, eco- nomics, and business law. domestic science. household manage- ment. the field of domestic art domestic art. art, especially design in relation to the home, its furnishings, and dress. sewing, dressmaking, millinery, embroidery, crocheting, and knit- ting. study of textiles, their history, manufacture, and properties in relation to use. repairing and care of clothing. physiology and hygiene of clothing. history of architecture and dress. economics and sociology. this broad outline is perhaps suggestive of what the work of this field of household arts may mean, woman's it is all woman's realm, and there is no sneraiiydwe°u reason why woman should not run her organized. household on scientific and artistic prin- ciples. in the business world one finds that man is ever ready to try and adopt any new method of keep- ing books, filing, or cataloguing, and is constantly on the lookout for new developments of science which will send him ahead of his competitors. he would not expect success without system, organization, knowledge, and principles upon which to base his planning. if woman is to be trained to run her domestic art household scientifically and artistically, to know the meaning of the true home-life, and the study of family and the child, teachers must certainly be well trained to introduce this subject into the school curriculum, so that when the mothers of the coming generations rear their children it will be on a foundation which will tend toward their development into truly good citizens—physically and morally strong. the subject-matter included under any one of these heads involves so many subjects that it is not the attempt of this book to describe them all—rather, attention will be centred (for discussion of subject- matter) about the field of domestic art, as one phase of the household arts, although the suggestions for methods of teaching, planning of courses of study, relation to general education, may be as truly appli- cable to the fields of domestic science and household management. one generally hears the term " domestic art" in use in relation to sewing in either the elementary or high school. this is a very narrow usage of common use oi domestic the term when one considers all the sub- art narrow. , . jects above outlined and the underlying ideals and content which such subjects imply. the ethical, social, and aesthetic values are often lost the field of domestic art sight of and the material or utilitarian side made the main issue. not but that this should be strongly emphasized, but the field may be so much broader and the results so much more satisfactory, in relation to both work and child, if teachers are trained with a view to including the cultural and educational foundations of this great field of work. a closer analysis of subject-matter closer analysis of domestic art may be advisable before discussing the subject-matter, relation of this field of work to general education, or to trade and industrial life: . hand sewing.—the direct application of stitches to articles of interest to the pupils. . machine sewing.—the use of foot-power and electric-power machines, the latter especially in schools of trade type, in garment-making, dressmak- ing, and other articles. . drafting of patterns.—some form of simple rule drafting or system drafting, pattern modelling, and use of bought patterns. . millinery.—the making, designing, and trim- ming of hats of various styles for all seasons. . embroidery.—the use of stitches in decoration of garments, household articles or other furnishings. . crocheting and knitting.—the making of simple articles—forming foundation formore advanced work. domestic art . repairing and care of clothing.—patching, darning, remaking; economy in relation to planning for one's wardrobe—or for family wardrobe; adapta- tion of garment to use. . textiles.—this may include the study of the textile arts of weaving, netting; properties of textiles in relation to use; history of the evolution and manu- facture of textile industries; dyeing and cleansing; study of widths, prices, and qualities of materials, as well as adaptation to use. . hygiene in relation to dress and furnishings. . art in relation to design and color for use in the home and for dress; arrangement of interiors of houses; suitability of line and color in relation to dress; study of general principles of design. . woman's relation to the social field.—discus- sion of sweatshop labor; leagues for social betterment, as consumers' and municipal league; bargains; ethics of shopping; development of social conscious- ness; training in accuracy, neatness, foresight, and responsibility. . history.—industrial history; history of archi- tecture; history of costume; development of house- hold art, and history of handicraft. . economics and simple business law.—ec- onomics of the home, relation of expenditure to in- come. household management, especially in rela- tion to purchase and care of clothing and furnishings. the field of domestic art household arts, of which this domestic art is a part, has been happily defined comprehensive term which includes the scientific study of all matters and means which will contribute to the happiest, health- iest, and most efficient family life." reference for study "history of home economics movement," bevier and usher. chapter ii the relation of domestic art to education in order to see the relation of industrial work to education, it is necessary for us to consider, in a few industrial statements, the meaning of education pa°r?ofrduca- as ifc is now generally accepted. the tion- following words seem to sum up the situation: "the education of the individual is the process of adjustment to or participation in the world of social relationships and in the fund of social ex- perience, the ideals and methods which those relation- ships conserve." we have, therefore, the little child in our midst, the little child who is to be brought to a realization of his own self and place in the world and to see his relation to the progress of events. all the culture of the race is his "spiritual possession" and the unknown land through which he is to be guided, in order that he may become an efficient individual. relation of domestic art to education ii there are two points for us to keep before us, in considering the relation of industrial work to edu- cation: . how can it help to interpret the child's social relationship? . can industrial work help him to trace the progress of events which have led to present civiliza- tion and help him to become intellectually, emotion- ally, and volitionally adjusted? people have been slow to realize that hand-work has been a potent factor in the spiritual and mental development of nations. there is a longing in every soul for expression. there are many useless people in the world to-day because of lack of training in the industrial arts. the individual must be given a chance to express and the mind allowed to react to the ideas and impressions received, in order that through use there may be the necessary brain devel- opment and adjustment to new conditions. from time immemorial man has worked with his hands, and his time and attention have been utilized hand-work as in tne production of things both use- old as man. ful and ornamental. "necessity" very often was the "mother of invention," and the need for food, shelter, and clothing led to the gradual de- domestic art velopment of industries, from the simple hand-work to the elaborate products of the factory system of to-day. whether, then, through necessity or simply because of joy in expression through the hands, the world is to-day a rich treasure-house stored with the wonder- ful products which man has created. the instinct for production is not dead, but will last as long as man, for to create is a divine and god-given instinct. froebel, in his study of the child, realized that his natural activity could be utilized and turned into channels which would lead to his gradual physical, moral, and intellectual development. he believed this should be of the head, heart, and hand. for that purpose he introduced the gifts, occupations, songs, and plays, and allowed the child to invent and create. joy and happiness in work were the results. for some time kindergarten training was a pre- carious feature in education, but now that this branch has been incorporated in the public froebel real- ised the value school systems and colleges, and finds of hand-work. . a place even in university work, it seems an assured fact that children are to receive some of their early training in the kindergarten. here their crude ideas are worked out through the materials relation of domestic art to education offered, and the child improves in his ability to ex- press himself with his hands—for expression is neces- sary if images are to be clear. this hand-work satisfies the early craving of the child for play and the practical, and the gifts and occupations become playthings in his hands, but, unknown to him, things of educational value. when the child leaves the kindergarten and passes to the grade school, too often the change is a very abrupt one. there is a lack of the old-time freedom, and an absence of the play materials. children then begin to lose interest, and the attention is often forced rather than spontaneous, and teaching ceases to be as effective. as a help in alleviating this difficulty, hand-work, as one of the mediums of expression, has been intro- the introduc- duced into many of the grade schools, pational way. hand-work as manual training is most effective when taught in relation to the other work of the grade, so that there is unity and a harmonious development. by manual training is meant not simply work which is spontaneously interesting and keeps the child alert and active, but work which is tion of hand- work into schools. sometimes in correlation with other sub- jects, but more often simply in an occu- domestic art educationally effective. this effectiveness is in the hands of the teacher, and will be worked out by her if she understands the theory back of real manual training and the true relationship to industrial life. it is not that hand-work is to be introduced as a study which is a unity in itself, but with other studies which go to make up the curriculum, so that it may help to vitalize the rest and bring the child directly in contact with the world and the reality of things. the constructive activities may be made the centre of all studies and radiate into all life, beginning primarily with the home, which is nearest akin to the life and interests of the young child. through the different lines of hand-work the child becomes acquainted with the materials and processes which have made social life what it is, because it has contributed to culture a share of the scientific, literary, aesthetic, institu- tional, and religious inheritance of the child. in tracing the elements in the curricula of various ages, one notices that they are the result of the domi- hand-work nant social tendencies. the seventeenth nacular and the realistic subjects into education. the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were characterized formerly a part of household work. century saw a change in the character of society, and the introduction of the ver- relation of domestic art to education by the prominence of the scientific element. the twentieth century is particularly the era of economic advancement, and we may hope to see the industrial element becoming more and more a feature of mod- ern education. this revolution in economic changes has caused a shifting of population and brought about changes in habits of living. people living a nomadic life are, in their family group, economically sufficient unto themselves. when society developed and people grouped themselves in towns and villages the neighborhood produced nearly all that was necessary for life. the industrial occupations were centred especially in the home, where all the processes of development were seen and participated in, from the raising of the wool and flax to the spinning, dye- ing, and weaving of the cloth, and the production of all the necessities of life. this work was partici- pated in by all the members of the household. since the industrial revolution and the rapid ex- pansion of the factory system the elements in the curriculum have not kept pace accordingly. while this change brings so much that is good, it also almost eliminates much that was of value in the old neighborhood system. should not our modern curriculum respond and, if possible, try to make i domestic art amends to the child for the lack of some of the old- time family training, where the child was taught to do in the home, and to be responsible, and to feel that he had an economic share in production? should not the training which is given the children in the upper grades be planned to prepare them for direct bearing a society which is industrial, as ninety- ssssl five per cent d not pass •mt hisher tng for life. schools? is not hand-work for the little people if directly connected, first with home inter- ests and then with the evolution of the social in- dustrial interests, a step in the right direction, keeping in mind what the future development must be? can we not, through making these construc- tive activities a part of our curriculum, acquaint the child with the things which make for true culture and liberal education, as well as give him an introduction to industrial life? let us teach him the wisdom of foresight which is so essential to success, to be a responsible being with obliga- tions toward his fellowmen; let us acquaint him with their needs and conditions, that his sympathies may become broadened and a deeper reverence for man and god may result. if acquaintance with industrial work can help to contribute some of these i domestic art selection of desirable work for life. a connection is made between life and technical work. if properly taught, domestic art should have a highly moral ef- fect. it makes for perfect sanity and mental health, it develops the will and power of inhibition which is the root of self-control in morals; it makes for firm- ness and force of character. a product which is correctly and neatly finished certainly fosters this. it must be clean, simple, accurate—this accuracy, of course, after a child has passed the age of about nine years. girls learn to understand the value of a well-made article. this affects supply and demand, as woman is the greatest consumer, and will also affect the salary of the wage-earner. good articles will be in demand. domestic art also gives an understanding of materials, which will be of economic value in the home, and will also regulate the materials put upon the market. there is certainly created a greater respect for labor. while learning through this natu- ral method of doing, the observation, judgment, and imagination of the girl are all receiving training. a vital connection is being made with the home, for this new interest finds expression there and opportu- nity for further cultivation. girls value most highly relation of domestic art to education the ability to utilize things which they have, and are interested in making home comfortable and pleasant through decoration and the ability to do which this new art makes possible. there is an ever-increasing pleasure in correct color combina- tions and restful effects, and increased enjoyment of the beauties of nature. as the girl advances in the work she also learns how to plan her wardrobe eco- nomically, how to purchase wisely, and how to make her own clothes so that they will be adapted to her use and personality. this may lead her into trade work as a means of livelihood, for the opportunities are many which this field of domestic art affords. there is no stronger argument for this work than this, that it should make her a more truly capable woman, one sympathetically awake to the difficul- ties of others, able and ready to lend her trained hand, and responsible to bear her share of the bur- den of life. references for study "the child and the curriculum," dewey. "education of man," froebel. "the meaning of education," butler. "school and society," dewey. "the place of industries in elementary education," k. dopp. chapter iii the necessity for study of the pupil one may be very familiar with the technique of domestic art and have intimate knowledge of the underlying thought content, may know knowledge of child nature how to present all of these thoughts, important. ^ ^ ^ ^ teacher of domestic art because of lack of understanding of the different periods of childhood and girlhood. it is equally as important as technique of subject-matter to know the intricacies of working of the mind with which the teacher must deal and the effect various kinds of work may have on the pupil at different periods. a study of the many expressions of the self-activity of the child is a basis for planning the curriculum—either of general studies or of domestic art in relation to them. "the case is of child. it is his present powers which are to assert themselves; his present capacities which are to be exercised; his present attitudes which are to be realized. but save as the teacher the necessity for study of the pupil knows, knows wisely and thoroughly the race experi- ence which is embodied in.that thing we call curri- culum, the teacher knows neither what the present power, capacity, or attitude is, nor yet how it is to be asserted, exercised, and realized." the problem before us in planning hand-work for children, is one which should centre directly in the work should child. we should begin with him and , bear directly end ith nim in our consideration, and on interests of' the child. plan our work with his growth and de- velopment in view. the teacher must select the right stimuli for those impulses which are to be employed and must know the aim and direction of movement in planning—there must be a basis for ac- tion. the experience of the teacher therefore must interpret the mind of the child and lead on to some definite aim. it is not the accumulation of knowledge which we hope to heap upon him in our planning, or direct information in relation ,to concrete things, but to bring him to a realization of his relation to life. it has been said that ""knowledge is not valuable, but knowledge as a function in life is indispensable." the little child loves to do, to act, to express what he sees in a constructive way. he first learns to domestic art construct through play in making believe. he loves to see results quickly and to make wholes rather the little child. for tne processes by which they are made. both are necessary for complete education. he wishes to imitate all phases of adult activity, but as play, not as work. there are, though, occasional periods when the child likes to feel that he is working, even though it is in a play way, as helping mother to dust, clean, or sew. the real work attitude comes later in the child's life and must be kept in mind in planning courses in hand-work. but play as well as work is necessary in the development of mind and most of early development comes through play in games, etc. aristotle and plato would have us realize the value in play, and froebel's philosophy is based upon the development of the child through his activity in play, games, and occupations. later he must learn to work in order to become truly socialized and be taught to see that products of work have an economic value. the child loves also to investigate, to explore— and this may later lead him to science. he under- stands things and the lives of those about him, love of ex- pression and construction of than parts of things. at this period he cares more for the actual products than the necessity for study of the pupil in so far as he realizes his ability to do and sees his relation to the lives of others. he finds himself in the midst of a complex world. per- love of ex- ploration and haps to him it may not appear so, for investigation. . he is directly concerned with the con- crete world which lies nearest to and just about him. his interests centre in the home, the people and animals there, the personal attachments and love and sympathy of those about him. therefore the early activities in school in order to connect with the home and be vitalized should centre there also. he loves best the things which he understands best. the teacher must guard against the impulse in children to do things at random and must direct the impulse into paths where real value may be the result. the child likes also to talk about his work; the mind must react and express itself if it has been avenues of ex- impressed. the teacher of hand-work thought expressed in words and the act as con- structed. a chance for additional expression is through the medium of pencil or crayon. hand- work, then, should mean for the child interpretation pression for the young child. must utilize this instinct and help the children to see relation between the domestic aet of this social life through the mediums of form, color, and materials. because of the above natural instincts of little children, we must, in planning our work, utilize them to best advantage in order to make hand-work a vital part in education. owing to the reasons given above, the constructive work of the later kindergarten and first grade should be related to the child's home life. early grade work to relate this will necessarily vary with locality to home life. . and environment. the central thought of mother, family, household activities may be the starting-point for nearly all. if the children under consideration are those in a small village, the inter- ests following the home would be those of village life, construction in relation to the farm and agri- cultural life, the village blacksmith, store, church, etc. by the time he reaches the second or third grade and his own surroundings have in a degree been interpreted, he may be introduced to the lives of other little children and primitive people and their methods of securing food, shelter, and clothing, which have come to him so easily. in later years, after comparisons have been drawn, he may be led from the knowledge of rural life to that of the the necessity for study of the pupil industrial life of city, state, and national affairs, in order that he may understand something of their complexity and his relation to it. by the time the high school period is reached, the relation of trade and industry may be understood and the child have some knowledge of the relationships existing in them and of the obligation resting upon him to share in the activity. if the locality of the city child is the starting-point in planning, the construction of things in relation . ,. , to home interests may again be the locality and j environment centre, and the radiation from them into asect the , . course of the field of interests nearest akm to the study. ^ qf or p or the compari- son of present life as the child knows it with that of more primitive people, the different stages of hunting, fishing, and agricultural development, in some locali- ties must necessarily be postponed a little later than the second grade, until the children are ready for it. there can be no hard and fast rules in relation to the general course of study or particular relation of hand- work to it. the real spirit of work or construction as work does not begin until about the twelfth year of the child's life. then the industrial work may be closely domestic art related to the particular trade or industry of a lo- cality. with the young children one must keep in main aim with muid the idea that finished products of the young nne technique are not the end and aim child is train- ing. in view. it is the child's development results ex- pected to be first and foremost and one must expect cru e' rather crude results. owing to the physi- cal growth and peculiar nervous development of chil- dren, a large variety of materials for constructive work should be used, and only those which excite to broad action in which no details of perfection are required. in the use of these materials and processes there must be adjustment to the mental and physical capacities of the child. as dr. dewey says, the school should represent to the child the real life of society. it should be a miniature community because an individual can have no life apart from society and he can realize his aims best by making them accord with the desires of society in general. the work of education in the school, therefore, whether through hand-work or otherwise, is to help the child to see his relation to the whole. all the possessions of the race are to be bestowed upon the individual so that he may carry the necessity for study of the pupil them forward with the additional thought and prog- ress of his times. here, also, he is to glance ahead into the future and to learn to take his place among the men of real life. here he must learn justice, order, and co-operation; he must develop inde- pendence of action which shall later become leader- ship. because the child is a social being and the school is to be made his little world, attention should be value of group given to group work. through it the interests and natures and to work for a common good or whole. "the mere absorption of facts or truths is so expressly individual an affair, that it tends very naturally to selfishness. when children are engaged in active work, helping others, it sets free the powers of the one who gives and is an in- centive to the one helped." while the individual parts mean much to each child as his contribution or help toward the whole, it is the whole result which is of value to the little community because of the co-operative spirit expended in bringing them together. this combination of interests has been happily called orchestration, and surely it reaches work in devel- opment of the child. child learns to work with others, to respect and adapt himself to various domestic art that where the work is the expression of joy, and good will and sweet harmony are the result. if, then, through group work and individual con- structive work the child is made to feel that he is really a part of society in his little world, and is given an insight into the culture of the race possessions and industrial development and a foresight as he works with others, surely this work may be said to con- tribute its share in the vital education of the child. the task before the teacher is one of great respon- sibility. we are to make this hand-work one means of developing the child in the fullest possible manner. during the early grades, the child is not able to make the fine adjustments which are required for fine sewing—one expects crude results, but by the time the fifth grade is reached the teacher should demand more accurate work and greater neatness. very often teachers neglect to do so and the result is that slovenly habits of action are formed. it is during the period from eight to fourteen sciousness and is able to suggest opportunities of close contact between teacher and girl a factor in development. years of age that the teacher of domes- tic art has an unusual opportunity, be- cause of her close contact with the girls, to help develop their social con- the necessity for study of the pupil thinking about and helping others in a practical way. it is during this period too that supplementary talks on clothing, hygiene, appropriateness of dress are of particular value—and make much impression. it is the period when the inner life of the girl is con- cealed from others and is so often fraught with many dangers. the teacher of domestic art has many responsibilities here, for comparatively few girls pass beyond the elementary school education, so that the time is limited in which much must be accomplished if the teacher would be of the greatest possible aid. as the girl enters upon the age of adolescence, the teacher should understand this period of girlhood physical and not only adapt her work to it, but £xtod * make the most of the expressions of this adoieacence. period of development. it is the time of abrupt bodily transitions, the girl is restless, is grow- ing rapidly and needs plenty of rest, and exercise, proper food and clothing. the teacher of domes- tic art should be alive to these things, and the girl should not be overtaxed nervously nor the eyesight strained. it is often possible for the domestic-art teacher to discover defects of eyesight that may not have been noticed by any one else. because of the ° domestic art intimacy of relationship between teacher and pupils, the hopes, ambitions, needs of the girls are expressed to the teacher, so that opportunity is afforded to guide them perhaps in choosing their life work. as- sistance may often be given which will affect the whole life trend of the girl, for this is the period of intense ambition for her own life, either in respect to marriage, self-support, or even socially in the school or community. it is the age of interest in manual training, when the development of the muscles gives strength for the control and use of tools. the most important service the domestic-art teacher can render during this period is to instruct the girls in the im- portance of proper clothing and food as the foun- dations of good health. this aspect of the work also emphasizes the principles of domestic science. during this adolescent period, the domestic-art teacher should be conscious of the mental changes mindedness as it were. it is the time of the develop- ment of the reason and judgment and should not be hampered by too much memorizing. there is every opportunity for developing judgment in the domestic- art work—and the teacher may soon learn whether mental changes. of her pupils. she will be aware of a cer- tain increase of vigor of mind and open- the necessity for study of the pupil the service is of the lips or based on individual grasp of the problem. girls are often lazy and are content to accept subject-matter which is given to them without question, whereas a boy would wish to know "the why." generally the girl is alert, bright, and interested in things—and the teacher should utilize this interest in organized activity. this is the period when girls are apt to worry over their prob- lems and to have little patience with the minute, exact, methodical. it is also the period of certain emotional development, and consequently it often happens that the young teacher with a happy, spontaneous nature is more apt to be successful with girls of high school age than an older person perhaps better trained and more experienced in technique. this is the period of storm and stress, of excitements, ambitions, hopes—religious doubts and introspections, sex impulses, and the adoration of teachers and friends. all these impulses must be understood by the domestic-art teacher if she will deal wisely with the girls under her care. it is the period of great responsiveness to all stimuli whether right or wrong, the period of development of self- conceit and superior airs, and that welcomes new, radical, or even revolutionary thoughts. there can a domestic art be no more important field than this for the domestic- art teacher, and comparatively few teachers plan with foresight to make the lessons with the girls of this age really tell. it is the time when true impres- sions can be made and a responsibility and social conscience awakened that will have a lasting value. the close contact of the domestic-art teacher makes it possible for her to give instruction which will train for character and the development of intelli- gent and independent women who will be the back- bone and safeguard of our nation. there will probably be many discouragements for the teacher during this period. it will be necessary to have faith and to await results which may be long in appearing. mr. stanley hall says that at this period the soul is so sensitized that nothing is lost. it is the period of insight and receptivity—and the harvest will surely come—the mental life is becoming organized and permanently fixed and there is a power of apprehension and appreciation which is far beyond the ability of the girl of this period to express. it is a big problem and one of great responsibility for the teacher of domestic art to know when and where to help to strengthen, to direct or inhibit the various impulses of this critical period of womanhood. the necessity for study of the pupil references for sttoy "the child and the curriculum," dewey. "the educative process," bagley. "notes on child study," thorndike. "adolescence," g. s. hall. "the meaning of education," butler. "school and society," dewey. chapter iv problems connected with the presenta- tation of domestic-art subjects it has been said that teachers are born, not made. not every one who understands the technical work of the field of domestic art is able to present it— even in some cases after much training. neverthe- less a conscientious study of the child or person to be taught and an intelligent understanding of the best methods of presentation of that subject-matter can but produce decidedly better results. as we have noted, the mass of subject-matter which we call domestic art is so very broad that it is not possible to present all the phases of it to the children in the elementary or high schools. special discussions of curricula for various types of schools will follow, in other chapters, but it is the purpose of this to sug- gest the best way to present different phases of the domestic-art work and to leave the selection of subjects for later discussion. one must keep con- stantly in mind the person or child to be taught, domestic art no teacher of domestic art, or any subject in fact, should approach her class without some definite plan the teacher's of action in mind. much time is wasted preparation. in this field of teaching because of lack of clearly defined ideas on the part of the teacher, and lessons are conducted in a haphazard way which could have been brought to the point had time been given to thoughtful preparation. a special chapter will be devoted to the subject of lesson planning and the thought involved in correct presentation of this subject. every detail of preparation in the way of materials for illustration should be arranged before the hour for the lesson arrives. the failure to have at hand a demonstration model or tools may often mar the effect of an otherwise good lesson. there are many children who see things with their eyes only and to whom a spoken word in rela- niustration tion to direction means very little. for of lessons. actuaj demonstration on the frame or cloth is of greatest value. it is not neces- sary to have a regular store frame—a piece of un- bleached muslin attached to the blackboard frame with thumb tacks will answer every purpose. a large darning needle and red or black germantown presentation of subjects yarn complete the outfit. the stitches should be large enough for all to see without difficulty. the blackboard is also a valuable adjunct and should supplement the demonstration frame. the teacher of domestic art should be ready to illustrate as she talks and to represent the stitches with needle in position if it is a sewing lesson, or to outline the points made in discussion of other subjects. lessons may also be illustrated by pictures, when talks on textile and household art subjects are given, and by collections of other exhibits when materials, etc., may have been discussed. trips to museums sup- plement these as another avenue of illustration. it is always well to have illustrations of completed articles in which the stitch or lesson to be taught is plainly emphasized so that additional application for use may be really seen as well as discussed in class. every complete domestic-art laboratory should have some cases for illustrations, not only of completed articles that have been made in class, but for studies of ethnological subjects in connection with the field of domestic art. basketry, pottery, weaving, primi- tive spindles and looms, laces, embroideries, study of historic costume, all help to illustrate the talks and interest the pupils in this field of work. an presentation of subjects discussing courses of study, but certain hints for presentation may be given here. there are so suggestions many phases of this work that the op- ual problems in the lower grades of the elementary school and is often begun in the kindergarten. dyeing of materials may be done in this connection. in the fourth or fifth grades weaving may be given on individual looms and the results joined, forming a rug or textile of value in house-furnishing problems. later in high school, or even before, opportunity may be given for co-operative problems on the colonial type of loom. weaving is often "overdone," especially in the lower grades. as one line of indus- trial study it is of interest and value, but little chil- dren need variety of work and the subjects are so numerous and can with foresight be so grouped as to develop thought in relation to the various fields of industry that there is no excuse for confining the work to this one subject. the reason is apparently lack of willingness on the part of the teacher to exert herself or an absence of originality in her scheme of work. charts will be found of much value in teaching textile work. these may represent for the presen- tation of tex- tile work. portunity is almost limitless. weaving may be given on small looms as individ- presentation of subjects help in either elementary or high school. the teacher may supply books for each textile and plan the clas- sification. the samples, with widths and prices, may be mounted by the children as contributed. in connection with history and geography the interest in textile work will be much increased by study and presentation by the children of informal lectures on the evolution of the various industries connected with clothing and shelter. if these are supplemented with a stereopticon, the interest of the little lecturers knows no bounds. of late years there has been much discussion in normal domestic-art circles as to the use of drafting in elementary and high schools. the the use of drafting and simple drafting of shirtwaist, kimono, patterns. small petticoat is often given in the elementary school, and very often in the high school one finds quite elaborate systems being used. the writer believes that there is a certain value in it all, but as a rule it is very slight. the be- ginning of this line of work and thought may be as early as the fourth or fifth grade of the elementary school, where free-hand cutting of paper dolls' clothes gives an insight in a simple way into the relation between line and figure. this is of great domestic art value to the child. the work is free, never stereo- typed, and these small paper garments may be basted together or real material made into garments using the paper patterns. there is so much to be crowded into the domestic-art work of the elementary school that the writer believes it much better in nearly every locality and under varying conditions for the use of commercial patterns to be taught in the upper grades rather than any form of drafting. if girls can be taught to cut out garments easily and correctly and make simple alterations of patterns, much has been gained. in the ordinary high school, either manual training, or classical, where some domestic-art work is given, some simple drafting and pattern modelling in crinoline is advisable. the simple modelling should precede the drafting, so that the lines of the pattern in relation to figure may be learned. with these relationships in mind, drafting will be quite intelligible and enables the girl to put it to practical use later. if this work is combined the student will have an excellent idea of the mak- ing of real patterns and be able to originate and plan for simple gowns in crinoline as a pattern, thus learning an additional method and one which is more full and natural. presentation of subjects in technical and trade schools it is often advisable that the students study some regular system of drafting and have quite a good deal of experience in making patterns by both of the above methods. this work should be more advanced than that given in the other types of secondary schools men- tioned. the greatest error in the teaching of drafting is the stereotyped dictation method by which it is often presented. this may not be an errors in teaching draft- error where older students with limited mgo patterns. familiar with such work are receiving instruction, but in either elementary or secondary schools where the training of the girls is being considered and drafting is being presented for the first time this method of approach is certainly wrong. the children may actually work it out as they would a puzzle, but there is no real connection of line with the idea of human form and the girls are not being taught to think for themselves. this criticism is especially true of high school teaching. it is possible, however, by a simple developmental method to make the girls think, and to have them understand before they begin to draft the necessity of certain lines, the relation of one line to another, domestic art their relation to the human form, and the possibili- ties of change to suit the different figures and styles. the value of crinoline modelling as a prerequisite will be seen. even unbleached muslin may be used in this connection to advantage, and the modelling done on one another in class. this method of presentation may be accomplished by questioning on the part of the teacher, who must be alert and skilful in order to present her lesson successfully in this way. there is no comparison as far as results are concerned, for the girls gain a thorough mastery of the subject because it is the result of their own thought and can be used later instead of filed in note-books. it is often a debatable question whether machine work should be given to girls between ten and fifteen machine work years of age. this the writer feels must in schools. be left to the decision of the teacher of each group. if the teacher of domestic art knows that the girls in her classes in the elementary school are so conditioned that they must go to work often before the work of the grades is finished, she will feel the necessity of introducing machine work early in order that this knowledge, which is of so much help, may be gained before the girl leaves presentation of subjects school. the teacher must be the judge as to whether there is any physical reason why a girl should not run the machine. as a rule, the short period de- voted to this kind of work is quite harmless and the girls thoroughly enjoy it. in trade schools where the girls may be more closely confined at this kind of work, the teacher should be more careful and watch- ful. as a rule, the high school is the place where the use of machines should be begun, but in many localities it is necessary to begin it as early as the sixth grade. if the girls of a certain school in a cer- tain locality cannot remain after fourteen years of age, this work should be included as one of the domestic-art subjects of value for the school in this locality and should be considered by the domestic- art teacher as subject-matter for her consideration and selection. machine work should be begun on simple articles which will give practice in straight stitching, and use of the simple attachments, before more advanced garment-making is done. aprons, bags, cases of various kinds, covers, pillow-cases, etc., are all simple and offer opportunity for practice. the writer has noticed much time wasted in classes doing machine work. this is nearly always domestic art due to lack of thought and good management on the part of the teacher. she should plan carefully to have the machines always in use and so arrange that some of the class are sewing by hand in prepara- tion for machine work while others are at the machines. an exchange can be made as occasion arises, and in this way no time is lost. there is a difference of opinion between teachers as to the advisability of using single- or double- thread machines with beginners. the writer finds the single thread of value during the early process of learning because it is easily ripped, but difficult to handle because of the necessity for stitching on the right side of the garment. as it is not possible to have two sets of machines, the writer believes that a light-running double-thread machine will prove the most satisfactory in the long run. millinery and embroidery are subjects which may be taught in either the elementary or high school millinery and and may be continued in trade or embroidery. technical schools or classes. the work given in the grades must be quite elementary in character. the children may buy their own frames or hats to be trimmed, or even prepare them from braided raffia. simple lessons in bow-making may presentation of subjects also be given. the domestic-art teacher of each school, however, must decide whether there is time to include millinery in her course and whether it will be of value to her group of girls to have it, rather than some other line of domestic-art work. expert millinery and trimming should not be ex- pected from young girls. even in trade and tech- nical schools the trimming is an art which may be demonstrated by an expert trimmer, but it seldom happens that girls under twenty are proficient in this line or have learned the fundamental technique which would enable them to be good trimmers. this branch of the work requires experts where the work is done for trade purposes; it seems almost innate and can seldom be taught. the high school work in millinery may include the making and covering of all kinds of hats; frame- making, trimming, and renovating. the lessons should be illustrated by blackboard drawings, pict- ures from magazines, and demonstrations. visits to shops are of value in this connection for study of styles. the type of school will determine how much of this work should be given and whether this or some other domestic-art subject is of greatest value to the girl in the limited time allowed. domestic art simple embroidery may also be given in the grades. in the lower grades this may be in the use of overcasting, blanket stitch, and others, as a means of decoration on coarse burlap pillows, table covers, etc.; or in the upper grades, outline, cross, chain, kensington, darning, satin stitch may all be applied on articles which will be of interest to the pupils. design work given by the art instructor should be closely in touch here, as well as in high school, where more advanced embroidery may be given if time permits and it seems of most worth to the group of girls considered. there is always interest in this class of work, and it may be presented all along the way either as supplementary work or to introduce variety into the course. needlebook covers, pin-cushions, tray covers, table scarfs, pil- low tops, embroidery of table linen and towels, are simply the beginning of a long list. in high school— lingerie hats, shirtwaists, collars, ties, stocks, gradu- ating gowns, may be ornamented with simple em- broidery. the demonstration frame will be found of use in illustrating the various stitches. it is well for the teacher to collect samples of embroidery and to have as many articles as possible showing the application. presentation of subjects it is not necessary to wait until pupils are of high school age before introducing problems in furnishing and decoration. as early as the first problems in household grade, it is possible to begin with simple furnishings. . , , . suggestions in the relation of line to space, color combinations, wall coverings, etc., ap- plied to the fitting up of small houses or rooms made from soap-boxes, if nothing else is available. a very interesting problem is one in which the whole elementary school may have a share. a room should be chosen, if available, and furnished by the different grades. rugs may be made by some— co-operatively—couch cover, window curtains—sim- ple hangings, pillows, table covers, and baskets, etc., may be added by different classes. if space allows and a suite of rooms can be furnished and actually used by instructors or others, it will be of inestimable value. in many towns or cities by co-operating with large departmental stores or even smaller ones it may be possible to secure loan exhibits of furniture, hang- ings, or house furnishings which if well arranged will be of great value to the pupils. in some schools simple lessons in upholstery may be given with excellent results. talks on hygienic furnishing domestic art should accompany the working out of all these problems. charts illustrating interiors make an interesting variation of domestic-art work. chairs, tables, etc., may be cut from catalogues and ar- ranged on cardboards. color schemes of interiors may be furnished and plans made for the wall, floor, and covering of ceiling. with older girls in high school it is possible to sketch interiors and to color them with water-colors. it is often possible to secure drummers' sample designs for furniture, when some- what old-fashioned, and these may be utilized in the chart work. the furniture houses are quite willing to dispose of them. a model suite of rooms is of great assistance in a high school, but it is to be hoped that all the interiors of the high school class- rooms, halls, and offices may be as attractive as possible. the proper placing of pictures, casts, and plants cannot help having an effect on the general atmosphere of the school. loan exhibits of pictures, school work, etc., are also of help. the high school course in house furnishing may be made very inter- esting, by interspersing the talks with hand-work, either the making of charts and color schemes as sug- gested or the weaving and embroidering of pillows, covers, or other house furnishings. the importance presentation of subjects of the simplicity of furnishing, the planning with reference to use, adaptability, and economy of time, energy, and money, the true home atmosphere and the relation of furnishing to it should all be brought out in the talks or discussions. books and pictures will be found of much help in a course of this kind. lessons in design should go hand in hand with domestic-art work, and all teachers of domestic art should have a good course in design be- design as part of domestic yond whatever study of art and drawing art. general education may have provided. if there is an art instructor in the school, the do- mestic-art teacher should have her co-operation and the two work together in order that unity of action may be the result. designs for all the domestic-art problems may be worked out in this way. paper dolls and their coloring, dressing, sim- ple interiors—all may come under the direction of the art supervisor and in the elementary as well as high school should go hand in hand with domestic- art problems and the two be worked out in harmony. the interest in the art work is much more keen when this definite relationship is seen and understood. one of the most important subjects for growing girls is a knowledge and close acquaintance with the domestic art laws governing health. the influence of proper food and clothing on health cannot be overesti- „ ,_, j mated. it is part of the domestic-art repairing and r hygiene ot teacher's privilege to give talks as sup- clothing as part of this plementary work while teaching the field of work. tecjlnique f sewing, or to have definite periods devoted to the discussion of this subject. this work should be given in a very simple way in the elementary school, but in the secondary schools tests in relation to materials, their strength, warmth, texture, shrinkage, and cleanliness, may be worked out in the laboratory and be of particular value. the talks for either elementary or secondary work should cover such subjects as the following:—the care of the body, cleanliness and use of underwear, the brushing of garments, care of the feet, proper footwear, dressing of the hair, proper hats, the storage of clothing, etc.; many of these may be illustrated by demonstrations. the question of how and when to teach repairing is a much disputed one. as a rule, in many schools the subject is disliked by the girls and there is a loss of interest when repair lessons are announced. this lack of interest need not necessarily follow, and the success of such work will depend on the ingenuity, presentation of subjects skill, and tact of the teacher. perhaps a clever way to present the repair work is between problems of greater interest—just before christmas gifts or some other application of vital importance. simple patch- ing, darning of stockings, and darning of simple rents in woollen or linen materials may be given in the fifth, sixth, seventh, or eighth grades. if pos- sible it is best to begin repair at once on the stocking or garment, but if such things are not available scraps of stockinet or cashmere must suffice. by canvassing among the teachers of a school or impress- ing the children with the necessity of bringing the necessary stockings from home it is quite possible to have a direct application of the repairing. repair- ing which necessitates a knowledge of the construc- tion of garments is a part of high school work, and rebinding of skirts, replacing worn collars or cuffs, patching, replacing parts of worn sleeves, are too dif- ficult to be given to children of elementary school age, for they require good judgment, skill, and technical knowledge of garment-making for proper execution. the yearly festivals are always of interest to the christmas children, and the more nearly it is pos- blfts- sible for the domestic-art teacher to re- late her work to their life interests, the more effective domestic art will be the results. simple christmas gifts may be prepared by children of every grade. they should be simple, appropriate, artistic, and adapted to the use of the little giver. the time devoted to the mak- ing of these may be a part of the regular sewing pro- gramme each year, or it may be given as extra work for those who finish ahead of their class-mates. the christmas season is often a happy time for informal exhibits of the work of the children; the parents may be invited, and a real social feature made of this part of the work. the annual exhibit may be more formal, but the christmas party may show the progress of the fall term of work and be an incentive to many of the children. the rooms and blackboards may be decorated by the children, and the domestic-art laboratory may become a centre of school interest and spirit. if a special room is not set aside for this work, then the principal of the school may be willing to designate a certain room or space for this particular feature of the life of the school. "a place for everything and everything in its place" is a very good general rule care of sup- plies saves with which to start. the work bags or boxes of the children should be care- fully labelled and kept in a conveniently located presentation of subjects place, if possible. extra supplies and materials should be so classified and labelled that they may be found with ease. a system of noting when supplies are low will guard against a general skirmishing about at the eleventh hour for a particular kind of machine needle or a certain number of thread, and the consequent loss of time involved. if the teacher has a special room for her work, she should have the supplies most often used and such materials as she may need for demonstration conveniently at hand. if as supervisor she must travel from room to room in the school, a box for her use may be kept in each room, or one supplied with the few things she is most likely to need carried from class to class. the demonstration cloth mentioned above will be found an almost indispensable addi- tion to this box for the quick demonstration of the method of making stitches. this cloth may be mounted in the frames for such purpose or easily adjusted with thumb tacks to the wooden frame of a wall map and the height so regulated for the use of children as well as teacher. in demonstrating on this cloth the stitches should be very large so the children at the back of the room may have no diffi- culty in seeing. this is of help, for the teacher is domestic art spared the necessity of giving so much individual attention later and time is thus saved for other more important work. references for study "textiles and clothing," watson. "how we are clothed," chamberlain. "a sewing course," woolman. "occupations for little fingers," sage and cooley. "school needlework," hapgood. "domestic art review," february and april, . chapter v the study involved in planning a domestic-art lesson or series of lessons from previous discussion, we have discovered that it is absolutely essential for the teacher of domestic art to know thoroughly her technical subjects. it is also quite as important for her to understand the child or pupil before her, and it is again as truly necessary that she should have some definite plan of action in mind when she brings that subject- matter to the pupils, in order that the best results may be obtained with the greatest economy of time. much discussion might be given to the best method of presenting the domestic-art subjects, but they are so varied, as well as the conditions governing them, that it must be left to the individual teacher to present the type of lesson which is best adapted to the needs of her pupils, their environment, aims, etc., as well as the subject under consideration. it may be best to enumerate the various types, and o domestic art possible to apply the knowledge gained to new situ- ations. by deductive method is meant that way of pre- senting a lesson, which gives first, the rule to be . thededuc- learned, illustrates this rule, and then tive method. expects the pupils to make direct ap- plication. the procedure is from a general state- ment to a particular application until proficiency is gained. care must be taken in presenting any sub- ject by this method that the class is ready for the step or abstract statement when it is presented. variations of the rule cause thought and lead to a better understanding, but the discussions of the class should illustrate why they fall under different heads. by the inductive method is meant the general pro- cedure through reasoning from individual notions to . the indue- generalizations. the reader is referred tive method. to dr mcmurray's book on "the method of the recitation," where the five formal steps are discussed at length. by the first step of preparation is meant the clearing of the ground, as it were, for the new truth to be presented. it is the conversation or questioning which leads to the point of contact between the ideas which are the child's, and the new thought to be presented. the teacher planning a domestic-art lesson l is discovering what is the apperceptive mass of the pupil before her and how far back she must begin in order to make the new truth plain. there may be many avenues of approach in preparing to present the new lesson. new facts are not introduced in this step, but old experiences recalled, which prepare the pupil's mind for the new experiences to follow. between this and the second step of presentation there must be close connection. the questions must be clear, interesting, and definite, and such as will arouse thought. they must follow, too, in close sequence. there must be a definite aim in mind for presentation, an aim for the child as well as for the teacher, whose aim is naturally broader but includes that of the child. the child's aim should be made plain, so that he starts out with a definite plan in mind. the more realistic the teacher can make this the better. the teacher must keep in mind also the doctrine of interest and make the sub- ject vital and arousing. the illustrative material will naturally depend on the subject and age of the child, but should be varied so as to appeal to as many senses as possible. the aim of the lesson to be presented should be constantly in the teacher's mind, and she should not be swerved from this purpose domestic art unless it seems wise in developing her subject to change. this may be due to a discovery that her class is not quite ready for the new thought. the teacher should be quick, alert, and ready to adapt herself to any change in method of procedure when necessary. the main or "pivotal questions" in the new lesson should be firmly in mind, so that should there be a digression it may be possible to return easily to the course of procedure. comparison need not necessarily be made in each lesson, although given as the third formal step. generalizations are comparatively few and very often may not be made until after a series of lessons on a given subject have been presented. by gen- eralization is meant the review by comparison of individual facts, and by picking out the common essential characteristics, the formation of a general notion in relation to a particular set of ideas. this generalization should be given by the pupil in his own words and then supplemented or rounded by the teacher and text-book. this rounds up the sequence of thought, whether it be in a lesson or at the end of a series. the application comes as a test when the new generalization or concept gained is to be used. this, too, may come at the end of a planning a domestic-art lesson lesson, and often not until the end of a series, or longer period of study. in domestic-art lessons the step of application of principles consumes much time. the inductive method is often objected to because it is too slow. then, too, it cannot always be ap- plied effectively to all subjects. it is, however, one of the most useful methods of approach in teaching domestic-art subjects and is used with much success in combination with the deductive approach. general prin- there are certain general principles method'to of methocl, however, for the domestic- bearinmind. art teacher to bear in mind in planning her lessons. . every good lesson should be planned to begin with what is in the child's mind, and proceed to the unknown, that is, there should be some preparation for the second step through use of the old ideas. the psychologist calls this general principle the law of apperception. . there should be two definite aims. first, the teacher's, a general topic to be taught, which means that the teacher knows much more about her subject than she will present to the class, but she selects that part of her knowledge which she wishes to present to the children and adapts it to their needs. the teacher has also for her aim the developing of right domestic art habits, intellectual, motor, and moral, the cultivation of the child's reason, and the training of his powers of appreciation. so we may say her aims are: con- crete or practical, ethical, and social. second, the pupil's aim must be definite, clear, and concrete. if the teacher would hold the interest and attention of her class, she should make the problem or aim as attractive as possible. . in selecting and adapting the subject-matter to be taught, the teacher will bear in mind the age of her pupils, their previous training, and the subject itself. . every good lesson plan should contain certain pivotal questions to be used in the lesson. these should be logical, hold the attention of the class, and control the reasoning powers of the pupils. . the teacher should have in mind definite illus- trative material—the kind, how it is to be used and where introduced to make the lesson effective. this material will help to centre the attention and gain the interest of the class. . the teacher in planning should keep in mind the self-activity of the child. this is to be exercised by him in thinking out his questions and answers— in thinking out his applications and in giving phys- ical expression by doing. . there should be in nearly every lesson a sum- mary or review of the main points covered in the lesson. this should be short, concrete, and quickly planning a domestic-art lesson accomplished, focussing as it were the thought of the hour. . whenever possible there should be some appli- cation of the lesson to broader fields. we have discussed the main points for the do- mestic-art teacher to keep in mind while planning, who make the effort. planning in this way is a benefit, for it enables the teacher to know if she has accomplished all she had in mind. the actual lesson may be compared with the plan step by step, and the points of discord noted. very often the teacher will discover that she has improved on her plan. the self-criticism of a young teacher is bound to count as an element in her success. if the teacher must present the same lesson to several sec- tions of a class, it would be wise to try different methods of approach in presenting the same lesson and compare the results. before planning the lesson of the day, the domestic- art teacher must have clearly in mind, if possible, the plan of action for the year. this will be dis- toung teachers should write out their daily plans. but how is this actually to be done? until one becomes quite experienced it is wise to write out each lesson quite fully. it will more than repay those domestic art cussed under courses of study for elementary and secondary schools. this yearly course will be made outline of up o* a numder of problems to be pre- seneaofiea- sented. a problem may need from one sons to pre- cede the daily to ten lessons, or more, for its com- plan' pletion, and for each one of these day lessons a definite plan should be prepared. before planning for each day it is well for the teacher to make a general scheme, which will give a bird's- eye view, as it were, of the lessons given to the accomplishment of that problem, or to plan the series of lessons so that she may be sure to group all the material to be presented about that series of lessons. by this method it is easy for her to dis- tribute the supplementary material throughout the series, and to keep constantly in mind the results to be accomplished. it is well, too, for the teacher to know what materials are to be used, the amount and cost per child, as well as the illustrative materi- als, books, and supplementary talks. the following scheme for the series of lessons, covering in a general way the work to be accom- plished, may be suggestive, as well as the daily lesson plans which follow. they will serve to illustrate the points made above. planning a domestic-art lesson student plan outline for series of lessons subject.—cooking apron. school.—elementary school, new york. grade.— th. age.— to years. average age, years. number of lessons.—nine approximately— hour each. teachers' aims.— (ethical). to develop self-reliance arising from con- sciousness of ability to do. (social). to emphasize the importance of cleanliness and economy. (concrete). to compass the steps necessary in the planning and making of a cooking aprop. pupils' aim.— to cut and make a cooking apron neatly by machine. finished apron. samples of material suitable for aprons. samples of bleached and unbleached material. hems. stitching. illustrative samples showing j gathering. buttonholes. sewed-on buttons. materials demonstration frame. chalk. blackboard. scissors. pencils. thread. to be used sewing boxes containing tape measure. needles. thimbles. pins. apron lawn for the aprons. buttons. domestic art s t use. i. discussion of choice of material accord- suitability. ing to durability. [ cost. ii. economical cutting. iii. bleaching of materials. iv. making of apron. subject- i (a) laying hems. matter | ( ) basting. (c) stitching. (d) gathering. (e) stroking of gathers. (/) making buttonholes. (g) sewing on buttons. v. kinds of aprons. vi. textile talks on cotton manufacture. cost per child, as cents. note.—this subject-matter to be presented during course of lessons. not in order given, bat this ground to be covered as seems best in daily development of plans. elementary school daily plan. lesson i grade vii. subject.—cooking apron. teachers' aim.—to have pupils gain an intelligent and economical use of material through the planning and cutting of a cooking apron. pupils' aim.—to cut the apron. subject-matter* method note.—step of preparation. this shows the method of questioning and of preparation for the new facts to be pre- sented. it is introductory and leads to new work. introduction. as you know, i have been visit- ing, several days, in your school- room. i want to speak of some- * this subject-matter column should show the material which the teacher has in mind on this subject as best fitted for the children in this particular class. this is the first lesson only on this subject and shows only the subject-matter for the first lesson. planning a domestic-art lesson reference to neatness of desks. the kitchen another place where neatness is necessary. cooking apron. to help keep the work and clothes of the wearer clean. color. material. aprons differ in style of making. durability. cost. according to their use. thing i have noticed while there and that is the neatness of your desks. i was glad to see it because i felt that girls who had formed the habit of keeping their desks neat would be quite likely to be neat about other things, so i hoped your work in sewing would be as neat as your desks. neatness is desirable in many places. it is very necessary in the kitchen. when in the kitchen we not only want to keep the kitchen neat, but want to keep ourselves neat also. what could we make in the sew- ing class which would help to keep us neat when at work in the cook- ing class? why are aprons worn? are all aprons alike? how do they differ? materials suitable for cooking aprons—lawn, cambric, gingham, and calico, etc. an apron worn by a person cooking should always be clean. white or light colors are the most desirable for cooking aprons. of what materials may cooking aprons be made? in what condition should the cooking apron always be? do you think light or dark colors would be best to use for cooking aprons? ° domestic art advantages— ( ) they show when soiled, therefore are not as apt to be worn after they become soiled. ( ) as white soils easily the wearer will be more careful about her work. ( ) white is more cheerful and looks better than a dark color. cooking aprons to be made of apron lawn, which is inches wide and costs cents per yard. other suitable materials, for aprons, to be collected and width and price noted. a pattern is not necessary for a cooking apron when the maker has a model, or a clear idea of the kind of apron desired. size of the apron— apron. bib. belt. straps. width of apron and bib. width of belt and straps inches. size of f wide, inches, hems i why? what are the advantages of white and light colors? length of narrow, j inch. measures taken of person for whom apron is being made. length of skirt. length of strap from waist, over the shoulder. and across the back. size of waist. i have apron lawn for you to use for your aprons, but i would like to have you bring some sam- ples next friday of materials either white or colored which you think would be suitable for aprons. find out the cost and width of the material you select. note.—beginning of the presentation of the new work. the aim being to cut the apron. notice method of developing ideas in relation to cutting. let us see how many things we must think about in cutting out an apron. is it necessary to have a pattern for a cooking apron? after the material is selected what is the first thing that must be decided upon? how may this be determined? (children to take each other's measures. each child to write down her own measures.) planning a domestic-art lesson cut with the warp threads run- ning lengthwise of the pieces. for strength. two widths will be needed. avoid a seam in the centre of the front by dividing one width lengthwise through the centre and sewing one-half width on each side of the whole width. which way of the material will the pieces be cut? why? will one width be sufficient for the skirt of the apron? how many will be needed? would a seam be desirable in the centre of the front? how may this be avoided? two pieces for belt. two pieces for straps. one piece for bib. waist measure taken loosely, i inch allowed for lap and i inch determined? for finishing. what other pieces will be needed? how will the size of the belt be a how can we cut the pieces re- quired from the material we have to the best advantage? - * x *- -> -> a * side width v centre width side width shoulder strap shoulder strap belt belt t x t i" i *" x i ' v (use the board for illustrating, ask children to suggest ways of arranging the parts.) domestic art begin at the straight end of the cloth. where will you begin to cut? pieces to be measured, marked with pins, creased, and cut on crease. compare and discuss different ways of arrangement if the class has suggested them, if not give only one drawing. directions for work. give each child a piece of lawn yards long. pass scissors. work- measuring and cutting of pieces. strip for belt. two strips to go over the shoulder. some material can be measured and torn, but this lawn does not tear satisfactorily so we will meas- ure it carefully, mark with pins, crease, and then cut on the fold. i would like to have you cut your aprons out to-day, but when you measure and crease a line i want to see it each time before it is cut. this is a statement of aim of work for the day. ( ) on one side of cloth meas- ure a j" strip the entire length of the cloth. mark with pins or pencil dots. crease on places marked. after i have seen it, cut on the crease. ( ) measure a " strip off the j" strip in the same manner. ( ) fold the j" strip cross-wise through the centre, be sure to fold the edges together evenly, crease and cut as before. ( ) fold and pin these three strips together. ( ) from the straight end of the cloth measure " on both edges and in the centre, fold on marks and crease, before cutting on the crease see that material is evenly folded and cut across goods along the even edge. planning a domestic-art lesson middle width and piece to be ( ) cut on the fold; this gives divided. two pieces the same size, "! i"- side pieces. ( ) fold one of them length- wise through the centre, crease, and cut. ( ) pin these two pieces to the largest piece you have. ( ) you have one piece left. how long is it? bib. ( ) measure a piece " long and " wide, fold, crease and cut. round corners slightly at lower edge. ( ) fold the small piece that is left and put it in your sewing- box. ( ) fold your work and pin your name on it. work put away. put things away in your sewing- scissors collected by one child. boxes. as soon as your work is put away sit down and face this way. summary of points brought out how many think they could cut in the lesson. an apron out at home like the one we have just cut? suppose you were going to make one for some one at home, who can tell me how to begin it? what would you do next? domestic art student plan outline for series of lessons subject.—weaving rug. school.—elementary. grade— iii. number of children.— . age— - . number of lessons.— . teachers' aims.— (a) practical; weaving rug with pattern. ( ) ethical; habits of accurate thinking and doing, per- severance, and patience. (c) social; relation of rug weaving to home and school, adaptation of material used. pupils' aim.—weaving rug. materials.— pieces cardboard, belt punch, balls jute (several colors), paper, no. tapestry needles, scissors, thimbles. cost per child.— cents. illustrative material.—blackboard, small pieces of canvas showing selvage and warp and woof, large cardboard with bright-colored jute for demonstration, rug on small cardboard partly woven, finished rug. outline of subject-matter.— ( ) weaving rug. planning size, arranging holes for warp thread, threading needles, making knot, putting in warp thread, weaving woof threads (darning, shuttle, heddle, batten), selvage, joining threads, making simple and pleasing stripe for pattern, removing from card, fringing. ( ) accuracy of thought, skill. ( ) jute, cultivation, manufacture, use, adaptation. planning a domestic-art lesson daily plan. lesson subject.—weaving rug. school.—elementary. grade.— d. teachers' aim.—have pupils put in pattern of two stripes and begin weaving centre of rug. pupils' aim.—to weave part of rug. subject-matter drew woof threads too tight, so made width of rug uneven. didn't tighten up the woof enough to make good, firm, solid material. in weaving, the jute was passed under and over the first time across, and over and under coming back. join well in toward centre, never on selvage. leave ends about " long on wrong side. see lesson . method every one looks happy and eager to work this afternoon. i'm glad, for we have a great deal to do and we'll want to do it well. you've heard the old saying, "what's worth doing at all, is worth doing well." i'm sure we all feel that it is worth while to weave a small rug for the doll's house and so it is worth weaving well. let us think for just a second what troubled us in our weaving last week. william, can you tell us? we'll try to overcome those faults to-day and keep the woof threads loose enough to make rug even; also push the woof thread well up to the end every time. just how did we put in the woof threads? who remembers how we piece the thread? domestic art i expect every child to put in two narrow stripes and begin weaving centre of rug. every pupil ought to have a good rug. stripe is to be of different color. begin near centre under same warp thread with first color. weave in two or three threads across for nar- row stripe and six or seven for wide one with few threads of brown between. demonstration on blackboard and large cardboard, illustrating method of going over and under the alternate threads and of piec- ing the woof by lapping near the middle of woven material. demonstrate with bright color. on last row of stripe leave off where you began. cut thread with long end, leaving it on wrong side of rug. pass rugs, jute, scissors. work begins. woven two stripes and begun on centre, keeping width even and woof well battened. tell the class, lulu, what they are expected to do in the next half hour. how many think they can do it, and do it well? good! we'll be first-class weavers. those who have done what i asked them to do, hold up rug, please. we've done very well this afternoon. over and under alternate what are the things we need to threads, careful joining of thread, keep in mind to be good weavers? width of rug, close firm mesh. collect planning a domestic-art lesson student plan outline for series or lessons subject.—making a petticoat. school.—public. grade.— th. age of children.— . number of lessons.— . teachers' aim.—to teach the girl to make a neat, useful petticoat for herself by machine, to give her an understanding of the varying conditions under which ready-made underwear is made, and the girl's responsibility as a consumer. pupils' aim.—to make a petticoat for herself. materials.— (a) actual (for each girl): cambric, lengths. ruffling, j yards. button. thread, no. and no. . needles. scissors. thimble. tape measure. pins. emery. ( ) illustrative: paper. demonstration cloth. pictures of factory life, sweat-shop labor. work of the consumers' league in bettering con- ditions. plackets of various kinds. finished skirts. » domestic art subject-matter.— points covered in making the petticoat: ( ) cutting of the skirt from two lengths of material. ( ) pinning and basting seams. ( ) making french seams. ( ) putting in the straight placket. ( ) preparation of the top of the skirt for the band (sloping, gathering). ( ) fitting the skirt to the band. ( ) putting on the band. ( ) preparation of the bottom of the skirt for the ruffle. (a) curving the bottom of the skirt (not necessary when cutting from a pattern). ( ) creasing and stitching the j-inch tuck. (c) division of skirt into quarters. ( ) preparation of the ruffle: (a) cutting to desired width. ( ) joining. (c) division into quarters. (d) gathering. ( ) fastening of the ruffle to the skirt. ( ) button-hole (practice, then make in the band). ( ) sewing on the button. • daily plan. lesson * subject.—making a petticoat by machine. school.—public.—elementary. grade.— th. length of lesson—one hour. teachers' aim.—to stroke the gathers of the ruffle. to baste a part of the ruffle to the skirt, distributing the gathers properly. * note: the first seven plans are omitted; this is given as a type. planning a domestic-art lesson pupils' aim.—to stroke the gathers of the ruffle. to baste a part of the ruffle to the skirt, distributing the gathers properly. subject-matter to prepare the ruffle for gather- ing, these steps were taken: . cutting of the ruffle to the desired width. . joining of ruffle (french seam). . dividing of ruffle into quar- ters. method tell me very briefly how you prepared your ruffle for the gather- ing—simply name the steps. an embroidery ruffle is prepared in the same way. can you think of any other kind of ruffle that would be prepared in the same way? we seldom get ruffling already prepared for us. if we wish to have a cloth ruffle we must usually cut it and make it. in a cloth ruffle, the woof threads extend the length of the ruffle and the warp threads up and down— the same way as in the body of the skirt. the material cuts to bet- ter advantage in this way and the ruffle looks better (falls into pret- tier folds). in mak: ng a cloth ruffle, a num- ber of strips should be torn across the material. the depth of the strips = the depth of the ruffle when finished + the amount for tucks, hem, and making. how many of you have ever made a cloth ruffle or have seen one made? which set of threads ex- tended the length of the ruffle? why? (teacher shows a cloth ruffle on a skirt.) (teacher makes a diagram on the board to illustrate the way in which the strips are torn for the ruffle.) in measuring the depth of the strips, for what would you have to allow? o domestic art the number of strips needed de- pends upon: ( ) the width of the material. ( ) the width of the skirt around the bottom. ( ) the amount of fulness de- sired (usually j times). what would determine the num- ber of strips needed? after the strips are cut, they are joined. the hem and tucks are then put in. the ruffle is quartered and gathered. (teacher names the steps taken in finishing a cloth ruffle.) before the ruffle is fastened to the skirt, the gathers must be stroked. it was not necessary to stroke the gathers at the top of the skirt, because there were two rows of gathering. in the ruffle there is but one row of gathering, therefore it is neces- sary to stroke the gathers. i shall show you to-day how to stroke the gathers quickly. stroke gathers because it is a help in getting them distributed evenly. (teacher explains reason for stroking gathers and demonstrates the stroking.) for fine materials, stroke the gathers with a coarse needle. for heavier materials, stroke the gath- ers by drawing them between the thumb and forefinger—pressing them. the gathering thread is held firmly—may be pinned to the knee. (to show the importance of stroking gathers, teacher shows two gathered pieces. in one, the gathers will have been stroked j in the other, not.) planning a domestic-art lesson l after the gathers are stroked, the ruffle is ready to be fastened to the skirt. divide the skirt into fourths cor- responding to the division of the ruffle. mark the divisions with several large stitches. since the ruffle was quartered for the gathering, what should be done to the skirt before attaching the ruffle, in order to get the gathers evenly distributed? in pinning and basting the ruffle to the skirt, the following points should be considered: (i) wrong side of ruffle to wrong side of skirt; ( ) joining of ruffle in the back, divisions placed to correspond; ( ) draw up the gathering thread and wind it around a pin; ( ) pin (pins ex- tending at right angles to the gathering thread), distributing the gathers evenly, gathered side next to the worker; ( ) baste (being careful not to disarrange the gathers) j-inch seam. i shall show you how to pin and baste the ruffle to the skirt. (teacher demonstrates the pin- ning and basting of the ruffle to the skirt.) now you may stroke the gath- ers of your ruffle, then fasten the ruffle to the skirt. every girl should get at least one quarter of her ruffle basted to-day. girls work for remainder of practical work, hour, and after work is collected there is a brief summary as sug- gested by the question following practical work. what do you think we must be most careful about in basting the remainder of the ruffle in place? a domestic art students of domestic art in training will find it of great assistance to visit domestic-art classes for observation and discussion. if this can be done in groups, the discussions will prove of much greater value. it is well to have, before visiting a class, a pretty clear idea of the relation of domestic art to other grade subjects, and to have discussed the value of industrial lines of work, methods of presentation, etc. the greater knowledge attained along these lines before visiting, the greater will be the benefits derived, and the eyes will be opened to many things before unseen. there must be some basis for judgment of the lesson observed. it is well, also, for students to visit before there is much basis for judgment and then later, when the thoughts have become better for- mulated and arranged. the students' ideas should not be moulded by the teacher, but liberated so they will think and be free to observe for themselves. the test for the judgment of a domestic-art les- son is whether it is adapted to the physical and psychical nature of the child or pupil. again, an- other tes't is, has the environment been kept in mind? the theory of the student-teacher, or the idea of how the thing is done, the plan of action, is often very different from the actual practice. experi- planning a domestic-art lesson ence or practice should enable a teacher to under- stand herself, and then to formulate her own theory, for it is only with experience that there comes a clearing up of thought. this means that there is control and appreciation of action and that the teacher has reached the creative stage and under- stands the reactions. the following outline may be suggestive to those not used to observing. it is wise to enter the name of class, date, etc., with full particulars in the note- book, under the following heads. the points may be discussed later and much benefit derived from the individual efforts made at observation. observation (a) school. (b) grade. number in class. (c) date, and name of teacher. (d) subject. (e) time allowed. . the pupils— (a) physical condition, general health, sight, hear- ing, any defects. are these considered in any way by teacher, in her plans or instructions? (b) mental aspects. planning a domestic-art lesson (b) class management. ( ) devices for securing attention. ( ) skill and rapidity. economy of time. ( ) storage and distribution of materials. ( ) ventilation, heating, and lighting. order of class-room. ( ) class spirit. ( ) devices for attending to routine matters. (c) personality of teacher. ( ) appearance, manner. ( ) peculiarities of habit. what effect, if any, do these have on the class? ( ) did you notice any particular result of teacher's influence? iii. the equipment— (a) general. (b) illustrative; devices for inexpensive equipment and use. (c) storage of equipment, permanent or tem- porary. iv. the curriculum— (a) notice general curriculum of school. ( ) notice curriculum in domestic art. any at- tempt at correlation. (c) read curriculum of grade under observation, as well as previous work in domestic art. domestic art references for study "the method of the recitation," mcmurray. "teacher's college record," january, . "essentials of method," de garmo. "the educative process," bagley. domestic art this will necessitate certain changes, as the work for the boys must be considered too. in the lower grades the industrial work of which the textile field is one phase may be carried on in the class-room. the many possibilities in the wide range of material for selection make it possible to reduce the cost of this work to five cents per child per* year of one hour a week. many schools allow more than this. the cost of materials will depend too on the person in charge of the work. if left to the individual grade teachers who know nothing of this field of work, there is apt to be a greater waste than if there is a well-trained ingenious super- visor to control costs. such supervisors will com- mand salaries ranging from $ , to $ , and in some instances in large school systems $ , and more. this is really an economy in the long run, for the work will progress more smoothly, it will be better planned, the children will be better taught, with better results, and there will be a saving in expenditure for materials. the permanent equipment in the lower grades may be very inexpensive. a general supply of scissors, emeries, tape-measures, etc., may be taken from room to room if it is not possible to have the economics of domestic art enough for each grade. thimbles may be brought from home by the children and so the cost of perma- nent equipment be reduced to almost nothing. the same may be true of materials used. a teacher who is awake to the possibilities of odds and ends that are thrown into the waste-basket will be able to reduce the cost greatly. if it is possible to have the equipment for each grade, it may be bought as follows: dozen thimbles " emeries " scissors . " tape measures " boxes for work permanent equipment for one dozen children $ . if it is not possible to afford the cloth-covered boxes for the work, as itemized above, envelopes of bogus paper may be made and decorated by the children, or it may be possible to obtain from some local shoe department store boxes of uniform size and shape, for very little cost, and often for^nothing. tools for other lines of hand-work besides the sewing are scarcely necessary. clay work may require a simple wood tool, but one can manage without it, or with an odd bit of wood sharpened to the economics of domestic art sales may be made in this way. it is almost a neces- sity to have a special teacher in the upper grades, and really an economy, although the work is often conducted by the grade teacher. the equipment in the way of tools may cost very little as outlined above, and one set of tools may be used for all the classes; or each grade may have its own, which is of course more desirable. the cost of furnishings for a simple laboratory may be kept very low. the room should be large enough to seat the children comfortably, should be well lighted, the walls tastefully decorated, and have convenient space for storing materials. this room is almost a necessity where the school is a local centre for work and the children of the neighboring schools attend it for their exer- cises in domestic art. this method is adopted in smaller towns and cities in order to reduce the cost. the special room is also an incentive to work. children will often visit it at odd periods for com- pletion of back work, or because of interest in the exhibits and a desire to study. it should be a cen- tre for such information as the teacher of domestic art has to give. there should be low chairs for sewing, work tables, a cutting table, machines, domestic art blackboard, etc. this special room may often be used for other purposes, as the sewing classes may not occupy it during all the periods. on that account it is wise to have folding tables which may be removed when it is necessary to clear the floor space. tables hinged and attached to the walls may be let down and be out of the way when it is necessary to remove them. the following is a list with cost of a simple, inexpensive laboratory equip- ment for grade school use for twenty-four pupils: dozen chairs $ . work tables . cutting tables (kitchen tables stained) . . sewing machines . teacher's desk . "chair . demonstration cloth and needle .... . dozen waist forms . gas stove . flatirons • • • - mirror . total cost $ . good work may be done with the inexpensive equipment. elaborate furnishings do not tend to increase the output or quality of the work. addi- tional facilities contribute to ease and convenience the economics of domestic art of the worker and especially the teacher. a more expensive equipment is added below for upper grade use: dozen chairs $ . dozen work tables . cutting tables . sewing machines . exhibit case . teacher's desk " chair . mirror . gas stove . flatirons screen . demonstration frame . bulletin board . roll case for storing pupils' work—accom- modating classes - waist forms , ironing board . total cost . $ - ° the cost of the laboratory equipment for the high school need be little more than that of the special cost in high room for upper grade work. the addi- gchooi. tional expense will probably be for the necessary articles for drafting and garment-making, such as yard-sticks, skirt forms, etc. domestic art the cost of the temporary equipment for both elementary and high school will depend somewhat on the method of purchase of materials. materials bought at wholesale in large quantities may be obtained at great reduction. the care and use of the temporary equipment will also regulate the cost. the cost of equipment in other types of schools will vary according to aim, number of pupils to be accommodated, and the elaborateness of outfit. the equipment need not necessarily be expensive. the following lists of cost of articles will furnish suggestions for those interested in both expensive and inexpensive equipment: bias cutter and marker $ -oo boxes—sewing—cloth - covered— x x j, per hundred . x ^x !, per hundred . ^x ^x , per hundred . bulletin boards, each . to . chairs— bent wood, with cane seat, each ... . kitchen chairs (to be stained), each . . . willow (for office use), each . desk chairs (revolving, bent wood), each . ""(with arms), each .... . to . laboratory chair (better class) each . . . to . the economics of domestic art cases— bookcases, each . to . storage for work—for , each . . . . . to . exhibit cases—gowns and hats, each . . . to . exhibit cases—fiat, according to size and finish . to . exhibit cases—sliding glass doors, accord- ing to size and finish . to . ironing cabinets—zinc top (for ironing outfit made to order) . desks— flat top—well finished, with side drawers . flat top table without side drawers . . . „ roll-top desks for office use, each . . . . to . dress forms— full length, each . to . waist length, each to . demonstration frames (made to order), each . to . emeries, per dozen to . embroidery rings, per dozen "holders (priscilla), per dozen . . files— letter files (for office use), each . . . . . to . card boxes and cataloguing schemes, each . to . gas stoves, each . to . irons, according to style and weight, each . . to . electric irons, lb., nickel, each . . . " " " " . . - "" " " " . . . mirrors— hand-mirrors, each . to . triple folding wall-mirrors (millinery purpose), according to size . . . . . to . domestic art triple folding dressmaking-mirror, each . to . flat wall-mirrors, oak frames, according to size . to . machines— single-and double-thread, each . . . . to . with motor attachment, each . . . . . to . pedestals (for fitting), each . to . pinking machine, each . plaiting machine, each . rollers (paper)— jumbo rollers, stand, each . drafting-paper (per roll), each .... . rugs (fpr office use), according to size and quality . to . rattan couch, each . stools, -inch cane-seat, per dozen . . . . -inch wooden-seat, per dozen .... . screens, triple-folding, each . to . seatings, class-room, a seat . to . skirt-markers, each . to . sleeve forms (per set ), each . scissors— straight cutting, per dozen . to . "shears, per dozen . to . button-hole, per dozen . to . tables— for conference purposes, each .... . to . ironing—ready-made, each . to . ironing, made to order with wood top, x ft., according to size and finish, each . to . kitchen tables, ft, each . to . folding sewing tables, each . to . the economics of domestic art drafting tables made to order— ft. long by ft. wide by ft. in. high, white wood top, oak base, each . to . drafting tables, removable tops and horses for support, each . to . sewing-tables made to order, oak, ft. long by ft. in. high, each . . . . . tape measures, reversible, per dozen ... . to . tracing wheels, per dozen . to . thimbles, german silver, by gross ... . wire-cutters, side-cutting, per dozen . . . . to . waist- and coat-hangers, per dozen ... . to . yard-sticks, per dozen . to . illustrative material is rather difficult to collect. the teacher of domestic art must be alert and seize every available opportunity for getting the cost of *■ illustrative it. many articles may be easily ob- material. tained while travelling and through interesting in the work the people one meets. expositions furnish opportunity for securing mate- rial which will often be sold for little after the expo- sition is over. large manufactories sometimes make boxes for sale illustrating the steps in the manufacture of various materials such as thread, needles, scissors, buttons, cotton, woollen, linen, or silk materials. these will often be made to order, but cost considerably more. the illustrative boxes the economics of domestic art in other localities the domestic-art teacher does not control the industrial work of the lower grades; it may be under the direction of the manual training or arts supervisor. the ideal condition is super- vision only of the upper grade work for girls in either cooking or sewing or both. this is quite enough for any one person to do well. the salaries of teachers in high schools range from $ to $ , , according to kind of work and length of service. directors of -departments in high schools receive from $ , to $ , . in trade schools teachers receive from $ to $ , , directors of departments from $ , to $ , , and school directors from $ , to $ , . in higher institutions, colleges for women, state agricultural colleges, and normal schools, the salaries vary from $ , to $ , , according to responsibility. chapter vii how to keep in touch with progress in the domestic-art field the writer has often been asked if domestic art can be studied by correspondence. the answer has always been, "no, not to advantage." it may often happen, however, that a teacher has been forced into this field of work, or is not quite ready to go to a normal school for study, and in the mean time may wish to come in touch with some of the subjects. there are many lines of work in this field, and the teacher of domestic art, if she is to do the best kind of work, should know something about psychology, the history of education, and the theory and method of presenting this subject, as well as the more technical work of sewing, dressmaking, and millinery. a selected bibliography of these subjects will be added later; much help and information may also be gained from current magazines, reports of associations, etc., all of which will help the teacher in the field to keep in touch with the latest ideas and movements. ioo progress in the domestic-art field iei associations and their reports the annual reports of the following associations are of particular help and can be had by becoming a member of the associations, or by buying them from the secretaries of these associations: ( ) national education association. member- ship $ . . irwin shepherd, winona, wis. gen- eral educational papers of the annual meetings are published in this report. all are of help, the reports of the sections on trade and industrial work espe- cially. ( ) lake placid conference on home economics, lake placid club, essex county, n. y. annual report of papers read at yearly meeting, also of the teachers' section, a mid-winter conference. these are of particular value to teachers of domestic art and science. (this conference ceased with the or- ganization of the american home economics asso- ciation in january, . back reports are of much help.) ( ) american home economics association, mem- bership $ . ; includes journal published bimonthly, teachers college, new york. of interest to all classes of workers in the field of home economics. ( ) public education association of new york, east twenty-second street, room . domestic art ( ) society for the promotion of industrial edu- cation. literature may be obtained from mr. jas. c. monaghan, secretary, fifth avenue, new york city. ( ) eastern manual training teachers' asso- ciation. ( ) western manual training and drawing teachers' association. ( ) consumers' league. reports of national and new york city leagues may be obtained on appli- cation at office, east twenty-second street, new york city. the aim of this league is to im- prove conditions of working women and children as to hours, wages, etc. ( ) woman's municipal league of new york, east twenty-sixth street. bulletin cents per year. a society interested in civic improvements. other publications i. magazines: ( ) "teachers college record." $ . per year. address "teachers college record," columbia university, new york. devoted to discussion of educational problems. ( ) "elementary school teacher." published by university of chicago press, chicago. $ . . de- voted to discussion of all phases of work of the ele- mentary school. progress in the domestic-art field ( ) "manual training magazine." $ . . pub- lished bimonthly by manual arts press, peoria, . devoted to discussion of industrial-arts subjects. ( ) "the survey," formerly "charities and the commons." $ . per year. published by charity organization society, twenty-second street and fourth avenue, new york city. deals with prob- lems relating to the education and improvement of the poor. all interested in philanthropic work and social advancement will find this of great value. ( ) "the craftsman." $ . per year. pub- lished by gustav stickley, west thirty-fourth street, new york city. of help along art lines. many suggestions for interior decoration and design.( ( ) "the school arts book." $ . per year. published by davis press, worcester, mass. a practical magazine for the elementary and high school, with many suggestions for applied design, and many articles of value to the domestic-art teacher. ( ) "the house beautiful." $ . per year. suggestive for those interested in the crafts and interior decoration. ( ) "the ladies' home journal." $ . per year. published by curtis publishing company, phila- delphia. ( ) "the woman's home companion." $ . per year. many suggestions in art needlework, sew- domestic art ing, and dressmaking. published by crowell pub- lishing company, new york city. ( ) "good housekeeping." $ . per year. pub- lished by phelps publishing company, springfield, mass. articles of interest in relation to dress and good housekeeping generally. ( ) "the outlook." $ . per year. fourth avenue, new york city. ( ) "the educational review." $ . per year. published by educational review company, colum- bia university, new york city. devoted to discus- sion of topics of general interest in educational field. ii. government reports: united states department of agriculture: ( ) "farmer's bulletins." free distribution with some exceptions. address, division of publications, washington, d. c. of great value to students of domestic art and science. many papers on wool, silk, cotton, sheep, etc., of value in study of textiles. ( ) "annual reports of the department of agri- culture." division of publications, washington, d. c. textile crops and experiments are treated in these reports, as well as other agricultural reports. ( ) "reports of the smithsonian institute," wash- ington, d. c. the reports on ethnological subjects of value in study of primitive life, industries, and textiles. progress in the domestic-art field ( ) "reports of the commissioner of education," department of the interior, washington, d. c. these are issued every few years, and are of great value to students of education in general, or of particular fields. ( ) "reports of the united states commissioner of labor," washington, d. c. of value to those interested in problems of economics, the wage- earner, etc. some of the back numbers are of great interest and value, especially on technical and industrial education. iii. foreign publications: "reports of dr. m. sadler for the english gov- ernment." volumes x and xi are devoted to his study of american education. volume ix, german education. may be obtained from g. seiler, amsterdam avenue, new york city. price cents each. of value to those wishing to study the system of, schools of the united states com- paratively. "report by alice ravenhill on the teaching of domestic science in the united states." commis- sioner for board of education of great britain, , pages, price cents. iv. publications of the american school of home economics: m. le bosquet, director, west sixty-ninth street, chicago. correspondence courses domestic art for home-makers, teachers, social workers, and for institutional managers. special text-books and library facilities. v. books: a small selected bibliography will be added at the close. to keep in touch with new publications, consult lists of new books added to respective public libraries. send to the leading book-publishing con- cerns for their monthly lists of new publications, especially along educational lines. notice the adver- tisements of new books in the back of the current educational magazines suggested above. vi. publications of some of the textile schools and associations are of value in study of textiles. "national association of wool manufacturers' quarterly magazine," devoted to the interests of the national wool industry. office, atlantic avenue, boston, mass. the new england cotton manufacturers' associa- tion, international trust building, milk street, boston, mass. draper company. "cotton chats." published by secretary, hopedale, mass. lowell school publications. vii. catalogues of new schools, giving domestic art and science subjects, may be suggestive, or those progress in the domestic-art field of old schools of note, that are constantly adding new subjects of interest along these lines. another means of keeping in touch with progress in this field is by attending the annual meetings of the educational associations mentioned. much in- spiration may be gained in this way. school exhibits are also of great help, and the educational divisions of state fairs or expositions furnish many sugges- tions. the teacher of domestic art must be alert and alive to all progress of events about her. clubs of teachers interested in domestic-art subjects may meet for discussion and much benefit be derived if the meetings are conducted seriously and systemat- ically. part ii domestic art in the elementary school chapter viii division of subject-matter for the ele- mentary school some line of domestic-art work may be presented in every grade of the elementary school. as it is constructive generally placed in the school curricu- giveninteany lum it: means sewing and its allied sub- every grade. jects, or often sewing alone in the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth years of the graded school. some constructive work of an industrial nature is now generally given in all grades of the elementary school. arguments for its introduction have already been given. froebel in the kindergarten has pre- sented theories that may well be advanced along higher lines of education. hand-work and doing division of subject-matter are the keystones of the kindergarten work. the paper-cutting, pasting, sewing, clay, all the various occupations are avenues for self-expression as well as the gifts, songs, and games which furnish further opportunity for doing and thinking, or the self- activity of the child. when the child enters the kindergarten and begins his school career, he faces the accumulation of the knowledge of the world. all this is his inheritance to which he has a right. the work of education is to bring the child to his rightful possession of this inheritance, and the work of the school to plan it in such a way that the school as one institution of society may do its share in bringing about this education. the kindergarten is the first stepping- stone and through its various lines of work—games, songs, stories, gifts, and occupations—opens to the mind of the child in a simple way some of the won- ders of nature and of this complex world. the point of contact is the home and the teacher leads from this to the world of thought and action about the child. most of the interpretations are through doing, and gradually the child is led to a compre- hension of some of life's complexities. one may say that domestic art almost begins in the kinder- no domestic art garten in a most simple way. sewing and use of the needle is one of its occupations. furnishing of a doll's house with paper furniture, rugs, curtains, etc., is often undertaken, and simple talks in the morning circle on textiles, as wool, silk, linen, and cotton, often introduce the child to this field of thought. paper and rag weaving also furnish another occupation and so we may trace the begin- nings of domestic art from early to higher education. here, it is hand-work and only one of the many kinds presented to little children who need change and variety. the transition from kindergarten to early grade work is often fraught with danger because the transition to more formal work is not more gradual. hand-work and domestic art as one branch of it should still continue and advance with the child, offering new interests and difficulties and helping to lead him to an interpretation of some of the many wonders in the industrial world about him. hand-work .in the elementary school has been presented in many different ways. there have been almost as many approaches as there are districts or localities for its introduction. hand-work as the term is now generally used in the elementary division of subject-matter iii schods means the various lines of hand-work as in- troduced in the first four grades of the elementary school. from the fifth grade up, the many meth- ods of ap- hand-work subjects are called specifi- ntoe tajf- cally cooking, sewing, etc., for the girls, work for the an(j faex lines of work, as wood-work- lower grades. ing, wood-carving, etc., for the boys. all of these subjects are of an industrial or house- hold arts nature. the industrial work of the lower grades may in- clude many lines of domestic-art thought, but should not be confined to these subjects. the industrial . work in lower ideals of the school or the plan of the be^onflnevto curriculum of each grade will determine be confined to domestic- branches. domestic-art largely what and how much the teacher can present. in the presentation of certain lines of thought, the media of clay and wood may more fitly be expressive than some line of do- mestic art, as sewing, weaving, or spinning. hand- work as it is now given in the schools is approached from several points of view. some claim that the so- called neighborhood approach is the only way, and work along lines which make the child's immediate needs and interests the centre or basis for planning. others claim that the organization of hand-work in domestic art the lower grades should be planned along the lines of social or racial development, and beginning with the study of the activities of primitive people trace their advancement through the different eras of civilization, pastoral, agricultural, handicraft, and factory eras. another thought is that the child should become acquainted with the essential proc- esses of manufacture in the principal fields of modern industry and that this industrial knowledge may be presented partly through work with the hands, but not entirely so. this curriculum should be worked out by the grade teacher or head of the school so that there may be as much unity of thought as pos- sible and much saving of time. with the develop- ment of this thought may come a simplified cur- riculum. with the present stress put on vocational training, the domestic-art phases of vocational work for girls in the upper grades would be based on this lower grade study of the essential processes of the leading fields of industry. the girls would thus have a knowledge of the textile field of industry and the processes in the industries of spinning, weaving, knitting, garment-construction, and sewing. in some schools the hand-work is apparently introduced in a hit-or-miss sort of manner, simply division of subject-matter because it is hand-work or something for the chil- dren to do and it is required by the controlling board. this is the "fad" so often hand-work may be a mere objected to and rightly. this aimless "fad." hand-work may be better than none and undoubtedly is where it has a certain utilitarian value, but there is scarcely any excuse for its being when it is possible to present it in such a way as to connect the thought of the development of industries with it, whether the approach be from the neighbor- hood point of view or along certain lines of primi- tive life and industries. in the first four grades of the elementary school many lines of industrial thought may be given, to which the domestic-art branches contribute quite a number. little chil- dren need change and variety, and the boys and girls may be taught together during these early years. there is every opportunity for originality and ver- satility as the teacher works out her course of study. this often falls to the domestic-art supervisor, but more often to the supervisor of manual training. the course of study should be worked out in con- nection with the general curriculum and in con- sultation with the grade teachers and head of the school. with more ideal organization the develop- division of subject-matter lines of work best adapted to help in presenting the new ideas to the children and those fitted to be of value in developing the child. this last, however, is more largely a question of method than of se- lection of subject-matter. work for lower grades painting coarse sewing drawing dyeing, weaving paper cutting and folding clay modelling pasting cardboard simple woodwork use of sand table stencilling and block printing cooking selections should be made from these and adapted to the children in carrying out the general thought of the grade and in the planning of the course of study for the lower grades. these general lines of work include the domestic- art subjects, which may be outlined more in detail as follows: domestic-art subjects for the elementary school the following subjects for all grades of the ele- mentary school may be considered for selection in the planning of work, regulated by age, grade, needs n domestic art of locality, cost, ideals, relation to school study, needs of home and schools, etc.: ( ) articles of many varieties may be made by the use of the following stitches: basting, running, stitching, back-stitching, overhanding, hemming, blanket stitch, simple embroidery stitches, as ken- sington, cross, chain stitch, feather stitch, hemstitch, couching, french knots, etc. ( ) seams—plain seam, french, and flat fell. ( ) patching—hemmed, overhanded, flannel; and darning—stocking darning, damask, and cashmere. ( ) button-holes, plackets, putting on bands. ( ) simple embroidery: use of stitches—chain, catch, kensington, feather, etc.; initials—embroid- ered, applique; couching, etc. ( ) textile work: weaving, study of materials, evo- lution of textile industry, properties, uses, dyeing, etc. ( ) cost of clothing: cost of dresses and trimming; regulation of cost. ( ) care of clothing, repairing, cleansing; color of clothing; hygiene. ( ) household art: decoration, furnishing of rooms, color-work, design. ( ) simple garment-making (under certain con- ditions). ( ) co-operation with grade work in history, arithmetic, english, art, geography, etc., wherever it can be done with service. division of subject-matter distribution of domestic-art subject-matter for selection as part of the above work for lower grades grades i and ( ) making of simple articles, in keeping with underlying ideals of the school and grade. blanket stitch on canvas, running, basting (applied to articles). ( ) simple textile study, including dyeing, weav- ing, and simple comparison of textiles. ( ) care of clothing. ( ) furnishing of doll's house. ( ) christmas gifts. grade ( ) making of simple articles in keeping with underlying ideals, using following stitches: blanket, cross, running, basting, chain, and stitching stitch. ( ) continuation of textile study—simple evolu- tion of spinning and weaving. comparison of textiles. ( ) care of clothing. ( ) designing of letters and other designs, accord- ing to articles selected. ( ) christmas gifts. n domestic art grade ( ) making of simple articles in keeping with underlying ideals, using following stitches: hem- ming, couching, overhanding, two runs and back- stitch, in addition to stitches in grade . ( ) designs made for articles; color-work; design- ing pillows and table-spreads for applique. ( ) doll dressing; free cutting of patterns. ( ) christmas gifts. ( ) simple crocheting and upholstery. crude work along all these lines should be ex- pected from young children, but the teacher should not be surprised if occasionally she receives unex- pected results. an occasional child will contribute something far beyond those of average ability, but under no circumstances should the children be forced to do fine or accurate work. by the time the fifth grade is reached greater accuracy should be expected and demanded along any line of hand-work pursued. if it is not de- manded at this time, the pupils will form slovenly habits of action which are not likely to be corrected later. at this point the hand-work may be divided, the girls receiving instruction in sewing and cooking and the allied subjects, and the boys in woodwork, metal, etc. if the plan is to introduce vocational work in the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, then division of subject-matter the first six years may be planned with this idea in view. plans for courses of study in the grades will be discussed in another chapter on the factors involved in planning a course of study. distribution of domestic-art subject-matter for selection for the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades grade ( ) making of simple articles, using stitches pre- viously learned as review, and in addition: cross stitch, feather stitch, and kensington stitch. ( ) designs for articles made. ( ) doll dressing (costumes of particular study or for modern garment-construction). ( ) textile study; weaving of rugs as co-operative work, in order to learn parts of loom. ( ) christmas gifts. ( ) simple embroidery. grade ( ) making of articles, using stitches learned in grades below, and in addition: french seam, placket, and putting on band, button-holes, and stocking- darning. domestic art ( ) textile study—comparative study of wool, cotton, silk, and flax, applied to purchase, use, etc., of articles made. ( ) designing for articles. ( ) clothing—best and most healthful kinds. ( ) christmas gifts. ( ) simple embroidery. ( ) biography of textile inventors—eli whitney, arkwright, crompton, etc. ( ) simple machine-work (where circumstances would necessitate the child's leaving school at end of elementary school course). ( ) simple knitting. grade ( ) making of articles using work of other grades in review, and in addition: button-holes, herring- bone and feather stitch. ( ) simple embroidery. ( ) christmas gifts. ( ) textile study: discussion of early industries and evolution of their manufacture. ( ) economical buying and cutting of materials. ( ) design—in relation to things made. ( ) simple machine-work (where circumstances would necessitate the child's leaving school at end of elementary school course). ( ) crocheting of articles. division of subject-matter grade ( ) making of articles, using stitches previously learned. ( ) repairing, patching, and cleansing of garments. ( ) making simple garments. ( ) simple embroidery: towels and table linen— initials, hemstitching—doilies. ( ) textile study: quality, width, cost of materials. ( ) study in color and design applied. ( ) christmas gifts. ( ) the home—furnishings, order, beauty. ( ) discussion of the relation of the girl to factory life, sweatshop labor. consumers' league, etc. development of social consciousness. the subject-matter suggested for grades , , and may be too advanced for some localities and not sufficiently so for others. this should be adjusted to suit needs and would also depend on how many years may be devoted to domestic-art study. references for study "a sewing course," woolman. edition. "teachers college records." november, ; janu- ary, ; september, ; january, ; may, . courses of study of public school systems. "the place of industries in elementary education," k. e. dopp. "the school and industrial life," james earl russell, "educational review," december, . chapter ix the factors involved in planning a course of domestic-art work for the elementary school before a teacher can decide what is the most valuable and profitable domestic-art work for the , . . children in her charge, she must fully the relation of b' j domestic-art comprehend what is meant by the many subject-matter to general ed- lines of thought which go to make up ucation. . . that mass of subject-matter. then, too, she must understand the conditions or factors which will most assuredly affect her selection of material. the subject-matter of domestic art has been fully dis- cussed in previous chapters. the child has a right to his inheritance and the possessions of learning which have come down to him from past ages, from the fields of literary, religious, scientific, institutional, and aesthetic learning. the institutions of the home, church, state, school, and society must interpret these riches to him and develop all sides of the the factors involved child's nature. when we examine the many branches to which he is heir, we discover that the field of scientific and aesthetic learning, which may be interpreted partly through doing, is not the least part of his rightful inheritance, for the power to do and act is surely the indication of a liberal educa- tion. domestic art is one phase of the "doing" inheritance which comes to our girls and but a small part of the full inheritance to which they have a right. teachers of this subject so often feel and act as if domestic art were the whole curriculum and do not see its relative importance. it must be given its proper amount of time, but not to the neglect of other studies, and in selecting the best subjects from this field of work for her class, the teacher must know not only what the possi- bilities of subject-matter are, but must see their rela- tion to the broad field of education and the factors which will naturally affect the choice of material. as subject-matter has previously been discussed, we may turn to consider the factors involved in selection. the teacher must know something of the physical and psychological nature of the child be- ne child. fore her. if she understands the physi- cal nature, she will be careful to adapt her work to domestic art the physical development of the child. there will be no demand for fine results where there is not the development of the proper co-ordination of muscles to make the fine adjustments. the defects of eyesight and any physical troubles will be noted and the work planned accordingly. in schools for defectives, this would be a very important factor in planning any course. the psychical nature must also be considered; the laws governing interest, memory, apperception, habits, etc., if understood, will be a guide to the teacher in selecting, planning, arranging, and presenting the course of study. the environment and locality will most surely affect and influence the planning of a course. is it locality and fair to suppose that work planned to be environment. of yalue an(j m£et the needg or children in a district school will be appropriate or of most value to children in a select private school or in the chinese or italian quarter of a public school system of a large city? so each course must vary to meet the needs of the children for whom it is intended. the industries of the locality, the peculiar conditions of the pupils, environment at home and at school, all are factors in determining what the choice of subject-matter is to be. each locality with its par- the factors involved mentary schools is to send their boys and girls on to high school to continue their education, while others realize that the children of their particular locality are forced to labor when the elementary course is com- pleted or even before, and must be given all the possible help during that short period. when the domestic-art teacher realizes the different aims, she will plan her work so as to give to each group that which will be of greatest value as each proceeds into business or higher school work. this may often mean the introduction, for instance, of machine-work quite early in the grade school, perhaps in the sixth or seventh year. the introduction of vocational work into the upper grades of the elementary school is one of the vocational difficult problems which those dealing must surely come, considering the large percent- age of children who drop out of school at the close of the elementary school and before, and those who continue their high school training for a short period only—for one or two years. the plan pro- posed by the city club of new york for the read- justment of the years of study in the new york tendencies must be con- sidered. with the courses of study must face in the near future. the readjustment the factors involved early as the seventh grade would mean the read- justment of the domestic-art course of study, or those trades centring in the needle. the social aspect of work should also govern the domestic-art teacher in her plans. she should know the social the home needs and conditions of her aspect. particular children and should see the connection that it is possible to make with the school. there is a big question of economy of time right here. it is certainly not economical of the pupil's time for a teacher to present those things, for instance, which the child may be learning well at home. again, greater interest is taken if the prob- lems to be made are of value in the home or fit into the school needs of the children. the social needs of'the locality may afford opportunity for the children to be of help and assistance to the hospitals, asylums, etc., by furnishing certain work for these institutions. in institutions of various types the needs may be so great as to furnish occupation for all the domestic-art pupils. these and other social aspects should determine the teacher's plan of action. the question arises very often, who is to direct this work—a trained specialist, or shall it be left to the grade teacher to work out under the direction of domestic art the head of the school? the answer to this ques- tion surely enters as a factor in the planning of the hand-work for the lower grades and the who is to direct the household-art work of the upper grades. domestic art? . .... the trained specialist is needed to see the breadth of the field and to make the proper connections, but with training the grade teacher may be able to give the industrial work of the lower grades. with these numerous factors before us as influ- encing our plans and a good understanding of the what shaii be neld of subject-matter of domestic art, presented? there should be no difficulty in planning a good course of study. the question so often arises, what is the best thing to present, what shall i give to my children? it is easily answered. one cannot give all of the subject-matter as outlined, but one can choose from it that which will be of the greatest possible help to the group under one's care. there is another thought for consideration in the shall it be planning of the course of study—shall iemseiorpr°b that course be a mere formal presenting £osswith of a number of problems or shall it content? nave the thought content which is to make it of greater value? domestic art outline i student plan course of study for grades - , illustrating the use of many lines of hand-work, of which sewing forms a part. local conditions location.—rural school in northern new york. instruction.—by grade teacher. time.—twenty minutes daily for class work, but children will have spare time during session and outside of school hours for completing work begun in class lesson. materials.—the school board will furnish only drawing and manila paper. it is not interested in hand-work and will allow no appropriation for other materials. the people of the district have given no attention to the subject, so the teacher will have to interest the children sufficiently to have them contribute a little money for materials which will need to be bought, and to bring from home scraps of cloth, paper, etc., as they are needed in the work. the people are farmers and nearly every house will have abundance of pieces in the store-room. most of them will also give the children a few cents at a time when they see them much interested. the teacher herself may have to contribute. number.—there will be about twenty children in the school. grouping.—grades and will work together. grades and will work together. aim to form taste for home life, to arouse the aesthetic faculty, to broaden the outlook on life. the factors involved j subjects drawing.—usually on tuesday and thursday. preceding christmas the days may be changed to accommodate the kind of work being done. paper furnished by school board, colored crayons and pencils by the children. hand-work.—remaining three days. sand table. paper-folding, cutting, construction. simple sewing and weaving. grades i and furnishing doll's house the greatest possible economy must be used, therefore scraps of material which children can bring from home— without expense to family—must be utilized. all the furni- ture will be made from manila paper, the children varying the style of chairs, etc., according to the rooms and their original ideas. scissors, needles, thread, thimbles will be brought from home. september drawing.—grasses and fall flowers—attention given to direction and character of growth. sand table.—lay out farm—hills, meadows, fields, pasture, orchard, pond or stream, sites for house, barns, etc., fences, rail and wire (thread can be used for wire, twigs for rails and posts). house.—a good-sized box will be found either at the school or among the farmers. partitions can be put in by older children or teacher. domestic art plan rooms.—downstairs—parlor, dining-room, kitchen; upstairs—two bedrooms. paint.—outside. inner walls.—kitchen—paint—why? other rooms—paper. children can bring remnants of wall-paper from home. dis- cuss color, style, etc., most suitable to each room. children can select from papers brought. use either entire pattern or selections as best adapted to rooms. floors.—kitchen—paint—easily cleaned. other rooms— stain. paints and stain will probably have to be bought. ectober drawing.—fruits, vegetables, autumn leaves—work for pleasing arrangement. furnishing of house.—each child can make every article. what are necessary may be given to the house, and the others taken home. those giving to the house may make a second for themselves. kitchen.—first, because most important room in farm- house. chairs, table, cupboard—fold, cut, paste—cut legs, doors. stove—use black paper if possible; if not, mark for lids and doors. roll paper for pipe. dining-room.—chairs. table. november drawing.—vegetables, thanksgiving subjects and illustra- tions. design borders for rugs. sideboard for dining-room. rugs.—weave square mat from kindergarten papers. plan rugs—colors for different rooms, borders on ends, materials. string small piece of cardboard with holes for kitchen rug. warp—heavy thread or yarn. the factors involved woof—rags. sand table.—story of pilgrims—sea, rocky shore, plymouth rock, snow-covered land, forest, ship on sea, etc. december drawing.—christmas subjects and illustrations. rugs.—large for floors of all rooms except kitchen. looms.—four strips of wood—tacks to hold warp threads. sticks and tacks can be found in any country home—older children can nail them. dining-room.—rags brought from home for this rug. parlor.—some children will have macrame- cord at home, if not, buy. use for parlor rug. bedrooms.—one of rags, one of cord. string looms.—weave—the rugs for the four rooms can be divided among the children according to the suitableness of the material they bring. christmas gifts.—sachet bag—kindergarten weaving papers —cotton filling—powder. calendars.—cardboard with holly design—tiny calendar pasted on—tie with red ribbon. toy christmas tree.—spool for standard, green tissue paper for trunk and leaves. school christmas tree.—colored paper chains. january drawing.—christmas scenes, stories, and gifts. winter games and sports. doll house.—bedrooms.—bedsteads, chairs, washstands, bureaus, one cradle. mattresses.—pillows—heavy cotton cloth—fill with cotton batting—running stitch. domestic art talks on cotton plant and manufacture. sheets.—fine cotton—run hems. february drawing.—illustrate stories—subjects relating to lincoln and washington. doll house.—( ) pillow cases.—fine cotton—run hems— care of mattress and pillows. ( ) blankets.—white flannel from home—blanket stitch in mercerized cotton or yarn as children may have. care of blankets. ( ) wool.—growth, manufacture. ( ) comfortable.—cheesecloth—blanket stitch edges—tie. valentines.—make simple valentines from drawing-paper and colored paper for decoration. march drawing.—illustrated stories—objects of the season, kites, etc. doll house.—bureau scarfs and washstand covers fancy muslins—run hems. parlor.—chairs, table, couch. couch cover.—cretonne, denim, canvas, etc., as children may bring. blanket stitch on edge. cushions.—bits of silk, denim, cretonne, etc.—fill with cotton—running stitch. april drawing.—spring growths—catkins, pussy-willows, etc.— easter lilies, rabbits, etc. doll house.—window curtains for whole house—fancy muslin or net as children may wish. i domestic art snow-shoes. cradle-board. quiver. moccasins. make and dress indian doll—heavy cotton for body—stitch —fill with sawdust—trousers, coat, headpiece—running stitch. weave indian blanket—yarn—heddle. december-january tropical home drawing.—christmas illustrations, games, gifts, stories. life in tropical homes. sand table.—palm trees—green and brown tissue papers. huts—sticks wattled with raffia or hay. weave mats of straw for roofs. raffia braided mat. hammock of cord. christmas gifts.—button bags—denim, canvas, cretonne, as children may have—stitch sides, run hem at top—may put on design in chain stitch. picture frame—cardboard with raffia wound over it. calendar—similar to those in i and . school christmas tree—bell forms marked, cut, strung, red tissue paper. lanterns—red paper. february esquimau home drawing.—winter subjects—lincoln, washington—make cover for a lincoln-washington book—make a single valen- tine. the factors involved. sand table.—esquimau village—rock-salt for snow. dress esquimau doll in bits of fur—sled of wood. sewing.—dust cloth—turn, baste, cross-stitch—proper use of. march japanese home drawing.—appropriate to season—attention to grouping— japanese objects—lantern, parasol, fan, etc. sewing.—make kimono for doll—seams, running, hems, chain-stitch. iron-holder.—denim, cretonne, etc., as children may have. baste edge of each side—fold and baste interlining. baste edges together. blanket stitch edge. april, may, june drawing.—spring growths. easter cover for nature book. sewing.—hand towel—linen—turn, baste, run hems. care of. talks on flax and linen. bean-bag—heavy cloth—stitch. textile charts. window racks and plant sticks. cost of materials not brought from home grades and colored crayons ( cents a package) $ . paint and stain kindergarten weaving paper macrame- cord sachet powder calendars . domestic art cardboard calendars ribbon tissue-paper—green paper for tree chains total $ - per child grades and colored crayons $ . raffia cord calendars tissue paper valentine paper cardboard for calendars ribbon for calendars total $ - per child note.—the above plan of student's work illustrates what can be ac- complished with little money. the factors involved outline ii student plan new york city free private grade school.—general course parallel to public grade school. locality.—poor neighborhood—most of the children go to work at the end of the elementary school. general aim.—to connect with the home and neighborhood to raise the standard of living. some ideas which control the course of study grade i {fifty minutes per week) ( ) some underlying ideas.—home life and surrounding occupations. fall.—farm life. sand-table work. houses, barns, sheds, fences, wagons, farm-animals. materials of many kinds used. farm life. a link extending to grocery, bakery, dairy, meat- market. winter.—study of a typical home of the neighborhood (apartment). drawing, block-building, furnishing a play- house, activities of the home, dusting, cleaning, care of cloth- ing. care of play-house and some care of schoolroom fur- nishings. ( ) clothing and shelter.—in relation to activities of home. emphasize care of clothing; materials of which clothing is made: cotton, silk, flax, wool. where comes from (very ele- mentary discussion of relation between plant or animal and finished product). domestic art ( ) some underlying ideas in carrying out following things to be made.—crude results are expected. the aim is to make the child as creative as possible through use of principles taught. (a) paint cloths—basting. (b) canvas work—blanket and running stitch, napkin ring, etc. (c) cord work. (d) making of simple articles for play-houses—bedding, cur- tains, table covers, etc. (e) farm life: ( ) basket. ( ) meal bag. grade ii (fifty minutes per week) ( ) some underlying ideas.—home life and surrounding occupations. comparison with lives of primitive people. fall.—farm life as related to our fall activities in the home. farm visited, fruit gathered and preserved for winter. fall housekeeping problems. winter.—in place of a play-house, a "real" room (rest- room or living-room, third floor) to be partially furnished and cared for. esquimau children's activities, those of early man and american indian, compared with our lives. ( ) clothing and shelter.—comparison of clothing of primi- tive and modern people; of what made; how; tools used; names of materials—bark cloth shown; practice in elemen- tary spinning and weaving. care of clothing at home. prac- tical work in simple household decoration. ( ) some underlying ideas in carrying out things to be made.— to make the child creative through the use of ideas and prin- ciples taught. the factors involved (a) paint cloths—basting. ( ) canvas needle-book. (c) pin-cushion. (d) christmas stockings. (e) iron-holder. (j) bean-bags. (g) fitting up sitting-room (co-operative work). qi) overshoe bags. (i) weaving. grade iii (one hour forty minutes) ( ) some underlying ideas.—study of neighborhood occupa- tions. comparison with some primitive people. (a) farm life. more intensive study. dairy farm; truck- garden; cultivation of fruits and cereals. large distribution centres—milk-depots; beef storage house; freight station; wholesale vegetable market. ( ) comparison of modern agricultural and pastoral methods with those of eastern shepherd and pueblo indian. (c) beginnings of local history. ( ) clothing and shelter.—relation of farm life to clothing. comparison with that of eastern shepherd and pueblo indian. how and where made. simple processes of spinning and weav- ing in advance of the second grade. use of heddle and other tools in evolution of these arts. local history in relation to arts of spinning and weaving and production of clothing. care of clothing. ( ) some underlying ideas in making of following articles.— relation of things made to home and school interests. crea- tive side of child nature to be developed; care in threading of needles, position, thimble, knotting thread. (a) needle-book—canvas. domestic art (b) hand towels—running. emphasis on threading, knot- ting, holding needle. (c) paint cloths. (d) pin-cushions—canvas. (e) shoe bags. (/) paper dolls dressed. (g) textile chart: (i) comparison of textiles, ( ) adapta- tion to use. grade iv (one hour forty minutes) ( ) some underlying ideas.—more definite study of new york city as a whole. main study: some of the causes which led to its prominence and which tend to maintain it. some study of various nationalities represented here. some study of the commodities sent from other lands. stories of sea-faring people of long ago (in connection with navigation). norsemen, phoenicians. new york architecture—buildings, bridges, streets. stories of greece and rome, suggested by a simple study of political city organization. housework—cooking, setting of table, care of rooms, care of clothes. basis is found in trying to make the child his mother's "helper." ( ) clothing and shelter.—study of greek and roman dress. arts of spinning and weaving as done in greece and rome; materials used. commodities for clothing sent from other lands. produc- tion in new york—where—how. ( ) some underlying ideas in making following articles.—to inspire child to be mother's helper in home. special atten- tion to proper use of tools in sewing; correct method of hemming. the factors involved (a) paint cloths. (b) pinball ( circles overhanded; initials in chain stitch). (c) hand-towels—hemming. (d) christmas gifts, penwiper. (e) clothespin bag. (j) cover slips for home work. (g) cushion top—design transferred—painted—couched. (h) stuffed animals for stitching stitch. grade v (one hour a week) ( ) some underlying ideas.—the dramatic development of our country. discovery and exploration.—present geographical knowl- edge compared with that of people of the fifteenth century. india, and the wonderful stories told about the east by the crusaders. period of colonization. (up to the time of the quarrel with england.) typical colonies studied. new england, new amsterdam, southern colony. biography. brave men who helped build our country. housework.—learning to be helpful at home, continued from grade iv. ( ) clothing and shelter.—how made—beautiful fabrics— simple tools. columbus bartered for cotton. materials and clothing in use in east. herodotus's description of indian cotton. early travellers' story of cotton as animal. biogra- phy: eli whitney, arkwright, hargreaves, crompton, etc. ( ) some underlying ideas in making following articles.—cre- ativity on part of child centring about helpfulness in home. more careful work required—neatness, accuracy. correct position of body, tools, and work. discussion of cost and domestic art kind of materials used. economy in buying and cutting. care of materials and tools. (a) duster—cross stitch. (b) pinball (design in kensington stitch). (c) christmas gifts. (d) laundry bag (feather-stitch). (e) doll dressing—simple notion of drafting and of gar- ments in use. (/) furnishings for doll's bed. grade vi (one hour a week) ( ) some underlying ideas.—the development of the nation to the time of the slavery troubles and the division of the union. modern and immediate life remains the key-note here as in previous grades. the past is drawn upon to illumine the present. problems of transportation, industrial development, and economic growth will be viewed from the stand-point of the present. literature will deal largely with stories of heroism and chivalry. history and literature will frequently, though not always, supplement each other. the mythical element still appeals to this age, and the myths and sagas of the northland, the german tale, will be treated as carefully as will the purely biographical material. lives of great men studied: george washington, benjamin franklin, daniel boone, alexander hamilton, john paul jones, thomas jefferson. housework—girls. shopwork.—boys. geography of south america and europe. ( ) clothing and shelter.—districts located where clothing materials are produced. manufacture of clothing in south the factors involved america and europe at this period. now—where—history of it. development of spinning and weaving. economic rela- tion in united states between production of materials north and south. their transportation, location of mills and fac- tories. cotton, time of slavery. silk, wool, flax. ( ) some underlying ideas in making following.—careful work—knowledge of home things—helpfulness and use in home, neatness, accuracy. machine work started. discus- sion of simple machinery. economic cutting, and buying of materials. care of tools. patterns made for skirt. collec- tion of cotton and wool materials to be mounted in book for use in grade. (a) cuffs (cooking costume). (b) needle-books. (c) christmas gifts. (d) darning. (e) ironing-board cover. (machine work.) if) cooking apron. (machine work.) (g) skirt. (machine work.) grade vii (one hour a week) ( ) some underlying ideas.—as in grade vi. the develop- ment of the nation is treated as a retrospect. the present must be illumined. history is continued, up to the current history, in the making. geography deals not so much with familiar conditions. asiatic and african lives are contrasted with our own. ( ) clothing and shelter.—processes in manufacture and making cloth. printing, dyeing, bleaching. removal of stains from clothing—care of clothing. ( ) some underlying ideas in making following.—'home life and interests of girl as centre. social consciousness to be domestic art developed through making for others besides those in home. economy in buying and cutting. use of patterns. neat- ness, accuracy. collection of materials, silk, and flax, for mounting in book. hygiene of clothing—dressing of a baby. (a) broom cover. (b) crocheted slippers. (c) jelly bag. (d) pot lifter. (c) combing towel. (j) baby wrappers. christmas gifts for those who have time to make them. grade viii (one hour a week) ( ) some underlying ideas.—main study: how other coun- tries influence our development. civics furnish the point of departure for a study of greece and rome. social and economic conditions of western europe which influence us most strongly. the development of guilds, trade unions. ( ) clothing.—discussions. development of factory life and conditions. relation of old guilds to industries. sweat- shop labor, consumers' league (continuation of idea of development of social consciousness starting in th grade). economy through care of clothing by repair, remaking, etc. ( ) some underlying ideas in making following articles.— home life and personal interests of girl considered. use of patterns, care, and neatness in machine stitching. economy in buying and cutting. collection of samples of lace edges and insertions. cutting lessons in paper (plaid). the factors involved (a) hemstitched towels (lettering). ( ) patching begun. (c) christmas gifts. (d) remainder of patching. (e) drawers or petticoat. (/) shirtwaist. outline iii this outline is suggestive of what might be presented if the aim of the elementary course of study is to give the children a knowledge of all the fields of industry. the following is illustrative of the domestic art or textile phases for the first six grades, to be followed by a vocational course in the th, th, and th grades. i. textiles general aim.—greater efficiency through participation in the activities of social life that are found in this field of industry. grade i (time, hours) central ideas.—to group work about the home activities. the furnishing of the doll's house provides opportunity for study of textiles in relation to home use. thought content use of napkin—care—stitch—blanket. use in home—care—cleanliness. stitches—basting and running. processes and projects origin of cotton material. i. sewing—( hours). ( ) napkin ring. ( ) dust cloth. ( ) bedding for doll's house. (a) sheets. ( ) pillow cases. (c) mattress. (d) blanket. ii. garment-making—( hours). paper dolls. iii. weaving—( hours). mat (for doll's house). care of bedding and bedroom. origin of wool—use for blankets. elementary talks. origin of linen—for sheets. comparison of four leading textile materials. stitches, basting, running, blanket stitch. care of clothing. wraps in school. shoes—brushing—putting away. elementary discussion of the four leading textiles, as to use for various articles of clothing. elementary discussion of process. terms warp, woof, and selvedge. floor covering, care, and cleanliness. note.—crude results are expected. the aim is to give an understanding of process and to make the child as creative as possible through use of principles taught. grade ii (time, s hours) central ideas.—to again group about home activities, but in advance of the play method of grade i; to deal with actual situations, as rest-room to be furnished and cared for. spool knitting compared with stocking knitting and flat knitting. comparison with machine projects. com- parison between knitted materials and woven cloth. discussion of origin of wool yarn and manufacture of yarn by spinning; name of primitive tool. care of sewing tools—in home—place for everything. stitch: blanket stitch. care in schoolroom—stitch—running. tarleton stockings to be filled with popcorn for christmas tree. care in home—materials in use discussed as to method of making—by weaving. names of essential parts of loom. thought content articles made given to day nursery. rrocesses and rrojects thought of others. knitting ( hours). horse reins or mats. sewing ( hours). needle-book. paint cloth. christmas stocking. iron-holder. i. ( ii. ( ) ( ) ( ) (s) ( ) room furnishings (co-oper- ative work). curtains. pillow covers. couch covers. desk cover. table cover. stitches: basting, running, overhanding, and blanket stitch. hygienic furnishings. artistic use of materials. design: placing of furniture, hanging of pictures, etc. (very elementary discussion.) order and beauty in the home. making of articles for use in teacher's rest-room. discussion of care of rooms at home and simple decoration. comparison made with homes and materials of the primi- tive peoples studied in their problems of securing shel- ter and clothing. this for the purpose of laying a foundation for the continued study of the industries of materials. grade iii (time, s hours) central ideas.—a study of neighborhood occupations. relation of activities to life of child, at home and in school. care of towels—in home—materials used for different kinds. stitches: basting, stitching, running, overhanding, and care of clothing—things in place. names of materials care of tools in use—stitches used: basting, blanket, chain. (a) mounting on cardboard of samples of the four textile materials and yarn. talks on origin and manufacture . thoaght content turning of hems, basting and running hem. used. initials on bag in chain stitch. care of clothing; neatness in appearance. rrocesses and rrojects i. sewing (and charts) ( s chain stitches. design—placing of letters. ( ) sewing on buttons. (a) comparison of four leading of each. ( ) kitchen towel. ( ) bag for rubbers. (s) pencil case. hours). ( ) charts: textiles. (b) processes of manufacture of wool. ii. spinning ( hours). washing, drying, dyeing, card- ing, spinning of wool in prepara- tion for weaving. mounting results. iii. weaving ( hours). ( ) small piece as mat, using material spun. ( ) co-operative rug, with ma- chine-spun yarn. ( ) mounting of materials and pictures showing processes of manufacture of woollen materials and adaptation to use. evolution of spinning to use of wheels—spinning by hand by children after individual experience in washing, carding, dyeing, etc. use of vegetable dyes and modern dyes. demonstration of spinning on flax wheel. connection (very elementary) with modern process of spin- ning by use of pictures and, if possible, visit to mill. material prepared and spun by individuals—used for mat to be made for teacher's desk. process of weaving after construction of loom. names of parts, shuttle, heddle, batten, warp, woof, selvedge. rug to be made in sections to be sewed together for use in teacher's rest-room. talks on how cloth is made to-day in factories. use of woven cloth for clothing. design—space relationship with stripe. ( ) school pennant. ( ) rabbit. (s) table runner. ( ) charts ( hours). (a) origin and use of cotton ( hours). ( ) co-operative chart ( hours). processes of manufacture of cotton. study of manufacture of felt. use of pennant in school games, stitching stitch—hemming and basting. stitching stitch, basting, and overhanding. care of pets. gift for baby in home or day nursery. decoration in home—simplicity in relation to use. designs made in art class. stitches used—hemming and couching. linen—origin—how made and transported. designs made by children. study of cotton, origin and transportation. kinds of mate- rial most common. mounting on cardboard. talks on manufacture of cotton materials and thread, mounting of pictures, visits to mills, if possible. grade v (time, hours) central idea.—modern industries in world relationships. stitches: basting—combination, hemming—(french seam). care of clothing while working—neatness—use in cooking. stitches—basting, stitching, overcasting, and hemming. care of clothing. buying of wardrobe. economy and suitability of clothing. mounting of samples on cardboard. talks on purchase of stocking brought from home or furnished by teacher. materials (cotton and wool), kinds, prices, and widths. care of clothing in home—neatness—economy. stitches—overhanding and basting. design. thought content this work to come toward end of year. (use in shop.) giving—making for others. processes and projects ( ) cuffs (girls', for cooking). sleeves (boys', for shop work). ( ) christmas gift. spool case. (s) repairing (hemmed patch) garment. ( ) chart. cost of cotton and wool materials, uses, prices, and widths. i. sewing ( hours). ( ) repairing. darning stocking. processes—seams, bands, gathering, button-holes, cutting of patterns, fitting. to give an understanding of the essential processes of gar- ment-construction and modern conditions of manufac- ture of clothing in workrooms and factories. to dress boy and girl doll for children's playroom. machine work. use and parts of machine—process. straight stitching and use of gauge. care of soiled clothing—care of tools. design. stitches used. basting in preparation for stitching. economy of time. grade vi (time, hours) central idea.—modern and immediate life in relation to industrial processes. thought content ii. garment construction ( hours). ( ) doll dressing (co-operative work). supplemented if possible with additional articles. i. sewing (hand and machine work) ( s hours). petticoat. trousers. processes and projects dress. blouse. ( ) laundry-bag (girls). tool-bag (boys). girls. boys. drawers. coat. i > h u o h grade vi—continued rrocesses and rrojects thoaght content ( ) petticoat (girls). work apron and necktie (boys). ( ) repairing of rents, sweaters, patching trousers, darning rav- elled edges, etc. ii. weaving ( hours). ( ) colonial loom. rug—co-operative. ( ) excursion to mill. modern spinning and weaving. ( ) charts. (a) weaves of cloth. (b) printing of cloth. opportunity for further practice in stitching. talks on manufacture of clothing—great clothing industry. its economic bearing on life in new york. materials. kinds used for particular purpose. care of clothing. economy in care of wardrobe. demonstration for two hours to explain pattern, harness and treadling. loom set up and rug woven as extra work as time affords opportunity. aim.—to show process of pattern weaving. design. two trips with discussion to show modern spinning and weaving. to teach how pattern is made and controlled. to give understanding of processes of printing of cloth. mounting on cardboards by individual children. outline iv student plan course of study school.—elementary, with vocational thought. grades.— , , and . locality.—city. pupils.—girls from families of moderate circumstances. aim.—to prepare girls for vocational life—(a) wage-earners, (b) home-makers. approach.—home, and its connected fields. presupposes sewing in fourth, fifth, and sixth grades. this student plan shows the kind of domestic-art work which might be given in the upper grades, where vocational work is to be introduced. seventh grade {time, one and one half hour periods, three times a week) prtcess thtctht coeteet est tlatte t tht tistt petticoat (plain with tucked ruffle). drawers— (simple trimming of embroidery.) french seams. free-hand drafting. machine work. fitting. collection and comparison of samples. drafting. machine work. joining of embroid- ery. increase in ability to sew neatly and make the student more capable of doing things that she should know about. appreciation of work on a petticoat. (a) amount. (i>) neatness and quality of work. comparison with ready-made work. calculation of material and cost. textile study. (cotton.) relation of industry to u. s. fibre, structure and properties. knowledge of cotton cloth. ( ) characteristics. ( ) material suitable for underwear. ( ) widths and prices. better judgment of cotton materials. understanding of construction of garments. . arithmetic. industrial activities. history. . same as for skirt. i < o os h o mi corset cover— (simple trimming of lace.) flat fell seams. night-gown (slip-over. simple design em- broidered). repair of underwear. patching. darning. drafting. fitting. hand and machine work. joining of lace. rolling and whip- ping of lace. use of patterns bought. hand and machine work. simple original de- s i g n embroid- ered. to be applied on garments. patches i hemmed ratcnes j flannd darns, stockings. class discussions and demonstra- tions. greater skill and ability. embroidery, machine-made. embroidery, hand-made. (kinds and prices.) greater skill and ability. increased knowledge of construction of garments. lace, hand-made. lace, machine-made. (kinds and prices.) hygiene of underwear. care of body. design and application. hygiene—clothing of body at night. neatness and economy of underwear. laundering. removal of stains. same as for skirt. physiology. art. physiology. chemistry. seventh grade—continued tlatte t tht tisect hygiene. tlatte t tht tistt arithmetic. industries. art art. est ■ eighth grade (time, two hours, three times a week) est • suitable and appropriate bedroom furnishings. cost. artistic furnishing. greater interest and knowledge. good taste in dress for school. textile. shirtwaist material (quality, width, price). thectht eeteet home life and activities. bed furnishings. material. care. thectht eeteet design. original design ap- plied. collection of sam- ples. taking measures. collection of sam- ples. ptecess discussions, etc. precess drafting. fitting. ptthlem bedroom furnishings. curtains. prthlem shirtwaist (tailored). wool skirt. repair— patching. darning. drafting. fitting. handling of wool material. collection of sam- ples. to be applied to garments. patch. (overhanded, stitched-in, darned.) darning (cloth). printing and finishing of cotton material. better judgment of material. more intelligent shopper. social consciousness developed through remainder of course. textile study (wool). characteristics, fibre. characteristics, material. wool mixtures. study of material. better judgment of materials. hygiene and care of wool clothing. economy and care of clothing. neatness in appearance. repairing as a vocation. industrial history. (si ninth grade (time, three hours every day) tlatte t tht tisect industrial field of art and design. millinery. industries. art. geography. est •s° $ . . -°° t. or less. thtutht eeteet economy and utilization of old mate- development of resourcefulness. study of line in relation to the face comparison with ready-trimmed increased knowledge and ability. doing for others. style suited to age. study of line in dress. (similar to that for wool.) good taste in hats. design, costume. good taste in dress. intelligent shopping. rials. and figure. color. hats. textile study. prttess to be applied to ribbon, etc. buckram frame. calculation of cost. sketching of hats. crinoline model- adaptation of bought patterns. trimming, original hats. velvet. flowers. covering. trimming. ling. design. felt. renovation of mate- rials and other es- hat for her mother. wool or silk dress or other material (less expensive) with fit- (designed by pupil.) ptehlem sential processes. millinery— facings. winter hat. ted lining. folds. the factors involved upper grades has been planned with the end in view of making as few expenses for the school as possible, and still giving the girls a course of study which would be of value to them. the work is to be given by the grade teacher, under the direction of a domestic-art supervisor, and will have to be given in the regular class-rooms until more buildings are put up. machine sewing has been left out, partly on account of the expense involved in getting machines and of finding room for them, and also because two-thirds of the girls will continue one or more years in one or the other of the high schools. the material is to be purchased by the children; they are not poor, and the parents will be perfectly willing and glad to pay for it. the aim of the course is to make the girls helpful at home and in society, independent, and appreciative of good work, as well as the many opportunities they have over those of their parents. in the study of textiles, comparisons may be made of the past and present conditions in the west with those of large manufacturing centres in the east, and reasons shown why the woollen mills in the west cannot successfully compete with those in the east, and foreign lands, etc. whenever possible, the work in domestic art is to be cor- related with drawing, nature study, arithmetic, history, and geography. equipment, such as needles, thimbles, scissors, etc., will be provided by the children, while illustrative material and a few boxes for supplies and finished work will be provided by the school. most of the work should be kept for exhibition to be given at the end of the year, especially for the first two or three years. for between work the children could make a second article, and at the end of the year this could be disposed of in some domestic art way, and the money go to an equipment fund, which should be kept until more buildings are put up, and rooms fitted equipped for sewing. the schools are in session thirty-four weeks of the year. grade v (fifty minutes per week) some underlying ideas.— ( ) home life and surrounding occupations. the sheep in- dustry. indians and the early settlers. ( ) clothing and shelter.—relation of farm life to clothing. comparison of early pioneer life with present time. a study of wool, cotton, linen, silk—making a chart. ( ) the underlying thought in making the following articles. care of clothing and furniture. tools. also care of what belongs to others. school property. heurs cost work-basket. (for tools) $ . canvas pin-cushion. (basting and blanket stitch) . dust-cloth. (basting and running) .... . book-cover. (stencilling with outline—over- handing) original design . laundry-bag. basting, hemming, stitching stitch) . preparation of textile chart . $ . for between work initials may be made on the laundry-bag in cross-stitch or outline. design made in class. the factors involved grade vi (fifty minutes per week) some underlying ideas.— ( ) study of the development of west. problems in rela- tion to transportation. comparison of conditions in the east and west. comparison of prices of material with those in early days (as much as a dollar was paid for a yard of calico). ( ) clothing and shelter.—industrial resources. processes of wool and cotton before weaving. the suitability of these fibres to clothing. visits to knitting factories. simple machinery discussion. ( ) underlying thought in making the following articles. helpfulness in the home. cleanliness, neatness, accuracy. correct position. simple drafting. hours cost needle-case canvas. blanket and cross stitch $ . jelly-bag. hemming and overhanding. tape . . short kimono. french seams. facings . . o- s $ . grade vii (fifty minutes per week) some underlying ideas.— ( ) the development of the nation. large industrial cen- tres. how other countries influenced our development. ( ) clothing and shelter.—weaving. primitive methods used by the indians. printing, dyeing. study of silk and linen. properties. suitability of materials for different uses. the factors involved underwaist. design for embroidery. neatness in dress. choice of color. collection of samples of lace edges and insertion. hours. cost. towel—hemstitched $ . underwaist—simple design in eyelet .... . repairing—various kinds napkin . cushion-cover . $ . these outlines deal with the domestic-art work as it is related to the present elementary school cur- riculum. in the near future the writer believes it will be necessary to so readjust the studies of the elementary and high schools that there may be a better relationship and continuity of study for those who will go on to high school for a short period only and a decided change of course of study for the large percentage of children who leave school at the end of the sixth or eighth grade. for those who must leave at so young an age, a course of study should be planned which will consider the needs of those children who must join the large army of wage-earners at the earliest possible moment. they must be prepared for citizenship and social living. the best which can possibly be given them domestic art grade. this work may be literary, scientific, or artistic, and of a practical or technical character. "the education demanded by a democratic society is, therefore, an education that prepares an indi- vidual to overcome the inevitable diffi- general aim of secondary culties that stand in the way of his mate- education. s rial and spiritual advancement." while this defines education generally, it seems also to be particularly apt in application to this field of work, for it is during this period of education that youth is so often brought face to face with the difficulties of life, especially in relation to livelihood. mr. hanus has outlined the general aims of secondary education very fully. life in order to be worth while must show growth and an ever-increasing usefulness in the world, so that the secondary education of to- day must be a preparation for life which is to be one of helpfulness and service, both to the individual and to society. as the life interests of individuals are so various, secondary education should offer pos- pupils to be j r "led to the sibilities of choice so that during that discovery of . , dominant period the pupil may discover the path interests. ^ ^ which his interests direct him to follow. this thought of discovery of life purpose, i domestic art so interest the pupil in this field of thought that he will continue to be interested and to develop along these lines as he proceeds in life. secondary education should not neglect the phys- ical advancement. opportunity should be given physical the pupil for physical development and importance. &n(j itg care this knowle(jge is the most vital and important if the individual is to ac- complish anything in the world. this period of ado- lescence adds another difficulty which must be consid- ered by those planning the secondary school courses. these aims which contribute to the development of the individual count also for the development of society and for the betterment of living. the func- tion of secondary education has been given as "the most widely available organized force for elevating, refining, and unifying a democratic society." all phases of work of secondary nature should contribute to these general aims. if these aims are analyzed more specifically, they are ( ) those which relate the individual to society and help him to take his place among his fellows. ( ) those which give him the broader view of :e, of its accumulation of culture, or aesthetics. advancement of great intimate study of the laws governing life general aims of secondary education social studies all contribute. this is not the function of domestic-art work, but the teacher of this subject can relate her work intelligently to it and lend a hearty co-operation in the general training for good citizenship. vocational education has been denned as "that which equips an individual for self-support. self- support may not necessarily mean a domestic art j j in relation to wage-earning capacity, it might be vocational aim. home-making or work along the line of one's dominant interest." not all of our girls are privileged to proceed to college and enter upon courses of work which may lead later to their life vocations in large fields of professional interest and study. the secondary school should provide some means of enabling the girl to find herself in relation to her life-work as a vocation along other lines than those of the higher professions. courses in house- hold arts, commercial and other business courses, are needed in order that if the girl have ability in these directions, she may discover it and her relationship to them, that she may emerge into larger life and under wise direction learn the source of her pleasures or the life-work in which she will voluntarily engage. secondary education should acquaint the girl with l domestic art the importance of the discovery of a vocation so that she may begin her life-work early. "the great mass of human happiness will always arise out of doing well the common things of life, and -the happi- ness of the individual will lie in that creative genius which does to-day the same thing it did yesterday, but does it better." secondary education for girls must offer courses which deal with the common things of life, as well as the literary and aesthetic work. the two should go hand in hand and one supplement the other. vocations may be the direct outgrowth of the house- hold arts courses or may spring from the so-called more cultural courses of the school. the aim of either is for greater service and efficiency. courses in domestic art may lead directly into many vocational fields. that of the home-maker is the first and foremost in our consideration, for it is she upon whom we depend for the growth and develop- ment of the homes of the future and the rearing and education of our children. there can be no greater vocation, and any secondary school entirely fails in its mission which neglects to give the girls an oppor- tunity for studying it. courses in dressmaking, costume designing, or millinery may lead directly to general aims of secondary education life-work along these lines. the secondary schools, according to their type, may only introduce or offer more intensive study in these fields of work. these intensive courses will prepare for direct application in establishments of trade. they may not give a full trade experience, but they do give the girl a foundation for later training which will cause her to rise rapidly as she gains in experience. courses in domestic art can contribute to the so- called general culture work and thought of the domestic art school. the modern idea of culture is seized much broader than that formerly in use, cultural studies. an(j fae new social relationships and civilization call for a change in adjustment of our so-called cultural courses. the practical studies ap- peal most thoroughly to many girls and it may be that through these only can the introduction be given to the more general cultural studies. for the girls who do not intend to go to college, latin and greek are a waste of time. it is far better for these to study the more modern subjects which are adapted to their needs: the history of industry and commerce, politics and education, art and phi- lanthropy, modern foreign languages, literature of the mother-tongue, the elements of commercial training, general aims of secondary education offer a practical application of chemistry and its principles. the hygiene of clothing relates directly to the studies in physiology, and some of the princi- ples of physics and geometry are exemplified in the drafting of garments and the use of machines. history has a decided connection with the domes- tic-art field. the history of industry is most interest- ing and vital in relation to the evolution of textile manufacture. the history of rugs, old textiles, and costume are as interesting as studies of ancient greek or roman life and may be connected with these. economics and sociology bear directly on many phases of domestic-art work, and commercial geog- raphy makes the study of fabrics of much more value and interest to the pupil. the possible so-called cultural relationships are very many, but it depends entirely on the skill and tact of the domestic-art teacher in her co-operation with the other instructors to make these relation- ships vital. with these general aims for secondary education in mind, and the possible scope of domestic-art work as it contributes to the accomplishment of these aims, it is possible to turn to the selection of material for various types of secondary schools, according to their needs. i domestic art references for study "a modern school," harms. "secondary education in a democratic community," hanus. vol. xi "english reports on education." "report of lake placid conference on home economics," . "the american high school," j. f. brown. chapter xi the selection and planning of work for the secondary schools with the previous chapter in mind, we are ready to turn to the selection and planning of work for secondary schools. we are at once confronted by the numerous factors which must be considered in the planning of work. they are somewhat similar to those affecting the ele- mentary course and yet more difficult. our primary consideration is the girl—our girl with all her aspira- tions, hopes, and fears. she is very appealing at this period, for she is so very human in the develop- ing and unfolding of her nature. we are to guard and guide her, and to watch her physical and psy- chological development. the teacher of domestic art has an unusual opportunity to help and protect in her close association. she must be guarded against too great physical and mental strain when she is in need of rest and relaxation. her ambitions i domestic art are to be encouraged, her fears allayed, her hopes renewed. the teacher should be wise in her selec- tion of problems during the early high school years and should bear distinctly in mind the peculiar character of this period of mental and physical de- velopment. the good of the girl is the ultimate goal, and without health nothing can be accomplished. the social ideals and life of the community should be kept in mind in planning the work for this course, to promote its welfare. the needs of the home, of the school, and neighborhood institu- tions should be considered. problems may be intro- duced into the course which may be of use and value in those institutions and develop an interest in them. any connection which the domestic-art teacher can make to arouse the social consciousness of the girl and put her in touch with useful life will be of great value to her. this added interest which is the only true interest certainly touches life and enables the girl to see her relationship to some of its problems. time and locality enter as factors in relation to the planning of this work. the local school board may be authorized to decide the number of hours social life of the commu- nity a factor. for after all we are preparing the girl to take her place in the community and work for secondary schools unavoidable waste during the process of learning. in many schools of classical and manual training type students make articles for sale which are given to the school, or take orders for household linen or other articles for neighboring institutions. this may or may not be an excellent plan according to management, but often enables a school to purchase the necessary permanent equipment of chairs, ta- bles, machines, etc., when the local authorities may not be able to do so. another factor to be considered is the final goal of the secondary school. this will be more fully dis- aim of each cussed in considering the types of school. to bekeptta is the course to prepare for college en- mind- trance and will any credit be given for it? is a question which the domestic-art teacher faces in the planning of her work. the selection of sub- ject-matter will be influenced as well by what has gone before as by that which is to follow. have the pupils had any domestic-art training in the grades, what has been its scope, in what grades was it given, will a lengthy review be necessary? the course must be moulded accordingly to meet these con- siderations, which must be kept in mind if the course is to be well planned. very often the do- domestic art mestic-art teacher discovers that the grade work has been almost entirely forgotten because of its dis- continuance during the seventh and eighth years of study. "when society enters distinctively into a new phase of its evolution, there must be a new distri- bution of educational values." the greatest diffi- culty which the teacher of domestic art must face is the differentiation of courses for various types of secondary schools, for unless she understands the aims and conditions which affect the various types she is not apt to be wise in her selection of subject- matter to meet those needs. as society has entered this new phase of its evolution, the industrial era, one finds such a variety of types of secondary schools that it is difficult to distinguish and to differentiate the work for the various kinds, because of the general feeling of uncertainty as to the real goal of each type. unless the aims are understood the distri- bution of values will lack balance and proportion. the teacher of household arts must guard against the temptation to think that her subject is the only one in the curriculum for consideration. it may be well to analyze somewhat briefly the main aims of some of the types of secondary schools domestic art work. the work of the classical domestic-art course should be interesting and offer variety. the girls work as a rule on problems of personal interest and the main aim of the work is training the girl for usefulness in her home and in her relationships with others. course in domestic art part of household arts course for secondary school of classical type i. factors governing the selection of this subject-matter for a possible condition. ( ) previous training.—hand-sewing given in sixth and seventh grades of elementary school. ( ) secondary course to count toward college entrance. ( ) location of school.—suburb of philadelphia. ( ) girls.—from homes of best middle class. some go to college, others to be prepared for home duties. ( ) time.—two hundred and forty hours, to be distri- buted as seems best in working out programme of all studies, possibly three hours per week for two years. ( ) cost.—pupils supply nearly all materials. ii. course of study.—clothing. ( ) problems. (a) underwear (three pieces). (b) shirtwaist gown or simple lingerie gown (one piece or waist and skirt), work for secondary schools s (c) making of lined gown.—( ) skirt—drop skirt.—( ) waist. (d) millinery.—( ) fall or winter hat. ( ) summer hat— straw or lingerie. (e) embroidery.—( ) table cover or pillow top. ( ) lingerie hat or underwear (above mentioned), or christmas gift. ( ) processes involved in working out above problems, (a) hand-sewing (review). ( ) machine-sewing. (c) drafting with use of patterns. (d) fitting and hanging of garment. (e) designing for decoration and draft of patterns. (/) computations of costs. ( ) thought content to be developed while presenting above problems. (a) textile study. source of materials, properties, manu- facture, design, and workmanship of textiles. (b) use and adaptation of commerical patterns and relatien to drafting. (c) hygiene in relation to wearing apparel. sweatshop labor. (d) study of relative values of hand and machine work. (e) suitability of apparel in relation to use and income. line and color to be adapted to wearer. economics of the purchase of materials, prices, widths, quality, etc., in rela- tion to use and planning of the wardrobe. how to reduce cost with good effect. (f) training for accuracy, neatness, foresight, and respon- sibility. development of social consciousness. ( ) allied subjects. domestic art (a) art in specific design, color, adaptation of line to space— relation to human form. history of costume as expression of social development; appropriateness of clothing and beauty. ( ) physics. (c) commercial geography. (d) industrial history. (e) economics (simple form). if) physiology (hygiene of clothing), (g) chemistry (dyeing of materials). ( ) related interests.—to be developed while teaching above problems. (a) visits to shops, factories, museums, and libraries. (b) use of books and current magazines as of value in above study. (c) work of organizations, as municipal league, consum- ers' league, board of health, trades unions (relation of employer and employees). (d) sweatshop problems, duties, customs (imported gowns, etc.). iii. shelter and household management. ( ) problems. (a) making of charts showing relation of cost of clothing to income, also charts of color schemes for rooms and fur- nishings. ( ) making of furnishings.—( ) scarf for table or pillow. ( ) curtains. ( ) weaving of cover. (c) keeping of accounts—informal talks on house manage- ment in relation to furnishings and clothing. (d) laundering of materials (cleansing, dyeing). ( ) processes involved in working out the above problems. work for secondary schools (a) stencilling. ( ) block printing. (c) hand-loom weaving. co-operative work. (d) exhibits in school of rooms furnished. (e) trial of method of keeping personal accounts. (/) cleansing and dyeing of old materials. ( ) thought content to be developed while presenting above problems. (a) artistic and beautiful furnishings of home; spirit of home-making; ethical and social side; kind of home in rela- tion to income. (b) management in relation to repairs of clothing, linen, rugs, etc. care of clothing and house furnishings. launder- ing of materials. (c) keeping accounts. clothing and furnishings, their rela- tion to income. (d) economy of time in relation to making and use of home things. (e) business management. simple business rules, and law for women. ( ) allied subjects. (a) art—study of design materials, color in relation to rooms. ( ) household sanitation—in relation to furnishings. (c) chemistry—color; cleansing of wood and materials; dyeing, laundering. (d) economics (very simple). law of supply and demand; money—fall of price. ( ) related interests. (same as above subject, (ii) course of study. clothing.) domestic art aim of the school the aim of this manual training high school course in domestic art is to offer to girls a practical education, in order that they may discover and exercise their best powers, while obtaining accurate information in many practical problems of life. the special aim of this course in domestic art is to prepare the girls to be more efficient home-makers, and to be better prepared to take their place in society; to cultivate an appreciation of home, and to dignify housework by improving the method of work as well as the articles made. throughout the course emphasis is to be placed upon economy, suitability, and as far as possible, upon the culti- vation of order, neatness, responsibility, and unselfishness whenever there is a natural relationship. the subject-matter is to be correlated with art, history, geography, nature study, arithmetic, etc. twenty periods a week are to be devoted to academic studies such as english, mathematics, science, history, language, music, and elocution. by a wise selection of studies it would be possible for those who intend to go on to college, to meet the requirements. ten periods a week are given to domestic art, domestic science, and drawing. physical training will have to be given outside of the ten periods, unless the hours can be arranged differently. the work is planned for one-hour-and-forty-minute periods, which may seem long for the first year; but as a rule the first year high school girls are not under fifteen years old and would be able to stand it. a good deal of garment and dress making have been ar- ranged for in this course, for the reason that the parents are work for secondary schools inclined to appreciate the utilitarian value of this subject more than the educational; hence an attempt is made to meet the approval of the parents as well as to fulfil the aim of the school. many mothers depend on and greatly appreciate the help the daughters can give them during vacation periods, especially the help with the family sewing. this is one of the reasons for introducing children's clothing. the school year is thirty-four weeks. first year domestic art.—two one-hour-and-forty-mimite periods a week. domestic science.—two one-hour-and-forty-minute periods a week. drawing.—two fifty-minute periods a week. est $ . . . - s { . t l°- ° fs-oot \ . alltd ttece art. physics. mathematics. history. geography. physiology. hygiene. eetht enent orderliness, cleanli- suitability of mate- machines:use; care economy in cutting. originality, unself- ishness. indian bas- study of textiles. properties of cotton, fibre, history, manu- ness, neatness. rial. of; value. appropriate use. ketry. facture. hand-sewing. bast- ing, backstitch, hem- overhanding, cross- hand and machine. drafting pattern. weaving of baskets. stencilling and hand- drafting of pattern. hand- and machine- sewing, buttons and button-holes, tucking, procts ming, overcasting. stitch, initials. hand and machine. sewing. setting in lace. workbag. to be used during the year. cooking-apron. short kimono. christmas presents. making and fitting out skirt, corset-cover, articlt pin-cushion. a work-basket. drawers. sewint periods t s -io sectd year ctttd est fs-oot l .oo f°- °t [ i.oo j . t \ . alltd ttece physiology. mathematics. geography. eete enent ethics of shopping, hygiene of dress, keep- ing accounts, and esti- mating cost of ward- economy of time combination of text- ure, study of textiles continued, wool and properties and man- ufacture. sweatshop robe. and materials. silk. labor. estimate of mate- rial, use of pattern, de- signing cut pattern, simple trimming. planning and mak- cleaning, planning, more elaborate trim- ming, hand-made if eocts unlined dress, wool • children's clothes, ing- and making. time permits. articlt or worsted. little girls' dress. remodelling. summer dress. dtss- makint periods °t s t »" third ytar domestic art.—two one-hour-and-forty-minute periods a week. household art.—design, two fifty-minute periods a week. domestic science.—one period a week. or two fifty-minute periods. hygiene may be given. ( . t f . t est $ . l°- ° \ . alltd ttece design and visit to furni- art. color. hygiene. ture stores. accuracy in execu- discussion of bed- room and dining-room furniture, artistic and hygienic decorations. (illustrated with furni- collection of pictures from catalogues dining-room and li- eege eneet tion. ture if possible.) mounted. brary, living-room. eocess some of the most prominent stitches cloister and drawn- work, stamping. hemming and sten- applique or arabian embroidery. small practice piece. given. hardanger or eyelet cilling. articlt centrepiece. tablerunner. cushion. emhroidery periods t t t fttrth year domestic art.—two one-hour-and-forty-minute periods a week. domestic science.—three fifty-minute periods a week. f . c— f . - f . t est . ° l -°° { . alltd ttece mathematics. visits to mil- linery stores. history of cos- art. tume. line and form harmony of color demonstrated with pieces of material. style of hats for special relation of money spent for hats to that of duty on imported original design, judgment in buying independence, self- eete enent other clothing. studied. occasion. hats. material. reliance. cutting and sewing making patterns, wiring, covering, and trimming, making bows, folds, ruches, etc. cleaning of frame construction of wire frame, covering with making lining for the waist (may be made separate if not wanted in the dress). hand-made trimming. eoces and trimming. net or straw. on wire. buckram frame cov- ered with material and graduation dress and hat to match or a articlt remodelling. bandeaux. trimmed. spring hat. summer suit. millieery td dtss- making periods ioti t - t ° drafting and making of a pair of drawers. household decoration. hemming and marking of ta- ble-linen for do- mestic science department (co- operative work). furnishing of the dining-room. charts showing the kind of fur- niture and its flounce. adjust- ment of top. careful measur- ing. free pattern- cutting. drafting. cutting. making. napery hemming. marking (padding). satin stitch. arrangement charts. ferent methods of finishing top, of setting on flounce. textiles, their properties in relation to hygiene of under- skirts. care of underskirts. comparison of hand and ma- chine work. economy in buying and cut- ting. selection of durable ma- terial. care in construction "opposite sides." care of drawers, mending and patch- ing. consumers' league. sweatshop labor. selection and cost of good table-linen. cotton made to look like linen through its fin- ishing processes. tests of real linen. care of table-linen. furniture necessary for dining-room; good designs, cost. good color combina- tions. draperies, kinds and cost. rugs, kinds and cost. physiology. history. drawing. bookkeeping. visits to shops, furniture stores, and craft shops. correlation with manual training suitable for underskirts collected in note- books. after making the corset-cover, petticoat, and drawers, the girls estimate number of these articles required each year and their cost. samples of table- linen collected in note- books. study of linen, source, production, and manufacture. samples of good draperies and wall pa- pers. pictures of good furniture and examples of good color schemes first year ctttd tstste kept in the room con- tinually. it is possible to secure the co-opera- tion of the stores and neighborhood. a part of the exhibition-room is to be furnished as a dining-room. study of linen, its sources, pro- duction, and manufact- ure. etettion td tted inetsts in study of fur- niture, etc. art, very close cor- relation and co- operation. do- mestic science. • eege enent wall finishes, kinds and cost. floor finishes, kinds and cost. pictures, good taste. (the ar- tistic side of this is greatly em- phasized because the germans of this locality spend a good deal on their homes, but have extremely bad taste.) cleansing of straw. re- modelling of shapes. reno- vation of trimming. relation of hat to wearer. good color combination. good lines. care of millinery. economy in dress. eoctses sponging. clean- ing. pressing. dye- ing. bow tying. trimming. applications cost. samples of materials used; color scheme of room, etc. millinery. renovation o f spring and sum- mer hats. sectd year ctttd m on tstste as far as possible exhibition-room fur- nished to show bed- room fittings. the im- agination of the girls is to be developed as much as possible with a view to developing their individuality and originality. etettie td tted inetsts correlation with domestic science in ven- tilation and care of bedrooms. visits to fur- niture and craft shops. manual training. furniture, its cost. choice of hangings and rug, paper or wall finishes, pictures. necessity for bedrooms which are healthful, restful, hygienic, and beautiful. the amount of time spent in bed- room and its effect on health of individual. labor-saving devices in bedroom. selection, care, and cost of bedding. necessity for light bed-clothing. care of bed- ding, mending. eetht eneet laying and tying of cotton. proctses comforter made for hos- pital. (co-op- erative work.) applicatioes third ytar two one-and-one-half-hour periods per week. garment-making, household decoration, and millinery tstste the study of wool, its sources, production, and manufacture, is to continue throughout this work in dressmak- ing. collections of samples of woollen ma- terials made by girls to familiarize them with names, widths, prices, etc., with a view to making them more in- telligent buyers. ertttie td ttted inetsts english. history. business arithmetic. eete eeent textile study in relation to choice of material for dress. adulterations of wool. econ- omy in buying good material. choice of style—good taste in color and design. suita- bility. use of patterns. spong- ing of material. care in cut- ting, marking, making, finish- ing, and pressing. neat, ac- curate work. economy of time and materials through wise planning. hygiene of clothing. care of clothing. brushing, sponging, pressing, removing spots, hanging up, packing away for summer. new braids. darning of dif- procese sponging. cut- ting. fitting. mak- ing. finishing. pressing. applica- tion of a bit of em- broidery or braid- ing on waist for trimming. applications dressmaking. very simple woollen dress. feurth year cttttd made by the girls so that they may become familiar with the differ- ent kinds of silk, the widths, prices, etc. in this year the girl is to be helped to un- derstand more fully her duties and responsibili- ties as a part of the so- cial unit. she should realize her influence on industry as a consumer. her interest in many social and industrial questions of the day should be awakened. tstste ertttion td tted inetsts chemistry. domestic sci- ence. civics. political ec- onomy. manual train- ing. dress as the expression of in- dividuality. healthful, com- fortable clothing. care of clothing. cleansing of silk. customs duties on imported gowns. influence of women on industry. apportionment of the budg- et. keeping of accounts. living within one's means. saving. choice of home. ar- rangement of home. business connected with home. care of home and its furnishings. spirit and ideals of home and their influence on its inmates. dignity and beauty of home- making. economy of time and energy in systematic methods of living and working. necessity of system. eege enent processes household management. lectures. pa- pers. charts. discussions. applicatioes millinery. i straw hat (wire i frame). child's outfit for orphan asy- lum. (co-oper- ative work.) wire frame. making. sewing straw braid. trim- ming. cutting. making. care of clothing. brush- ing, marking, sponging, re- pairing, pressing, storing. re- modelling of clothing. plan- ning of wardrobes with ex- penses for (i) girl in com- fortable circumstances, living at home. ( ) for business girl with $ per month. ( ) for mother of a family. audubon society. suita- bility—good design. straws, their prices and wearing qual- ities. hair-dressing. good taste. use of patterns. necessi- ties of a child's wardrobe. construction of garments. expense of children's cloth- ing. hygiene, suitability. practical charities. social consciousness developed. her originality, im- agination, and powers of invention should be greatly stimulated. domestic art (c) lead girl to see where in her individual case the money could have been more wisely spent. (d) economy of time as opposed to money. ( ) problems dealing with the purchase of materials, (a) relations of consumer and dealer. (b) relative values, bargains, etc. (c) comparison of samples brought in by girls; use of price lists; learn names and widths of materials. (d) some means of judging materials. (e) use of lists in shopping. (j) shopping etiquette; how to ask for what you wish. ( ) general appearance, (a) good taste. ( ) color com- binations. ( ) textile combinations. ( ) suitability of gar- ment to occasion. (b) good and bad hair dressing. ( ) hair ribbons, orna- ments, combs, etc. (c) ornamentation. ( ) use of cheap jewelry. ( ) cheap laces, embroideries, etc. (d) shoes. ( ) well cleaned. ( ) heels in good condi- tion. (e) gloves. ( ) clean, well-mended. ( ) hygiene, (a) care of the body. (b) hands. ( ) nails—clean, well-shaped. ( ) necessity for business woman to have good-looking hands. ( ) care— soaps, brushing, etc. (c) selection of garments that will launder easily. (i) frequent changes of underwear. ( ) necessity in shop- work; use in this connection of knit, one-piece underwear. ( ) excursions, etc. (a) visits to neighboring stores in relation to shopping, etc. (b) exhibit of undergarments in connection with making of undergarments. domestic art ( ) seams. (a) kinds. (i) welt. ( ) flat stitched. ( ) strapped. ( ) lapped. ( ) slot. (b) finishing. ( ) overcast. ( ) bound. ( ) turned in. ( ) boning. ( ) pressing. ( ) pockets. ( ) making of button-holes. ( ) sewing on hooks and eyes. ( ) hanging skirts. ( ) finishing skirts. ( ) decorating. (a) machine. ( ) hemstitching. ( ) tucking. ( ) stitching. ( ) ruffling. ( ) hand. ( ) french embroidery. ( ) coarse stitches. (c) trimmings for gowns. ( ) smocking. ( ) cording. ( ) plaiting. ( ) braiding. ( ) application of previously learned stitches to collars, belts, cuffs, shirtwaists, etc. ( ) study of line and form to fit individual figures. adjust- ing garments to variety of figures. much practice in taking measures. iii. related subject-matter. ( ) design. (a) space relation. (b) proportion. (c) relative values. (d) color harmonies. (e) sketching. ( ) waists, gowns, and shirtwaists. ( ) commercial and industrial geography. ( ) commercial and industrial history. iv. thought content. ( ) materials. (a) cost. (b) economy in use and cutting. (c) good taste in selection. work for secondary schools dressmakers' course—third year (required course) household management and home furnishing time.—one period per week throughout year. periods, fifty minutes each. aim.—to improve the home conditions as far as possible by discussions and practical demonstrations of the following topics. i. problems. ( ) economic aspect of study of the home. (a) labor. ( ) organized. ( ) systematic. ( ) regular times for doing certain tasks. ( ) economy of time and energy by careful planning. ( ) sharing of responsibilities. ( ) division of labor. (b) home industries. ( ) ethical value. ( ) economic value. (c) income. ( ) division according to value and necessity. ( ) keeping of accounts. ( ) importance of wise spending. ( ) relation of spender to community, to family, to quality of commodity purchased, to condition of business. ( ) ele- ments which regulate apportionment of income. ( ) use of business methods in the home. ( ) some ideas of banking, checking, drafts, etc. ( ) furnishing of the home. (a) fundamental principles of good furnishing. ( ) effect of furnishings upon health, com- fort, and development of family. ( ) artistic furnishings as well as hygienic. ( ) choice of materials as to color, suita- bility, design, wearing qualities. domestic art ( ) care of rooms. (i) weekly sweeping and dusting—best methods. ( ) lighting. ( ) heat and ventilation. ( ) sleeping-rooms. bed furnishings and removal of soiled clothes, etc. ( ) use of disinfectants and deodorants. ii. processes. ( ) largely class discussions. ( ) free use of charts. ( ) let class plan ways of dividing income. ( ) practice in keeping accounts. ( ) some practice in making out checks, drafts, etc., with relation to banking, trade, etc. ( ) visit if possible a good model apartment. ( ) plan good division of daily household tasks. dressmakers' course—second or third year (elective course) time.—five periods per week throughout year. periods, fifty minutes each. prerequisite.—dressmakers' course first year. aim.—to enable girls to earn money at home making under- garments for private trade. this course is for a girl who will be needed at home part or all of the day, and yet have sufficient time to enable her to help in the support of herself or family. in most large cities there is ample opportunity for the employ- ment of such girls, and need for their training. i. problems. ( ) combination of hand- and machine-work. (a) corset cover. ( ) plain. ( ) lace-trimmed. work for secondary schools (b) chemise. ( ) hand-embroidered. (c) underdrawers. ( ) ruffle trimmed with machine-tucks or hemstitching, ( ) ruffle of lace or embroidery. (d) combination drawers and corset-cover. ( ) tight-fit- ting and very plain. (e) night-gowns. ( ) plain. ( ) lace-trimmed or hand- embroidered. (/) underskirts. ( ) plain (ruffle of same material trimmed with machine tucking). ( ) fancy (ruffle of embroidery with heading of beading, or lace-trimmed). (g) kimonos and dressing-jackets. ( ) daintily trimmed with lace, etc. ( ) this problem is for those finishing the first six problems before the time of the term expires. ii. principles and processes involved. ( ) review of principles and processes as planned for first year course. ( ) extra stress laid on the finishing and decoration of garments. iii. related subject-matter. ( ) same as for first-year course. iv. thought content. ( ) materials. (a) cost. (b) suitability as to use. (c) laundering and wearing qualities. (d) trimmings adapted to various qualities of materials. (e) fitness of decoration (hand) to material and garment. ( ) garment-making. (a) various shapes and kinds. (b) suitability as to age and size. (c) economical use of cloth. domestic art (d) estimation of cost. ( ) suggestive exercises. (a) training in quickly estimating cost of a finished garment with relation to trade. ( ) how to take orders for garments. (c) keeping of time accounts. (<i) estimate cost of making garment as to time required. (e) quick drill in designing and suggesting ways of making undergarments. the trade schools for women in this country are few and have a distinct aim. they have been until recently under private management and domestic art in trade largely experimental. the aim is to schools. train the young wage-earner for a short period in order that a certain amount of skill may be developed before she enters a trade, and that she may have an appreciation of the relationship of this trade to other work of the world. this cuts short the long apprenticeship period through which many of the girls must pass if they enter the shop or factory as soon as their working papers are obtained. the girls in such a school are naturally young, poor, and often in bad health. they cannot stay long in such a school and the course is often accomplished at great sacrifice. such a school should aim to give the girl a knowledge of the fundamental laws of domestic art terpretation of aims of courses by those entering. the writer has known of young girls placed in the home-making courses who really desired more tech- nical instruction and who were disappointed because at the completion of the course it was impossible to find work as a milliner's or dressmaker's assistant. the aims of courses should be distinctly stated, and advanced as well as elementary work offered in both the home-maker's and trade sections of the domestic-art work. catalogues of christian associations and settle- ments will illustrate the courses offered by these organizations. references for study "report of lake placid conference on home economics," . "catalogues of type schools and settlements." "trade and technical education," seventeenth annual report of united states commissioner of labor, . "the manhattan trade school for girls," mary s. wool- man. educational review, vol. xxx, september, . "trade schools. an educational and industrial necessity," mary s. woolman. the social education quarterly, vol. i, march, . , "report of massachusetts commission on industrial and technical education," boston, . part iv domestic art in higher education chapter xii domestic art as a part of college training for women household arts work as a part of college training for women is being introduced in many of the west- introduction em state and agricultural colleges. it is of household gradually winning its way against the arts in state and agricuit- old-time conservatism which made a ural colleges. „ . . ,, , college course for women exactly parallel to that for men. the changes which have come about in college courses for men are bound to affect those for women and eventually relate the work more direct- ly to the life which the woman will enter after leaving college. the eastern colleges for women are slow to adopt such a course, but before many years they will feel the necessity of offering what the students will demand and of readjusting their courses of study domestic art as a part of college training so as to meet the needs of girls interested in the home and its beautifying, organization, and improve- ment. the majority of college women are far from practical, and few see the real relationship of the arts and sciences studied at college to the practical affairs of life. the writer believes that college women would marry earlier in life if their interests were enlisted in the study of the problems directly connected with home-making; there can be nothing more interesting for the average normal woman. if the well-trained, intelligent college women, the leaders of affairs in the world's work for women, would give their thoughts and energy to solving the problems of domestic science, proper food, proper clothing and shelter—in fact, "right living"—with the least amount of expenditure of time, energy, and money, the study would not only be interesting to them, but benefit humanity more than years of study of greek and latin classics, for it stands for economy of health as well as economy of wealth. the college woman is beginning to feel this and to make her demands. it is only in very recent years that any provision has been made in colleges for the women who wished or were compelled to make teaching their life-work. the women were filled with sub- domestic art as a part of college training are slow to adopt it is due largely to the old-time conservatism and lack of understanding of the real meaning of "cultural"—for it has been claimed that the college courses must be cultural. regarding the proposed college course in home economics of the lake placid conference, dr. balliet said: "the work mapped out has as high cultural value as the best courses now given in college, if we must keep on contrasting the 'cultural' and the 'practical,' as if they were mutually hostile to each other. some day—several thousand years to come—when spec- tacled professors shall study 'american antiquities,' all these 'common' 'practical' processes—the ways of cooking meals, manufacturing clothes, etc.—will be 'cultural' subjects on which learned courses of lectures will be given, and which will be accepted as proper subjects for theses for the degree of doctor of philosophy. . . . somehow, according to college students, knowledge must have a certain age before it becomes 'cultural.' when it is so far behind the time that it ceases to be practical, then it becomes cultural." college authorities often have a singular method of differentiating between the value of studies in the curriculum. mrs. ellen richards once said: "the domestic art housing of the poor is already allowed as a college course. why not the housing of college students? we have condescended to study the importance of the home as slums, it is time we studied ourselves." & study to this might be added not only the study of ourselves in relation to shelter, but also in regard to proper food and clothing, the admin- istration of our homes and the care and nurture of our children. there can be no more impor- tant college subject than the home. it covers the earth as far as fulness of subject-matter is con- cerned, and all the arts and sciences may be applied to home practices. in this age and era of educa- tion, the practical must be reckoned with by all who are planning courses. the home stands as the very centre, in training for the upbuilding of character or for good citizenship; and if this effi- ciency is the aim of the education for women, then the home subjects must be better represented in our college courses. there have been many difficulties which those difficulties interested in the introduction of house- before those hold art k int colleges haye had introducing household arts, to face. perhaps the old-time conserv- atism mentioned above has been the most diffi- domestic art as a part of college training cult. this will soon pass away when those inter- ested in this field of work are able to present the subjects in such a manner as to appeal to college authorities. there may be objection at first to the introduction of any practical work, but at least some subject-matter may be presented in lecture courses and an introduction given to this field. it very often happens that high school girls preparing for college have no opportunity for the study of house- hold arts, since their courses of study must be gov- erned to a great extent by the college entrance re- quirements. a girl who fails to get this work in high school naturally goes through college with no knowledge of the practical affairs of the home, and if she is at college away from home there is no opportunity for her to come in touch with the prac- tical things of life. the results are often truly pitiable. the author has known a good many such girls and they have made a strong appeal to her for some knowledge of the practical. as one girl re- marked, "if i only knew how to make my own shirtwaists and summer dresses and trim my own hats, what a saving it would mean to father! and all i can cook is fudge." this came from a girl of fine mind, a graduate of one of the eastern col- domestic art leges for women, perfectly prepared in mathematics and interested in her subject, but totally ignorant of meeting the home affairs. this girl is one of the mar- affairstflife ^ ^ results are t is inevitable. follow! she must meet the practical af- fairs: they are inevitable. she will be obliged to learn through sad experience in a more or less painful way and at the sacrifice of her own health, time, energy, and money, as well as that of her family. she is only one of many such girls who must face the home problems. the fact that colleges have not recognized for credit the high school work in house- hold science has greatly hindered the development of this work in both college and high school. the time is almost here when college entrance boards will accept for credit certain courses given in house- hold arts in the high school. the fact that it has not been credited in the past is due to poor teaching rather than to insufficient value in the subject- matter. some associations for college entrance are showing interest by requesting the formulation of possible schemes of work for credit. another difficulty has been the lack of properly trained teachers to present this work. it is only very recently that women with college degrees have domestic art as a part of college training become interested in the household arts work. many have previously considered it undignified other and have turned from it to other fields difficulties. of teaching. we must have our in- structors in literature and the classics in order that our girls may know this field of spiritual possession, but we need strong women to take an interest in the development of the home subjects as well. each year produces a few more and the time will surely come when we shall have competent instruction for college work in home economics. the field is very broad and the opportunity very large for any one who will prepare herself for this work. house- keeping and home-making are certainly a profes- sion, and intelligent, thoughtful preparation must be demanded from those who are to present this sub- ject to the next generation, for their health and hap- piness are at stake. another difficulty is the readjustment of subject- matter in order that this work may find a place. this is easily managed when the authorities are interested and face the value of this work. the arrangement of periods, the opportunity for courses in applied science instead of all pure science work, the chance for elective courses, make possible the domestic art introduction, if there is a willingness to have it in the curriculum. there are many possibilities in relation to subject- matter on both the artistic and scientific sides of home management and study. in possibilities in college courses relation to the domestic-art work there for women. are many phases suitable for college. the economic side of clothing and shelter offer opportunities in connection with a general course in college economics. woman as spender—what should her knowledge be of materials, their manu- facture; how to purchase and regulate her expend- itures; how to judge of the wage and demands made of the worker or seamstress? should she know and study the relative expenditure for gowns, shoes, hats, gloves, as well as household furnish- ing? should she be taught to think of economy of time, money, and energy in order that she may have time to enter into philanthropic study and service? the home as a sociological study offers opportunity for courses in this field—the family, the home-maker, true and false standards of living, luxury, relation- ship of members in the home, the true home spirit. from an artistic point of view much of interest can be offered—the history of architecture, and of domestic art as a part of college training domestic art as part of a course in house- hold arts, in colleges for women household arts domestic science domestic art food shelter clothing home management. the courses following in domestic art are numbered i and ii, and could be given in the st and d or d and th college years, leaving the alternate years for work in domestic science. course i.—clothing and design three periods weekly. one-hour lecture. two hours prac- tical work. throughout the year i. clothing— (i) economics of spending. ( ) woman as spender. ( ) cost of clothing. (a) materials. affected by adulterations, bargain sales, sec- onds, out of season and style, sweatshop labor, quality, econ- omy in selection. ( ) making. ( ) dressmaker, seamstress, time, wage. ( ) home-made by self—hand-work on gowns. ( ) time for various garments. ( ) in harmony with means, occasion, and personality—style, comfort, beauty. ( ) color in relation to dress. (c) care and cleansing of clothes. repairing. (chemistry of cleansing and textiles—related course.) ( ) relation of cost of clothing to income. proportion for gowns, hats, coats, shoes, gloves, etc. depending on life, position, climate, etc. domestic art as a part of college training course ii.—shelter (two periods per week for one year) i. the house— (i) the exterior. (history of architecture a related course.) ( ) appearance, location, city, country, suburb. ( ) rents. proportion of rent to income, number of indi- viduals, etc. (a) adaptation to needs, position, etc., of occupants. (b) false standards. ( ) municipal art. municipal league. woman in rela- tion to civic affairs. (social economics a related course.) (ii) the interior. ( ) the home. (a) meaning, atmosphere, affected by social changes; effi- ciency, happiness dependent on. (b) the family, the home-maker, false standards; desire for luxury. ( ) the decoration and furnishing. (a) economy. ( ) respect to beauty, comfort, and health; position and needs of occupants. ( ) making most of existing circumstances. dealing with and planning for specific prob- lems. ( ) least expenditure of time, energy, money. (b) specific rooms. ( ) bedrooms, living-rooms, dining- room, etc. ceilings, walls, floors, arrangement. ( ) decora- tion and furnishing. floor coverings, walls, draperies, lighting, furniture, glass, pottery, tapestries, coloring, materials, quality, amount, cost. ( ) proportioning of household expenditures. repairs. new furnishing. domestic art ii. history of periods of decoration— ( ) handicraft movement. ruskin and morris in relation to household art. ( ) history of tapestries and other textiles. ( ) history of silver, glass, etc. iii. excursions— stores, factories, museums, study of furniture, stained glass, tapestry, etc. references for study "report of lake placid conference on home economics,* . chapter xiii domestic art in other higher institu- tions of learning domestic art may or may not be a phase of a girl's general training in college, but it now forms a decided part of the work open to women in other higher institutions of learning. it is offered in many of the state and agricultural colleges as work of educational value open to women in the general course and counts for credit toward graduation. this is often designated as a home- maker's course and presents work in the various phases of domestic art as previously outlined. the work is often required as part of the general course, with opportunity for electives if there is particular interest in this specialty. in other instances this work is entirely elective. the courses offered are generally of a practical nature—garment and dress making, millinery and embroidery, designing and work in textiles. as yet little attention has been paid to the economic and ethical phases of the domestic art work, although the artistic and scientific sides have received some attention. these should be of par- ticular interest in higher education and make woman a wiser administrator of the funds which it will be her duty to disburse as she carries on the business of home-making. the courses offered in the state and agricultural colleges should aim to give this direction to the work. it is fatal to the cause for students graduating from this general course in the state college to go into this teaching field without additional preparation. many of these state colleges have normal departments where additional training may be had in the more strictly educational phases of the work. examples of the state and agricultural colleges giving work in do- mestic art are ohio state university; university of illinois; ames agricultural college, ames, la; mich- igan state agricultural college; university of ten- nessee. home-maker's courses are offered in many of the higher institutions besides the state and agricultural college. they are open, as a rule, to girls with and without previous high school training, and may be of an elementary or advanced nature. the work offered covers practical courses in household man- domestic art in other institutions agement, care of children, home nursing, elementary and advanced cookery for household use, garment- making, dressmaking, millinery, costume design, house sanitation, housewifery, and others. these studies group themselves about the shelter, nutri- tion, and clothing of the family, and reach a large class of girls who will probably marry early and do not care for the more academic studies, but are interested in the practical things of life. such courses cannot fail to produce better and more in- telligent homekeepers. domestic art offers such students courses in dressmaking, garment-making, millinery, and embroidery. courses in costume designing, color harmony, elementary design, and house decoration, study in the fabrics for use both for clothing and furnishings, and distinctive study in the wise purchase of articles of clothing and furnishings. the hygiene, cost, durability, repair, and selection of materials are all closely allied in this economic study. examples of this type of course may be found at the school of household arts, teachers college, columbia university; pratt institute, brook- lyn; stout training school for homemakers, me- nominee, wis.; drexel institute, philadelphia; uni- versity of chicago, and others. domestic art in other institutions ( ) garment-making, to include the application of all the hand-sewing stitches. ( ) dressmaking, both elementary and advanced, with facilities for practice. ( ) millinery. ( ) miscellaneous hand-work, such as crocheting, knitting, and weaving. ( ) elementary design and color harmony. ad- vanced work in design and color, with direct appli- cation to costume and home furnishings. ( ) the home as a sociological study. its spirit, plans for its artistic study, both on the exterior and interior. ( ) economics of the home in relation to home management, expenditures, purchase and repair of household clothing and furnishings. such training prepares for the teaching of sewing in elementary or high schools and supervisory work in schools or higher institutions. not all teachers, however, who pursue such a course are fitted to do supervisory work. much will depend on the pre- vious training and experience. the demand in the teaching field of higher education is at present for women who have college degrees as well as diplomas for teaching the specialty. such women must possess strong personalities and have the power of a selected bibliography of books helpful in the study of the various phases of domestic art educational ( ) "the method of the recitation." mcmurray. (mac- millan, .) ( ) "the educative process." bagley. (macmillan, .) ( ) "principles of teaching, elements of psychology." thorndike. (a. g. seiler, new york, .) ( ) "school and society." dewey. (chicago university press, .) ( ) "the place of industries in elementary education." k. e. dopp. (chicago university press.) ( ) "english reports on education." sadler. (vols. and , american education.) ( ) "the making of our middle schools." brown. (long- mans, .) ( ) "youth. its education, regimen, and hygiene." g. s. hall. (appleton, .) ( ) "teachers college records." (teachers college, new york.) ( ) "the child and the curriculum." dewey. (university of chicago press.) domestic art ( ) "notes on child study." thomdike. (macmillan, ( ) "report of massachusetts commission on industrial and technical education." (boston, .) ( ) "trade and technical education." (seventeenth annual report of the united states commissioner of labor, , washington.) ( ) "the manhattan trade school for girls." mary s. woolman. (educational review, september, , vol. .) ( ) "trade schools—an educational and industrial neces- sity." mary s. woolman. (the social education quarterly, vol. , march, ,) ( ) "the american high school." j. f. brown. (mac- millan, .) ( ) "beginnings in industrial education." paul hanus. (houghton mifflin, .) ( ) "the making of a girls' trade school." mary s. woolman. (whitcomb and barrows, boston.) sewing and dressmaking ( ) "school needlework." o. c. hapgood, (teachers' edition). (ginn.) ( ) "a sewing course." mary schenck woolman. (f. a. frenald, buffalo, n. y., .) ( ) "dressmaking up to date." (butterick publishing com- pany.) ( ) "the complete dressmaker." (edited by c. e. laugh- lin, .) ( ) "dress cutting, drafting, and french pattern modelling." m. prince brown. (archibald constable and com- pany, london.) domestic art ( ) "silk culture in california." carrie williams. (whit- aker, .) ( ) "weaving and designing." ashenhurst. (simpkins, london, .) the following magazines give helpful suggestions for those interested in domestic art: "the school arts book." $ . per year. (davis press, worcester, mass.) "the manual training magazine." $ . per year. (man- ual arts press, peoria, .) "the ladies' home journal." $ . per year. (curtis pub- lishing company, philadelphia.) "the good housekeeping magazine." $ . per year. (phelps publishing company, springfield, mass.) "the woman's home companion." $ . per year. (cro- well publishing company, new york.) "the delineator." $ . per year. (butterick publishing company, new york.) "harper's bazar." $ . per year. (harper & bros., new york.) "l'art de la mode." $ . per year. (morse, broughton co., new york.) "elementary school teacher." $ . per year. (university of chicago press, chicago.) "teachers college record." $ . per year. (teachers college, columbia university, new york.) "educational review." $ . per year. (educational re- view company, columbia university, new york.) "the survey," formerly "charities and the commons." $ . per year. (charity organization society.) "the craftsman." $ . per year. (gustav stickley, west thirty-fourth street, new york.) o a sewing course for teachers comprising directions for making the various stitches and instruction in methods of teaching by mary schenck woolman, b. s. president of the women's educational and industrial union and professor of household economics in simmons college fifth edition, revised washington, d. c. frederik a. fernald •habjate schoa of educatioh tr^/o jul copyright and by mary schenck woolman an interleaved edition of this book is published, in which are inserted leaves of bristol-board for mounting the practice pieces made by the student. price, $ . net. interleaved copies with sets of models mounted on the bristol-board leaves can be supplied by the domestic art department of teachers college. price, $ . net. i preface. the introduction of manual training as a necessary part of education has raised sewing to an art of great importance. outside of the practical advantage of being able to use the needle, the mental training through hand and eye has been proved to have a permanent effect on the character. the training of the hand makes it dextrous in other employments. habits of thrift, cleanliness, patience and accuracy are inculcated, economy taught and the inventive faculty developed. attention and the power of observation are increased by giving the lesson to an entire class at one time instead of by the old method of showing each pupil separately. in order to get the best results, certain fixed rules must be followed; to meet this want, these brief notes are given for the use of teachers. the course is care- fully graded to lead the mind gradually upward to more difficult needlework. an enthusiastic and progressive teacher can, through sewing, make freer and more capable beings of her pupils and help round out their characters. [from the first edition, .] notes for teachers purpose of the sewing course. this book is written for the purpose of giving to teachers the most important principles of plain sewing. since there is not time in the courses in normal schools for each student to make every article suitable for children it is suggested that some practice work in stitches has a justifiable place. these exercises, if desired, may be retained for use in teaching, but such work, even in training schools, must be supplemented by numerous finished articles. younger pupils naturally need practice on stitches before beginning on an article or garment, but such practice should be continued only long enough for them to gain sufficient skill for the purpose in view. the trial piece may then be discarded. it is a mistake for children to continue to make one stitch until perfection is reached before utilizing it on some interesting object. accuracy of thought and of action are not gained by such vain and tiresome repetitions, but rather a feeling of ennui or even a dislike of the work. teachers do not expect that each letter of the alphabet must be made perfectly before giving instruction on the next or before teaching the classes to spell. indeed the written word is often poorly executed throughout life and yet is indispensable. by some unknown reasoning, however, many teachers of sewing insist that each stitch must be made perfectly before allowing a pupil to begin on a new one. many will also require students to know all of the important stitches before suggesting the use of any of them to construct articles. the unfortunate fact is that they thus keep the pupils from using the knowledge they have acquired and thereby lose a powerful ally in the spontaneous handwork which is so natural to the child. every one who attempts to teach sewing should become familiar with the stitches, by actual experience, and should take her own work to the classes to give ideas of correct construction and neat finish. these notes for teachers and the instruction under each description of stitches afford a basis for planning courses suited to various kinds of schools and to children of different ages and conditions of development. under the de- scriptive sections will be found lists of materials necessary for practice and also suggestions for application. it is expected that each teacher will practice the stitches and then apply them to the making of small finished articles suitable for children and calculated to develop their natural activity and encourage them to be creative. these articles should be mounted with the practice-pieces on the bristol-board leaves of the interleaved edition of the sewing course. mounting finished work. object teaching is an important factor in the schools, and the teacher of sewing will find samples of her own hand work will greatly assist her in giving correct ideas of construction to her pupils. leaves for mounting finished work are inserted in the interleaved edition of this book. the teacher or normal student may fasten on the bristol-board leaves the articles or models made by her. care should be taken to arrange them effec- tively. the mcgill's paper fasteners, no. aai, are more satisfactory than paste, and two samples can often be placed on one page. some soft colored paper, pasted carefully on the bristol-board improves the appearance of the articles made of white material. one sample can combine a number of stitches; illustrations of this are a small towel with a hemstitched border and marked with initials in cross-stitch, with a loop of tape to hang it up; or a flannel skirt in which stitch- ing, hemming, herringbone, putting on a band, a button-hole and sewing on a button are all used. the teacher. many qualities unite in the making of a good teacher. her personality is most important, for her physical, mental and moral influence is ever moulding her pupils, even without her conscious effort. her special training should be of the best. its foundation should be cultural, supplemented by a knowledge of the problems of modern education, and by the ideals of her own household arts field. she should also have ample technical skill and experience. without a professional preparation, she is too much handicapped to accomplish all that is possible in this branch of education. furthermore, the spirit which she brings to her work will determine largely the character of her success. much possible good will be unat- tained if her aim is simply to inspire her classes to complete a series of good models, or even of useful articles. supplementary ideals are needed to make her pupils efficient for good in the world. such ideals will require her to study the needs, characteristics and environment of her pupils, that she may develop thoughtful, responsible workers who have a worthy purpose to carry out. she must gradually bring them in touch with the problems of industrial workers also, that they may have an increasing desire to themselves lend a hand in the world's work. a teacher well prepared in her subject, with an ethical aim such as the above, will find the children in her classes growing into active, dependable women. sewing in the public schools. sewing was introduced into the curriculum of public schools many years ago for utilitarian purposes, i. e., it was felt that girls needed to know how to sew, and as they failed to learn at home, the public schools provided this instruction. material results were emphasized and little or no thought was given to the train- ing of the brain through the hand. looked at from this side alone, the work has much to recommend it, for it is of life-long use to the children. the object of the school is not, however, solely to provide a means of earning a livelihood, but notes for teachers aims at "the full and harmonious development of all of the powers of the indi- vidual," that they may be used in efficient service to society. this educational foundation, however, should be such that it may serve, when necessary, as an effective basis for vocational life. sewing may be of true worth in the curri- culum if it enables the pupil to help herself, inclines her at the same time to assist others, shows her the connection of her work with the world's industrial interests, and makes her sympathetic with, and appreciative of, the army of those who work. it frequently fails, however, of its full value through lack of breadth in the point of view of the teacher. the "sewing course" aims to indicate lines of thought for her study and reflection through which she may increase the efficiency of her work. self-activity and social service. frobel's heartfelt cry of the need of training every child's natural activity if he would be harmoniously developed gave a new meaning to manual work. psychologists studying the development of the brain, found that a complete education included training in action, as well as in thought. gradually the entire attitude toward the training of the hand changed, as more study was given to its proper function in the school, and manual training is now felt to be as necessary in education as any academic study. the modern curriculum gives the opportunity to use the hand, will and mind together. a desire to be of service in the world comes naturally as the means for such helpfulness are increased, but the teacher has it in her power to develop higher ideals of social usefulness in each student. sewing is one phase of manual training; it comes, or it should come, close to the interests of childhood and it offers innumerable ways by which a child may be of assistance in the home and in the school. the need of child study. if sewing is to add to the mental and moral strength of the children, if a love of the true and beautiful is to come through it, the work must take them into account. the child must not be sacrificed to the model, or garment, by the demand of the teacher for over-accurate work, for neat adjustments at an early age, or for the stupid task. the interest and development of the child must be considered in the selection of the course. setting her to make articles suited to her capacity and considered by her as worth doing is the only sensible method of gaining her enthusiasm and of bringing out her creative ability. the stitch should be taught as a means by which she may construct a definite article, and not as an end in itself, as is the case in the usual model work, watch a child learning a new stitch, which will help her construct an interesting article. her heart is in it, as the subborn little fingers are put in place, and the will power brought into play. her whole body shows lively interest and she overcomes dif- ficulty after difficulty in her road to success. give the same child a set of models to make which have been arranged by the teacher apart from the interests of childhood and she will become fatigued, and instead of utilizing her own will the a sewing course cleaning and serving, the needs of the linen closet, historic dress, the furnishing of a room or house, uniforms and equipment for nurses or housemaids, may each suggest a new set of articles for the classes and furnish matter for discussion and study. correlation. there is continual opportunity for connecting a course of sewing with the every-day life of the children at home, at school, or in society, and gradually interesting them in the bettering of industrial conditions. to do this adequately and easily, the special teacher must be familiar with the homes and lives of her pupils, and must also know the aims and subject matter of the regular school work. by consultation with the grade teachers she will know the wisest time to introduce discussions connecting the handwork with academic interests. such subjects as the properties and values of materials, the countries growing or manu- facturing them, and the development of commerce on account of the great textile industries, belong to geography and history, as well as to our industrial life. english may be turned to account in personal or business correspondence; vocab- ularies of materials and industrial processes; adequate recording, oral and written; and in business usages. computations of the expenses necessary for making garments, the division of the income, the keeping of accounts, and the consideration of the cost of living, connect arithmetic with sewing. further- more, the decoration of articles, the beauty of materials, historic dress, embroid- eries, laces and textiles are fine art as well as household art interests. the school should recognize these relationships and should so utilize the handwork that it will illustrate and strengthen the study courses. in other words, sewing has a cultural background which should be utilized, not only to increase the interest in it, but also to aid in the unification of all the school subjects by a worth-while correlation. results of value can only be obtained when the teacher of sewing studies all of these related fields for herself. serious work on the part of a large number of the special teachers would greatly help in solving some of our greatest social problems. the improving of the home; the bettering of the working con- ditions of women, by bringing about adequate laws concerning them; wholesome factory conditions, and the increasing of respect for handwork and handworkers, are instances of needed reforms. the regular grade teacher cannot be expected to do this alone, for she has not studied industrial interests in her preparation for teach- ing. her hearty co-operation is always given, however, to the special teacher who works wisely and tactfully with her. forced, unnatural correlations between handwork and academic work do more harm than good. the sewing alone is of greater use to the children than when accompanied by encyclopaedic information on industries imparted to the class by the teacher and called correlation. various methods may be used to interest the classes in personal investigation. subjects may be set beforehand, that research may be done by the classes, and either oral or written work, of an original character, may follow and serve to combine an english lesson with one on household art. notes for teachers textile study in the schools. the study of textiles has been accorded a place in the curriculum of many schools on account of its educational, as well as its practical, value. woven materials play an important part in the every-day life with which the school wishes to connect. the evolution of the modern textile industries has influenced the development of all nations so that the history of the gradual growth of the primitive into the civilized world is closely connected with changes in the textile field. the early beginnings offer excellent suggestions for courses of handwork and design. in addition, the industrial and commercial aspects of history, eng- lish, geography and arithmetic are made more real and valuable by using the tex- tile interests in correlation. this subject may serve, therefore, as a means of unifying the school studies. industrial organization underlies our present civili- zation. conditions which affect our industries reach our social life. the textile industries are especially influenced by women, and their knowledge or ignorance as consumers are controlling factors in the nation's industrial development. it is especially advantageous in every course of sewing for girls, in either elementary or secondary schools, to introduce textile discussions. in elementary education the value of personal experience in primitive textile manufacture has been ably presented by professor john dewey,* of columbia university, and by miss katherine e. dopp,t of chicago university. they advocate the reproducing of early industrial life in the school, that through it the children of to-day may have the same incentive for thought and activity which were the prime factors in devel- oping the race. it thus leads these children to an understanding of present con- ditions for which our involved modern system of factory work cannot be satis- factorily utilized. the simple carding, spinning, designing, weaving and decorating, as well as many other early occupations, are interesting and call for reasoning and creativity. ideas of simple social conditions and of the early organi- zation of society are also given through such study. the children can, through play or dramatization, live the life of the early races, or they can reproduce on sand trays the entire community, with its industries and interests. in later edu- cation, the historic side of textiles is a part of industrial history, sociology, eco- nomics or other studies, and it may also connect practically with the sciences. in addition, valuable utilitarian ideas which will materially benefit the organization of the home, as well as react advantageously upon our manufacturing interests, may be obtained at every stage of woman's education. the knowledge of the physical construction of the fibers in use and of their properties will enable a pur- chaser to judge of their hygienic and warmth-giving conditions, as well as of their cleansing and laundering possibilities; and the understanding of processes of manufacture will assist the student to judge of good and bad materials, and of adulterations, to know widths, costs, and where to find the best markets. useful knowledge of this sort should not only make women better and more economic consumers, but should give them new standards of the beauty and service of * school and society. t place of industries in elementary education. * a sewing course materials. this would tend to eliminate over-decoration and needless luxury in the homes. the study of factories and workrooms, and the knowledge of methods of manufacture will also bring about an appreciation for, and sympathy with, the worker, which will make for the permanent bettering of labor conditions and of society at large. drawing and design. lessons in drawing or color should accompany the entire course in sewing. the simple plans of the first grade for ornamenting a little burlap mat, needle- case or cover, as well as the high school designs for underclothing, shirtwaists, hats, embroideries, gowns, and home furnishings require art appreciation. drawings or color sketches should be made and applied directly to the problem in hand. improved line, adequate decoration, correct placing, harmonious color combinations, temperance and simplicity in results should be gradually attained. the divorce of art from handwork is responsible for much of our bad taste, and as a result, the furnishings of our homes are frequently vulgar; our clothing is commonplace, over-decorated or tawdry, and our shops are filled with poorly constructed articles. the product of many of our industries is influenced entirely by the demands of women. it is necessary for our country's success that the taste and the knowledge of practical buying should be improved. the home worker, the seamstress, the dressmaker, and the milliner usually know little or nothing of art; the teacher of design has been too ignorant of the technique of these industries to be of much service, and the teacher of the domestic arts has given her time to her direct field, omitting the fundamental connection of applied art. it is absolutely necessary that she should now give sufficient time to the study of design to be able to improve the art of every-day life. this will again react on the industries. she should either herself give the necessary art lessons in her classes, or be able to direct the work of the regular art teacher, so that good prac- tical results may be obtained. the vocational foundation. the early cessation of education confronts the teacher in the industrial sec- tions of large cities. a large number of children leave school to become wage- earners the moment the compulsory school years are over (about fourteen). many have not graduated, but stop about the sixth school year, or even before that. as the usual public school courses are planned to culminate later, the edu- cation which these young workers have received is of questionable service to them in making a living. the only gainful occupations into which they can enter, therefore, are those which require unskilled labor. these seldom give good opportunities for advance, for the skilled operatives are too busy to train the young beginners. the result is that numbers of these children drift from work- room to workroom, making only a small, inadequate wage. the girls remain a few years in the market, but find it difficult to rise to $ . per week, which in large cities is merely a living wage. they then marry and begin homes of their own, but, even there, are unprepared to be economic factors. they have not had notes for teachers our methods are needed and desirable, they can be used as supplementary to the native work. the life of those nations and its improvement or development should, however, be the basis for decision on courses of work. in some countries the women and girls are very deft with their fingers and many nations have developed wonderful crafts of their own; these should be preserved, if possible, unless the best reasons exist for change. it is stupefying to foreign children to be given ideas of construction entirely at variance with their previous knowledge and at the same time, little adapted to the life they are living. drafting and cutting. in the elementary school it is not wise, nor indeed is it usually possible, to teach elaborate dressmaking. it is, however, advisable that girls from the sixth or seventh grade up should have some experience in cutting, fitting and construct- ing the simple garments they wear or that may be worn by their younger sisters or brothers. drafting of pattern is frequently given to accompany garment-mak- ing in the higher grades of the elementary school, although its principal use is in the high school. it is of doubtful benefit in either when it is given with set dictated rules, for it does not develop independence of thought or of action. to be sure, each girl may through it make a pattern for herself or for another, but she has usually gained little in understanding how to adjust the draft to changing fashions or how to cut and fit easily when she is away from the teacher. the real service which drafting may render has been lost in such cut and dried lessons. the good dressmaker and the able woman in her own home do not rely on draft- ing to make every new pattern; they are superior to it. they can take any one they have and adapt it to a new purpose. they completely cut it over or increase or decrease it where necessary, and obtain good results. the aim of a course of lessons in drafting should be to give each pupil ability of a similar character. freedom from set rules and the knowledge of how to go to work is much more necessary than merely having a good pattern. drafting, therefore, should be a means to an end, and not solely an end in itself. through it the students should learn the form of the body and the way patterns are made. they should be able to appreciate good line, to utilize and alter any pattern so as to conform it to dif- ferent figures or to changing styles. the elementary school cannot go far in this work, but it is important that the right start should be made. a child likes to cut her own doll clothes, and the teacher, in even the fifth grade, can help her to improve upon her crude efforts and can gradually lead her to see that certain principles when followed, lead to exactness, as well as to beauty, of result. as the girl grows older, the teacher can help her to comprehend the use of the dif- ferent parts of paper patterns. she can gradually lead her up through the simple doll clothes she has cut, to the understanding of the way to draft an accurate pat- tern. no matter how clever a demonstrator a teacher is, she will fail to give as much help to her class, while explaining a draft, as will be obtained by each child in her own efforts toward making some pattern for her doll or for herself. the regular patented systems of cutting are of less value in the schools than the notes for teachers » scarfs, hangings or clothing, lingerie embroidery for hat or blouse.. (iii) making over, cleaning and repairing, ripping, cleaning, dyeing or renovating, recutting, lengthening and making over dresses. (iv) upholstery. chairs, cushions and couch-covers, repairing mattresses or upholstered chairs. (v) cutting and pattern making — use and adjustment of patterns. pattern modelling and economical cutting. (vi) millinery. frame making and trimming. (vii) cooperative work. cleaning and making over a dress, upholstering a chair, weaving a rug or stencilling a hanging for the school. (viii) textile and social suggestions. the old textiles, as used in embroideries and weavings for costume, historic costume, simple decorative designs, pres- ent costume for women (good and bad points), factory and sweat-shop garments, preparation for employment, wages, conditions. betterment. (ix) the home— organization, improvement, accounts, how to live. (see note under vi grade outline.) the lesson plan. every lesson should be carefully planned beforehand that the subject matter may be reviewed and the best method of teaching may be decided upon. a teacher whose method is solely that of dictation, or else to show each pupil indi- vidually, will not accomplish as much as will the one who relies chiefly on class discussions combined with such guiding and suggestions as may be necessary. clearer ideas of construction and a widening of interest in industrial questions, important for each child to know, will also result from a carefully prepared dis- cussion. this holds good even if the subject has been taught many times before. no two classes are alike and the best results are obtained only when a lesson has been planned in relation to the characteristics and needs of any group. handwork becomes automatic to the expert and the details of the way by which the end was reached fade from the mind and often require an effort to recall. therefore, the teacher should test beforehand her own knowledge of the necessary steps in the making of any article, that every detail may be clear. such a review will enable her to choose the best order of procedure in any particular instance and to elimi- nate unnecessary or confusing ideas. economy of effort follows the working out of the contingencies beforehand, whereas in the unprepared lesson unexpected knowledge or ignorance will lead to waste of time in unprofitable discussion. the sewing teacher should make her lesson plan as carefully as does the teacher of academic subjects. she should look for such results as individual initiative on a sewing course . disciplinary training. ( ) careful listening and thinking. ( ) ready, accurate replies. ( ) neat work. ( ) responsible action showing the promise of executive ability. ( ) no waste of time or motion. ( ) increasing satisfaction at well-done work. preparing the class. a few suggestive questions — the class response will bring out further questions. how many have used a dust cloth? have you cloths like this at home? (showing various kinds.) why do we have to dust? what is the best way to do it that we may leave the room clean? what need is there for care in the making and keeping of a dust-cloth? what materials are good for them and why? the statement of the aim to the class. how many know the way they would like to make a dust-cloth that will work well; look well; wear well and wash well? you already know how to make the running, hemming, cross-stitch and blanket-stitch. each girl may choose one of these materials for the cloth and select one of the stitches she knows to finish the edge. each must give her reasons for the choice to the rest of the class. the first ones who decide and have good reasons may help me with the cutting, which is not yet complete. the lesson. the selection.— what material will each select and why? (takes note of the various decisions.) the cutting. how to measure.— how large shall we cut the cloth? how can we be sure the edge is straight so that we can finish it more easily and neatly? accurate folding. holding in the ravellings.— how shall we fold in or cover the raw edges? what stitches will best hold the edge from ravelling? selection of stitches. how to make the ones chosen.— class selects and tells reason for choice and how to proceed with the work. the teacher brings the children who decide first and wisely to the cutting table (a desk will be sat- isfactory), and puts them to work to complete the cutting. giving out the necessary materials.— will the cutters when they have completed that work help to give out the cloth, thread and yarn? the sewing. the teacher answers questions, or walks about the class noting difficulties or giving advice. the closing of the lrsson. how many have completed the dust cloth? ° a sewing course a good inexpensive equipment in tools and necessary articles for a class of children can be bought at retail price for $ . . this would purchase boxes (cloth-covered) at c $ . supply box prs. small school scissors at i j^c . prs. good cutting scissors at c . pr. buttonhole scissors ^ doz. tape measures y£ doz. emeries doz. thimbles - ° $ . the sewing laboratory. in the early grades of the school the sewing is usually conducted in the regular classrooms. a special room for the later grades is desirable, however, for cutting, fitting and work on large garments can be more readily undertaken. such a room should be light, well-ventilated and cheery. the furniture can be very simple, but should be suited to its purpose. it should contain work-tables; a cutting and ironing table; comfortable low broad-seated chairs for the hand- work; stools for use at the cutting table; cabinets for holding stock, or for finished or half finished work; cases for the exhibition of illustrative material and for finished garments; sewing machines; a blackboard; a gas stove, and several pressing irons. it is well also to add other articles illustrative of household art, such as old spinning wheels, reels or winders, processes of manufacture, or repre- sentative handwork of various kinds. a useful sewing laboratory can be furnished at very small expense. to equip it for twenty pupils simply, but not handsomely, however, will cost at least $ . . the following list will show the necessary expenditures for an adequate equipment. extra exhibits and the cases for them will add to the cost, but they can be provided from time to time as the means will allow. teacher's desk $ . revolving chair . wooden chairs — doz . tables for work — long kitchen . sewing machines . wardrobe - locker . skirt forms . waist forms . stove — oil or gas . flat irons poles and curtain— for fitting room . long looking glass . $ . notes for teachers the annual exhibit and supplementary work. annual exhibits are held in many of the public and private schools. these serve many purposes such as (i) the encouraging of the pupils, ( ) the interest- ing of the parents, and ( ) the training of the public. handwork is usually a great feature of these occasions. it has become customary, therefore, to retain all of the completed work of the classes until the end of the school year. this has an unfortunate side for it eliminates effectually any opportunity for immediate utilization of the articles made. it is useless to plan each article for some direct service to the home, or to the school, if the purpose cannot be carried out and the result discussed when the interest is at its height. each school must consider for itself the best way to meet this difficulty. the following plans have been carried out in different cities. ( ) some students in each class will sew more rapidly than others and supplementary work mnst be provided for them. it is well to select, for this purpose, articles of especial interest as they serve as an impetus to the slower members of the class. the quicker ones can work for the exhibit by repeating in a more interesting form the exercises just completed or by being allowed to plan and to make some attractive new articles. ^ ) after a series of articles have been made in a class a vote can be taken by the members as to which ones will be retained to represent them at the exhibit. these few can be kept to be returned to the makers after the exhibit, or material can be given to each worker to make a similar article at home. ( ) purchasing from the children the work desired for the exhibit. warp and woof. the threads running the entire length of the material are called the warp threads. the woof, weft or filling threads are those which cross and interlace with the warp and form the selvage on each side of the goods. the warp threads are each as long as the cloth will be and they are put first in the loom. the woof thread is thrown back and forth across the width of the warp threads by a shuttle and is one continuous thread. the warp threads are usually stronger than the woof threads as they have to bear a heavier strain. this strain is apt to make them straighter than the cross threads, which fact can be clearly seen in the ravel- lings of some kinds of cloth. garments are usually cut along the length or warp way of the cloth as they wear better than when cut across the goods. when material is torn across the warp threads it gives out a shrill sound but a dull sound accompanies the tearing of the woof threads. it is necessary sometimes to know which is th: warp way of a piece of cloth from which the selvage has been removed. the eye can often tell one from the other by the softer, less wiry, and less even appearance of the woof. the way the threads break and the sound they give also indicate the difference. sewing for boys. in the first three or four years of the school it is well for the boys and the girls to be taught the same kinds of handwork. the selection should be made from many fields and sewing (coarse) should be included among the crafts chosen. a sewing course experience has proved that boys are greatly interested in sewing when it is con- nected with their pursuits. such constructive work as bags of coarse canvas for shoes or books, ball covers, sails, flags and badges, moccasins, sweater mending, sewing on buttons and simple repairing are illustrations of interests which con- cern both boys and girls. as sewing is one of the most important of the indus- tries it is well for boys to gain some practical experience of its difficulties as well as of its usefulness. they will thus be better prepared to appreciate the condi- tions of labor in occupations employing the great mass of wage-earning women as well as large numbers of men. sewing, itself, will also prove useful to them now and later and the class of neat adjustment which it requires has proved ad- vantageous as a preliminary training of the hand for many of the skilled occupa- tions of men. illustrations on the board or the frame. the blackboard may be of much assistance in the presentation of a lesson. an illustration of the way a stitch is made, or several designs for an article may be drawn by the teacher before or during the class period. the illustrations in the sewing course are for suggestions for board work. any teacher can train herself to do this simple drawing, even if she has had no art training, but a trained hand can make such illustrations a powerful ally. the demonstration frame offers another means of showing the way a stitch is made. it is a large embroidery frame, covered with coarse canvas and raised on a standard so the class can see it. the teacher makes the stitch on the canvas in large size with colored wool as she describes it. such frames can be made easily by any car- penter or by boys who are taking manual training. different ways of making stitches. opinions differ as to the best way of making many of the stitches. the teacher should know all of these methods, but it is not necessary for her to con- fuse with such details the minds of children who are learning to sew. in giving a new lesson, she should select the form of stitch which she prefers and teach that. if it happens that any one of the class has already learned to make the stitch in a different, but satisfactory, manner, it is better for her to continue to work in the way to which she is accustomed. when older students are prepar- ing for teaching, or for trade work, they should consider the various methods of procedure, as they may be called upon to know them in their chosen vocation. left-handed children, unless corrected very early, would better continue to use their left hands, unless the teacher desires to make them ambidextrous. neat finish and rapid work. beginners should work slowly at first but dawdling should never be allowed. the teacher must herself discover the best way to keep each class sewing indus- triously. in some groups the setting of a time limit for the completion of articles is an incentive, while in others the very impulse to rush through is followed by slackness and poor results. the finish of each exercise must be as beautiful as the notes for teachers child should or can do. frayed edges and unfinished interiors are not only ugly but indicative of a lack of care in the worker. the most simple article may have the beauty of neatness, and even a child can be trained to see it. a class should learn to work well without any waste of time. rapidity is desirable if the result can be satisfactory. the tape measure. the use of a tape measure or a rule should begin early. very young children can be taught to make their own measures by marking off the divisions on strips of paper or bristol board. they can keep the accurate ones in their workboxes for use later. older girls should gradually learn to depend upon themselves when small dimensions are required. this is especially important when such students expect to enter any of the trades requiring careful measurements. such accurate judgment leads to economy of time which has frequently a money value. length of thread. children usually take too long a thread in sewing. they must be taught the right length, which is about one half or three quarters of a yard, though in bast- ing a longer thread is advisable. the usual directions are to measure the thread from shoulder to shoulder, or across the body from waist line to shoulder, or from the end of the ringer to the elbow. the thread should never be bitten off, for it harms the enamel of the teeth. fine cotton thread may be broken, but coarse thread would better be cut. it is well therefore for every child to have her own scissors in her workbox. fastening the thread. as children seldom make knots neatly, they should be taught how to fasten the thread strongly without them. the knot, however, should be practised, for it is necessary in basting, overcasting and gathering, and useful always. a small, well-made knot, concealed in the material is permissible. skilled workers usually prefer to use them as it saves time. position in sewing. the position for sewing is an upright one, bending the body forward from the waist, if necessary, but never hanging the head downward to the work. physical injury results from such an attitude, and it is also impossible for a pupil tc be as attentive and alert when sitting in a slouching position. cleanliness. clean hands and clothing should be obligatory in sewing classes, for good work may be spoiled by lack of neatness. the teacher of sewing should take occasion to discuss hygienic living, and should train her pupils to realize the direct moral effect of care and cleanliness of person and product. cardboard sewing no. . cardboard sewing. materials for practice. cards. , coarse wool tapestry needle. cotton or linen. application—needlecase or blotter. designs pricked on cards and followed by the needle are often used for the first steps in sewing. in this way a child may begin to use the tools and gain control of her muscles. when they are utilized, scope should be given for simple creative thought in the decoration of the work and in the planning for its use. this may be the foundation for the designing of simple articles for dress or for household use, and also for cultivating taste in every-day life. in the kindergarten this class of sewing is frequently seen. in the first primary grade the children are generally ready for a step beyond, but card- board may have its use in recalling the work of the previous year. in the kindergarten the threading and knotting are usually done by the teacher, but in the primary grades the children can gradually learn to rely upon them- selves. cards in varying sizes and colors are on the market already pricked, or the teacher can prepare her own cards. pricking pads and needles can be purchased. any simple design made by the teacher or the children may be used. running, stitching and cross-stitch are good ones on the cards. knots must be used to hold the thread. the teacher may have to fasten off, as this is often too difficult for children. practice.—take two cards with a simple design on each; carry out these designs with one of the simple stitches. fasten off by tying a knot in the wool and letting it slip up to the hole; or else put the needle through the last stitch on the wrong side in such a way that it will tie the wool into a knot. suggestion.—very pretty needle-books can be made by enclosing soft flannel leaves between the cards. the leaves may be pinked on the edges or finished with the blanket-stitch. blotters, bookmarkers, book- covers and penwipers may be made in a similar way. the teacher should encourage the making of original designs and plans for attractive and useful articles. children are full of devices and only need encouragement and direction to express themselves adequately. canvas work no. . canvas work. materials for practice. burlap, java, colored zephyr, tapestry needle, or some similar canvas. or wool. application.—mats, rugs, bookcovers, bags or needle-books. soft, coarse canvas is an excellent medium on which to teach young chil- dren how to use the needle, as it does not require too careful work for them. the form of the stitch can be studied, decorative effects can be easily secured, and very attractive, useful articles can be made from it. suggestion.—in the first grade burlap canvas may be used as the first textile. numerous articles may be made out of it. stitches may be used to decorate it attractively; if it is to be fringed, the form of the overcasting- stitch is good; it may be worked on the burlap and the edge fringed afterward. the blanket-stitch may be used where the edge is to be kept from raveling. several rows of running-stitches and cross-stitches make an attractive border, or other stitches may be used for this purpose. the stitches should always be coarse. in canvas where the holes, though distinct, are near together a number of holes should be skipped. soft canvas is better than tightly twisted stiff canvas. java canvas, in some soft color, may be used late in the first year or in the second year; needlebooks, penwipers, portieres, tablecovers or postal-card cases, may all call forth ideas worth carrying out. suitability of color, decoration and material to the object in hand should be a prominent feature in the lessons. class teaching is an advantage, for all may thus have a feeling of common purpose and be aided by the free expression of opinion; even though the general class exercise is the same, individuality may be constantly appealed to in carrying out designs or in the selection of the kind of article which will be made of the canvas. a sewing course second card. prepare the second card the same way as the first, but increase the number of holes. put in the warp threads as in the first model; the woof or filling should now be inserted in such a way over and under the warp threads that a pattern may be formed. see figures and . a simple twill may be used. pattern is the result of the way the woof threads inter- sect the warp. simple alternation does not make a pattern. let each teacher make a design of her own; she can practice first, if she wishes, with the cut strips used in kindergarten weaving. when she makes a design she likes she can use it on the second card. the warp threads can be a different color from the woof. several colors can be used. she can mount the two woven pieces on the bristol board pages with or without the cards. suggestion.—primitive races began some form of weaving early in their development. such elementary hand work can be adapted readily to chil- dren and the product is interesting and useful. the looms should be simple in construction and very plain weaving with coarse threads should be attempt- ed at first. soft loosely spun threads, such as rug yarn, roving, which can be bought from spinning mills, or lamp-wick make good woof threads. chil- dren who have woven strips of paper in the kindergarten will easily under- stand how pattern is made. the teacher should discuss with her classes the making of different kinds of cloth. pieces of loosely woven material or can- vas should be ravelled out by the children that each may see the way the threads cross each other. examples of full width cloth should be at hand to illustrate various patterns and the selvage. each child should note the warp threads, running lengthwise of the goods; the cross or woof threads, which bind the warp threads together and which in turning back form the aelvage at the side. such simple terms in cloth construction as warp beam, cloth beam, shuttle, harness, heald, heddle, batten, and treadle should be used from the first. knitting, as used in the manufacture of sweaters and stock- ings, should be contrasted with weaving. little knitters can be made of large spools with pins or thin nails surrounding the hole at one end. toys like this can be purchased by any teacher if she has never seen one of these devices and the children can be taught to make their own. it is a customary thing for children to make such knitters and to use the product for horse- reins or for mats. the knitting is done by passing zephyr or yarn through the spool to the end containing the pins, and then by winding it twice alter- nately around each pin and again once around outside of all of the pins. the material is made by taking the loop on each pin and slipping it over the head in regular succession and by passing the worsted around the outside of the pins whenever a complete circuit is made. lessons in weaving and knitting should be always connected with the manufacture and darning of clothing. weaving may be practiced first on cards: simple or elaborate patterns can be made as desired. each child should, however, try to make a pattern of her own. for later practice an old slate frame, from which the slate has a sewing course no. . folding a hem. materials fob practice. crinoline or paper, x inches ( pieces). application.—duster or washcloth. rule.—a hem is made by folding a piece of material twice over. the depth of the first turn depends on the material; it should be just deep enough to secure it from fraying. in fine muslin it may be less than % of an inch; the second turn is regulated by the requirements of the garment for which it is prepared. in order to turn a deep hem accurately, a gauge or a card notched at the proper depth may be used. a fold is held in place as it is turned by creasing it with the finger and thumb, or if this stretches the cloth, it may be folded between the fingers and pinched. the material should be held up in the hands as the folding and creasing are done, and not laid on a table or desk. in a narrow hem the second fold just covers the first. square corners should fold one over the other. in a wider hem the corners may either be squared or mitered. if the former, and the material is thick, an oblong of cloth should be cut out, as in preparing for miter no. . if the latter, see miters no. and no. below. practice.—take two pieces of crinoline or paper, fold a narrow hem on each side of the four sides of one piece, and a half inch hem on each of the four sides of the other piece. turn two opposite sides before folding the other sides over them. this will make regularity at the corners. miter the two diagonal corners of the wide hem, using miter no. for one corner, and miter no. for the other. cut an oblong from under the square corners of the wide hem. suggestion.—the folding of hems may be given to little children. it is well for them to understand the tape measure and make one for themselves before they begin the folding. the marking and folding must be done care- fully. manila paper or crinoline are good for the first practice. the paper should be raised in the hands for folding. samples of woven material which may illustrate to the children the varying depths which must be allowed in the first fold of the hem, on account of the fraying of the cloth, will help to make this lesson interesting and useful. dusters of cheesecloth can be made by the first and second grades. the folds can be held sufficiently well with the coarse running-stitch made with wool or zephyr. the older girls should use the various miterings (no. ) at the corners of the pieces on which they practice the folding. no. . mitering. materials for practice. see nos. and . application.—dust-cloth, doiley or holder. to miter is to change a fold from having a square end at the corner to an abrupt angle in which one fold will exactly meet the one at right angles a sewing course nos. , and . running. materials fob practice. white or colored cotton, no. or . white cotton, no. . needle no. . needle no. . unbleached muslin x inches. white muslin x * inches. application.—duster (see no. ). in combination with other stitches (see no. ). use.—for basting, joining breadths of material, gathering and tucking. fitness.—it is rapidly executed, strong enough to be used in a seam where the strain is not great, of a form which enables the materials to be drawn up on a thread as in gathering, and easy of removal, as required in basting. varieties of the stitch.—plain running whether large or small; bast- ing, regular and irregular; gathering, including gauging and shirring. rule.—for plain running. each stitch and space must be of the same length; the stitches follow each other consecutively; the number of threads taken up by the needle depends on the stuff used, and the required fineness of the stitch. for very fine running, as few as two threads of the material may be taken up. it is not neces- sary, however, to count the threads; the eye may be trained to judge the correct length. the position for holding the work is with the thumb and first finger of the left hand, while the needle is inserted with the right hand. the thimble should be against the needle, the thumb pressed on the needle, and the first finger back of the needle on the other side of the cloth. the left hand pushes the cloth on the needle. when proficient the needle is seldom removed from the cloth during the progress of the work. unless the knot can be made very small and can be well con- cealed, it is better to begin with- out one. in the latter case take a double stitch which may be covered by the first stitch showing on the right side; finish off with a double stitch on the wrong side in the first space back of the place from which the thread comes out; this will strongly fasten the thread under a stitch and will therefore not show on the right side. rule.—for basting. to hold together two or more pieces of material until a strong stitch can secure them. begin with a knot. ( ) regular bast- ing is plain running made with large stitches. it is used where careful r fig. .—running, gathering and basting. running basting is required (see fig. , a). ( ) irregular basting. the first variety of it is used for preparing for further sewing either by hand or machine, where there is little danger of the material slipping apart and a straight line of direction is of benefit. the stitch consists of one very long running stitch showing on the surface, and a short stitch taken through to the surface again (see fig. , b). the second variety of irregular basting is used when the cloth or some heavy material is to be basted together for machine or hand work. it is stronger than the first variety mentioned. the stitch consists of one very long running stitch and two or more short running stitches. the third variety of irregular basting (see fig. , c), is used in dressmaking, especially in holding material to the lining. the stitch consists of one long slanting stitch on the surface and a short slanting running stitch through the material. the position of the hand in basting is very free as the stitch is long. it cannot be held as for fine running. rule.—for gathering. to draw up material on a previously inserted thread. by this means fullness may be inserted into a narrow space. in certain garments width of material is required to give the limbs full play, but to keep the garment in place the material must be confined within nar- row limits. this is accomplished in gathering. ( ) regular gathering is a plain running stitch. two or more lines of running stitches of the same size may be so placed that the stitches in one line are exactly above or below those on the other line; when drawn up this form of gathering is called gaug- ing. two or more lines of running stitches of the same size may be placed one below the other with no attempt to make the stitches in one line fall directly under those in the line above. when this form of gathering is drawn up it is called shirring. ( ) irregular gathering. when the material is to be stroked after gathering, or when a large amount of thick material is to be brought into a small compass, an irregular running stitch is better than a regular one (see fig. , ). for stroking twice as much material should be covered by the needle on the right side of the material as is taken up by the needle. in very fine material short stitches should be taken; it facilitates the work of gathering if previous to taking the stitches, the edge of the material where the stitches are to go is turned down and creased. make a knot in the thread and take through the crease the irregular gathering stitch; when this is finished the gathers must be placed. draw up the gathering thread tightly, and secure it around a pin. begin at the left side, and with the fingers place the gathers as neatly as possible; then take a coarse needle or pin and carefully stroke every gather straight along the woven threads, pushing it under the left thumb and forefinger and pinching it; no scratch- ing noise should be made, as this shows the material is being injured. the upper part of the gathers must also be laid in place. in some materials the hand stroking is sufficient. the thread should be a little longer than the length of the part in which it is finally to go (when a long gather is to be made, as for a petticoat, the material should be divided into four or more parts and a new thread taken for each part). fine thread doubled is better for gathering than one single coarse thread as the two are less apt to break than the one. for dress skirts, gathering is often done on single or double material which is quite thick. in this case two or more lines of irregular gathering stitches may be taken, the stitches in one line being directly under those in the other, and the gathers drawn into the length of the band without need of stroking. the stitch will consist of a small amount taken up by the needle stitching and backstitching nos. and . stitching and backstitching. materials for practice. bleached or colored cotton, no. . needle, no. . unbleached muslin, x i/ inches ( pieces). application.—beanbag or pan lifter. see also nos. , , . use.—where strength is required for seams, holding bands, tapes and hems. the stitching stitch is also used ornamentally. fitness.—as double stitches they are strong and adapted to purposes where durability is required as in seams. rule for stitching.—the stitch is worked from right to left on double material. first baste carefully together the two materials; the basting may serve as a guide to the worker, and also keep the materials from slipping apart. a seam should be made far enough from the edge of the cloth to avoid the danger of raveling. begin by a small knot or by a few running stitches on . the wrong side, which may be held down later a by the stitching stitches, and bring the thread to the right side of the ma- terial about yg of an b inch from the end of the pig i stitching. c'ot^ wnere *ne work is to begin. take a short stitch back on the upper side of the cloth and a stitch twice as long forward on the wrong side. when the thread again comes to the surface make a stitch back to meet the stitch already made. the effect on the right side is a series of short stitches, one meeting the other (see fig. , a), and on the wrong side a cord-like effect, made by the folding over of the long stitches (see fig. , b). this is especially the fact if the stitch is made very carefully. hold the work over the first finger of the left hand, and slant the needle toward the left shoulder. rule for backstitching.—the same rule applies to backstitching as to stitching, except that the stitches on the right side, instead of exactly meeting have a space between as they go but half way back (see fig. ). this makes the stitch on the back three times the length of the one on the fig. .—backstitching. risht side. the names of these stitches are often confused, as the terms are used indiscriminately. the explanation is given that the name of the stitching stitch was originally backstitching, and the other stitch was called half-backstitching; for brevity each stitch was relieved of half its title, and confusion of ideas resulted. a sewing course practice.—take two pieces of unbleached muslin, x % inches, baste them carefully together into a seam ^ of an inch from the raw edges. make a line of stitching one-half way across in colored thread, directly above or below the basting line. let the stitches be small enough for strength, but large enough for their regularity or irregularity to be distinctly seen. hav- ing made one-half of the seam with stitching, the backstitching may be used for the other half, so that the appearance of the two stitches may be compared. suggestion.—it is not necessary at first to insist that a beginner should make the stitch mechanically perfect. if it is even and strong enough for its purpose it should be accepted and utilized on an article. stitching is an attractive and simple stitch on canvas, and can be thus given to young pupils. they should notice the rope-like effect at the back and also that it may be marred by a change in the way the needle is inserted. care in this coarse work will help in gaining the technical skill needed later. stitching is not difficult, for the movements are simple and practice soon renders them easy. coarse, soft, unbleached muslin is good for practicing the stitches. a basted or creased line may help in the first attempt to make an even beam. a pencil line, a stamped stitch or a drawn thread should not be used as a guide, for the judgment of the children should be trained. it is better for them to make mistakes and correct them than to be given helps which do not develop their own powers. the stitch should be utilized as soon as it can be made sufficiently well for a seam, as the skill needed will come better through making some article than by many repetitions of the practice piece. doll's clothing, clothing cases and bags of various kinds may be made. application.—on the seams of articles or garments. see no. . use.—to keep the raw edges of materials from raveling. fitness.—the form is adapted to hold threads from raveling without making the raw edge stiff. rule.—the stitch is loose and slanting, and taken over the raw edges of material. it is made usually from right to left (some prefer to make it from left to right). the stitches are of equal size, the depth and distance apart depend on the character of the material, the object is merely to keep it from raveling (see pig. ). begin with a knot. in seams conceal it between the raw edges. hold the work over the first finger, or the first and second fingers no. . overcasting. materials for practice. raw edges op the practice pieces. cotton no. . needle no. . fig. .—overcasting. of the left hand. place the needle over the raw edges and through the material, slanting it toward the left shoulder. the stitches should always be the same distance from the raw edge and the same distance apart. when a new thread is necessary, in- sert the needle as if to take a new stitch, withdraw it, and a sewing course no. . this form of the |\ * stitch is two running stitches | j \ and one backstitch (see fig. ). it has the effect of a line of running stitches, on the side toward the worker, — f"^r-- —' —— b and makes an attractive fin- fig. .—running and backstitching. first is.h. » is used for seams be- variety. a, right side; b, wrong side. f" ™th. a «ma kn t- ?t fastened in the seam. take two or more running stitches, which can be counted on the side toward the worker, and then twice the length of one of the running stitches on the needle, and a backstitch will cover half the space. pass needle forward under the backstitch and ahead the length of one running stitch, and bring the needle to the right side again to begin a new running stitch. no. . this form of the stitch has two running stitches and one stitching stitch. it is desirable in the fell to have the wrong side of the stitch attrac- tive, as it is that part which shows on the completion of the work. care is needed in the fastening of the thread at the beginning. take a careful double stitch on the side on which the work is done, or fasten with a small knot i i ■ ——— , between the raw edges of the seam. take two running stitches, and bring the needle to the right side as if for a third; instead of continuing, take a stitch back | j to the previous running stitch, "™" ^m "~~ *"* "~~ ™* mmm mm and bring it forward on the fig. .—running and backstitching, wrong side aeross the last run. second variety, a right side; ning stitch and then to the b wrong side. right side jn the ame p]ace the former stitch came through. this will make one stitch over the other on the wrong side, fig. , , but the effect is the running stitch. three stitches meet on the right side, fig. , a. there is another form of stitch frequently used. take several running stitches and a stitching stitch which will meet the last running stitch. pass the needle behind the stitching stitch and ahead the length of a running stitch, and bring it to the right side for the running stitch again. this form is not as neat in appearance as the others. practice.—take two pieces of bleached or unbleached muslin, x x/ inches, baste them carefully together into a seam v of an inch from the raw edges. make a line of backstitching (form no. ) one-half way across, di- rectly above or below the basting line. continue the remainder of the seam with form no. . practice probably will not be needed on the third variety of the stitch. the french seam is often made with no. and the fell with no. . hemming no. . hemming. materials fob practice. unbleached muslin, colored cotton, no. . needle, no. . x y inches. white victoria lawn, white cotton, no. - . needle, no. - . vi>xl inches. application.—washcloth, handkerchief, apron, kimono. see no. . use.—a means of finishing the raw edges in clothing and other articles such as aprons, dusters and towels. fitness.—the double fold of material and the slanting stitch make a strong finish. rule.—the stitch is worked from right to left on the edge of a folded hem. when the hem is well turned down and when necessary carefully basted, lay the work across the first finger of the left hand, with the fold turned to- ward the outside of the hand. make a small knot and conceal it under the hem or point the needle to the right into the extreme end of the folded hem, and draw through all but a little end of thread, which must lie along the hem to be sewed in with the first stitches. now point the needle toward the left, first into the material and then through again into the edge of the hem. make slanting stitches. (the hemming stitch is sometimes made straight with the hem instead of slanting; it is less strong in this way.) uniformity of slant and size are more important than small stitches for beginners. if pupils are taught to notice carefully, they will observe that in a correct position the two thumbs fig. .—hemming stitch on canvas. fig. .—hemming. taking op new thread. are at right angles with each other. when the thread has been pulled through the fold on the wrong side, be particular not to begin the next stitch directly under it, but a little in advance. the stitch is composed of two parts, slant- ing toward each other, and in close hemming forms a tent shape, the two sides of which are equal. (see fig. .) the needle should go fully through to hemming s sunning, stitching and hemming are so universally utilized in articles of everyday use that any child who has learned them, is able to be of use to herself and to others. it is in the hands of the teacher to suggest uses for them by showing the classes hemming on garments, by giving various articles to construct and by encouraging free expression of opinion to develop ideas connected with them. nos. , and . overhanding. materials for practice. white cotton, no. or . white cotton, no. or . white cotton, no. or . needle, no. or . needle, no. or . needle, no. or . no. . narrow striped gingham, x inches. no. . damask, x inches. no. . white muslin, two selvage strips, x in. torchon lace, y in. wide, v inches. application.—pinballs, holders, napkins and cases of various kinds. see fig. . use.—to so fasten together two pieces of material that the joining will scarcely be visible, yet the seam will be strong, as in a patch; uniting seams and selvages for underclothing and bed linen; hemming table linen and sew- ing on lace. fitness.—the close stitch is strong, while the form makes it almost invisible. rule.—place together and baste the two pieces of material to be over- handed. if the edges are raw, a small fold should be turned on each piece; if selvages, they can be placed exactly together. the direction of the sewing is from right to left (it is sometimes worked from left to right). the form of the stitch is a slanting line meeting a straight one. see fig. . it is better to work the stitch on the wrong side of the material, as it places the slanting part of the stitch on the wrong side. the straight part falls in the direction in which the threads are woven, and thus shows less. in over- handing a patch to a garment, however, it is easier to insert the patch from the right side, the slight imperfection arising from the showing of the slant- ing part of the stitch is offset by the greater difficulty of setting the patch in satisfactorily from the wrong side. in overhanding, the material is held horizontally in the left hand, with the edges lying along the first finger; the thumb and first finger keep the material in place; the right elbow should be raised from the side, and the needle should point to the chest in each stitch; a knot may be used, but often in- terferes with a neat finish. the thread can be fastened down by the first stitches, in which case be- gin by pointing the needle to the pig. .—overhanding. a sewing course right, and taking the first stitch in the fold at the extreme right end. leave an end of thread along the fold, to be fastened down by the first few stitches. the stitches should be a couple of threads deep and should not be crowded, that a flat seam may result. this is especially important in selvages, as, if the stitch is too deep, it makes an ugly ridge. in very fine work when a new thread is necessary the short end of the old one may be taken out of the fold nearest the worker and a new one inserted in the same hole; both threads should lie together between the folds or selvages to be held down by the next stitches. finish off by sewing back a few stitches. take the basting thread out and open the seam with the nail. it should lie perfectly flat and the stitches should be scarcely visible. practice.—first practice piece. overhanding a seam. take a piece of narrow striped gingham, x inches, cut it apart between the stripes about an inch from one side; turn narrow folds on the cut edges, matching the stripes so that the pattern will be perfect on the right side; lay the right sides together and baste if necessary. overhand together according to the rule for overhanding. if more practice is needed cut from one of the corners of the practice piece a diagonal iy inches along the straight sides; cut from another piece of the same kind of material a bias piece to match in pattern and overhand together, being careful not to stretch the bias edges while sewing. second practice piece.—napery stitch, or overhanding on linen. or- dinary hemming is not strong enough for damask, and overhanding is used in its place. take a piece of damask x inches, turn as narrow a hem as possible (the narrower the hem the better the effect). when the hem is turned turn it back again on itself the exact width of the hem; overhand the fold to the main body of the material. third practice piece.—overhanding selvages and overhanding lace. in bed linen and underclothing, selvages are frequently overhanded together. take two selvage strips of muslin x inches, overhand carefully together, not taking too deep a stitch, or an ugly seam will result. on completing the seam, fold % inch hem along two adjoining sides of the practice piece, mitering the corner. (see miter no. .) overhand narrow lace along these two sides. the lace should be held toward the worker; it should be held loosely, but not full, if it is held too tight it will not launder well. when the corner is reached, twice the width of the lace should be allowed at the turn, so it will not draw; this fullness may be held in % of an inch space on each side of the corner. suggestion.—the form of the overhanding is attractive, and may be used as decoration in the canvas work adapted to the early grades. (see no. .) overhanding fine material together is too hard for young children. it is especially difficult for them to unite the selvages, as the turn back of the woof thread in the weaving makes an unequal and stiff edge for the needle to push through, but a deep stitch is incorrect. overhanding on the bias requires precision and neatness in completing the pattern, if there is one. it may be practiced by the pupils, if necessary. children should not be allowed to make the stitch incorrectly. it is better, therefore, to wait until they are capable of doing fine work before teaching it to them. as soon as they learn it they should utilize it. many things can be made with the stitch such as needlebooks and pin cases, where two pieces of cardboard can be covered with material and overhanded together; table-cloths; napkins; pillow and bolster cases; book-covers; lined bags, and pin cushions. children overhanding ss enjoy making them and quickly realize that they can be of use at home or to the people they know. by using the art lessons in connection extremely attractive and often original designs can be secured. nos. and . ^garment bias and true bias. a bias cut in cloth is a slanting or diagonal severing of the material. both warp and woof threads will be cut. (see fig. .) it may vary with the requirements of the garment. a true or perfect bias, however, does not vary. it is always the diagonal of the square. it equally severs both warp and woof threads. (fig. .) fig. .—garment bias. (gore.) fig. .—true bias. garment bias. materials for practice. kindergarten paper (colored), x inches. brown manuka paper, v x vk inches. striped paper for bias facing. application.—petticoat or small dress skirt. use and fitness.—the slanting cut taken in some garments such as in drawers, chemises and in gores of skirts, makes them fit better, disposes of unnecessary material, and decreases undesirable width. a gore is a piece of material in which the width is narrowed from bot- tom to top. in a skirt one side of the gore is usually straight and the other bias, but fashion sometimes dictates that both sides shall be bias. in the latter case two slanting pieces will often be thrown together in one seam, but as the bias stretches easily it is apt to be unsatisfactory, especially for laundering. it may be strengthened by stitching a stay-tape or a straight piece of material in with the seam. when a straight edge is joined to a bias one, the former will support the latter and keep it from stretching. gores may be placed at each side of the front breadth of a skirt with the straight edges to the front. the amount of slant in the gore depends upon the figure $ a sewing course of the wearer and the requirements of fashion. a simple rule often followed in white underskirts is to put two parts at the bottom of the gore to one at the top. in cutting a skirt from white muslin or any material of sufficient width, which is the same on both sides, the gores may be economically cut from one length of material as the wrong side can be utilized. in the making of drawers and chemises the bias sides are laid together, care must be taken not to stretch the seam while sewing them together. rule.—(for cutting gores from muslin.) take a piece of material long enough for the length of the skirt to be made. divide the top and the bot- tom of the width into thirds and mark. fold the cloth so that there will be one-third at one end and two-thirds at the other, and cut apart through the fold. (fig. .) this will give two gores; as the material is the same on both sides and one gore may be turned wrong side out, both gores can be used in one skirt. this cannot be done in material which differs on the right and wrong sides. for applied work in the use of gores, sewing seams on the bias, and other principles of garment construction, a little gored petticoat may be cut and made. a simple way to teach a class which cannot draft is to take a strip of muslin ^ inches by ^ inches (this is three yards of muslin reduced one-eighth scale) and cut the length into three equal parts. one piece may be cut into gores. another piece is for the back and should have a vent cut down the center. the third piece is for the front, it can have one-fourth or one-sixth (according to fullness required) taken from each side of the top and sloped to nothing at the bottom. lay a straight side of one of the gores on each side of the front, baste carefully, and make a fell or french seam. (see nos. , , .) cut off the part of the bias that extends below the seam. join the back to the gores in the same way. the facing for the bottom of the skirt may be bias or straight. the former fits better. it is possible to turn up the bottom of the skirt into a hem in- stead of putting on a facing, but allowance must be made for it in the cut- ting of the skirt. the new principles needed in putting together a skirt, i. e., felling or french seam, gathering, stroking and placket, putting on a band and button- holes, should be practiced before completing the petticoat. practice in the use of the true bias may be combined with these by the cutting of a bias facing or the putting on of a bias ruffle. practice.—first practice piece.—take kindergarten or other paper x inches (colored on one side and white on the other). divide it into thirds along the three-inch ends and mark. double it over so that it will slant from the first mark at one end to the second on the opposite end. (fig. .) cut through the crease. this will give two gores and serve as a basis of comparison for economical cutting with the gores in the petticoat of manila paper, as it shows that material differing on the right and wrong sides cannot be turned wrong side out and utilized. second practice piece.—take manjla paper y x y inches, cut it into a skirt and baste it together according to the rule. take striped tissue paper cut it into one inch wide bias strips (see true bias), and baste it on the bot- tom of the skirt. fold placket no. (see no. ) in the back of the skirt. suggestion.—it is well for every pupil to make at least a small skirt, if, however, there is not time for this, they should cut one from paper and baste it together, comparing their work continually with the way to garment bias proceed in cotton material. the length of the cotton skirt should be cut along the warp, as cloth is stronger in that direction. it is well to have a class doll or a lay figure so that measurements may be taken on it and if there is not time to make a full sized skirt the children may be able to see the relation between the small and the large size. this lesson should be so thoroughly given that each child can make one for herself at home. a very profitable result will follow this subject if the class will carefully cal- culate the amount of material for a full sized skirt and also decide the amount of bias or straight material needed for a ruffle for it. they should estimate the cost of the skirt finished in various ways (ruffles, embroidery, lace, tucks). to this may be added the expense of laundering with com- parisons of the difference between a plain or an elaborate garment so that the economics of dress may be brought out. each pupil should decide upon the way she wishes to make her skirt. it will be well also for the teacher from this lesson on to give frequent opportunities to the class to design, measure and cut various garments that they may gradually gain a good foundation for later drafting and garment making. (see drafting in the notes for teachers.) when the class is too inexperienced to make button-holes in the skirt band, they can sew on tapes for strings instead. (see no. .) true bias. materials for practice. kindergarten or manila paper, x * inches. application.—bias ruffle on skirt, bias facing on petticoat, a gusset, and folds for trimming. use.—for folds, facings and bindings. fitness.—it stretches more than material cut on the straight and can be smoothly fitted into places where straight material would have to be puckered. rule.—to cut a true bias is to evenly sever both warp and woof threads. the width of the material is laid down the length of the selvage and the cut is made through the slanting fold. in finding a perfect square, a true bias is found in the diagonal fold. (see fig. .) it may be noticed in folding that the warp threads are laid on a line with the woof threads. any deviation from this will keep the bias from being true. in buying material on the bias, the end is folded over, the true bias found and the diagonal fold cut through. the measuring for the quantity required is then made first along one selvage and then along the other. a fold is made from one selvage to the other, and the cut is made through this fold. as greater length is obtained along the bias strip than along the selvage an equal loss will be shown in the width of the strip; about one-third is thus gained in one way and lost in the other. this must be remembered in calculating the amount of material required. material bought on the straight will have to be folded in the same way to obtain the bias. in calculating for the strips, allow one-third more along the selvage than the required width of the bias, measure along the selvage and chalk across. if a number of strips are needed, measure four at a time and cut afterwards into halves and a sewing course quarters, or fold the strips carefully one over the other and cut through the folds. the triangle left at either end may be utilized in some materials. (see bias ruffle.) a gusset is, in its usual form, a triangle with a true bias at the base. the stretching of the bias helps to make it fit and the triangle gores are at the end of the seam. care must be taken in piecing bias strips, that the warp or woof threads in all the strips run the same way, or the joining will show. when prop- erly adjusted the two will form a right angle. in uniting bias pieces, the edges at either end of the two strips, as they are laid face to face, must over- lap the width of the seam, so that the top of the strip will be even after the seam is taken. practice.—take paper x y inches. fold the narrow side that it may exactly meet the long, press it over into a triangle and cut through the fold. in order to compare the relation of measurement on the selvage to that through the bias strips take the larger piece of paper, measure one inch on each side and rule a line across. now measure it all into one-inch wide bias pieces by placing the measure at right angles with the bias cut. put a dot at each inch at the top and the bottom of the paper to the end of the strip. rule lines diagonally across through the dots. bias ruffle materials for practice. triangle of fine checked gingham, cotton, no. - . needle, - . inches on straight sides. cord inches. application.—trimming for underclothing or dolls' clothes. this exercise is to show the uniting and hemming of bias pieces, and also the economizing of material in the utilization of a triangle. practice.—take a triangle of checked gingham the straight sides of which are six inches. fold back the triangle so it comes one-half an inch below the base and cut through the fold. cut the base into two equal parts. a bias piece may then be joined with a fine running stitch to each side of the triangle, matching the pattern if there is any. allow the apex of the triangle to extend as far beyond the seams as the matching of the pattern will allow. a narrow hem should be made on the bottom of the bias strip thus formed. the top may be turned over a cord and a casing run in, being careful not to catch any stitch in the cord. draw the ruffle up and put a knot in each end of the cord so it will not slip through the casing. if a ruffle is to be placed on a garment, that will take the place of practice. suggestion.—every effort should be made to have classes understand the relation of the gain in length to the loss in width in the bias. it is well to have problems presented which will deal with the purchase of material and the calculations of amounts required for different sized bands or ruf- fles. for instance, how much bias velvet, twenty inches wide, would it require for bands four inches deep to be placed on a skirt three yards around? let the children who are making the bias ruffle on the petticoat (see suggestions under garment bias^ decide how much it would take for this little skirt, compare straight with bias ruffles, and also let them cut paper on the bias to represent the amount of material. they should see bias ruffle the difference it makes if the triangles at either end cut from the straight material are utilized. the classes can utilize the ruffle for trimming dolls' clothing or for larger garments. practice is not necessary unless the pupils axe very inexperienced. nos. , and . seams. use.—a means of fastening together two or more pieces of material varieties.—single and double seams. for the former the following stitches are used, the running; stitching; backstitching and varieties of these; overhanding, and fine-drawing. for the latter, felling, french-seam, overhand and fell and counter-hemming. double sewing is used in seams where greater strength or beauty is required than the single stitch can give. in dressmaking and tailoring there are many special names used such as lapped, welt, strapped and slot seams; these are, however, but varieties of those mentioned above. practice.—for the first practice it is sometimes better to use material on the straight of the goods and colored thread, as the work is easier on the straight and the imperfections will show clearly. seams in such gar- ments as chemises, petticoats, nightgowns and drawers are, however, usually on the bias or a straight piece is united to a bias. it is well for inexperi- enced pupils to practice on a piece of cloth before applying on a garment, but the moment they can do fair work they should begin on a real garment, small or full size. (see application of stitches no. .) in many schools fche first practice is given on coarse, unbleached muslin, but it is so much more difficult to work on than on a good quality of white muslin that it is unnecessarily discouraging to the pupils. suggestion.—garments in which various single and double seams are used should be brought to the class and their form and adaptability dis- cussed. the teacher can use her judgment in discussing or practicing the various forms of seams used in dressmaking and tailoring. felling. materials foe practice. white muslin, cotton, no. - . needle, no. - . x inches. application.—pillowcases and underclothing. use.—to join two straight or two bias pieces of material, so that the raw edges will be completely hidden, and a strong seam will result. it is used for seams in underclothing, pillowcases and laundry bags. fitness.—double sewing makes it strong; the turned-in edges keep it from fraying, and the effect is neat and pleasing. rule.—this seam is to be twice sewed and may be made on straight or bias material. baste together the edges of the cloth, having placed one a go a sewing course short distance below the other (about % of an inch in white muslin). the upper edge will later be hemmed down over the short edge. (fig. .) running and backstitching no. or fine running may be used for the first sewing of the seam, as its wrong side is attractive. the first sewing of a fell may be also stitching or overhanding. the difficulty with stitching is the need to do the work on the wrong side of the seam so that when com- pleted the right side of the stitching stitch may show. (for overhand and fell see below.) make the seam as narrow as possible for strength. when the first seam is completed, take out the basting stitches, open the seam flat, and turn the wide edge of the material over the narrow. hem the wide edge carefully down, turning in the raw edge with the needle as the work proceeds. (fig. .) the fell seam should be narrow and even, and lie perfectly flat on both sides of the material. a bias fell is often required in underclothing. it is made in the same fig. . the fell. wfly as straight. care, however, should be taken to begin the sewing at the wide end of the material on account of the fraying. practice.—first on two straight pieces and then on a bias seam. take white muslin, x inches, divide it into two gores, as described in the practice piece for the garment bias. lay one bias piece against the other, having wide ends to wide ends and narrow to narrow. proceed as by rule, using the run- ning and backstitching no. for the seam. let the hemming-stitch, used for felling down the wider edge show distinctly through the material, so that it may be strong. french seam. materials for practice. white muslin, cotton, no. - . needle, no. - . x inches. use.—for seams in lace, embroidery, wash goods that are not lined and for underclothing. it is used for underwaists and underclothing in prefer- ence to the fell, as it is more satisfactory in curved seams. fitness.—it makes a neat appearance, as it shows but one line of sewing on the right side; it launders well, and for thin wash material has a better effect than the raw edges showing through the material. rule.—the seam is to be twice sewed. it may be made on straight or bias material. lay the two edges to be united exactly together on what will be the right side of the garment, and baste neatly near the edge. use a fine running stitch for the first sewing and make the seam as narrow as possible french seam for strength. trim the edges neat- ly, and lay the seam open with the finger nail. turn the seam inside of the muslin, and make a new seam over the other on what will fig. .—the french seam. be the wrong side of the garment. various stitches may be used for the second sewing according to the strength desired. the second sewing must cover the raw edges of the first seam. (fig. .) the seam should be as narrow and neat as possible. * practice.—take white muslin x inches. cut it into two gores as de- scribed in the practice piece for garment bias. lay one bias piece against the other, having wide end to wide end, and narrow to narrow. proceed as by rule. begin the running stitch on the wide ends of the bias pieces. let the second sewing of the seam be done with running and backstitching no. . overhand and fell and other seams. materials for practice. white muslin, cotton, no. - . needle, no. - . x inches. application.—undergarments, ball covers and sails. use.—in seams where great strength and neatness are required. fitness.—the overhand stitch for the first sewing followed by the hem- ming stitch in the fell makes a very durable seam. rule.—take the two pieces to be joined, turn a small fold on the raw edge of each piece—the turn on one piece should be twice as deep as the one on the other. overhand the two pieces together, having the narrow fold toward the worker. overhand the seams according to the rule for overhand- ing, press open the seam, turn the wide edge over the narrow and hem it down. the seam should be flat. practice.—see gusset or as in fell and french seam. fine drawing (see description) is used to hold two selvages or two pieces of heavy cloth in a seam. it is the stitch used in sewing together the seams in the leather or felt coverings of balls. counter-hemming is used in seams where the materials are made to over- lap a little and are then hemmed on both sides. sails for toy boats can be made of wide cotton or linen tape counter-hemmed together; when made thus they look much more like real sails than when the forms of mainsail and jib are merely cut from muslin and hemmed around the edge. if boys are in the classes, they can readily whittle boats and use the sails on them. the children should first carefully baste the strips together before counter-hem- ming them. the raw edges above and below must also be turned in and hemmed when the sail has been sewed together. talks on boats and sails, and illustrations of sail-cloth, sail-needles and thimbles all add greatly to the interest. a sewing course no. . application of stitches. the following suggestions for applying the stitches are given to help teachers to plan courses of work. real articles and garments are mentioned in the hope that these will be used in place of models of stitches. these vari- ous things can be made by the children while they are learning the stitches and with the minimum of practice. it is more important that they learn to be constructive along useful lines, with a few stitches, than that they should continue to learn new stitches only. it is not necessary for the teacher to make every one of these articles, but she should make some of them and place them in an interleaved copy of the sewing course. they will thus be an incentive to the pupils. each teacher, however, should herself make any article or garment which she plans to give her pupils. the current magazines dealing with home problems will also help her in choosing her course of instruction, for they give description of the way to construct many useful as well as fancy articles. as the manner of making and the decoration changes continually, according to prevailing fashion, only a few articles which are not apt to be thus affected are described in detail in the following pages. patterns of articles and clothing in large and small sizes can easily be obtained. button bag. materials for practice. gingham or other cotton material. cotton, no. - . needle, - . x inches. take a piece of material x inches. fold it together with the wrong side out so that the two ends exactly meet. stitch a narrow seam along each side beginning at the bottom of the bag and continuing until within % inches of the top. overcast raw edges of the seams. the rest of the way to the top of the bag hem the four sides separately in narrow hems. turn the tops down to the side seams and hem neatly. run a casing in * of an inch above the hem. put a narrow linen tape through the casing, beginning at the hemmed edges on one side. draw the ends of the tape out on one side and fasten together by turning in the raw edges, lapping the ends one over the other and overhanding the parts together. put a second tape in from the opposite side and complete it as the other. the bag is drawn together by pulling on the two strings at once. another way to finish the bag is to put a series of rings on the inside of the hem and run the tape through these in place of a casing. suggestion.—a lesson on the bag should be supplemented by a discus- sion of various sorts of bags and their methods of construction. where bags are needed for school purposes the children can supply that need. boys may make marble bags of galatea, while the girls are making button or work- bags of other materials. variations in the way of completing the bags will add interest. application of stitches aprons (small size). no. . with casing. no. . with band. materials for practice. gingham or muslin ( ) x in. cotton, no. - . needle, no. - . x in. gingham or muslin gingham or muslin ( ) gingham or muslin x in. y xl in. x % in- ( pieces.) a very simple apron can be made by taking gingham or muslin x inches. a narrow hem can be made on each side along the -inch side of the material. an inch hem can be turned up at the bottom. in place of putting on a band a v mcn nem can be turned down at the top to form a casing. a tape ( inches long) can be used or a strip of the same material can have a narrow hem on each long side and a vi inch hem across each end and be slipped through the casing to draw the fullness together around the waist. hemming alone is required in this practice piece. if an apron on a band is desired a piece of gingham x inches can be hemmed on each -inch side and at the bottom as above. the top can be gathered and stroked (see gathering and stroking) and the band put on by stitching or setting-in gathers (see putting on a band). the apron may be drawn in to four inches at the top. the belt will thus extend one inch beyond the apron on each side and these sides of the belt can be overhanded together to the ends. two strips, x * inches, can be finished for strings by placing narrow hems along each side and a deeper hem at the bottom. these strings can be gathered at the unhemmed ends and joined to the end of the belt by stitching, or setting-in gathers. other kinds of aprons with bibs, straps and pockets should be discussed by the classes. aprons are frequently indicative of certain tasks, viz., nurses, waitresses, butchers, cooks and blacksmiths. this subject may be made inter- esting to a class. if a full sized apron extending well to the back is to be made, some of the material must be cut away from the center of the front before the gathering thread is put in, or it will bulge just below the band. about one inch in the center of the front may be sloped to nothing at each side. the following articles also are described in the sewing course: petticoats (small size). see no. . travelling case. see no. , trunk tray-cover. see no. . hemstitched handkerchiefs (small size). see no. . apron op fine muslin. see no. . additional suggestions of articles applying useful stitches: sheets (all hemming); pillow-cases (overhanding or the fell, overcast- ing, hemming); table linen (napery stitch, and marking by ( ) linen em- broidery, ( ) cross stitch or ( ) chain stitch); bags (hemming, overhanding, overcasting, fancy stitches, binding with braid and buttonhole stitch or eyelet); work-bag with divisions; shoe bag; school bag; laundry bag; clothes-pin bag; a sewing course clothes bag; and collar and cuff bag with stiff bottom. there are an endless number of things which may apply the plain stitches, the fancy stitches or the constructive principles. these can be chosen according to the needs of the classes. the following useful exercises are all being used in the schools: fittings for the work-basket or work-bag, such as needlecases, emery holders, scissor shields, thimble cases and pin-cushions; furnishing for doll's houses, such as muslin curtains, portieres, cushion, couch, bureau, and stand covers; cases, such as travelling, pin, toilet, jewelry, handkerchief and card cases; articles for the school, such as class and national flags, badges, cos- tumes for dramatic work, curtains for book-cases, bags for gymnasium shoes, towels, aprons, caps and sleeves for cooking; work aprons for woodwork, historic dress in large or small size; articles for the home, such as the pads for bureau drawers, pin-cushions, whiskbroom holders, waste basket of paste- board and denim, bureau scarfs and sofa pillows; the use of decorative stitches in book-covers, portfolios, corners of writing pads, note-books for sewing, hem- stitched, embroidered or marked towels, napkins, doilies, table runners and squares, collars and cuffs, trimmings for cotton or woolen gowns and for linen shirtwaists, lingerie hats, neckties and belts; underclothing, simple or elaborate, such as the single piece underwaist or nightgown; children's clothing, such as sunbonnet, caps, guimpes, or simple one-piece aprons or dresses. underclothing and outer clothing for dolls offer excellent work in the fifth or even the sixth grade. through the numerous articles which can be made, all the stitches already learned can be utilized and new principles such as plackets, putting on bands, sewing on tape, tucking, fancy stitches and embroidery can be added. if bought patterns are used at first they should soon give way to patterns made by the children. (see drafting.) application of stitches applicationofstitches. space for the description of any special article planned by the teacher. i buttonholes, eyelets, etc. nos. , , , and . buttonholes, eyelets, loops, sewing on buttons, and blanket stitch. materials for practice. white muslin, white cotton, no. . needle, no. . x inches (two pieces). small pearl button. application.—on aprons, bags, cases, doll's clothes and full sized gar- ments. use.—to fasten together parts of clothing or to give a strong edge to material fitness.—the character of the buttonhole stitch is such that both dura- bility and beauty may be secured in the buttonhole. rule.—buttonholes are worked on the right side of double material. the work may be done from right to left, or from left to right, the only difference is the manner of making the purl (the twist given to the thread about the needle). the thread must be turned about the needle in the direc- tion in which the work is advancing. (fig. .) the slits are cut at inter- vals about a quarter of an inch from the edge of the cloth; for flat buttons they should be cut the length of the diameter of the button, for round but- tons, somewhat longer, and always even to the thread. begin work at the lower end of the slit (farthest from the edge of the cloth). hold the button- hole slanting across the first finger of the left hand, with the edge of the cloth toward the outside of the hand. make two or more stitches across the lower end, if a bar of buttonhole stitches is to complete the buttonhole; this crossbar is to keep the sides of the buttonhole from stretching. the following description is from right to left, and is a usual method of making buttonholes in cotton material: first strand the buttonhole by taking one or more long stitches to the extreme end of the slit and back again on the opposite side; the buttonhole stitches will cover these, and will be strengthened by them. as double material is used for buttonholes, the two raw edges should be lightly overcast together, over the stranding; this over- casting must not be deep, or it will show. after finishing the overcasting on both sides, bring the needle to the right side close to the edge of the slit at the end of the buttonhole furthest from the edge of the cloth. take the ■ ■•■■■mbkbm fig. .—buttonhole stitch. fig. .—buttonhole. a sewing course first buttonhole stitch by putting the needle into the slit close to the end and bring it out far enough from the edge of the slit to avoid danger from ravel- ing. in muslin four to six threads above the edge will be sufficient. before pulling the thread through, put the thread from the eye around from right to left under the point of the needle (fig. ) (if it be brought from left to right it will make the blanket stitch, which does not make a strong finish needed in buttonholes). the needle is drawn away from the worker so that the purl comes on the edge of the slit. make the stitches upright, of the same depth, and about one thread of material between each stitch, to allow room for the purl. when the opposite end of the slit is reached, turn to the other edge by making a fan of stitches. (fig. .) let the purl be close together across the cut, to make it strong, as the shank of the button will rest there. the outer part of the stitches will be stretched into a fan. the round end of the buttonholes takes usually from seven to nine stitches. it is some- times made without the purl and consists of a close overhand stitch like eyelet no. . when the lower end of the buttonhole has been reached, the fan can be made around this end, or if this end is to be barred, put the needle into the purl on the opposite side, and draw the two sides of the slit together; take two or three stitches if it needs to be very strong; bring the needle out beyond the slit on a line with the depth of stitches just completed and make a close bar of buttonhole stitches across. (fig. .) the ends of the bar should be on a line with the outside of the buttonhole stitches. some needlewomen make the bar of the blanket stitches; it is not quite so strong made in this manner. the stitch in the bar that comes over the first stitch made in the buttonhole must pass through its loop, so as to hold it from slip- ping; fasten all securely. take a long enough thread to complete the buttonhole stitches, as it is yery difficult to join the thread after the purl has been started; a thread about % of a yard long is enough for ordinary buttonholes. coarse thread may be used for coarse material; but for ordinary muslin no. is coarse enough. use as fine a needle as possible. if a thread must be taken in the midst of the buttonhole put the old thread through the slit and fasten well on the other side. insert the new thread through the last purl and continue as before. buttonholes in cotton material may be rounded at both ends, barred at both ends, or the end where the shank of the button will come may be rounded and the other end barred. when making buttonholes on wool material the method is not essen- tially different, though in rounding the ends more stitches are often taken in the fan. as each stitch is made, it may be pulled up tightly that great strength may be gained. d. silk is generally used. if the material is thick or if it frays easily, it is well to put a doubleline of little running or machine stitches where the buttonhole is to be and cut the slit between these stitches. glue is also used to keep the material in place before cutting. little plates can be purchased with the form of the buttonhole cut in them; by putting the glue through such a hole there is no danger of it spreading too far and injuring the fabric. in heavy cloth a wedge-shaped piece is usually cut in the end of the slit where the shank of the button will come, or an eyelet hole is pierced instead. (fig. .) it is also cutomary in heavy material to work the buttonhole stitch over a cord as the stranding of the buttonhole twist is not sufficiently strong. when completing the buttonhole in wool material it is well to take several stitches across the end and make the button- hole stitch over them to insure strength. buttonholes, eyelets, etc the cutting of the buttonholes is always extremely important as the final appearance is greatly dependent on it. buttonhole scissors, set to the right length, aid in obtaining regularity, but much depends on the worker, who must always cut the material to a thread, begin each cut at the same distance from the edge of the cloth, usually about * of an inch, and have the slits the same distance apart. every point must be carefully measured and indicated before cutting. haphazard work is almost always fatal to success. practice.—the practice piece contains buttonholes, eyelets, loops, sewing on a button, and the blanket stitch. take two pieces of muslin x inches. turn in all the edges neatly, and baste the two pieces carefully together; be sure to have warp to warp, and woof to woof in the two pieces of muslin. have a small pearl button, and cut a slit in one corner of the practice piece the size for it and as near the edge as a buttonhole would come. make the button- hole according to directions and round both ends. diagonally cut another slit the same size, and make this buttonhole round on one end and barred on the other. in another corner put three eyelet holes, run them toward the center of the cloth, and graduate the size, that the center one may be the smallest, (fig. .) in the fourth corner make three small loops, gradu- ating their size to balance the eyelets. in the middle of one side make a large loop, and sew the button in the middle of the cloth. the practice piece can be finished around the edge by the blanket stitch. the directions for eyelets loops, sewing on buttons, and the blanket stitch will be found below. suggestion.—good buttonholes require fine work. they take much pa- tience to learn. the work is not adapted to the lower grades of the school. practice in the form of the stitch and also in the making of the entire button- hole may be given on canvas if it is found to be an aid. besides the actual making of a successful buttonhole, the classes should have practice in spacing and cutting buttonholes in various materials. it is also well for them to have practice in making buttonholes in cashmere or other light wool goods. let the piece for such practice be prepared with a lining as would be the case in a regular waist. paper may be utilized for spacing and cutting button- holes where woven material cannot be provided. the practice piece given above is for teachers. it is too elaborate for most pupils even in the high school. they should only practice buttonholes when they wish to use one for the necessity of direct use is a great incentive in overcoming the difficul- ties. it is better also for them to practice the many varieties on separate pieces of cloth. eyelets. application.—a bag with eyelets to pass tape through and draw the opening together. use.—a hole pierced in material and made strong by stitches around the edge of it, through which a tape or lacing-cord may pass. rule.—pierce the material with a stiletto until the hole will allow the lacing-cord to pass through easily. if a large hole is needed some of the pushed-back material on the wrong side must be cut away. for added strength the holes may be outlined with running stitches. the work over n a sewing course the edge may be done in different ways. the buttonhole or the blanket stitch may either be used, or the hole may be worked over and over with a close overhand stitch. the buttonhole stitch with the purl turned toward the hole makes the strongest eyelet. (fig. , eyelet no. .) the upright stitches must be evenly spread apart as the purl is crowded into a smaller space. the ^ffifct jtffeneedle is inserted first into the hole, and then into the material and the purl is drawn to the edge of the hole. athe blanket stitch is sometimes used for the buttonhole stitch in this eyelet. the close overhand is also strong. it is the method usually adopted where a silk lacing is to be used. (fig. fig. .—eyelets , eyelet no. .) the work is done very close together, nos. , and . and the stitches are drawn tightly. buttonhole. the buttonhole stitch with the purl turned away from the hole makes the most attractive looking eyelet. (fig. , eyelet no. .) the needle is inserted first into the material and then brought through the hole to the surface and the purl is drawn into place beyond the hole. the work proceeds from right to left as in buttonholes. the upright stitches must lie close together to cover the raw edges and make the eyelet wear well. the work is fastened on the wrong side by a couple of double stitches. the depth of the stitch in all eyelets depends on the material on which it is made. the object is to protect the hole; the stitch must therefore be close and deep enough to accomplish this. the stiletto can be of use during the progress of the work to keep the hole round. practice.—three varieties of eyelets are to be worked on the buttonhole practice piece. no. .—buttonhole stitch with the purl turned outward. no. .—buttonhole stitch with the purl turned inward. no. .—a close over-and-over stitch. (see practice—buttonholes.) loops. application.—on a doll's dress or garment in place of a buttonhole or as a hanger for a bag the stitch being made over a brass ring. use.—where a metal eye would not be attractive in certain garments, a silk loop is made to catch the hook. loops are also used to take the place of buttonholes to stay the end of a placket, or to hold two folds of cloth together. rule.—determine the size of the loop necessary for the hook or button and the place it should occupy. fasten the thread securely without a knot if possible, take three or four strands of stitches back and forth on the gar- ment, leaving them loose enough to catch the hook or button. fasten securely at the opposite end that they may bear the strain to be put upon them. make the buttonhole stitch or the blanket stitch over the strands. (see blanket stitch.) practice.—(see practice—buttonholes.) sewing on buttons sewing onbuttonsapplication.—on aprons, garments and travelling cases. rule.—buttons with four holes may have the stitches form a cross on the face and two diagonals at the back, or may have two parallel stitches on the face and a cross at the back. the cross stitches should be in the direc- tion of the warp and woof. use double cotton and fasten it securely in the right side of the material directly under where the button will go. it is well to put a pin on top of a flat button or under one which is concave and to make the stitches over the pin so that the button will not be fastened down too tight. when sufficient stitches have been taken withdraw the pin and pass the cotton several times around the stitches beneath the button to form a stem or shank. this protects the stitches and makes room for the button- hole or loop. when the button is sewed down tight, it is apt to pull off, bringing a piece of the band with it. fasten off directly under the button or on the wrong side in one of the diagonal stitches. the wrong side should be very neat. buttons with two holes have the stitches running the warp way of the material. buttons with a shank should have the stitches over and over the shank in such a way that the rubbing of the buttonhole will be against the shank rather than against the stitches. cloth buttons often are made with material on the wrong sides in place of a shank; these are sewed on in the same way, but looser than a shank button, so a stem can be formed by wind- ing the thread around the stitches. practice.—a four-holed button is to be placed in the middle of the but- tonhole practice piece. (see practice—buttonholes.) suggestion.—the sewing on of buttons may be taught to young chil- dren. let them practice with four-holed buttons, shoe-buttons and cloth but- tons. with older classes, practice on spacing and cutting buttonholes may be accomplished by sewing on buttons to correspond. in light-weight ma- terials a staytape will often be needed between the lining and the cloth to hold securely the buttons. blanket stitch or flat buttonhole stitch. application.—canvas napkin rings, mats and cases, the bottom of flan- nel skirts and jackets and in embroidery on linen. use.—for finishing raw edges in place of overcasting. it is also used ornamentally as in scallops on flannel or by a network of stitches over a surface. a neat way of joining the edges of hamburg trimming is to button- hole or blanket stitch the edges together very closely. n a sewing course fitness.—it holds an edge from raveling and at the same time deco- rates it. when worked close together it is very strong and durable as well as beautiful. pig. .—blanket stitch. fig. .—scallops. rule.—it is worked from right to left or left to right, the latter being the more usual way. the work is held over the first finger of the left hand with the raw edge toward the worker. the upright part of the stitch is at right angles with the raw edge (fig. ); the loop goes over the edge. the needle is inserted as far from the raw edge as the depth of the stitch chosen. to fasten the thread in cloth or flannel (in canvas a knot has to be used); make a running stitch toward the edge, insert the needle again at the same place as before and take one stitch toward the edge, slip the thread under the needle and make a loop. insert the needle at the same height as the last stitch and as far to the right (or left) as desired, making a loop in the thread. continue the stitches the same height and the same distance apart. in a cor- ner three stitches should come in the same hole to make a neat turn. when a new thread is to be taken, fasten off the old thread back of the last upright stitch. begin the new thread by a running stitch back of the last stitch, catch the new thread through the loop and proceed as before. varieties of the stitch.—the depths of the upright stitches may be varied at regular intervals and make a most attractive effect. an ornamental network also can be made by catching succeeding rows of the stitch in the previous row. in using the blanket stitch for scallops in embroidery (fig. ), the upright part of each stitch lies close to the next. it must be crowd- ed on the inner edge of the scallop to have the outer edge firm and substantial. when the point of union between two scallops is reached, the last blanket stitch can come directly at the point of junction, or each succeeding scallop can begin again at that point and give an overlapping appearance. the last is the richer effect. in flannel garments scalloped at the edge, the material below the scallop is to be cut away. it is better not to cut too close until the flannel has been once washed. practice.—(see practice—buttonholes, embroidery on flannel or unite two pieices of hamburg edging.) suggestion.—the blanket stitch is very useful in early primary grades. it may be used to finish the edges of burlap mats, leaves for needlebooks, book- marks, blankets, bookcovers and napkin rings. variation in the length of the stitches may also be suggested by the children. in raffia work this stitch may be used in picture frames, or to hold together the bundles of raffia, for making hats, mats and baskets. placket nos. , , . plackets. use.—the opening made in certain parts of garments which gives greater freedom in slipping them on. skirts and petticoats, shirt sleeves, drawers and chemises, have these openings. fitness.—the piece of material set on or folded over strengthens the garment where it has to bear a strain and is liable to be torn and the in- creased size of the opening gives comfort. in full-sized garments the length of the placket depends on its use. the object should be merely to have the parts slip on easily and to avoid unnec- essary length. placket no. . materials fob practice. gingham or white muslin, cotton, no. - . needle, no. - . x inches. application.—on a petticoat either full or small size. use.—for finishing the vent in certain skirts or for the opening in the back of men's shirts. practice.—cut a slit y inches down the middle, or one-half inch to the left of the middle, of the warp of a piece of gingham or muslin x inches. put a narrow hem down the left-hand side of the slit, sloping it to nothing at the end. on the right-hand side of the slit make a hem which will be half an inch wide its entire length. when the end of the cut is reached, fold the whole width of the right-hand side over the left-hand side. this will make a pleat in the muslin below the end of the vent (some prefer the left side folded over the right). securely fasten down the broad hem over the narrow by a line of stitching stitches at right angles with the hemming-stitches and over the end of the slit. make another line of stitching stitches which will slant from the end of the fold of the hem, where the other stitching stitches ended, to the hemming stitches and will form the hypothenuse of the angle made by the junction of the hemming stitches with the first line of stitching stitches. this will make a more secure finish than double parallel lines of stitching stitches. suggestion.—in full-sized garments the broad hem in this placket varies from inch to % inches in width. the length varies from inches to inches, according to the requirements of the garment. garments containing plackets of this character should be brought to the class for illustration. it is well also for the classes to make small white petti- coats, gingham dress skirts or flannel skirts which will apply this principle. this first placket is so simple that application on a small garment does not need to be preceded by making the practice piece. making the placket in paper, where the subject is discussed freely, is sufficient preparation for its utilization on the small garment. a placket is more satisfactory in the back of a petticoat than a gusset, on account of the lapping over of the material in the former. plackets where gingham is used the upper facing must be cut according to the pattern; it must exactly match the main part of the cloth over which it extends. a small sleeve may be made by each child and the placket put in that, or a small shirtwaist may be made at this time. the front of a shirtwaist is frequently made with a box pleat v to % inches wide. this pleat is usually stitched on each edge. the buttonholes can be made in it or an extra lap may be made underneath for them. if the material is not wide enough to make the pleat, an extra piece may be added which will fold under the pleat and not show. the other side of the shirt- waist which goes under the box pleat may be turned into a -inch hem, or if too narrow for that, a supplementary piece may be added, turned back and stitched down either on the right or wrong side of the cloth as desired. placket no. . materials for practice. white muslin, cotton, no. - . needle, no. - . x inches. finish, no. . x inch on a strip of muslin with one side selvage. finish, no. . . x inches. application.—on the vent of a pair of drawers, a doll's skirt, or a child's dress. use.—especially adapted to children's drawers on account of its strength and the complete closing of the vent by the lap underneath, formed by the turned back strip. it is also used in white petticoats and in cotton dress skirts. practice.—cut y inches in the middle of a piece of muslin x inches. the vent may be finished in one of the following ways: finish no. . take the strip, x inch, put a narrow hem one-half way down it or use the selvage piece. lay the opposite raw edge of the strip on the left-hand side of the vent with the right side of the strip lying against the right side of the cloth. baste it so that the edge of the strip will be just below the raw edge of the vent (as for a fell). begin at the ends of the slit and make a narrow fell with the cloth hemmed down on the strip. this disposes of but one-half of the strip. begin at the edge of the vent and with the running and back- stitching sew the remainder of the raw edge of the strip to the opposite side of the vent in order that when the seam is pressed open this part of the strip will make a lining to the right-hand side of the vent. this will turn the strip back on itself. hem the lining down by turning in the raw edges or hemming down the selvage strip. where the strip turns back at the bottom of the placket it must be hemmed or stitched neatly and closely to the cloth. when the placket is completed the faced part of it on the right-hand side lies above the lap made by the first half of the strip. where the strip turns back there is always a small fold in the cloth made by the fell, a loop made of buttonhole stitches can be placed at this point and add materially to the strength. * a sewing course '*'! finish, no. .—take the strip x inches, lay one raw edge of it on the right side of the material or garment along the entire vent and baste it neatly, being careful to hold it well at the bottom of the slit before continuing up the other side. sew it with one of the strong stitches, such as the stitching- stitch, and then turn the opposite raw edges of the strip just over the seam and hem it down the entire length. when finished, the strip will fold back on itself, as in finish, no. , but it does not need to be hemmed down to form a lining as in that method. arrange the placket so it will look neat on the right side and make a loop of buttonhole stitches across the end of it to strengthen it. to keep the strip well in place make on the wrong side of the placket a slanting line of stitching-stitches which will hold the strip together without interfering with the size of the opening. suggestion.—in full-sized garments this placket varies in length and width according to need. in cotton dress skirts the strip is often made of double material. in childrens drawers a broad piece of tape more than twice the length of the vent is sometimes used to stay the material by extending it down one side of the vent across the bottom by turning it twice back on itself and up on the other side. neither this means nor the gusset have the advan- tage of completely closing the opening. gdsset no. . gusset. materials fob practice. cotton, no. - . needle, no. - . muslin, x inches. diagonal of a y inch square. application.—in place of the placket in a skirt, at the end of seams and under the arms. it is not in frequent use. use.—a gusset is a small piece of material (usually triangular) put in the openings of sleeves, shirts and drawers, to increase the width and to strengthen the garment. fitness.—the upper part of the triangle overhanded into the seam or into the cut on the right side of the garment, and the lower part of it, which turns back as a lining on the wrong side and acts as a stay, give great dura- bility to the seam. fig. . fig. . folding of the gusset. rule.—to fold a trianglar gusset, take a triangular piece of muslin and ( ) turn a narrow fold on all three sides of it (the two sides first and then the base). ( ) make a crease exactly through the triangle from the apex to the base.( fig. .) ( ) turn the apex down to about v of an inch at the base. (fig. .) the new triangle thus formed is the gusset proper, while the remainder will serve for the lining or stay. ( ) turn each point of the base into another equilateral triangle, which will make the piece hexagonal in shape. cut off the unnecessary material in this new turn so it will leave a sewing course only a small fold. (figs. and .) ( ) place the apex of the triangle (with the folds turned to the wrong side of the garment) at the end of the seam or of the cut needing strengthening. overhand it on both sides from the apex to the crease made when it was folded into the second triangle. (fig. .) ( ) after the triangle is overhanded, turn the remaining part of the gusset to the wrong side of the garment, baste it carefully, placing the lengthwise crease at the center of the seam or the cut, and laying the side folds of the gusset so they will extend along warp and woof threads. the lining must lie perfectly flat. hem it down carefully. (fig. .) ( ) put a line of stitching on the right side of the garment across the bottom of the gusset where it folds back. this will keep it flat and improve the appearance. practice.—take a piece of muslin x inches. cut it in half down the warp threads, join the two pieces together iy inches in an overhanded fell. (see overhanded fell.) turn narrow hems on the raw edges of the practice piece below the fell. the end of the fell will need to be cut across so the hems will lie quite flat. for the gusset, take the diagonal of a y -inch square of muslin. fold and insert according to the rule. suggestion.—there are other varieties of gussets besides the triangular one. a square of muslin is sometimes used with a small diagonal cut from one corner. it is inserted in the same way as the triangular gusset. a square {tiece is also used by turning it diagonally and inserting it in the seams under he arms of night dresses, chemises and shirts, to give more room. a gusset may also be cut with the sides extended into a facing. this variety is some- times used in children's drawers. the gusset gives room and the facing ex- tends up each side of the opening and acts as a stay. the gusset is less used than formerly. plackets are found to serve the purpose better, as they keep the openings closed while strengthening the material, and in drawers and skirts, are more satisfactory. a gusset is not difficult to insert if all the steps are understood and if the folding is carefully done. blackboard diagrams are a help in making the steps clear. garments with gussets inserted should be shown to the classes. it is not necessary to teach the gusset in the course in the elementary school. teachers, technical students and trade workers should know how to make it. sewing on tape no. . sewing on tape materials fob practice. muslin, x ^ inches. cotton, no. . needle, no. . tape inch wide,) inches. inches. application.—on towels, dusters and skirts. use.—to fasten tape securely so it may serve for strings for under- clothing, aprons and other garments, or for loops to hang up clothing and household articles. it is also used to strengthen the edges of material. (see placket no. .) rule.—the free ends of the tape intended for strings must always be finished neatly or they will fray. they may be folded down and hemmed or turned into a point and overhanded or hemmed. the end to be fastened down is usually placed on the wrong side of the garment. if there is a hem on the article a short distance from the edge, the end of the tape may be turned in, laid against the hem and hemmed down on three sides. (fig. .) at the edge of the garment it may be overhanded or stitched. in place of the hemming for holding down the tape the stitching stitch may be used. it must always be perfect on the right side of the garment. to do this the tape must be laid flat on the wrong side of the article with its raw edge to- ward the end. the stitching is done on the right side through the tape. the tape may then be turned back so it will cover the stitches. the sides may be hemmed and the edge of the article overhanded or stitched to the tape. when loops are to be placed on towels or dusters, the center of the piece of tape is turned diagonally back on itself and forms a point. (fig. .) the ends of the tape are laid side by side on the wrong side of the material and hemmed or stitched down as described above. the edge of the material is stitched or overhanded to the loop. where the two pieces of tape join, they may be hemmed together or held down with cross stitches. practice.—take a piece of muslin x % inches, turn and base a ^ -inch hem on one long side. 'a loop and a string of tape are to be sewed to this hem. take five inches of tape for a loop and fold it diagonally in the middle according to the direc- tion above. (fig. .) turn in the raw edges and y an inch from one side of the muslin, lay the ends of the tape side by side with their folds n t on the hem of the muslin. hem the muslin across fig. .—loop of iape. npatly an(j strongly t^ing careful to hold the tape down with the hemming stitches. hem each side of the tape to the muslin and the two pieces of tape together. at the edge of the muslin overhand the tape to the hem. take the -inch piece of tape for a string. lay one end on the wrong side of the hem (y inch from the loop) with its raw edge toward the end. stitch it down closely just where the hemming is and make the stitching perfect on the right side. turn back the tape so it covers the a sewing course stitches and after hemming each side, stitch the tape to the muslin on the right side near the edge of the fold. fold the raw edge of the tape into a point by turning the width of the tape diagonally into a true bias and this again into a triangle, and overhand it across the bottom of the triangle and along the one bide. suggestion.—in dressmaking, the loops or hangers on a skirt are usually laid flat on the under side of the belt and sewed strongly to the belt near the side seams, or one loop may be placed in the middle of the back. they are cut about four or five inches long, which allows for the turning in at each end. they are hemmed or stitched into place. in waists, hangers are usually placed in the seams of the sleeves; they may lie flat as in the skirt, but usually the tape is doubled diagonally and the ends are placed exactly together. they may be stitched in with the sleeve or strongly overhanded to the seam. for hangers for coats the flat loop and the diagonal sleeve loop are both used. tape is also used to strengthen the sides of an opening by having it ex- tend up both sides after being folded in the center diagonally as a loop is made and laid flat below the opening. in children's work strings of tape may take the place of buttonholes in dolls' petticoats. little towels or dusters with loops of tape may be made to apply various stitches. tucking no. . tucking materials fob practice. muslin, x inches. cotton, no. - . needle, no. - . application.—on aprons, dolls' clothing or underclothing. use.—folds taken on the right side of material for ornament; or as a means of disposing of material until it is needed to lengthen the garment; or to narrow a garment in place of gathers. they are used principally on chil- dren's clothing, undergarments and cotton dress. tucks may vary in depth from - of an inch to a couple of inches. the distance between them is a matter of choice. in wide tucks one-third to one-half of their depth is usually left between them; in very narrow ones the space between may be the same as the depth. groups of narrow tucks are frequently made with the fold of one reaching to the sewing of the one below. the sewing, however, must not be covered. rule.—decide on the size and distance apart of the tucks and make a gauge (a card with notches in it) to indicate ( ) the depth, ( ) the sewing and ( ) the distance apart of the tucks. if there is a hem on the garment below the tucks, place the end of the gauge on the sewing of the hem, make the first notch at the distance from the hem to the inner sewing of the tuck added to the depth of the tuck. put the second notch at the depth of the tuck. the third and fourth notches will repeat the distance of the first and second. these notches will be the indication for two tucks. after that the tucks can be indicated by folding together the wrong side of the material at the first tuck below the one to be folded and creasing, making pin-pricks or pencil marks at the fold of the second tuck below. when the gauge is made, place the card on the hem (or any point selected beyond which the tuck is to be made) and, with a strong pin prick through the material at the marks on the card, moving it gradually across the material. make a crease from one pin-prick to the other. the first crease will be the depth of the tuck, the second the sewing, the third will be the depth of the second tuck, the fourth the sewing. the tucks are usually sewed on the upper side through the dou- ble material with the running stitch or by machine. they should be as care- fully folded to a thread as possible, especially in narrow tucks where a small variation in the thread is quite noticeable. practice.—take muslin x inches, place a hem at the bottom which will be % of an inch deep when finished. it should be folded as exactly as pos- sible. three tucks, % of an inch in depth with ys of an inch between are to be placed above the hem. this will make the inner sewing of the tuck v of an inch above the sewing of the hem; the tuck will, when finished, cover half of this space and the other half will be the space between the tuck and the hem. if a gauge is needed for these narrow tucks, the first mark would be % of an inch above the mark for the hem (the distance between the hem and the inner sewing of the tuck, i. e., % of an inch added to the depth of the tuck, i. $., y$ of an inch). the second mark would be ys of an inch above or the depth of the tuck; the third mark would be % of an inch above the second mark, and the fourth mark yr of an inch beyond the third, making in all one inch from the hem. prick with a pin at the marks, moving the gauge across the material. the third tuck can be measured from the others (see a ewing course rule). a tape measure can be used in place of the gauge for these narrow tucks. great care must be taken in folding to a thread, if possible. sew with the running stitch on the outside of the tuck. when the tucks are finished, prepare the upper part of the material for putting on a band. (see no. .) suggestion.—illustrations of different varieties of tucking should be brought to the class for discussion. it is also well to provide paper so that each member of the class may have experience in spacing tucks from some design of her own, and also may learn to notch the card for the gauge. garments which are too short or too narrow may be increased by adding new material and hiding a seam under a tuck. this method of repairing should be discussed. knots are sometimes used in tucks to begin the running stitch, but a neat fastening is preferable. muslin, *£x inch. (utilize practice piece no. .) application.—on aprons, skirts and other clothing. use.—a narrow strip of cloth, folded over to cover the plain or gath- ered raw edges of material and to bind the garment together; a means of fastening a garment in place as well as of supporting and strengthening it. varieties.—the setting in of gathers or hemming; the stitched-on, and the overhanded band. rule.—as the band needs to be strong it should be cut along the selvage or the warp of material (the selvage itself would better be cut off as it is usually too heavy). the width of the band depends on the place for which it is intended; the length (in cutting) is generally from one to two inches longer than the place it is to occupy. this allows for turning in at each end and for the lapping over of the band. the raw edges of the band should be folded down first from % to v of an inch along the length and then the ends may be turned in. the corners can be mitered (see mitering) if the folds of the cloth coming together make it too thick. the band must now be folded together along its length with all the raw edges inside. the ends may be basted together or overhanded before the band is placed on the garment, as it helps to keep it in place. divide the band in half and again in quarters and mark with cross stitches. take now the garment on which the band is to be placed. spread the material as desired on the gathers (if there are any) and stretch and pin the length of the band to it. the garment should be already marked in halves and quarters, as the band is parked, if the full- ness is to be evenly distributed along the band. if the front is to be plain and the fullness gathered into a few inches in the middle of the back a care- ful calculation of the amount of the material to go into each quarter of the band must precede the matching of the halves and quarters of the band and garment. setting in op gathers.—after preparing the band, place the gathers within it, matching the marked halves and quarters; baste the right side of the band to the gathers so that the gathering stitches are just covered. begin no. . putting on a band materials for practice. a sewing course suggestion.—the secret in making a band look well is the careful fold- ing, preparing and basting. haste in the first steps is apt to give bad results. bands are made usually of straight material. narrow binding to finish garments is cut on the bias. in gathering material for a band from twice to twice and a half the length of band is the usual allowance. a tucked apron or petticoat could be made at this time in place of the practice piece. darning nos. and . darning. materials for practice. stockinet, x inches. fine darning cotton. needle, no. - or warp threads op muslin. long-eyed darner. colored cashmere. warp raveling op cashmere. x inches. silk op the same color. application.—stockings, knitted underwear or sweaters brought from home. use.—darning is the repairing of fabric by inserting new threads into a place which has been rubbed thin or worn into a hole. it differs from patch- ing in that the broken part is woven back, while in the latter a piece of the same cloth is inserted into the hole. knitted and woven materials are both usually mended in this way. fitness.—as it imitates the original texture it is almost invisible and the manner of weaving the threads makes it strong. varieties.—( ) running darn. thin places in stockinet or in woven material, and broken places in the latter may be strengthened by running darns. a number of lines of running stitches are placed close together over the worn part on the wrong side and the stitch and the space alternate in succeeding rows. in stockinet, small loops should be left at the end of each row to allow for stretching or shrinkage, and the edges of the darn should be waved or diamond-shaped so the strain will be distributed. (fig. .) the plain running stitch may be used in stockinet or ascending and descending loops may be taken with each stitch. in woven material the shape of the darn may be square and the loops need not be long. ( ) stocking-web darning. this manner of darning reproduces the original knitting of the garment. it is the method employed in fac- tories where the machinery has torn the fabric. it is much used in countries where hand-knitted garments are used. it is a more difficult pro- cess than the ordinary way of inserting warp and woof and unnecessarily tedious where the darning of ordinary stockings or sweaters is con- cerned. the method is to clear away loose ends of the stockinet until the hole is square or ob- long. strands of thread are then stretched pig running darn across the hole from the ascending and descend- in stockinet lo°ps ai,d the knitting stitches are built up with darning cotton on these strands. the strands are carefully removed when the knitting is completed. this method is difficult and is not taught generally in the schools of the united states. ( ) warp and woof darns. this is a method in general use for re- pairing both stockinet and woven material. it may be plain weaving or it may accurately reproduce the pattern, as is often done in fine damask. (see weaving.) in stockinet the warp threads may be inserted in the ascending darning must be left in the darning cotton as the thread turns back in both warp and woof so as to allow for the stretching of the stockinet and the shrinking in washing. the darn should lie perfectly flat. practice.—take a piece of coarse stockinet, x inches. cut a few threads in the center of the web and the broken ladders can then be stretched into a hole. repair according to the rule, catching the loops and making a diamond-shaped darn. as the material is new the darn does not need to ex- tend far beyond the hole. rule.—woven material which has been torn may be repaired by weaving back the broken threads. in fine damask where a small hole has been torn the entire pattern may be woven back, but in most instances a plain darn is adequate for the purpose. where there is a worn place or a slit rather than a hole a plain running darn will suffice. the repairing thread should repro- duce the original as nearly as possible. the raveled warp threads of the same material give the most satisfactory results. wool may be threaded by waxing it or by twisting a cotton thread in with it. if wool raveling cannot be obtained, silk (one shade darker) may be split into thirds and one-third used for the work. silk, however, catches the light and shows more than the raveling of the material. whatever threads are broken should be replaced as closely as is needed to hold the material well together. a few rows of stitches are often enough to hold a slit together in wool materials where the strain is not great, but in cottons and linens a close mass of replaced threads is necessary to sustain the strain of laundering. if threads are severed in one direction only, such as warp threads, those alone need to be replaced. if both warp and woof threads are broken both must be reinserted. the work is done on the wrong side of the cloth as far as possible. a running stitch is made back and forth over the tear, leaving a little loop each time the direction is changed. the distance beyond the tear covered by the darn depends on the strength needed. in new material a few stitches on either side of the break are enough. it may be necessary, however, to strengthen weak threads by carrying the darn some distance beyond the tear. in some materials, such as damask, when the edge of the slit is reached the thread should go over on one side and under on the other, alternating this in succeeding lines (see fine-drawing). in cloth darning woven material. fig. .—darning op a hedge tear. fig. .—darning op a diag- onal tear. m a sewing course it is well to bury the stitches in the material. the work must be carefully done so that the darn will be flat and the edges will be neatly joined together and not frayed. the stitch should show little on the right side. in a hedge tear (two sides of a square) both warp and woof threads must be inserted at the corner where the two breaks join. this will make a square warp and woof darn at the corner. (fig. .) in a diagonal tear (fig. ), the same condition usually must be met, i. e., warp and woof threads are to be inserted. the warp threads are put in first as far beyond the slit as need be, the woof threads need not be so numerous as the warp, but should be sufficient to keep the slit from stretching in that direction. at times one line of repairing threads can be omitted or this class of tear can be darned diagonally across the ma- terial, but at right angles with the cut. a hole which is too large for ordinary darning may need repair. it is often better to place a piece of the same material underneath and darn down the raw edges on it than it is to hem or overhand a patch on the garment. the piece placed at the back must exactly match the original. it should be so placed that the right side of it as well as the warp, woof and ply (if it has any) should match the surface. this piece may be carefully run on to the body of the garment with an irregular running-stitch showing as little as possible on the face. warp raveling of the material may be used for the darning which is done on the right side, the raw edges should be overcast. the ragged edges should be cleared from the hole. the loops must be taken under the surface and the stitches must not extend across the patch if the darn can be made strong without it. a human hair can be used for darning with excellent results. practice.—take a piece of colored cashmere, x inches. four holes are to be cut in it. one can be placed in each corner. ( ) a slit across the warp threads. this may be darned on the wrong side with warp ravelings of white muslin to clearly indicate the stitches. they should show as little as possible on the right side. a running darn is to be used. it is to be placed back and forth along the warp as these threads are severed. when the edge of the slit is reached let the alternating rows of stitches go under and over the edge. (see rule for darning woven material.) ( ) a diagonal severing of warp and woof threads is to be repaired. (fig. .) work on the wrong side of the material. replace the warp threads first, then the woof with the alternating running stitch according to the rule. use warp ravelings of cashmere. ( ) a hedge tear. half of this tear is along the woof, the other half is along the warp. use warp ravelings of cashmere or split silk one shade darker than the material. work on the wrong side of the cashmere. replace first the warp threads and then the woof with the alternating running-stitch, making a square darn at the point where both the warp and woof threads are severed. (fig. ). ( ) a worn place too large for ordinary darning. cut a small hole in the material; place a piece of it at the back and repair according to rule. suggestion.—the darning of fine material, whether in stockinet or woven cloth, requires judgment, patience and control of the hand. it is, however, possible through lessons in weaving and coarse sweater darning to give a good preparation for it. in early primary grades the lessons in weaving (see weaving) should be connected with ideas of repairing. knitting also should be contrasted with weaving as a means of constructing material. a toy used by children for knitting horse lines will serve to make clear the difference between the construction of knitted and woven material. it is only a spool with four pins in one end arranged at equal distances around the hole. if a darning larger spool is used and more pins are added a little form like a golf stocking can be made easily by the children. the repairing stockinet by a warp and woof darn may be discussed and by the third school year coarse sweater material may be darned. steps such as these make a foundation for the pre- sentation of the subject in a later grade. with classes that are not expert in hand work, with younger children, or with poor varieties of stockinet, a running darn in and out of the material may be used in place of the more difficult variety where the loops of the knit- ting are caught wiith each stitch. it is well for classes to have experience beyond merely practicing darning. let them bring from home stockings, knitted underwear or woven garments, and repair them in the class or let them make small parts of garments such as sleeves, skirts, waists, drawers, etc., and darn them in various ways. this will give them experience in the judgment of ways and means of repairing which cannot be obtained from a practice piece cut from new material. the schools fail often to make the lessons in darning practical, through omit- ting the discussion of the problems which are met in the home. the teacher must have these points considered. lessons in patching can well be given at the same time as the two methods of repair are almost inseparable. where a large hole is worn in a stocking or in knitted underwear a piece may be set under and patched down with the herring-bone stitch. (see flan- nel patch.) care must be taken that each loop of the stockinet is caught or the ladders will stretch into a hole. a review of weaving or the presentation of darning to an older class who know nothing of the principle of it should follow an outline of thought such as the following. the following is given as a suggestion for organizing dis- cussion and for developing thought. the standpoint is of a class who have had a preparation for the subject in early grades. a part of the outline can accompany each one of a series of lessons or the teacher can set different sub- jects from it for the class to think over and discuss. outline of weaving and darning. i. weaving. ii. knitting. illustrations.—woven materials of vari- illustrations.—stockinet, knitted under- ous kinds such as canvas, plain wear, sweater material, spool knitting, weaving in muslin and wool, diagonal pictures of knitting machines, black- and pattern material; a loom; pic- board diagrams, etc., tures of looms, illustrations on the (i) recalling early work. board. golf stocking knitted on spool, and (i) recalling former wore. sweater material darned. . kindergarten paper weaving, weav hi. darning stockinet, ing rugs and mats on cards and the lllustrati ns. _ stocking-web darning, loom, darmng on coarse sweater ma- elumwn'« work from various schools! stockinet and sweater material and (ii) topics for discussion. samples of the darning of them; . the loom, warp, woof, shuttle, selv- blackboard illustrations, etc. age, batten, treadles and the inter- (i) connecting the new subject with lacing of threads; setting up a loom; weaving and knitting. ways of distinguishing warp from (ii) stocking-web-darning (for pur- woof without the selvage; the differ- poses of comparison), ence between basketry and weaving, . use of this manner of darning in and the difference between plain and knitting-factories, fancy weaving. . method of repairing discussed. a sewing course (iii) warp and wool- darn. . investigating the material and the hole to be repaired. ( ) ascending and descending loops, ragged edges of the hole and quality of repairing thread needed. . method of repairing. ( ) ways from which to choose. a. running darn. b. picking up the ascending and de- scending loops. c. diagonal darn. ( ) steps in the work. a. darning thread to be used. b. position of hand. e. inserting warp threads, (a) preparing the hole. ( ) strengthening the material be- yond the hole, (c) crossing the hole. i. catching all loops on the edge of the hole. ii. leaving loops of the repairing thread on the edge of the darn, (d) shape of the darn, d. inserting the woof threads. iv. darning woven material. illustrations.—various woven materials, bchool work of children. materials and garments darned in different ways, blackboard diagrams and pho- tographs. (i) connecting this subject with for- mer ones. (ii) method or repairing. . replacing the exact pattern by weav- ing back. . replacing broken threads by a warp and woof or diagonal darn. ( ) break across the warp, break across the woof, break diagonally across both warp and woof, a hedge tear and darning in new material. patching nos. , , , and . patching. use.—a piece set in a garment to take the place of a worn or torn part. a patch is used when the hole is too large to be darned. there are many ways of patching. different kinds and values of ma- terials and the amount of strain which will be put upon the repaired portion call forth different treatment. the repairing necessary in garments when certain parts have worn out and must be replaced, such as cuffs on shirt waists and hems on skirts, is also called patching, but it requires special knowledge of the making of the different parts needing renewing. general rules.—it is better to take an old piece of the same material for the patch as the new will often tear away the fabric. if the old cannot be obtained, new material of a lighter quality than the original condition of the old will serve better in a very old garment than the original. the pat- tern, if there is one, should be very carefully matched; the right side of the patch should come on the right side of the material; warp threads should join warp threads and the woof, the woof. if there is a nap, as in flannel, it must run the same way as it does on the garment. the worn place must be examined to decide on the size of the hole as well as on any weak parts beyond it which may need strengthening. the character of the material and the strain it must bear, must be considered to determine the manner of repairing. when the garment is very old, worth little trouble, and does not have to be laundered, the simplest means of patch- ing may be used, such as running or hemming the right side of the garment to the patch and overcasting the raw edges on the wrong side. if, however, the material is of value, the strain on the place small and the repair must be as invisible as possible the patch may be cut the exact size of the hole, and darning or fine drawing may be used to hold it in place. when a very substantial patch is needed in a garment which will be laundered, a quite different treatment will be required. in such cases both the right and the wrong side of the garment must be strong and complete. to prepare for this there must be careful calculation of the exact size needed for the patch. the hole and any weak parts must be covered and folds must be turned in on the garment and on the patch. the thread for repairing depends on the character of the material. where seams are to be made fine, strong thread should be used. when the size of the part needing strengthening, the manner of repair- ing it and the required dimensions of the patch have been considered, the hole must be prepared for patching. if a square or oblong patch will serve best, the center of the place needing it must first be found. a crease (or a line of basting stitches) should be made down the warp through this center, and another crease should be made along the woof. both creases should ex- tend well beyond the hole. where the lines cross (or should cross if a hole is worn) is the center of the hole. the hole must now be cleared and pre- pared. it is usually cut square or oblong (circular patches are seldom de- sirable. irregular edges are sometimes left in wool material which is to be darned down on the patch.) the piece cut out of the garment may be used as a guide in matching. if, however, a hole has been worn, the repairing material can be slipped underneath and the pattern matched. the center of the patch as well as the garment should be indicated by creased or basted a sewing course lines. measure the patch from its center along the creased lines and cut it out as exactly as possible. prepare it according to its special requirements. when folds must be made on the raw edges of the patch, turn two opposite sides before folding the clear sides over them so there will be regularity at the corners. the creased lines in both the garment and the patch should make the final matching an easy matter. suggestion.—patching requires judgment on the part of the worker. it is not enough to simply teach a child how to make a certain kind of patch under given circumstances. she should have experience in deciding what to do. it is better not to rely on dictation for teaching the subject. each step should be thought out and various kinds of holes cut by the children, so they may learn to calculate the size of the patch for themselves. the same kind of hole in varying materials necessitates an entirely dif- ferent treatment. for illustration, where a worn place in silk merely requires a piece of the same placed underneath, matching the pattern, but held down with a minimum of stitches showing on the surface, a similar worn place in a linen pillow-case must be patched and strongly sewed, with hems turned back, that it may stand the laundry. comparison of ways of repairing, as well as much practice, should be given to the classes. darning and patching are often required on the same worn place. the classes must consider how best to preserve garments. a good gown is often ruined by poor repair. repairing of parts of garments such as cuffs, hems, collars and under arms, should be discussed also by the classes. when a patch is to be put under the arm, the seam should be opened, the material separated from the lining, the patch inserted and the parts again united. the teacher should bring to the class garments requiring repairing of various kinds and also examples of patching. the children should also, when possible, bring small garments needing repairing from home. small articles or parts of garments can be made in the class and repaired. the whole subject should have thor- ough discussion. practice in paper is an excellent means of teaching patching. manila or striped tissue paper may be used. in classes where there is not time to make all the different kinds of patches, certain varieties may be made in paper alone so the children may get ideas on methods of handling. circular patches are sometimes used in table linen, in the knees of boys' trousers and in the elbows of their coats. the wear on these points makes it sometimes desirable to have seams turned in the cloth. they can be stitched in, stretched into shape usually without nicking, dampened and pressed with a hot iron. as the object of patching is to make an invisible repair, the material to be used for the patch should be as similar to the garment as possible. the use of old material, the washing of the new or the fading of it in the sun often helps to accomplish this. note.—it is advisable that each one who will make the following kinds of patching should vary the place and the shape of the hole to be repaired and decide for herself on the size of the repairing piece. for the sake of clearness a definite shape will be described in the practice pieces. overhand patch b turn to the wrong side, insert the scissors into the hole and cut the garment to within the same distance of the overhand stitches as the width of the folds turned on the patch. cut diagonally in each corner toward the overhand stitches and press the raw edges of the garment beyond the patch. (fig. .) this will make the entire patch slip into the hole and therefore show little on the right side. press carefully. in placing the overhanded patch on wool material, warp ravelings of the cloth may be used for the sewing in- stead of split silk. practice.—if material needing re- pairing cannot be provided, take a piece of striped or figured cotton or wool ma- terial. crease it through the center along warp and woof. (see general rules.) indicate on it in pencil or by basting the shape of a hole or worn part. cut a small hole in the center (if one is not already worn) large enough to fig. . overhanded patch. insert the scissors. consider the size (wrong side.) ot the place to be repaired; the size of the patch to cover such a hole would be ( ) the dimensions of the hole just mentioned; ( ) the folds on all four sides, i. e., of an inch allowed on each side for the turning back of material after the patch is sewed on; ( ) v of an inch on each side of the patch to allow for turns. taken together these amounts equal the size and shape of the repairing piece. this is for plain material that does not fray, larger seams must be allowed for loosely woven material. figured material needs special consideration in matching the pattern. prepare the patch and finish the work according to the rule. suggestion.—-see under patching on page . flannel patch. use.—as flannel is not liable to fray, the raw edges of the garment and the patch may be held down with herring-bone stitches and still be sufficiently strong. rule.—the hole should be cut clear of frayed material (it is usually square or oblong). the patch should be cut from % to % an inch larger than the hole, be placed directly over it without turning in any of the raw edges and be basted into place. care must be taken in matching the right side of the flannel, the warp, woof and ply. the patch should be held in place on both right and wrong sides by a fine herring-bone stitch (see direc- tions) over the raw edges of the material. the stitch is usually strong enough if it goes through the material on one side only, and on the other side if it goes into but one thickness of flannel. for turning the square corners, see fig. . the repairing thread is usually cotton or silk. ( i c s f; ' , ' '* * y * t : a sewing course practice.—as the herring-bone stitch will later be practiced in the sewing course, it is not necessary to make a special practice piece for patch- ing flannel unless the worker desires to do so. stockinet and woven underwear may also be patched by using the her- ring-bone stitch. suggestion.—it is well for a class to practice on the repair of knitted underwear using the herring-bone stitch over the raw edges. damask patch. materials for practice. damask, flourishing thread, no. . needle, no. . x inches or ravelings of damask (warp.) fine darning. any desired size. x inch or depending on the size of the hole. application.—on napkins, doilies and covers brought from home. use.—repairing tablecloths, napkins and household linen, especially in fine closely woven damask. varieties.—damask patching should be as neat and invisible as possible on both sides of the material. the overhanded and felled patch (see rule for hemmed patch) is frequently used, but shows too much for fine damask. the wrong side of an overhanded patch (see directions) is unsightly and therefore not fitted for table covers or napkins. when the hole in fine damask is not too large the pattern may be darned in. (see weaving and darning.) when a slit has been made in it the wrong side may be held together by over- casting, pressed open, and ravelings of the damask may be woven back and forth over the place on the right side, repeating the pattern as far as pos- sible. after washing and careful pressing, this repair should show very lit- tle. when there is a good-sized hole in fine damask, a strong and neat patch may be inserted by fine drawing. (fig. .) the stitch may be used alone or combined with darning, fig. .—fine-drawing. fig. .—darning by fine drawing. rule for patching by fine-drawing.—the damask should be as soft as possible; it is therefore well to wash new or stiff material. cut away the damask patch worn parts. the usual shape is square or oblong. cut the patch exactly the size of the hole, being careful to match the pattern, right side of damask, etc. (see general rules.) place the patch in the hole. if the damask is fine in quality and woven very close, fine-drawing alone may be used to hold the patch to the material. it is a simple, alternating stitch (figs. and ) made toward the worker or away from her as in herring-bone. it is used fre- quently to hold together heavy cloth or selvages (see suggestion for seams). the stitches are usually made a little distance apart and slanting like a lac- ing (fig. ), but may be made close together and straight (fig. ). in cheaper qualities of damask, fine-drawing should be combined with darning for holding together the patch and the material. the darning should begin beyond the hole and the stitches and the loops where the thread turns back should be buried in the material as much as possible. "when the darn- ing stitches are within a few threads of the hole, fine-drawing should be taken over the edge on one side and under the edge, the same distance, on the other, continuing the darning in the damask on the other side. the darning stitches should end as irregularly as possible. the fine-drawing must be direct- ly along warp and woof, to show as little as possible (fig. ) and it must alternate in succeeding lines. the corners should be made secure by crossing the warp and woof darning at these points. if carefully done this darn should show little when the damask has been laundered. it is not as strong as the overhanded and felled patch (see rule for hemmed patch), but is more satisfactory in appearance for fine damask. a fine darning needle is sometimes used in place of a sharp needle in this patch. fine-drawing is also used for cloth patches. practice.—take a piece of damask x inches, cut a hole in the center. cut a patch the same size and darn it in by fine-drawing alone or by fine- drawing and darning, according to the quality of the damask. suggestion.—see under patching, page . cloth patch materials for practice. wool or worsted ravelings op cloth or silk, no. a. needle, no. - . suiting, x inches. size of patch depends on the kind of patching selected. application.—garments of wool or worsted brought from home. use.—for repairing outer garments of wool or worsted. cloth may be repaired in many ways according to the quality and value of the material and the wear which it will have to endure. the overhanded patch (see directions) is frequently used for light-weight cloths. heavy cloth may be repaired by fine-drawing (see damask patch) by burying the stitches in the thickness of the cloth and drawing them close together so the break will be almost invisible. thin cloth, such as ladies' cloth, which may be too clumsy to turn into folds, may have the patch darned in. darned-in patch for cloth.—the very worn part should be cut away (the hole is usually made square or oblong and cut clean. if it will show less a sewing course with irregular edges they should be left and carefully darned down.) the patch may be cut the same size as the hole, and darned in, or it may be cut v mch larger than the hole. the pattern, the right side of the cloth, the warp, woof and ply, must be matched (see general rules). when the patch is cut larger than the hole it should be laid over it on the wrong side and basted down. turn the cloth to the right side and with ravelings of the material or with split silk of a shade darker follow the pattern as nearly as possible, darning the raw edges down to the patch. the stitches should be as invisible as the strength needed will allow. turn to the wrong side and herring-bone the patch to the cloth. the stitch should not go through to the right side. this patch is similar to the one described under rules for darn- ing woven material, practice in cashmere ( ). stitched patch for cloth. use.—for a patch which will show little but will bear hard wear. rule.—this patch closely resembles the overhanded patch, but is stitched instead of overhanded. the stitch, therefore, does not show on the right side. cut the worn part away. the hole is usually made square or oblong. nick the cloth in each corner and turn back good folds (v to % an inch). cut the patch as for the overhanded patch (see directions). lay it flat on the back against the turned-back folds on the edge of the hole. pin it or baste it in place. stitch the folds to the patch on all four sides. when the stitch- ing is done press open the seams on the wrong side. this will turn the patch back on itself. miter the cloth in each corner of the patch so it will lie flat. the wrong side of the stitched patch will look very much like fig. , except the seam will show no stitches and the turned-back corners of the patch will be mitered instead of square. practice.—take a piece of cloth, x inches. examine the weight and quality of it, decide on the kind of patch best adapted to it and repair accord- ingly. suggestion.—see under patching, page . feather or coral and chain stitching not. and . feather or coral and chain stitching. materials fob practice. striped french flannel. silk (color of the stripe). needle, no. - . (v inch stripe) x inches. no. a—b. application.—on underclothing, baby clothes and small articles such as collars, cuffs and cases. term.—the term feather stitch is derived from the graceful form of the stitch. coral stitch is a more angular variety of it. fig. .—feather stitchinc use.—an attractive stitch for ornamenting all kinds of needle-work. fitness.—the form is attractive and can be modified to suit different occasions. it can be merely ornamental or can be made strong enough to hold down a hem in place of the hemming stitch. rule.—the work is done on the right side of the material, toward the worker. in the single varieties of it the stitch is taken alternately on the left and on the right side of the pattern. the thread is caught in a loop with each stitch as in the blanket-stitch. the number of threads taken up each time depends on the pattern chosen. feather stitching proper is taken diag- onally across warp and woof threads. (fig. .) in the coral stitch variety the needle goes along a thread of the material. (fig. .) (in the design the coral stitch is made double.) the stitch must be made accurately to look well. the width and relation of one stitch to the other never varies during the progress of the work. the position is over the first finger or first two fingers of the left hand. the work is begun with a knot or an end of thread t herring-bone no. . herring-bone. materials fob practice. flannel, silk a. needle, no. . vjjx v inches (two pieces). cotton, no. . application.—on flannel skirts, a flannel patch or as decoration. use.—( ) to hold down hems, seams and raw edges in flannel and other woolen materials, so that they may felt when washed and thus not ravel. ( ) a means of lightly holding down materials of all kinds in place of hem- ming. ( ) an ornamental stitch. fitness.—material made of wool is apt to shrink in washing. ordinary stitches are unnecessarily strong and when used on wool would cause the material to draw after washing. the looseness of the herring-bone, combined with the natural felting of the flannel, makes the stitch a serviceable one for woolen fabrics. the attractive form, easily adapted to various positions, makes this stitch also useful as an ornamental finish. rule for herrino-bone.—the herring-bone (also called catch-stitch) is worked from left to right, or away from the worker. it is a sort of cross- stitch taken alternately from side to side. the position is over the first two fingers of the left hand. the form of the stitch may vary greatly in the length of the slanting line which connects the crosses on either side, and also in the distance apart of the crosses. when the stitch is once started the width of it and the relative position of the cross stitches on either side must remain the same. in the most usual form of the stitch the crosses on one side come exactly between the crosses on the other side, so that the bottom of the stitch on one side is directly opposite the top of the stitch on the other. on the wrong side of the cloth the stitch looks like two lines of running- stitches. begin at the extreme left of the material, and bring the needle through where the work is to begin. in each stitch the needle points directly toward the worker. make an upward slanting stitch toward the left (or right, as the case may be), insert the needle in the material and bring it out directly along the warp or woof threads in as deep a stitch as desired. take now a slanting stitch upward toward the opposite side on a line above the point where the work began, and bring the needle out the same depth as the first stitch on the opposite pig . herring-bone. s'de and on a line with the top of that stitch. al- ternately take the stitch from side to side, pre- serving carefully the same width, the same depth of the stitches and the bot- tom of one cross-stitch directly opposite the height of the one on the other side. the stitch may be begun with a small carefully concealed knot or an end of thread may be left and sewed down afterward. in a hem a double stitch may be used on the wrong side for beginning, ending, and taking a new thread. in a flannel patch (see directions) the herring-bone stitch is used over the raw edges of the patch and of the garment. to make the corners of the patch neat the stitch should be turned carefully. (fig. .) a sewing course * •'ava'ji'i'a'l'*', the following description is of three simple patterns. no. .—draw vs °f inch of threads, hemstitch across both edges taking up the same threads on each side. the effect will be a series of upright posts. no. .—draw a little over yg of an inch of threads. make a double row of hemstitching as in the first pattern. one thread will connect the entire line in the finishing of the pattern. to accomplish this fasten the thread in the middle of the first bar or post, put the needle across two bars beyond, let it go over the third, then under, and back first over and then under the second. this will twist the third bar over the second with the thread through it. twist the fifth bar over the fourth the same way and continue across the drawn threads. fasten off in the last bar. no. .— draw ys of an inch of threads, hemstitch across one side. on the other edge take for the first stitch but half of the stitch below; for the second, make one stitch out of the halves of two of the stitches below. this will give a sort of herring- bone effect. these three patterns may make an attractive border by leaving * of an inch of plain material between them. , drawn work. practice.—first practice piece. a small hemstitched handkerchief. take sheer linen x inches. a half inch hem is to be placed on all four sides. allow for the hem and small fold in the material ( % inches) and draw threads (between - and % of an inch in fine material), on all four sides. turn in a hem to the drawn threads. baste carefully, especially at the corners, cut out some of the material from under them if necessary (miter no. ), but square and overhand them neatly. follow the rule for hemstitching. second practice piece.—take linen x inches. a inch hem is to be placed at the bottom and several rows of drawn work will ornament the material above the hem. the hem will be held by one pattern. draw % of an inch of threads % inches from one end. fold the hem to the edge of the drawn threads and baste carefully. hemstitch the hem down with a moderately fine stitch. complete the opposite side of the drawn threads according to the pattern described under no. . skip of an inch of linen and use no. for the second pattern; again skip y of an inch of linen and use no. for the final design. fine feather stitching may be placed on the plain linen between the patterns, if desired. suggestion.—hemstitching may be learned very readily on canvas. it may be used in a number of ways. coarse linen for toweling may be pur- chased and little towels with hemstitched hems may be made by the chil- dren. simple drawn work may also be used in this way. the towels may be marked by using cross stitch, chain stitch or satin stitch for the letters. a letter may also be embroidered on the handkerchief. all the hems in the apron described under whipped hem may be hem- stitched. the stitch may also be used on small sheets, pillow cases, collars, cuffs and lingerie. rows of simple drawn work with feather stitching be- tween make a most attractive finish for small linen articles such as cases of various kinds, bureau covers and tea table linen. a sewing. course embroidered edgings of various kinds can be whipped and used on dif- ferent pieces of small underclothing to give practical application to the classes. little pillowcases or aprons can also be made and trimmed with whipped hem ruffles. small apron of fine muslin materials for practice. dimity, nainsook or cotton, no. . needle, no. . barred muslin. x v inches. x inch (band). x vi inch ( pieces for strings). put vs inch hems along the -inch sides of the muslin. take a % inch hem at the bottom. gather and stroke the top (see running stitch). pre- pare the band for a stitched band (see putting on band). draw the top of the apron in to inches, stitch it to the center of the band, hem down the other side of the band to the gathers and overhand the sides of the band to the end. (see application of stitches—aprons.) the strings may be pre- pared by putting narrow hems on the long edges and turning v inch hems at one end, the other ends will be inserted in the bands. this apron should apply some of the fancy stitches. a whipped hem ruffle can be overhanded to the bottom; hemstitching can be used in place of hemming or the hems can all be held down with feather stitching. each child should select her own method of finishing her apron. the materials are given for a doll's apron, but the teacher must use her discretion in giv- ing a full-sized apron in place of the small one. cross stitch no. . cross stitch. materials for practice. penelope canvas or scrim, colored wool tapestry needle. x inches (crewel or saxony.) colored silk ee. application.—on towels, sheets, washcloths and household articles. use.—for marking underclothing, holding bands to the seams of waists in dressmaking, and for an ornamental finish in fancy work. fitness.—the form is attractive and the work is rapidly executed and sufficiently enduring for the purpose. rule.—the stitch is double and consists of two slanting parts crossing each other on the right side of the material, and of two straight lines, which may be either vertical or horizontal, on the wrong side of the material. the points of the cross on the right side should, if enclosed, form a perfect square. in canvas the stitch is usually two threads high and two threads wide. (fig. .) the needle is brought out on one side and put through to the-other diagonally—this forms one half of the stitch. it is now crossed in the oppo- site way. in a design the crossing must all be in the same direction and the wrong side must be neat. it is better to leave an end of thread to be worked over by the stitches than to begin with a knot. the fastening off can be done in the same manner. in marking, each cross stitch should be finished separately and the thread should not be carried from one letter to another. it is well to practice on canvas before mark- ing linen. designs for the letters can be purchased or they may be originated by the worker. a piece of fine canvas or of coarse scrim can be basted to the linen over the place where the letters are to go. the cross stitches can be made on this canvas to keep the form accurate and when the letters are finished the threads of the canvas can be pulled out. leaving the design on the linen. practice/—take a piece of penelope canvas or of scrim x inches. turn a * inch nem on all four sides and hold it down with the cross fig. .—cross stitch, stitching, alternating two cross stitches above and two below to make an ornamental finish on the edge. care must be taken to adjust the stitches neatly at the corners; an extra stitch can often be taken here with good effect. on the inside of the square place the initials of the name and the year or other letters and figures may be made in cross stitches. - suggestion.—it is unnecessary for anyone to make the entire alphabet on the canvas as designs can be easily procured and the work is not difficult. this stitch is an excellent one for children in early grades to use on bur- lap. it allows of so much variation that they can easily invent designs of their own. it can be used to hold down the hems in cheese cloth dusters. in later grades it may be used for marking little sheets, pillow cases and a sewing course towels. care must be taken to choose a cotton thread for marking which will stand laundering. in dressmaking the cross stitch is used to make the inside of a waist at- tractive and, at the same time, to hold the belt to the seams. the stitch is made in silk of a color to match the silk seam binding, the overcasting, or the fans of stitches on the bone casings. nos. and . satin stitch. tying fringe. materials for practice. linen. cotton, no. . needle, no. - . x or x inches d. m. c. no. - for embroidery. no. for the filling. (two letters stamped in the center or at the end.) application.—letters on handkerchiefs and household linen, decoration and lettering on underclothing, decoration on collars and cuffs. fringe on towels and doilies. use.—for marking handkerchiefs and household linen and for orna- menting clothing, table covers and ecclesiastical draperies. it is used on all materials. fitness.—the close over and over stitch with or without a previous preparation in filling makes a substantial design which will wear for years and have a chaste and beautiful effect. rule for satin stitch.—satin stitch (fig. ) requires patience to learn and skill in the working. it is usually worked in a frame. hoops may be purchased in which the work may be stretched. for the marking of household linen, in letters of from one to two inches in size, it is possible to do good work without a frame. the stitch may be either flat or raised. in letters it is customary to fill in well the parts enclosed in double lines. the preparation must be done with the greatest care and precision as irregular- ities in the padding show in the finished work. some workers begin by fol- lowing all the lines of the design with a short irregular running stitch which takes the slightest hold in the material and leaves the most of the stitch on the surface. when the design is in double lines the stitch is taken just in- side of the marking. in padding the space between the lines the outline embroidery on flannel no. . embroidery on flannel. blanket stitch, outline stitch, satin stitch and french knot. materials for practice. silk, no. b-e. wool or d. m. c. no. . needle, no. - . tapestry needle. flannel, x inches. ■ (a scalloped edge stamped on two sides and some simple designs in the center.) application.—on a small flannel petticoat or baby sack. use.—a scalloped border of blanket stitches is used to finish the raw edges of many articles of flannel. it gives both beauty and durability to the raw edge and takes the place of a hem in heavy material which is too thick to fold well. small geometrical or flower designs are embroidered on infants' sacks and petticoats for the purpose of decoration. rules.—scallops in flannel are made with the blanket stitch (fig. ). the outer edge should be firm and substantial (see blanket stitch.) a pad- ding of wool or cotton may be made before the blanket stitch is used. wool is well adapted to the flannel, as it shrinks in laundering. an irregular run- ning stitch, leaving most of the wool on the surface, is good for this purpose. the outline of the scallop and the space between may be filled according to the raised effect desired. the stamped form of the scallop must be carefully preserved. very few filling stitches should meet where the design is narrow. a heavy silk such as no. e or no. ee is used for the edge. designs on flannel are principally worked with the satin stitch. it is seldom necessary to pad. stems and outlines are made with the kensington outline stitch instead of with the satin stitch as on linen. small flowers and leaves may be merely outlined or the satin stitch may be used to cover the entire surface. in designs like the daisy form the satin stitch may begin at the center of each petal and be worked toward the edge, or a radiating stitch from the center out may be used. french knots are frequently used in flan- nel for one side of a leaf or flower, or for the centers of flowers. kensington outline stitch. the outline stitch follows a traced line and is made away from the worker (fig. ). the needle is brought out at the end of the stem or line, a long stitch is taken ahead on this line and a short stitch back through the material. the stitch back may be made either to the right or to the left. the length of the stitch may vary according to the requirements of the design. the stitch resembles the backstitch turned wrong side out, i. e., the rope-like effect is on the right side of the material and the little stitches with a space between are on the wrong side. where a very substantial stem is needed the outline stitches can be made very close together. the work is held over the first or first two fingers of the left hand. the french knot. these are made in vari- ous ways. one way in general use is to fasten the fig. .—outline stitch, thread well and bring the needle out in the epot a sewing course where the french knot is to be. put the needle down to this place, wrap the thread two or three times around the needle, draw it so that the twisted thread is around the needle close to the spot intended for it, insert the point of the needle in the material at this same place, and holding the thread tight, fasten the knot down to the material by drawing the needle and the length of the thread through to the wrong side. practice.—have a piece of white flannel x inches stamped near the raw edges with a plain scallop on one side and a triple or fancy scallop on the other. in the plain space between have a few simple sprigs stamped (such as conventional leaves and flowers). use the blanket-stitch for the scallops; the satin stitch for the leaves and flowers; a close outline stitch for the stems, and the french knot for the centers of flowers or for one half of some of the leaves. a number of french knots may be made close together to cover a surface. if the practice piece is to be retained, cut the flannel close to the scallop on one side to show the completed effect and leave the flannel below the scal- lops on the other side to show the way the work has been done. in making garments the flannel should be washed to allow for the shrinking before the material below the scallop is cut away. suggestion.—some article such as a small flannel skirt should be made by the pupils. in place of having the flannel stamped in scallops a five or ten cent piece may be laid on the flannel and half circles drawn regularly across the sides. these may again be joined by a smaller inner circle. de- signs for the edge may be drawn by the children. the drawing teachers in schools should prepare the classes for adequate designing for the decoration of their clothing. very attractive yet simple designs may be made and di- rectly utilized on garments. linen book covers and portfolios may be de- signed and embroidered in the same way that flannel would be. nos. and . couching and applique. materials for practice. linen or unbleached mercerized yarn, scotch needle, no. . sheeting, x inches. floss, or jute threads, material in contrasting several strands. color, x inches. silk, b or c. application.—decoration of table covers, scarfs and bags. use.—couching is a decorative stitch for outlining a pattern. it is frequently used in place of the outline-stitch to cover the cut edge of applique work and, at the same time, to hold it down to another material, and also to make a foundation over which other stitches can be worked, as in venetian embroidery. in the latter, the blanket-stitch is made over the couched cord to obtain a design in high relief. applique is the laying of one piece of material upon another. it takes the place of solid embroidery in a design. couching is very generally used in connection with it. both couching and applique are largely used in his- toric national embroideries, and have been used by many primitive people. they can be utilized to advantage in the schools, even with young pupils. a sewing course braid should be shrunk before using it on a garment or dampness may cause it to do so later and thus draw the skirt out of shape. there are vari- ous methods of shrinking the braid; such as plunging it in lukewarm water for a few minutes and then shaking it out, putting it in boiling water and then drying it, or sponging it with water and afterward ironing it dry. skirt braids and veleteens are better sewed on by hand than by machine, as the dust is less apt to catch in the stitches and wear them out. rule for sewing on braid.—( ) when there is a lining in the skirt the following method is often used. turn up the bottom of the skirt the re- quired length and hem the lining down over it. the lining when hemmed should be of an inch above the bottom of the skirt. lay the braid flat on the wrong side of the skirt, letting it drop vs ot an inch below the bottom. run it on with an occasional backstitch of an inch from the bottom of the braid, being careful not to take the stitch through to the cloth on the right side. hem the opposite side of the braid to the lining (some workers prefer to use the running-stitch here also, as they consider it wears better, being more protected than the slanting stitch over the edge of the braid). to join the ends of the braid lay one end iv inches over the other end. turn each raw edge in y mch so that one will lap in the other. overhand the folds at the bottom and hem the upper braid on the lower. or sew the two ends together !/-. inch from the raw edges. turn back each end and hem or over- cast it to the braid beneath that no raw edges will be exposed. press care- fully. ( ) where there is no lining in the skirt or where there is a drop skirt, the bottom is turned up the required length and finished with a hem or facing, varying in depth from % to inches. to protect the edge of this hem, a mohair braid may be placed at the bottom. allow the edge of the braid to extend about - of an inch below the hem. the upper edge of the braid may be fastened to the hem by a running or hemming stitch. if greater strength is needed put a second row of stitches at the lower edge also, being careful not to take them through to the right side. press carefully. ( ) braid may also be sewed on so that it will have the effect of a fold at the bottom of the skirt, as in the velveteen binding. the skirt and the lining must be cut even and the braid laid on the right side of the skirt with its edge even with the other edges. the braid is sewed on by machine of an inch from the bottom through the lining and the skirt. it is then turned back with all the raw edges underneath and hemmed to the lining or the skirt on the wrong side. the fold of the braid should extend ys of an inch below the skirt to protect it. press carefully. rule fob sewing on velveteen.—cut the skirt and lining, if there is one, even all the way around. turn them about % an inch so the skirt will be the desired length, and hem the raw edges to the lining. press carefully. lay the velveteen on the bottom of the skirt with its right side against the wrong side of the skirt. let v of an inch of the velveteen lie on the skirt and the rest extend below. run it by hand to the skirt vs of an inch from the bottom. turn the velveteen back so that the fold will drop % of an inch below the finished edge of the skirt and baste it in place. turn in the oppo- site edge of the velveteen of an inch and hem it to the skirt or to the lin- ing (it is sometimes herring-boned without turning in the edge). join the ends of the velveteen by allowing y inch more than the circumference of the skirt and sew the two ends in a bias seam. a sewing course material and seam it to the opening a little way within the former seam, turn it back to form a facing on the wrong side and hem it to the lining or to the skirt. this side will lap over the other. as the seam has been made a little within the pressed line of the former seam, it will not show. turn to the left side, take the piece for the fly (the selvage strip, the double strip or the lined strip) and lay it on the left side with the right sides of the cloth together. stitch into a seam a little within the pressed line of the seam, turn the seam back and let the added piece of cloth lie flat under the right side of the placket. bind or overcast the part of the seam below the opening ( see bind- ing seams). at the bottom of the opening the fly must be fastened to the upper facing and both must be fastened to the dress lining or skirt without going through to the right side. lay the fly flat on the facing and stitch them together at the end of the opening. the ends below the stitching may be fin- ished in three ways. ( ) if the cloth is strongly woven some of the material under the fly may be cut away and the raw edges of the fly herring-boned or hemmed to the lining of of the dress. ( ) if the cloth is light in weight, turn the fly back in a fold and fasten it to the seam of the skirt, or ( ) cut the raw edges of the fly and the upper facing even and bind them across with silk binding. the seam containing the fly can be bound its entire length with silk binding or it can be overcast. practice.—take two pieces of cloth or cashmere, x y inches, leave them unlined or line them with cotton skirt lining according to the prevailing fashion. stitch together (either by hand or machine) the two pieces in a good seam. press the seam open. the opening for the placket can now be made down the seam * inches. the way to proceed with the rest of the placket depends on the cloth chosen. if it is a strong suiting use selvage strips of cloth and follow the rule in completing the placket. if a soft flimsy wool has been chosen the underfacing or fly can be lined with the dress-lining. in most wool materials a double strip of the material may be used for the underfacing. follow the rule in completing the placket. bind the seams with silk binding or overcast them. rule for pockets.—ways of cutting and inserting pockets should also be discussed by the classes. they may be cut in two pieces in a bag shape with one side straight and the other curved, with the opening on the straight side; or they may be cut in two pear-shaped pieces and one piece laid on top of the other with an opening cut in the center of one of the pieces. the length is about or inches. they are set into a seam of the skirt or in a slit in the material. a bag pocket would have its opening two or more inches below its top. pockets are faced inside with the material of the dress. this facing should extend back, above and below the opening at least two inches, so that the inside of the pocket will not show if open a little. when the pocket is made it is turned wrong side out, put through the opening of the seam prepared for it, and seamed on the wrong side to the skirt in the fold of the seam. as small a seam should be taken from the pocket as the need of strength will allow, so that it will close better. this is especially the case at the top and the bottom of the pocket seam. the seams should be pressed open and bound or overcast. a ribbon or tape should be sewed to the top of the pocket and fastened to the belt to sustain the weight and keep the pocket in shape. when the pocket and the placket are on the same seam the for- mer usually extends to the belt and does not need the tape or ribbon. the upper part of the seam of the pocket should be carefully sewed by hand to the skirt, as the tapering off of the seams makes it rather weak at this point. the a sewing course the raw edges, the hooks and the eyes with galoon or silk bone-casing, hemming it down on both sides. if the waist front is to be untrimmed the dress material must be folded back to entirely cover the hooks and eyes. the material should be cut to extend well beyond the casing. turn under the raw edge on each side back on itself allowing the fold to extend far enough beyond the edge of the bone-casing so that it will completely cover the hooks and eyes when they are fastened and under strain. slip-stitch in place. sewing on the hooks and eyes.—an over and over stitch is usually better to hold the hooks and eyes than the buttonhole-stitch, as it is firmer the metal loops are made for the stitches. it is sometimes well to spread the lower part of the hooks a little, that the stitches may not be quite so close together. in beginning to sew on either a hook or an eye it is well to take two stitches in one loop and then two in the other to hold it in place and then return to sew around each loop and across between the loops, drawing the thread very tight. in addition to this the eyes should also be held down on each side, just above the loops and again near the edge of the material, and the hooks should be sewed across the shank near the turning back of the hook. practice.—take two pieces of waist lining x % inches, finish them ac- cording to any of the three suggested ways. take small black hooks, instead of a larger size generally used in waists, so they will be less apt to injure the bristol-board in the interleaved edition of the sewing course. put on four hooks and eyes, alternating them at equal distances on the practice pieces. nos. and . bone casing. seam binding. materials for practice. dress material, x v inches ( pieces). silk no. a. waist lining (percaline or french cambric) cotton no. x % inches ( pieces). (to match dress material.) whalebone, % inches. silk binding, inches. qaloon or bone casing, v inches. needle, no. or . in the finishing of a waist the putting in of the bones and the binding of the seams are very important. after the waist is put together the seams must be cut even and notched in certain places, especially in curved seams in order to fit into the figure. one notch is always made at the waist line almost up to the sewing. a couple of notches should be made above the waist line in seams which are considerably curved. the edges of the notch may be curved to aid in the binding. the seams must be dampened (dipping the fingers in water and passing them over the seam is often better than to use a wet cloth), and pressed open to see if they lie flat before binding them. a narrow pressing board and an iron for seams aids in the work. binding seams.—the raw edges of the seam may be finished in several ways. ( ) the dress material and the lining may be overcast together. ( ) the dress material and the lining may be turned in on each other and either overcast or run together. the seams must be made wider if this means is to be used than for nos. and . ( ) the seams may be bound with a soft binding ribbon. the ribbon is folded on either side of the raw edges of the bone casing. seam binding seam. in order to accomplish this most easily the ribbon may be creased along its length so that one side is slightly deeper than the other. it may then be laid over the raw edges of the seam with the shorter side toward the worker and both sides may be held by one line of running-stitches. the ribbon should be held easily around the curves so they will open well bone casings.—many kinds of bones are used for waists. it is generally conceded, however, that whalebone is the best, as it is thinner and more flex- ible than the others. cased bones can be purchased, but they are not con- sidered as satisfactory as making the casings and inserting the bones. bias binding or strong narrow ribbon bindings are the most desirable. the rib- bon casing should be eased on all the way and slightly fulled directly above and below the waist line. the bones are put in usually to about an inch below the height of the dart. if they are placed too high they will push through. in order to keep the bone from rubbing through the waist lining a pocket is made at the top of the casing by turning the ribbon back from % to inch and overhanding the sides of it. the casing is sewed to the turnings on either side of the seam below this pocket. the middle of the casing should come directly over the seam. the ribbon casing is usually hemmed or run on both sides, the bias casing may be sewed the same way or the herring-bone stitch may be used across the casing from side to side. this makes an at- tractive finish. a bias casing does not need to be fulled on. the casing should be cut long enough to allow for the pocket at the top and for % inch extra at the other end. the bone is cut a little longer than the place it is to occupy. the ends should be rounded. after the casing is sewed on, the bone is put in from the bottom and pushed or sprung in tight into the pocket, the extra y bones may be soaked in water and a needle can then easily pierce them, or holes may be pierced in them with a hot needle before inserting them in the inch of casing is turned in over the bone and the casing sewed closely to the seam. the bones also must be fastened to the seam at the end of the pocket and y inch from the bottom of the bone. to provide for this the whale- bones may be soaked in water and a needle can then easily pierce them, or holes may be pierced in them with a hot needle before inserting them in the casing. the bone may be sewed down with fan-shaped stitches at the top of the casing or a couple of strong stitches to the right and to the left over the casing and into the turned back material of the seam may be taken just below the pocket. it must also be sewed down y inch from the end of the bone. in short bodices the end of the bone should come about y of an inch from ing will then be hemmed into place. in a long bodice the bones need not be carried far below the waist line. practice.—take two pieces of dress material x y inches and line them with waist lining. lay the cloth sides exactly together. crease a vertical line through the four thicknesses y an inch in from the right hand side. crease another line, at right angles to the first, inch from the bottom to indicate the waist line. measure % of an inch in from the intersection of these lines and make a curved line from the bottom to the top of the vertical crease passing through the y of an inch point on the waist line. this line represents the curved seam in a waist. stitch the pieces together in a seam along the curved line. either the hand or the machine may be used. trim the edges to y an inch from the seam. make a notch at the waist-line to within y% of an inch of the seam and two other notches about inch apart, above the first. round off the edges. press open the seams and bind the raw a sewing course edges according to the rule. in putting the bone casing down the seam allow for a pocket of % of an inch at the top and y an inch at the bottom. let the bone end vi of an inch from the end of the seam. cut the bone % inches in length. finish all according to the rule. no. . slip stitching. materials fob practice. cashmere, silk a. needle, no. x inches. (to match cashmere.) application.—in neckwear, trimming for hats, or folds on dresses. use.—in dressmaking and millinery to hold two edges of cloth together; to hold down a hem where the hemming-stitch would show too much, or to fasten on trimming such as bias bands, cording and folds. fitness.—the stitch is almost invisible and is well adapted to dressmaking and to millinery. there are many forms of the stitch adapted to various requirements. rule.—the form of the stitch is like the running-stitch (fig. ). it will hold material securely and yet be almost invisible on the right side. the material or the hems to be slip-stitched down must be carefully prepared and basted in place. the thread must be securely fastened. the stitch is made on the wrong side of the material well under the edge of the fold. the fold is turned back a little with the finger and a long running stitch is taken through the fold and then into the material catching but a couple of threads and not going through to the right side of the cloth. it continues with a long stitch in the fold and an almost in- visible one in the material. to fold and slip-stitch both sides of a long bias or straight piece in order to make trimming, first turn the raw edge of the upper side toward you, and second, turn the edge of the fig. . —slip-stitching. lower side away from you in a small fold and again in a deeper fold, which will almost cover the one on the upper side of the strip. all raw edges will thus be concealed and the lower fold will overlap the upper. slip- stitch one fold down on the other and use the same stitch to sew the folds to the garment. in millinery the stitch may be drawn in such a way that the fold may be fitted into a place, yet the material will not look wrinkled. fine needles are used in slip-stitching. the work requires practice and neatness of touch. the same form of slip-stitch is sometimes used combined with a backstitch, where a fold is to be held on the outside of a gown. the stitch is taken on the right side of the material well in as well as under the fold so it will not show, but a good hold is taken in the material under the fold. this form is apt to draw the material. another form of the stitch is called slip-hemming. it is used to hold the raw edge of a fold to the material when the double fold used in hemming would show through. it is more used in millinery than in dressmaking. the edge of the material is folded over once. a stitch is taken, resembling the slip stitching herring-bone, but is made from right to left and does not have the crosses. the stitch is like a running stitch. it is first taken in the fold above the raw edge and then below in the material, but in the latter a very small hold is taken, so it will not show on the right side of the cloth. practice.—take a piece of cashmere x inches. turn a hem of % an inch along one long edge. the first turn of the hem must be about % of an inch, baste this down * of an inch from the edge of the fold when turning the yo inch hem. slip-stitch the hem to the cashmere under the edge of the fold according to the rule. prices of materials width or size. cotton thread— basting no. - clarks, o. n. t no. - darning embroidery, d. m. c no. - ^emeries kindergarten cards no. lack— torchon valenciennes insertion beading linen cloth— damask diaper laces .. linen thread— barbours scotch floss .. bodkins fine darning (crewel) no. hammock large darning double long no. a mil ward bharp no. - tapestry .no. - colored x drafting engine x heets x striped tissue x pincushions rulers scissors— blunt -inch button-hole sharp points -inch shears paper shears silk— china - crepe de chine - foulard - gros grain - in. it price. . doc . " . " . " . " . pkg. in. . yard ... % ii . piece .. % ii . " • • va ii . " - ii m- . yard ii . - . " ii . " ii . - . " ii . - . " . n . - . " ..%- ii . - . " - ii . - . " - ii . - . " . spool . hank . per paper . dor." . " . per paper . . doz. papers . "" . sheets . large roll . sheets . sheet . ream . dozen . " . " . - . " . " . - . " . pair . - . yard . yard up . " *' . "" suggestive list of domestic art books the problem op industrial edu- cation: c. r. richards. manual training magazine, vol. , april, . the trend in american educa- tion. james e. russell. educational review, vol. , june, . the urgent need op trade schools. frank a. vanderlip. world's work, vol. , june, . fourth annual report of the bureau of statistics of labor of the state of n. y., . apprenticeship. albany, . vol. , relations and conditions of capital and labor employed in the manufactories of general busi- ness. industrial commission, report of the u. s. washington, . education and industry in the united states. special reports on educational subjects. h. t. mark. education department, vol. ii, , part . eyre & spottiswoode, london. report of massachusetts com- mission on industrial and technical education. boston, . reprinted by teachers college. report of the moseley educa- tional commission. co-operative printing society, london, . trade and technical education, th annual report of the u. s. com- missioner of labor. washington, . the organization of trade schools; from the point of view of a trade school director. proceedings of the national educational associa- tion, . reprinted in the proceed- ings of the society for the promotion of engineering education, vol. h, a. l. wiliston, . the basis of an efficient educa- tion—culture or vocation. robert a. woods. the school review, vol. , may, . the manhattan trade school for girls. mary s. woolman. ed- ucational review, vol. , september, . trade schools—an educational and industrial necessity. mary s. woolman. the social educa- tion quarterly. vol. i, march, . industrial education in public schools. j. ernst g. yalden. american machinist, vol. , april , . bulletins of national society for promoting industrial education. new york city. working with the hands. b. washington. doubleday, . technical education for girls at home and abroad. macmil lan. xi. social and industrial life. industrial evolution of the united states. wright. chau tauqua press, . industrial history of the unit- ed states. coman. macmillan, . general history of commerce. webster. ginn, . social control. ross. macmillan, . the leaven in a great city. lil- lian w. betts. dodd, . american municipal progress. zeublin. macmillan, . new york political primer. adele m. field. macmillan, . democracy and social ethics. jane addams. macmillan, . the level of social motion. lane. macmillan, . the theory of the leisure class. veblen. macmillan, . evolution of industrial soc- iety. ely. macmillan, . evolution of industry. dyer. macmillan, . new basis of civilization. patten. macmillan, . out of work. frances keller. put- nam, . profit sharing between em- ployer and employee. nich- olas gilman. houghton, . the education of the wage earner. davidson. ginn, . some ethical phases of the labor question. carroll d. wright. am. unitarian association, . sociology. spencer. appleton, . woman in the past, present and future. bebel. les professions accessibles aux femmes. democracy and empire. giddings. macmillan, . women wage earners. helen camp- bell, . woman's work in america. meyer. holt, . history of trade unionism. webb. longmans, . education and professions. the woman's library, vol i, . dut- ton. a sewing course holder (denim with coarse stitch); mop; cord work for hangers for various purposes; crochetted (chain) horse- lines and curtain holders. il as related to school. articles: desk cloth; burlap bag for desk (design freehand); paint cloth. iii. as related to industrial life. beginnings of industry and com- munity life. activities: farms and occupations on sand trays. sheep: the life; the preparation of wool; washing, carding, dye- ing, spinning, weaving. the loom: very simple rag carpet. clothing: considerations of use of wool farm hats of raffia. baskets for carrying. iv. christmas gifts, using handwork already learned. grade second. boys and girls work together. aim and various activities as in first grade. domestic art occupations. i. as related to home. the play spirit of childhood utilized. bedroom: the bed, made of wood and cord; mattress; cover- ings; sheets; blankets. kitchen: kettle holder; wash cloth (crochetted). wash day: clothespins bags; iron holders; reel of wood. dining room: the table; the pad; napkins; rings; cloth— fringed and overcast. ii. as related to industrial life. the flax: planted, grown, harvested. cotton and flax compared. cloth bleached and dyed. iii. as related to community life. village making on a sand tray; home industries and life represented. american indian, eskimo, african. grade third. boys and girls work together. aim:—usefulness and interdependence on each other. boys and girls work together, but often at different points of the industry, as in real life. general handwork of many kinds, but much interrelated to show community life. appendix a ii. industrial life in form of discussions: healthful and good cloth- ing; study of materials; inventors who changed the world through textile ideas—whitney, arkwright, hargreaves. crompton. grade seventh. this grade gives its handwork time principally to cookery, conse- quently the domestic art hours are shorter. aim. the trustworthy housekeeper. domestic art occupations. handwork and the sewing machine. i. as related to home. activities: broom cover; napkins; towels; baby wrapper. cooking connection: jelly bag and cooking apron. crochetting: slippers and coarse lace. personal: simplest underwaist without seams; use of pat- terns. embroidery: simple decorative stitches for baby wrapper, underwaist or marking towels. ii. as related to industrial life. economical buying and cutting of material; cost of garments. the life and needs of the working girl. economy through repairs. grade eighth. cooking is emphasized in this grade, so sewing has only the minimum of time. aim. the useful, trustworthy, thinking girl. domestic art occupations. cooking: tray cover; napkin; hemstitched towel, and table linen. home: baby dress. personal use: chemise; drawers; or white skirt. as related to industrial life. the home and its management. the relation of the girl to home and to business life. library of the graduate school of education i manual of exercises in hand sewing. adopted by industrial and graded schools. by margaret j. blair, author of " sewing and garment drafting," instructor of sewing in the school of agriculture, university of minnesota. first edition. st. paul, minn.: webb publishing co., . bakvaro university atmm school of education e c gutman ubrari r-ri/o . ^ jam copyrighted, , by webb publishing co. index. apron back stitching bag basting - blind hemming button holes - buttons - catstitching chainstitching darning— damask darning stockinet darning - stockinet web darning three cornered darn decorative stitches , doll's skirt double hemstitching - drawing threads extension hems faced hems fastenings buttons button holes - hook and eyes loops and eyelets feather stitching felled seam and hemmed seams flannel patch flannel seams french seams, back stitched and half back stitched seam french hem french knots gathering, gauging and putting on band - vi index. gathering and putting on a ruffle gussets half back stitch hemmed patch hemmed seam hemming blind hemming faced and extension hem french hem hems on woolen material and three cornered darn.. hemstitched hem rolled hem slip stitch hemming turning hem herringbone stitch hooks and eyes loops and eyelets loop stitch matching of stripes mitered corner model apron model bag model doll's skirt model pillow slip model sheet model towel overcasting overhand patch - overhand stitch - patching— flannel patch hemmed overhand < pillow slip • plackets— placket holes skirt plackets sleeve placket putting on band - putting on ruffle questions and answers rolled and hemstitched hems and putting on a ruffle.. index. vii running and basting running stitch - seams— back stitched seam basting seams .h felled seam flannel seam french seam half back stitched seam hemmed seam overhanding - sewed sewing on buttons sewirg on lace sewing on tapes - fi sheet skirt plackets sleeve plackets slip stitch hemming stitches— backstitching basting - catstitching chainstitching' decorative stitches double hem stitching feather stitch french knots half back stitch herringbone stitch loop stitch on canvass ° overcasting stitch overhand stitch - running stitch - stockinet darning - stockinet web three cornered darning towel - turning hem introduction. all educators agree that the beginning and suc- cessive steps of education must harmonize with the corresponding stages of the child's development. this gives sewing, cutting and fashioning garments one of the first places in the succession of studies to be taken up. the child has scarcely a point of contact with the world that he so readily perceives as that made by his own garments. a refined taste in one's dress and belongings has usually been regarded as an acquirement of adult life. but if the child is trained along wholesome natural lines, his taste will develop individuality very early. to introduce sewing successfully in the public schools, three important points must be considered. first, the merit of the system. second, the effect upon the school work and upon the pupil. third, the abil- ity or efficiency of those who superintend or teach the sewing. under a system which is carefully planned and properly carried out, learning to sew will become a pleasant rs, well as an instructive part of a child's edu- cation. exercises in hand sewing. the system should be adapted to the different grades; it should be simple and practical; it should have some relation to the other school work. in our work it touches upon' animal life through the sheep, silkworm, and other creatures which in one way or another produce textile threads or the sewing implements. in much the same manner it touches up- on plant life. then, too, arithmetic, drawing, color study, physical training, geography and history may be correlated with sewing in this system. all manual training makes a pupil more active and more observ- ing. it rests certain faculties and interests the pupil in nature. sewing, properly taught, trains the child also in neatness. it is a great advantage to have but one kind of work in a class, which to be taught successfully should not number more than twenty-five, as pupils need in- dividual attention. yet experience also teaches that it is necessary to give children a variety of work, that is, if a child does not succeed satisfactorily with the work in hand, the first time, give her another piece, and later return to the first instead of insisting that she work on the one piece until it is exact. a child who has had the industrial work used in the kindergarten or lower grades, will have had training to prepare her readily to take up the sewing in the fourth grade. the first work given should be a piece of canvas and some of the simple stitches used in sewing. this en- sures regularity of stitch, as well as the method of exercises in hand sewing. making it. it is also better to give children the coarser materials at first, as their little hands need training in holding their work before they take up fine work. the next material placed in the pupil's hands should be gingham or half-bleached muslin. the stripes of the gingham will be a guide for the stitches, thus training the pupil to sew straight. as the different kinds of material are taken up, the teacher should in- struct the pupils concerning them, and should give in- struction in the use of the implements in the sewing basket. the sewing basket, which in itself will be a delight to the child, should be well equipped with scissors, needles, thread, thimble, tape-line, and emery. the orderly keeping of this basket will not fail to be a source of pride to the small girl. a well graded system of sewing will include reg- ular examinations for which a text book outlining the requirements and suggesting questions will be quite indispensable. essays dealing with some branch of sewing,—the implements used, or describing the his- tory of textiles from the shearing of the sheep, the planting of the cotton seed, or the beginning of the life of the silk worm,—may be required, at the judg- ment of the teacher. by the time a child completes her grade work she should be well versed in the relative prices and quality of silk and gingham. she may learn at the age when she is most teachable, how to select her household lin- exercises in hand sewing. en and why the firm-threaded is cheapest in the end, even if it is a little more expensive at first. to teach sewing successfully the teacher must be able to adapt the system to her pupils and to the time she has at her disposal. much can be accomplished even in a limited period if the essentials are properly chosen from the elementary work here outlined. exercises in hand sewing ous stitch left the canvas. continue in the same man- ner across the canvas. skip one row of holes and make a row of overhanding over the next two, using the blue cotton. in this row of stitches put the needle down through the first hole and up through the one under it. insert the needle again in the hole next to the first one and up through the one under it. this makes a row of stitches which slant from right to left. skip one row of holes and make a row of backstitching like the previous one. skip two rows of holes and beginning at the left make a row of overcasting over the next two, using the green cotton. this row of stitches is made the same as the overhanding except that it is worked from left to right and a hole is left between each stitch. skip one row of holes and over the next three make a row of catstitching using the red cotton. in this row begin at the left, hold the thread under the thumb of the left hand and put the needle down through the second hole and up through the first. carry the thread across and put it down through the third hole in the third row of holes and up through the second. carry the thread across to the fourth hole in the first row and continue as before until the row is finished. this stitch is sometimes called "herring- bone" and is used to catch open the seams of flannels, in patching flannel and on raw edged hems, to avoid the ridge formed by folding the edge. exercises in hand sewing. skip one row and make another row of overcast- ing like the previous one. skip two rows of holes and in the next one make a row of chainstitching using the orange cotton. this stitch is worked towards you. hold the thread under the thumb of the left hand and put the needle down through the first hole and up through the second, bringing it out over the thread. insert the needle again in the second hole, putting it down at the right of the point where the thread leaves the canvas, thus holding it in place. come up through the next hole, bringing the needle over the thread as before. this results in a series of stitches resembling the links of a chain. the stitches should be uniform and not drawn too tightly. chainstitching is a method of embroidering often used for outlining patterns. skip a row of holes and over the next three make a row of featherstitching, using the blue cotton. this stitch is also worked towards you. hold the thread under the thumb of the left hand, put the needle down through the first hole in the top row and bring it up through the second hole in the middle row, bring- ing the needle out over the thread. take the second stitch on the opposite side, pointing the needle toward the middle row of holes. for the second stitch the needle should enter the canvas in the third row of holes opposite the second one in the middle row, and come up through the third hole in the middle and over the exercises in hand sewing. thread, which is held down by the thumb. continue in the same manner until the row is completed. two or more stitches instead of one may be taken on each side. feather stitch or brier stitch is often used in embroidery and fancy work, as well as in sew- ing. it is used very often in finishing the seams, hems and tucks of flannel garments. the beauty of featherstitching is in uniformity of the stitch. skip one row of holes and make another one of chainstitching like the previous one. skip one row of holes and over the next three make the loop stitch, using the red cotton. this stitch is worked from left to right, holding the edge of the material towards you. hold the thread under the thumb and put the needle down through the first hole and up through the second one beneath it, bringing it out over the thread. repeat this process until the row is completed. loop stitch is used to secure and ornament the edges of wool- en materials. it is also used for working the edges of doilies by making the stitches close together. the row of running stitches being in the middle of the model, repeat all the other stitches on the other half of the model. overcast the ends of the model with the red cotton, leaving half an inch for fringing. model ii. running stitch. object: to learn the running stitch and its use. material: a piece of striped gingham or half- bleached muslin; size x inches, needles no. , thread no. (red).' turn a half inch fold on one edge of the muslin and, beginning at the right to sew, take several small model ii—running stitch. even stitches upon the needle at a time and sew across, keeping the line of sewing one-eighth of an inch from the fold or following the stitch in the gingham. great care should be taken to fasten the thread firmly and neatly. this is done by taking two stitches in the same place, one over the other. exercises in hand sewing. a second row of stitches should be made one-half inch below the first. the teacher should work for reg- ularity of stitch and of spaces, and if the stitches are exactly even, as they should be, the work will look the same on both sides. running, which is composed of small stitches of equal size, is used in seams that are not subject to much strain, in darning, and in gathering. model iii. basting stitches. object: to learn how to baste. material: gingham or half-bleached muslin by inches, needle no. , thread no. (red). turn a half inch fold on one side of the muslin; commence at the right and baste across the material one-eighth of an inch from the edge. in basting the knot is left on the right side so as to be easily removed ::::::: i i model iii—basting stitch. when the basting threads are cut and drawn from the work. the thread is fastened the same as in running. the first stitches in the model are small, even exercises in hand sewing. basting stitches, one-eighth of an inch underneath by one-eighth inch on top. this method of basting is used for the seams of any garment that is to be fitted. the next is an uneven basting stitch one-eighth inch underneath and one-fourth inch above. this is used for basting scams that are to be overhanded. then comes an uneven basting, one-eighth inch by one-half inch which is used for basting hems or seams for machine sewing. the next basting, which is composed of three stitch- es, each one-eighth inch long and a stitch three-fourths inch, is used for basting the seams of skirts, and gives firmness for fitting. a pupil should be taught the need of basting all work before it is sewed, since basting stitches keep the work in place and the line of basting should be so straight that it will serve as a guide for the stitching. model iv. sewed seam. exercise: a basting; b sewing; c overcasting. object: to learn how to sew a seam. materials: two pieces of gingham or unbleached muslin by inches, no. needle and no. thread (red). place the two pieces of material together and baste one-fourth inch from the edge, using an uneven basting model iv—sewed seam. stitch. sew just below the basting, taking three or four short running stitches of even length. in the next three commence with a back stitch by inserting the needle where it left the cloth in the next to the last exercises in hand sewing. stitch of the previous three running stitches. continue sowing in the same manner until the seam is finished. fasten the thread as in running. in this scam the pupil should be taught to sew without a knot, but to fasten the thread by taking one stitch, drawing the thread near- ly through the material, then taking one or two stitches back to where the first was started. finish the seam by overcasting the edges so that they will not fray or ravel. before overcasting the seam, the edges, if they have raveled very much, may be carefully trimmed. the overcasting is begun with a knot which is concealed by taking the first stitch from the inside of the piece nearest the seam sewed. beginning at the left make the stitches over the raw edge. when properly made the overcasting stitches should be uniform, the distance between them and the depth being the same. model v. bag. object: to teach overhanding. exercises: a, overhanding; b, hemming; c, run- ning. materials: gingham by inches, thread no. (white), needle no. . first make a hem on the two long sides of the ging- ham, teaching the pupil to turn over the edge one- eighth inch, creasing it and then turn the fold down the desired width for the hem and haste it. in this place the hem should be but a little more than one-eighth inch in width. when hemming the pupil should be taught always to insert the needle at the same angle and to take the same quantity of material on the needle. the space between the stitches should always be the same. in hemming the knot can be hidden in the hem. take up two threads of the material, slant the needle up through the edge of the fold. for the next stitch, insert the needle very nearly underneath the point where the thread left the material and proceed as be- fore. across the ends make horns one and three-fourths exercises in hand sewing. ridge will be formed when the seam is opened. one- quarter inch above the hemming of the wide hems put in a row of running stitches, thus forming a space for the cord or tape. in order that the bag may be easily opened, or closed, two pieces of the cord or tape are used. insert one in the space prepared for it, carry it through both sides and out at the same place from which it started. the other cord goes in on the oppo- site side, also coming out where it entered. the place where the cord or tape is joined should be hidden in the hem. model vi. t re e-cor n ere i) dark exercise: a, darning; b, loop-stitch. object: to learn how to mend a tear. materials: piece flannel by inches, thread same color as flannel, no. , no. needle, mercerized spool cotton. cut a three-cornered hole in the flannel (fig. vi) then with thread the same color draw the corners neatly together with several running stitches, holding the tear firmly between the thumb and first finger of the left hand, to prevent the edges from raveling. the corners in place, draw the sides of the tear to- gether in the same manner. begin darning at one end using fine running stitches. care should be taken to carry the thread the same distance from the tear, each time, and not to draw the thread. ragged edges should not be cut away but darned down. always darn on the right side, and when finished press on the wrong side. if it is well done it can scarcely be noticed. finish the edge of the model with the loop stitch, using the mercerized cotton. bring the needle up through the edge of the material and holding the thread exercises in hand sewing. down with the thumb of the left hand, insert the needle in the material again at the desired depth and bring it out over the thread. proceed in the same manner to the model vi— three cornered darn. corner where one stitch should come directly over the corner, and in the stitch preceding and the one following the needle is inserted in the material at the same point. this stitch is worked from left to right. model vii—sheet. modelvii. model sheet. exercise: a, turning hems; b, basting; c, hem- ming. object: to learn how to hem. materials: white muslin by inches. white thread no. , needle no. . turn and baste a hem one-eighth of an inch wide on the lengthwise sides of the model. hem these hems and for the top of the sheet turn a hem one and one-half inches wide and for the foot one that is one-half inch wide. the ends of hems should be overhanded togeth- er. model viri—pillow slip. model viii. model pillow slip. exercises: a, basting; b, overhanding; c, over- casting; and d, running. object: teaching different stitches used on pil- low slip. materials: white muslin by inches; no. needle, no. thread. baste the selvedge edges together one-eighth of an inch from the edge. fold back the torn edges one- fourth of an inch and baste as for selvedges. overhand these two seams by fastening with two little stitches over each other. as the beginning, joining, and fastening of the thread varies in the different kinds of seams, the teach er should take special care to have the pupil thoroughly understand and carefully follow instructions. in overhanding the work is held firmly lengthwise between the thumb and first finger of the left hand, but never, over the finger which will cause the seam to be uneven. overcast the raw edges and finish the pillow slip with a hem an inch wide. model ix—apbon. model ix. apron. exercises: a, hemming; b, gathering; c, putting on hand. object: to teach gathering and putting on a band. materials: gingham by ; thread no. (white), needle "no. . baste and hem a hem one-eighth of an inch wide on each side of the apron. across the bottom of the apron make a hem three-fourths of an inch deep. fold the apron to find the middle, notching it at the top, take on the needle at a time as many small running stitches as possible. draw the stitches together on the needle and fasten the thread by winding it over and under the eye and point of the needle. then hold the gathers between the thumb and finger of the left hand, and with the other pull each gather in place. unwind the thread and pull the needle through. repeat with each needleful. place the notch to the middle of the band and spread the gathers so that they will cover a space three and one half inches wide. holding the gathers toward you, baste and then half backstitch them to the band. fold over the band so as to cover the gathers and turn in the edges. when basted, overhand the ends and edges of the band, but hem it down across the gath- ers. model x. model towel. exercises: a, drawing threads; b, hems; c, hem- stitching; d, sewing on tape. object: to teach how to hemstitch, and sew a tape on a towel. materials: crash or glass toweling by inches, tape inches, thread no. (white), needle no. . measure up from the edge one and one-fourth inch- es, and with the point of the needle pick out one of the coarser threads, removing it carefully with the right hand, so as not to break it. six threads should be drawn. make narrow hems on each side of the towel and then turn the hems at the ends, creasing the edge one-eighth of an inch and baste them even with the threads first drawn. fasten the threads in the hem at the left side, and pointing the needle towards you, take up four or five of the cross threads. draw the needle through and take one stitch as in ordinary hem- ming, being careful not to take the stitch too deep. repeat this until the hem is completed. as both edges of the drawn threads are to be hemstitched, repeat the operation on the other side. hemstitching is one of the neatest methods of finishing the ends of towels. exercises in hand sewing. overhand the ends of the tape together, a little more than the depth of the hem. place the overhand- ing on the tape to the middle of the hem, so that the model x—towel. raw edges will be towards the end. stitch it down. then turn the tape back so as to cover the stitching and hem it down all around. this will prevent the tape from pulling off easily. a linen or cotton tape should be used for towels. model xl overhand patch. object: to teach how to set in a patch. exercises: a, basting; b, overhanding; c, over- casting. model xi—overhand patch. materials: blue checked gingham cut in two pie- ces, by and by inches; thread no. (white), needle no. . exercises in hand sewing. cut out of one corner of the by inch piece a square f by f inches, then cut the corners diagonally one-eighth of an inch. fold over one edge of the patch and one edge where it is to be joined, each one-fourth of an inch. place the sides together, having the folded edges even and baste. overhand one side of the patch, remove the basting and sew the other side in the same manner. care should be taken to exactly match the checks and not to take the stitches too deep. press on the wrong side and if instructions are carefully followed it will not show where patch has been set in. overcast the raw edges of the patch. finish the model with a hem on all sides one-eighth of an inch wide. exercises in hand sewing. table of measurements: hip top of front bottom of front top of side gore bottom of side gore buck h h h n n h m f h f | h h n f *f f f n | | the measurements taken for the doll's skirt illus- trated were: hip inches length inches front: for the front, measure down to , one- fourth of an inch for the curve at the top, and from to the required length. from measure down to , or to the largest part of the hip, to find the hip line, and from measure out to , the width of the front on the hip line. from measure out to the width of the bottom of the front breadth. draw a line from the top of the paper through to and mark off the length of skirt, , and from the bottom of the front draw a curved line from to . at the top meas- ure in one-fourth inch to , and draw an outward curved line to an inch and a half above . draw a curved line from to for the top of the front breadth. side gore: for the side gore, measure down to , one-half inch for the curve at the top. from measure down to the required length, and from to find exercises in hand sewing. the hip line. from measure out to the width of the side gore on the hip line, and from out to the width of the bottom of the side gore. draw a line from the top of the paper through to and mark off the length of the skirt, . from measure in one-fourth inch to , and draw an outward curve to the point one and one-half inches above . draw a curved line from the top of the second seam to for the top of the side gore, and connect and with an outward curved line for the bottom. the back breadth should be a straight piece. having drafted and cut the pattern the pupil should be taught to place the pattern on the material so as to waste as little of the cloth as possible. cut the front on a lengthwise fold of the material. the back is a straight piece and should be cut first. the measurement from to should be reduced one-fourth of an inch for each inch decrease in the length of the doll, or increased in the same proportion for a large doll. baste the seams together using an uneven basting stitch. make a sewed seam, sewing just below the bast- ing, overcasting the edges of the seam. cut an opening for a placket in the center of the back two and one-half inches long. make a hem one- half inch wide on the right side and a hem one-eighth of an inch wide on the opposite side, turning the hem to the right side. place the wide hem over the narrow model xiii. flannel patch. object: to learn how to patch flannel. exercises: a catstitch. model xiii—flannel patch. materials: flannel squares by and by inches. mercerized spool cotton ; needle no. . exercises in hand sewing. cut a hole in the center of the large piece of flan- nel one inch square. baste the patch evenly over the hole. turn the patch over and catstitch it on around the hole, being careful not to leave any of the threads of the fabric free to ravel. if the stitches are taken just over the raw edges and are not too large, the edges of the hole or patch need not be turned in. finish the model around the sides with the loop stitch. model xiv. buttonholes. object: to learn how to make buttonholes. exercises: a, overhanding; b, making button- holes. material: striped gingham by inches, thread no. (white), needle no. . fold the gingham twice so that there will be three thicknesses, turn in the raw edges, baste and overhand them together. the pupil should be taught to find the width of the button and then to gauge the buttonhole scissors model xiv—buttonholes. so that the button hole when cut will be a little larger than the button. in making the button holes always use buttonhole scissors to cut them, letting the pupil practice first ei- ther on paper or muslin until she thoroughly under- exercises in hand sewing. thread by bringing it through to the wrong side and tak- ing two small stitches one over the other. the pupil should start with a thread long enough to complete the buttonhole, but if it is found to be too short the thread may be fastened on the wrong side. a new thread may also be fastened in the same way and brought up through the last purl. proceed with the buttonhole stitch as if a new thread had not been nec- essary. a child will need more than ordinary attention in making a buttonhole in order that she may learn the correct method. for bands or wherever there is much strain on the button, the buttonhole is cut in the direction of the pull. on the shirt waist front or where there is little strain the buttonhole is cut at right angles to the pull. model xv. sewing on buttons. object: to learn how to sew on buttons. exercises: a, overhanding; b, sewing on buttons. material: gingham by inches, buttons, no. needle, no. thread (white). fold over one of the lengthwise edges of the ging- ham, then fold it twice more so as to have three thick- nesses of the material. baste one-eighth inch from the folded edges, using a small uneven basting stitch and then overhand the edges. in sewing on the buttons model xv— sewing on buttons. draw the needle through the material from the upper side, one-half inch from the folded edge, so that the knot may be concealed under the button. bring the needle up to the right side again and through a hole in the button. place a pin across the top of the button, exercises in hand sewing. leaving it there while the button is securely sewed on. remove the pin which will loosen the stitches and bring the needle up between the button and material; wind the thread several times around the stitches and fasten it on the wrong side. using the pin in this way makes room for the material when the garment is buttoned. this method of sewing on a button is the one most commonly used. model xvi. stocking darning. object: to teach the method of darning hosiery. materials: card board j by | inches. stock- inet by inches, darning cotton, black, and same shade as the stockinet. darning needle no. . model xvi—stockinet ijaii.n. baste the stockinet firmly on the card board to pre- vent its being stretched or drawn out of shape, and cut the hole in a line with the stitches. remove the cut exercises in hand sewing. loops, and run a thread around the hole, about one- fourth of an inch from the edge. form the warp thread of the black darning cotton, which should be very close together, by bringing the darning cotton up through the loop stitch at one edge and down through the stitch on the opposite edge. all of these stitches should be taken up so that they will not ravel back after the darn is completed, and so that there will be no roughness on the right side of the stockinet. a small loop of the darning cotton should be left at each end to allow for shrinkage in washing. when the warp threads are all in, begin at the lower right hand side of the hole to fill in the woof threads, taking up the alternate threads of the warp. in the next row only those threads missed in the preced- ing one are taken up. the woof threads should be put in as close together as possible. continue in the same manner until the hole is filled. both the warp and woof threads should be carried at least one-fourth of an inch beyond the hole in the stockinet so that the darning may be firm and not pull away from the worn edges of the stockinet. model xvii. running and basting. object: to teach running and basting, and straight sewing. exercises: running and basting. materials: unbleached or half-bleached muslin c by inches. needle no. , thread, (red). turn a half inch fold across one end of the muslin. beginning at the right one-eighth of an inch from the edge, make a row of small even running stitches. hold the work firmly between the thumb and first finger of each hand, and using as free wrist motion as possible, take several stitches on the needle at a time. continue in the same manner until the row is finished. one-half inch below the first line of running stitches, make an- other just the same. turn a fold one-fourth of an inch wide across the other end of the model, and bring the fold up so that it will be half an inch below the last row of running stitches, basting it with white thread to hold it in place. one-eighth of an inch below the second fold, make a row of even basting stitches that are one-eighth of an inch underneath and one-eighth of an inch on top, using exercises in hand sewing. the red thread. this is the method of basting any gar- ment that is to be fitted, as a waist or jacket. the stitches being small the seams will not stretch apart. one-half inch below these stitches make a row of uneven basting stitches that are one-eighth of an model xvii— running and basting. inch underneath and one-fourth of an inch on top. when hems are to be hemmed by hand or seams over- handed, whether selvedge or a fold, they should be basted with this stitch. the third row is also an uneven basting stitch and is one-eighth of an inch underneath and one-half of an model xviii. french seam, backstitched and half backstitched seam. object: to teach the method of making a french seam and a backstitched seam. exercises: running, backstitching and overcast- ing. materials: unbleached or half-bleached muslin cut into three pieces, by inches and i by inches. the latter should be folded to cut two pieces each ^ by } inches. needle no. , thread go, red. baste the straight sides of one of the \ by | pieces to the by g piece, basting one-eighth of an inch from the edge and making the seam on the right side of the material. sew the seam with a back stitch and two or three running stitches, making them just below the line of basting. having fastened the thread secure- ly, remove the basting, trim the seam one-eighth from stitching and turn the seam to the wrong side and sew it again, making the second row of stitches far enough below the first row so that the raw edge will not show on the right side. for the second seam baste the two bias edges to- exercises in hand sewing. used for sewing on gathers. finish the seam by over- easting the raw edges beginning at the left and taking the stitches loosely through and over the edges. to make the stitches uniform the distance between them and the depth should be the same. model xix. felled seam. hemmed seam. object: to learn the method of making felled and hemmed seams. exercises: sewing a seam and hemming. materials: long cloth or any soft bleached mus- lin cut into three pieces, by inches and by inches. the latter should be folded so as to cut two pieces each ^ by -jr inches. needle no. , thread, white, no. . baste the straight side of one of the £ by pieces to the by piece, making the line of basting one- fourth of an inch from the edge. just below the bast- ing sew the seam using a backstitch and several running stitches. fasten the thread securely, and trimming the edge toward you one-eighth of an inch fold the un- trimmed side over the cut side and baste it down on the material, making a flat seam. it should then be hemmed by hand, even though in the garment making the first stitching should be done by machine, for on a garment this seam is usually a bias seam and when laundered the hand sewing will be less liable to break than machine hemming. this seam is more easily exercises in hand sewing. laundered than the french seam and is, therefore, bet- ter for most undergarments. model xix— felled seam. hemmed seam. in making the hemmed seam, place the bias edge of the third piece overlapping the bias edge of the oth- er one-fourth of an inch and baste through the center. then crease and hem alike on both sides. a knot should be used in these seams and finished exercises in hand sewing, by fastening with two small stitches one over the other. in the backstitching the stitches should all be of the same length and when finished the stitching should look like machine sewing on the right side. model xx. overhand ing. object: to learn overhanding. exercises: overhanding, hemming and sewing on lace. model xx oveuhanding. materials: long cloth, or any soft bleached mus- model xxii. model towel object: to teach double hemstitching and sew- ing on of tapes. exercises: hemming and hemstitching. materials: crash. by inches, needle no. , thread no. (white), linen tape size no. . one and one-half inches from the ends draw six threads which is the correct number to be drawn in all materials to be hemstitched. before hemstitching the ends of the towel, hem the sides with a narrow hem. then turn a hem on the ends of the towel, basting it even with the first thread drawn. fasten the thread in the hem at the left side and pointing the needle towards you, take up four or five of the cross threads. draw the needle through and take one stitch, as in ordinary hemming, being careful not to take the stitch too deep. repeat this, until the hem is completed. since both edges of the drawn threads are to be hemstitched, repeat the operation on the other side. fold the tape and overhand the sides together from the ends, up to the depth of the hem. exercises in hand sewing. < sew the tape on the wrong side of the towel, pla- cing it so that the raw edges will be towards the end, hiumuimi wmmttiuvtui mi".- .„™».. — .■■ ■ .vvw.'mj.'.v model xxii—towel. and stitch it on. then turning the tape back so as to model xxiii. rolled and hemstitched hems. object: to learn the method of making rolled and hemstitched hems, gathering and putting on a ruffle. exercises: hemming, hemstitching, gathering and backstitching. materials: long cloth or any soft bleached mus- lin by inches. for the ruffle, the same material by h inches. needle no. , thread no. . the sides of this model are finished with a rolled hem, which is made by rolling the edge of the ma- terial between the forefinger and thumb of the left hand, hemming as rolled, using the plain hemming stitch. measure up five-eighths of an inch, and crease for a tuck. baste a tuck three-sixteenths of an inch wide, and back stitch on the right side, making the line of stitches just below the basting. for the ruffle, measure up five-eighths of an inch from the edge and draw six threads for a hemstitched hem. make a rolled hem on the two ends of the ruffle, then baste and hemstitch the hem. to gather the ruffle, take as many small running stitches on the needle at a exercises in hand sewing. time as possible. draw the stitches together on the needle, and hold them in place by winding the thread model xxiii— rolled and hemstitched hems. over and under the eye and point of the needle. then hold the gathers between the thumb and finger of the left hand, and with the other pull each gather in place. . unwind the thread, and pull the needle through. con- tinue in the same manner until the ruffle is gathered. all garments should be divided into fourths, be- fore putting on the ruffling. if the ruffle is also di- exercises in hand sewing. vided in the same way and the divisions placed oppo- site each other, the fullness will be evenly divided. in basting a ruffle on a garment, always hold the fullness towards you, then sew on the line of gathers with a half back-stitch. turn the seam up, and baste the tuck down over it, then backstitch. ruffles put on with the tuck are much more serv- iceable and laundry better than those with the finishing braid or facing. model xxiv. french hem. object: to learn the method of hemming table damask. exercise: overhanding. materials: damask - by inches; needle no. , thread no. (white). fold a hem on two adjoining sides of the damask, from one-eighth to three-sixteenths of an inch wide, ac- cording to the quality of the linen. before begin- ning to hem open out the hem, and fold the corner to- wards you, creasing it one-eighth of an inch outside of the point where the creases of the hems meet. cut off the corner on the crease, then fold the hem at the right of the bias edge. then, holding the wrong side toward you, fold the hem back and crease the material so as to make it even with the hem. overhand the fold- ed edges together, being careful not to take the stitches too deep into the cloth, thus preventing long stitches on the right side. turn the hem on the second side and fold under the bias edge on the corner and hem it down. continue in the same way to overhand the re- maining hems on the model. model xxv. hems on woolen materials and three- cornered darn. object: to learn blind hemming and the slip stitch hemming, and how to mend a tear. exercises: hemming, darning and the loop stitch. materials: blue albatross or henrietta ^ by inches. spool silk letter "a" and spool twist letter "d," the same shade as the material. needles, nos. and . fold over the material one-fourth of an inch to the right side and baste it down, then fold a hem one inch wide, basting not only the edge of the hem but also the fold. to make a blind hem the stitches should be taken so they would not show. to do this take up one or two threads of the material and before drawing the needle through take up one-fourth of an inch in the fold. continue in this manner, being careful not to draw the threads tightly. the hem on the opposite end of the model is the slip stitch hem, which is made by first folding over the material to the wrong side one-eighth of an inch and baste it down, then turn a hem one inch wide, basting it as for 'd blind hem; to hem it, take up one thread of the cloth then one of the exercises in hand sewing. fold a little farther ahead, then of the cloth, etc. keep the stitches in line with the thread of the material in- stead of diagonally. this hem is used on woolen ma- hbms on woolen materials and three cornered darn. terials where the stitches are not to show on the right side. it is often used in hemming silk or velvet. finish the two sides of the model with the loop stitch. exercises in hand sewing. in the center of the model cut an opening one and one-fourth inches each way, bringing the two cuts at right angles to each other. first draw the corners together, then holding the edges firmly run them together (see corner and top of illustration), using the warp of the same material as that being darned. after drawing the edges of the tear together begin at the bottom to darn. ragged edges should not be trim- med, but weave the stitches over and under so as to fold down each torn thread, being careful not to draw the thread very tight, and thus cause the darn to be- come puckered. when finished press the darn on the wrong side and if it is well done, it can scarcely be noticed. great care should be taken to have the needle and thread used for darning proportioned to the thickness of the material to be darned. always darn on the right side of the material, and if possible use the warp of the material being darned. exercises in hand sewing. the first row should be one-fourth of an inch from the edge. put in the second row of stitches before draw- model xxvi gathering and gauging and putting on a band. ing up to fit the band, which is put on in the same manner as for the gathering. model xxvii gussets. object: to learn how to put a gusset in an open- ing. exercises: hemming and overhanding. materials: long cloth or any soft bleached mus- lin, cut in three pieces, the large one being ? by inches, the gussets being by inches, h by li inches. fold the large piece lengthwise into three equal parts, cutting the openings on the fold two and one-half inches in length. hem the openings with hems one- eighth of an inch wide at the top, graduating them so that at the end where the gussets are to be inserted the hems will be as fine as a rolled hem. crease each side of the smaller square one-eighth of an inch and fold so as to form a half square and baste. beginning at the point, overhand both sides of the gusset in the opening. this gusset is used for finishing the under arm seams of night shirts. for the other gusset, crease two adjoining sides of the larger square one-eighth of an inch. insert the folded corner in the opening, and exercises in hand sewing. overhand both sides of the gusset halfway up. fold the gusset over to the wrong side and crease. hold in place with the needle or a few basting stitches, so that the middle falls over the point of the gusset, and cut off the point of the square rounding. turn under the model xxvii—gussets. edge and baste to the material, stitching the gusset so that it will fit smoothly. hem it down. this gusset is used in the drawers placket. the model should be finished with a narrow hem on all four sides. : model xxviii. skirt plackets. object: to learn how to make plackets in skirts. exercises: hemming and backstitching. materials: long cloth or any soft bleached mus- lin, cut in three pieces, the large one being ^ by inches, and the placket facing § by \ inches, and \ inches by i inches. needle no. , thread no. . for the hemmed placket cut an opening one-third of the width of the material from the edge and two and one-fourth inches in length. on the left side make a hem that is one-half of an inch wide. the hem on the other side of the placket should be turned to the right side of the model, or garment, and should be one-eighth of an inch wide. place the wide hem over the narrow one, and finish at the bottom with two rows of backstitching, one-eighth of an inch apart. if the narrow hem is turned to the right side, the raw edge at the bottom of the placket is avoided. this placket is used on cotton garments. the remaining placket is made by sewing the one and one-fourth inch piece to the opening, bringing the seam to the wrong side and folding the piece over and exercises in hand sewing. hemming it down on the line of stitching, thus making an extension hem for the under portion. for the upper, sew the s'- by i inch piece to the edge of the opening, model xxviii—skirt plackets. with the seam on the right side, fold back on the line of stitching, turn under the edges and hem down. finish the placket by hemming the left side under the right. the model should be finished with a narrow hem on all four sides. model xxix. sleeve placket. object: to learn how to put the placket in a shirt or shirt waist sleeve. exercises: hemming and backstitching. model xxix—sleeve placket. materials: long cloth or any soft bleached mus- lin. cut in three pieces, the large one being ^ by inches, the other, j by ^ inches. needle no. , thread no. . model xxx. mitered corner. object: to learn the method of making a mitered . corner and decorative stitches. exercises: catstitched hem, chain stitch, french knots and loop stitch. materials: gray flannel, by inches. spool white silk, no.a, spool d twist (white). needles nos. and . cut a piece of flannel inches square and fold the opposite corners together, and cut on the fold, thus making a true bias of one side. fold and baste a hem three-fourths of an inch wide, on the two adjoining straight sides, mitering the corner. that is, after creas- ing the hems, open them out and cut off the corner one- eighth of an inch outside of the point where the creases of the hem meet. then fold the hems again, baste and catstitch the bias corner and the hem. it is best, to catstitch flannel hems, without turning under the edges, thus avoiding the ridge made by the fold. finish the bias edge with the loop stitch, and chain stitch along the hem on the right side. make a row of french knots half an inch above exercises in hand sewing. the loop stitch. to make them, draw the needle and thread through to the right side of the flannel, and take one short stitch without drawing the needle through. then taking the two threads at the eye of the needle bring them around from right to left, casting one or model xxx—mitered corner. more stitches on the needle according to the size de- sired. draw the needle through, holding the stitches firmly with the thumb of the left hand. put the needle back through the material at the same point at which it was brought up. several knots can be made without fastening the threads. model xxxi. matching of stripes. object: to teach the matching of stripes. exercises: overhanding and overcasting. model xxxi— matching of stripes. materials: blue and white striped gingham. cut exercises in hand sewing. in pieces, two of them being \ by inches, one ^ by inches, the other i by folded and cut on a true bias thus making two pieces. needle no. ; thread (white) . to match stripes on a bias. fold over the two bias edges one-fourth of an inch, baste them together so as to match the stripes and overhand the folded edges. to match stripes crosswise. fold over the straight end of one of the bias pieces, also one end of the \ by -| pieces and baste the folded edges together, ex- actly matching the stripes. overhand this seam also. to match the stripes lengthwise.. fold over each side of the piece already joined, also one side of each of the \ by inch pieces. baste one of these to each side of the first piece, exactly matching the stripes and over- hand the seam. overcast all of the seams and around the edge of the completed model. model xxxiii. hemmed patch. object: to teach the method of putting on a patch. model xxxiii—hemmed patch. exercises: hemming and overcasting. materials: pink and white striped gingham, cut model xxxiv. flannel seams. object: to teach how to make seams on flannel and how to finish hems and raw edges on flannel. exercises: seaming, hemming, overcasting, the catstitch, loop stitch, and the feather stitch. materials: white flannel cut in three pieces, two of them j-x inches, the other ^x inches. binding ribbon, inch. needles, nos. and ; thread (white silk) a, twist d. in making the flannel seams baste the |x pieces each side of the ix inch pieces, making the seams, three-sixteenths of an inch wide. sew the seams with the silk thread using a back stitch and two running stitches. press the seams open. the dorothy seam, which is used on flannels for infants, is made by cover- ing a seam with narrow ribbon or silk tape. baste it down on each side and hem. finish the other seam with a row of catchstitching through the middle, using the twist. overcast the edges of the seam with the silk thread. finish around three sides of the model with the loop stitch, turning the corners nicely. on the unfinished end turn up an exercises in hand sewing. inch hem to the wrong side, basting and catstitching model xxxiv—flannel seams. it down. feather stitch across the hem on the right side. model xxxv. button holes. object: to teach how to make button holes. exercises: overhanding and button-holing. materials: long cloth or some soft bleached mus- lin, |x inches. needles, no. ; thread (white) no. . fold the muslin lengthwise, so as to make three thicknesses, and overhand the edges together. turn in the edges, baste and overhand them together. in making button holes, always use button hole scissors to cut them. overhand the edges closely, not taking in any deeper than necessary to hold the threads. model xxxv—buttonholes. in working a button hole, always begin at the end far- thest from the edge of the material, working from the right towards the left. insert the needle with the point towards you, drawing it but half way through. take the two threads at the eye of the needle, and bring them exercises in hand sewing. around from right to left, passing under the point of the needle. draw the needle out so that the thread will be at right angles from the button hole, forming a knot or purl on the edge. in the first position, the needle points towards the worker; in the second, it points in the opposite direction. when the button hole has been worked across one side, work several stitches close together, so that the button hole will be rounding at the end. work across the other side and finish with a bar, which is made by drawing the needle down through the first button hole stitch taken, bringing it up on the opposite side, through the last button hole stitch. draw the stitch tightly, so as to bring the sides close together. make four of these stitches, then, bringing the needle under them, work four button hole stitches on them. draw the needle down through the cloth close to the purl of the last stitch, and fasten on the wrong side. in working a button hole, if the thread seems too short, pull the needle through the hole, and fasten the thread tightly on the wrong side, close beside the last stitch. fasten the new thread on the wrong side, bringing the needle up through the last purl. proceed with the button hole stitch as if a new thread had not been nec- essary. exercises in hand sewing. half an inch from the hook sew on an eye in the same manner, taking the stitches through the rings and across each side of the body of the eye. fold over the material bringing it up under the hook and even with the opposite side of the cloth. baste and overhand the two edges together. hooks and eyes on a garment that are to be covered are sewed on in this way. one-half inch from the eye already sewed on, place another hook and button-hole it on. the curve of the neck should be placed even with the edge. the eye is placed one-half inch from the hook and button-holed all around, as illustrated. this method of putting on hooks and eyes is used when they are to be used on the outside of a garment, or where they will show. a loop is used on a garment to take the place of an eye. they are made by taking six stiches, one-fourth of an inch in length, for a foundation on which the loop stitch should be closely worked, the twist or purl being drawn to the outside edge of the loop. to fasten the thread, bring the needle down through the material close beside the last stitch and fasten on the wrong side with several stitches over each other. loops are also often made with the button-hole stitch. the eyelet is a round hole made in the material with a stiletto. overhand the hole closely with twist, the stitch being firmly drawn up to strengthen the edge of the hole and keep it well open and in shape. work the eyelet with the loop stitch from left to right. the thread should be fastened on the under side the same as in button-hole making. model xxxvii. stockinet darning. object: to teach the method of darning hosiery. materials: cardboard, ^x ^ inches; stockinet, x inches; darning cotton same shade as the stock- model, xxxvii—stockinet darning. inet; darning needle, no. . this model is made the same as the model on page , except the warp and woof are the same color. exercises in hand sewing. baste the stockinet firmly on the cardboard to pre- vent its being stretched or drawn out of shape, and cut the hole in a line with the stitches. remove the cut loops and run a thread around the hole about one-fourth of an inch from the edge. form the warp threads, which should be very close together, by bringing the darning cotton up through the loop stitch at one edge and down through the stitch on the opposite edge. all of these stitches should be taken up so that they will not ravel back after the darn is completed, and so that there will be no roughness on the right side of the stock- inet. a small loop of the darning cotton should be left at each end to allow for shrinkage in washing. when the warped threads are all in begin at the lower right-hand side of the hole to fill in the woof threads, taking up the alternate threads of the war]). in the next row only those threads missed in the preceding one are taken up. the woof threads should be put in as close together as possible. continue in this same man- ner until the hole is filled. both the warp and woof threads should be carried at least one-quarter of an inch beyond the hole in the stockinet, so that the darning may be firm and not pull away from the worn edges of the stockinet. model xxxix. stockinet web darning. object: to teach the weave as in knitting. materials: cardboard, |x £ inches. dark red saxony. dark red knitting silk or mercerized cotton. darning needle, no. . across the top of the cardboard prick a row of holes half an inch from the edge and one-eighth of an inch apart. on the opposite side of the cardboard make another row of holes, the same distance from the edge, and one-eighth of an inch apart. there should be a second row one-eighth of an inch below this one, the holes being opposite the others. to weave in the warp threads, begin at the bottom and bring the silk thread up through the first hole of the second row, and down through the first one in the row of holes at the top. then up through the second hole at the top and down through the first one in the second row at the bottom, then up through the one next to it, thus making two threads in each hole except the first and last ones at the top. continue weaving in the warp in the same manner until all the holes are filled. put in the first row of loops by bringing the yarn up through the first hole in the bottom row; around exercises in hand sewing. the first two warp threads and back down through the same hole. then up through the second hole, around the warp threads and down through the same hole. continue in the same manner across the card. after making the last loop the needle will be on the wrong side. to weave in the warp threads the saxony should be brought to the right side of the card. this is done by bringing the thread over the side of the card and up through the first loop. weave in the woof by putting the needle around exercises in hand sewing. two of the warp threads, down through the loop, up through the next one, and so on across the darning. in turning, bring the needle up through the first loop, then around the first two warp threads, down through the loop, and around the two warp threads. continue in this manner until the darning is finished. if this method of darning is carefully followed in mending silk underwear or the knees of children's stock- ings, it will never be noticed where the piece has been filled in. exercises in hand sewing. the warp threads, because they must bear the strain of having the woof threads woven in. ( ) what is the selvedge? the selvedge is the finished lengthwise edge which is made by the woof threads, as they are woven back and forth. ( ) why should materials always be cut through the selvedge and not torn? the warp threads being laid closer together at the selvedge, for strength, the material might be torn down the side. ( ) what are some of the materials woven from cotton? muslin, prints, gingham. ( ) what is wool? it is a variety of hair or fleece which is shorn from sheep, the angora, alpaca, and cashmere goats, and furnishes the most important material for clothing in all cold and temperate climates. ( ) what are some of the materials made of wool? broadcloth, cashmere, serges, and cheviots. ( ) what is linen? it is a thread or cloth made wholly from the fibre of flax or lint. ( ) what are some of the linen materials? then, lawn, damask. ( ) what is silk? it is a soft, fine thread spun by the silk worm. exercises in hand sewing. ( ) what are some of the silk materials? gros grain, grenadine, brocade, satin, and surah. ( ) how are twilled goods woven? instead of taking up the threads regularly, as in a plain weave, a certain number of threads are taken up or dropped at given intervals, thus forming a twill, as in the damask darning. ( ) in twilled goods how would you determine the right from the wrong side? on the right side the twill runs from left to right. ( ) are figures always woven in? not always. usually in cotton materials they are printed. ( ) is felt woven? no; it is made from a fur or wool pulp, which is pressed. ( ) what are running stitches? running stitches are small basting stitches of equal size. ( ) when are running stitches used? running stitches are used in seams that do not re- quire great strength, in gathering, and several rows are used in darning and quilting. ( ) what is basting, and for what is it used? basting is sewing with large stitches to hold differ- ent parts of the work together, and it is also used as a gr ' le for the stitching. - ) how are basting stitches fastened? rv two small stitches taken in the same place. exercises in hand sewing. a french seam is sewed first on the right side, trimmed close to the stitching, the seam turned to the wrong side and stitched again. ( ) where is a felled seam used? a felled seam is used in a corset cover and draw- ers, and is often used in a night gown. ( ) when is a faced hem used? a faced hem is used where there is a curved edge and the hem needs to be fitted. ( ) what is most important in sewing on tape? neatness and strength. ( ) where is a rolled hem used? a rolled hem is used on very fine materials. ( ) for what is hemstitching vised? hemstitching is used for ornamenting a hem. ( ) how should the threads be drawn? always finish drawing one thread before beginning another. six threads being the required number. ( ) how should the work be prepared for gath- ering? by marking the middle and the quarters, to make the fullness even when it is sewed on. ( ) how should you hold your gathers when sewing them on a band? they should be held towards you. ( ) why is a french hem used for hemming damask instead of the plain hem? it is much stronger. ( ) where is gauging used? exercises in hand sewing. gauging is used where there is a large amount of fullness required, as in the backs of skirts. ( ) for what is a gusset intended? to strengthen the end of an opening. ( ) why does the gusset strengthen the open- ing? because the top is a bias fold, which is not easily torn. ( ) where are hemmed plackets used? hemmed plackets are used in the straight backs of skirts. ( ) why is a mitered corner used? a mitered corner is used in heavy materials to avoid thickness. ( ) how is a true bias cut? a true bias is cut by folding over a corner of the material so that the selvedge or warp threads shall run exactly with the woof threads. the fold will be a true bias. ( ) which is the stronger, the overhand or hemmed patch? the hemmed patch is the stronger, because there are two rows of stitching. ( ) why is catstitching used in flannel patch- ing? because the raw edges should not be turned in, thus avoiding a ridge. ( ) what should be the length of a botton hole? harvard university library of the graduate school of education progressive lessons in the and practice of needlework for use in schools. by catherine f. johnson. second edition, revised. boston: d. c. heath & co., publishers. . harvard university sgfoukn school of jjucatiag g£g«pe c gutman lbraffl copyright, , by catherine f. johnson- norfaooti jfirtbb: j. s. cushing & co.— berwick & smith boston, mass.- u.s.a. introductory note. it gives me much pleasure to say that i have seen the method of teaching the theory and practice of sewing, as set forth in this book, grow up in the public schools of brookline, mass., and can testify to the excellent results. the pupils have not only learned to sew well, but their study of drawing and english has been so combined with the instruction in sewing as to make it the foundation of an excellent mental training. they also learn that sewing is not merely a useful handicraft, but an art, having its body of principles and rules, according to which it must be taught, to secure the best practical, as well as educational, results; that the fundamental principles of the art must determine the progressive series of lessons upon which the instruction must be based. any teacher who is an expert in the use of the needle, and will faithfully follow the method of this book, cannot fail to secure good results; and particularly, if she keep in mind that learning to sew is by no means the only end to be gained by the study of the subject. i heartily commend this book to the attention of all who are in any way interested in the subject of industrial education. brookline, mass., april , . john d. runkle, chairman of industrial committee of school board. * contents. page introduction vii chapter i. first year's sewing. class drill. — practice in position. — practice with thimble. — thimble exercise. — holding the needle. — threading the needle. — making the knot.— prac- tice with scissors ............ - description of sampler no. . — materials. — basting. — stitching. — back- stitching. — running. — oversewing. — hemming. — buttonhole. — cross- stitch.— buttonhole stitch.—patching. — darning - questions and answers ........... - chapter ii. second year's sewing. work for this year. — measuring and cutting. — paper folding and cutting. — patching on paper.— buttonhole. — running and gathering. — work bag . - description of sampler no. . — materials. — basting. — stitching and back- stitching. — felling. — running. — hemming. — oversewing. — french seam. — name. — felling. — patching. — oversewing. — gusset. — felling. — tuck- ing. — overcasting. —band. — ruffle - questions and answers - v introduction. the system of instruction in needlework, as given in this book, is the result of many years' study of the subject, and of practical application of the methods in the public schools of brookline, massachusetts. experience has shown that careful preparation can make sewing as educational as any other subject of school instruction. drawings of the various stitches and kinds of work, with accurate written descriptions of the same copied into blank books for future refer- ence; drawing diagrams of patterns from measurements; fitting the parts of these patterns together for garments; cutting and fitting simple dresses, first cutting to a model and fitting to a form which can be easily handled, afterwards fitting to a pupil's form, — all these can be taught step by step in a progressive course. such a course tends, not only to train the hand, but to develop, strengthen, and mature the mind and judgment. by these methods, sewing can be taught in our schools with the most satisfactory results, and may lead both teacher and pupil to a clearer knowledge of the many beautiful possibilities of the needle. when the kindergarten is fully established in the public school system, and its value is understood, the first sewing, that on coarse canvas, may be taught by the regular teacher in the first primary year. when there has been no kindergarten instruction let this work begin in the second primary year. the methods used in the class work of the first vii viii introduction. three years are given in the form of questions and answers at the end of each chapter.* questions for the day's work, not exceeding three in number, should be upon the blackboard, and if for any reason a child is waiting for direction in her sewing she can write the answers. when questions are given to a class, great care should be taken to frame each in a complete sentence and to have the child's written answer in another complete sentence, in which the point of the question is embodied. this creates a habit of thinking and of expressing clearly. i. the position of the body while sewing is of great importance, because a careless attitude may cramp the arms and hands and also be prejudicial to the health. the chair should be of a height to permit the feet to rest flat upon the floor; the lower end of the spine should be firm against the back of the chair, the rest of the body free and erect, and the work never nearer the eyes than is necessary for a clear view of the stitches. the shoulders should be kept well back to allow the chest full expansion, and the head should not be allowed to droop so as to affect the circulation of blood to and from the brain. the arms should never rest upon the desk while sewing. the position of a pupil indicates the amount of interest felt in her work; if the attitude be free and alert, the mind will co-operate, and not otherwise. while most children rest their eyes more than sufficiently by allow- ing them to wander from their work, there are, occasionally, pupils who need to be cautioned against fixing their eyes too intently upon it. ii. when a class is large, it is difficult to keep all the pupils at the same point in the progress of the work even in simultaneous instruction; the quicker ones are employed by various devices continuing active thought, such as assisting the slower ones or making a drawing of their own finished work on the blackboard and writing a description of this work and its use. * a strict adherence to these questions and answers may not always be practicable; any ingenious teacher will be able to form rules and questions from her own idea of the needs of her pupils. introduction. ix after correction, these drawings * and descriptions are copied into blank books for future reference. these books have been found invaluable. iii. the development of those senses which lead to quick and accu- rate perceptions of form and color is essential to artistic work-in dress- making and embroidery. this matter of taste is one of education, and should not be neglected. in the fifth year of sewing, possibly the fourth year, a pupil should be able to draw and color designs for garments, using crayons or water colors. iv. from the beginning, a child should be taught to prepare her work in a thorough manner, f judgment is trained more in the preparation than in any other part of the work; on the sampler the short seams are easily prepared by the pupils, the colored threads and the varied work holding their interest and attention until more difficult work is under- taken in the second year of sewing. the most difficult part of preparation is first taught upon paper, the second year; this includes patches, bands, gussets, etc. it is helpful to use papers of two colors, — one to represent a garment, and the other showing distinctly the shape of the gusset. sampler work is adopted in the beginning, because progressive lessons in sewing can be more readily taught upon short seams. afterwards these samplers can be used as reference for all future work, since all kinds of sewing are exemplified in them. in the public school work economizing of material should be con- sidered; the cost of these samplers is so small that they could be pro- vided in the same way as all other supplies for the school. the youngest pupils are given canvas in the first sampler, because judging of distances, size, slope, and direction of stitches are all made easier and given more exactness by the use of the coarse and even web. the second sampler is of unbleached cotton; the third, of bleached cotton. * several cuts in this book are made from drawings of the pupils of the w. h. lincoln school, brookline, mass., and from the pupils of the south end industrial school, roxbury, mass. t see circular of english education department, p. . introduction. xi in making children careful and neat. when special sewing desks (fig. i) are provided, the scissors stand in one corner of the waste pocket and the spools of thread with the pincushion and emery bag are left on the rod at the back or the side of the desk. otherwise a teacher must use some device by which she can carry with her the things needed; a cord may be fastened on her apron, to which may be attached scissors, while spools, etc., are carried in the work apron pocket. vii. if the day's work be clearly mapped out in the mind of the teacher before she goes into her class, and diligent use made of the two hours a week given to the sewing, most excellent results may be obtained by following such a system as the one given in this book. when a pupil has reached the fifth year of sewing, she has gained sufficient self-reliance to work with less help from the teacher. viii. the first sampler is composed of penelope canvas* worked with colored yarns. in the construction of this sampler nearly all stitches used in plain sewing can be taught. the strips, when finished, are joined by oversewing to make the sampler. the transition is naturally to a coarse, unbleached cotton sampler, arid by the time a pupil has finished these two samplers, she is ready for finer work upon bleached cotton. having satisfactorily made the three samplers, the pupil is now trained to the point of doing good work, and can proceed to the cutting and making of garments. ix. when the uncut cloth or a prepared garment is brought from home, it causes endless complications and hinderances, and makes it impos- sible to systematize the work or teach the cutting. therefore, it is con- sidered more practical for schools to provide material used in the grade work, letting the pupil pay for each garment as it is made, thus lessening the cost. coarse penelope canvas no. i or . progressive lessons in the art and practice of needlework. chapter i. first year's sewing. in the first year must come the drill in position, as also a drill in using the 'fingers and all implements of sewing. thoroughness in this and in all details of the work is important. class drill. practice in position : — . instruct the pupils in the proper position, and the reasons for taking and keeping it. . practice in distinguishing the right and left hands, also the different fingers. . train a child to call that part of a thimble that rests on the back of the finger — the back of the thimble. practice in preparing the right hand for the use of the thimble : — raise the right hand, hold the thumb and first finger in a horizontal, position, while the second or thimble finger is held vertically; then lay the first finger over the third and fourth, holding the three down to the palm with the thumb.* this is a difficult exercise for untrained muscles, and the child should rest after four or five trials. * see finger exercises, nos. i. and ii., on the opposite page. first year's sewing. holding the needle : — . give each child one of the finest chenille needles, and have her place it on her desk, with its length parallel with the front edge of her desk, the eye of the needle to the right hand. . let the child grasp the needle near the point between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and, lifting it, place it between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, with the eye against the back of the thimble \ in. from the top. see fig. , a and b. moving the needle as for sewing : — let the child move the thimble-finger as in the thimble exercise; and pushing the needle forward its full length, through a small piece of cloth or paper, slip the thumb and forefinger of the right hand forward and grasp the needle \ in. from the point, drawing it through the cloth. repeat this movement. threading the needle : — . give each child one of the finest chenille needles and a needleful of fine darning cotton. . direct the child to hold the needle between the thumb and first finger of the left hand, with the eye uppermost and squarely in front of her so that she can see through it. . let the child take the thread between the thumb and first finger of the right hand \ in. from the end, and pass this end through the eye of the needle, while, at the same time, she pushes the needle between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, where it must be grasped, drawing the thread through with the left thumb and forefinger about in. making the knot: — holding the threaded needle in the right hand, take the other end of the thread between the thumb and first finger of the left hand, and, progressive lessons in needlework. keeping the thread tightly stretched, wind it around the top of the first finger and cross it over the end held between the finger and thumb; then roll the finger down the thumb, carrying the thread with it about \ in., and with the nail of the second finger push the knot thus formed to the end of the thread. practice with scissors: — each child should be given a pair of scissors ( to j in. long), of the best steel and light weight. when using an ordinary school desk, have the scissors placed on top and in front of the child, the bows to the right hand. . let the child lift the scissors by placing the thumb of the right hand through the bow of the broader blade, and the third finger of the right hand through the other bow, the scissors resting on the first and second fingers of the right hand for guidance and support. let the child now push them from her towards the back of the desk, being careful to slip the blunt end, without raising it, along the top of the desk, and at the same time opening and shutting the scissors with the cutting motion as in use. . let the child practise the cutting movement from right to left along her desk in the same manner. . give each child a piece of ruled paper, and let her cut by the lines on the paper. then practise cutting half-way between the lines and also across the lines. « . direct the child to cut two straight strips of stiff paper in. x in., and measure distances by holding the edges a certain space apart, according to direction. . cut a \ in. paper square, using rule and pencil. make this exact by placing the diagonally opposite corners on each other, meas- uring and paring. this is for a pattern for a canvas patch. progressive lessons in needlework. second strip of canvas, in. x in. iv. running. — j in. from the top make a line of running stitches in red, as described in answer to question . ten threads below make a similar line in yellow. ten threads below make a similar line in blue. v. oversewing. — fourteen threads below crease the canvas for the whole length, so that the two threads will be on the edge; oversew this, as described in answer to question . make the line in three colors, joining as described in answer to question . lay the canvas flat again. vi. hemming. — eight threads below make one line of hemming stitches. on the lower edge of the canvas turn up four threads for the first turning of a hem; turn again, to make a hem of about | in. sew the hem in three colors, as described in answer to question . join as described in answer to question . third strip of canvas, in. x in. vii. buttonhole.— i in. from the upper edge and ^ in. from the left-hand edge, begin a buttonhole. hold the canvas with the left hand, between the thumb and forefinger, working lengthwise. with a needleful of red worsted make three running stitches on the under side. put the needle up from the under side, draw the thread through, cross diagonally four threads, take up two threads, with the needle pointing directly towards the chest; and proceed in this way until seventeen stitches are made. turning the canvas round, make a line of stitches same as the first, with two threads between. first year's sewing. twenty threads below, repeat this; fasten off the red worsted. beginning with yellow worsted in the same place, cross each stitch until the closed end is reached, when the cross-bar must be made. this is done by making one stitch to the left, then one to the right, until three have been made on each side. continue with cross- stitch until the starting-point is reached. viii. darning. — this is a series of running stitches in parallel lines, taking up two threads and going over two, beginning with one stitch in the first line, increasing to twelve stitches in a line, then decreasing to one. fourth strip of canvas, in. x in. ix. cross-stitch. — fourteen threads from the top make a line of cross-stitches, as shown in the illustration, three colors. x. buttonhole stitch. — twenty threads below draw the needle through the t upper side. take up vertically four threads. then the thread from the eye of the needle is brought around the point of the needle from right to left, — care being taken that it passes over the other end of the thread, — and the needle pulled through, bringing the loop up straight to the top of the four threads, continuing these stitches across the canvas, in three colors. fifth strip of canvas, in. x in. xi. patching. — cut a small hole in the canvas % in. from the end. cut a piece of canvas \ in. square. turn in the edges \ in. and baste on the under side of the canvas, the centre of the patch coming progressive lessons in needlework. directly over the centre of the hole, being careful to have the threads match. now cut the hole in. square. on each corner cut diago- nally across four threads. turn in the edges all around, and baste to the patch. xii. darning. — let a torn place be represented by two lines making a right angle, as shown in the cut. overcast these lines, taking up two threads. make a line of basting all around, ^ in. from these lines. in the corner of the darn make oblique lines of running stitches, being careful to leave a small loop at each turning, so that they will come together at the corner of the inside basting. the remainder of the darn is made by straight lines of running stitches back and forth, making small loops at each turning. the first four strips of canvas, when finished, are joined by oversewing, the edges being turned down ^ in. the fifth strip is joined to the others by a line of buttonhole stitches, worked over the raw edges. overcasting the edges all around finishes the canvas sampler (fig. ). questions and answers. . on what finger should the thimble be worn? ans. the thimble should be worn on the second finger of the right hand. . of what use is the thimble? ans. the thimble protects the finger, and helps in pushing the needle through the work. show how the thimble should move in sewing. . how should the needle be held? ans. the needle should be held between the thumb and first finger of the right hand, \ in. from the point, the eye of the needle resting against the thimble. . what part of the thimble should the needle rest against? ans. the needle should rest against the back of the thimble, \ in. below the top. first year's sewing. u over four threads, until a line is made across the canvas. in the second line of basting, pass the needle first under four threads, and then over eight, and so on across the canvas. in the third line of basting, pass the needle first under four threads, and then over sixteen, and repeat to the end of the canvas. (illustrate on the blackboard.) . is basting begun with a knot? ans. yes; knot the thread to begin basting, because the basting is finally pulled out. . how is the thread fastened for stitching and back-stitching? ans. to fasten the thread for stitching and back-stitching, turn the upper right-hand corner of the canvas over the first finger of the left hand, and take up two threads on the under side with the needle, and draw through all of the thread except in., which is held down with the left-hand thumb, and take a stitch over it to prevent its loosening and drawing through. then put the needle through to the upper side, four threads from the edge, and begin to work. . how is the stitching on canvas made? ans. begin to stitch on canvas with the needle four threads from the right-hand edge, on the upper side, and put it through to the under side, two threads nearer the edge, in a horizontal line; then take up four threads horizontally on the needle, and bring it to the upper side. this will be two threads in front of its first position. this is repeated along the whole seam. (illustrate son the blackboard.) . how is back-stitching done? ans. in back-stitching, take up six threads on the needle, then go back and take up the last two of these and four more in advance, and so on. (illustrate on the blackboard.) . how is the thread joined in stitching and back-stitching? ans. the thread in stitching and back-stitching is joined in the same way that it is fastened, beginning on the wrong side, over the second stitch from the last. first year's sewing. the stitches be made? ans. to fasten the thread to begin hem- ming, start two threads from the right-hand edge of the canvas and take up the two threads of the folded edge diagonally to the right and directly above; pull the thread of red worsted through all but \ in. at the end; put this remaining in. of thread up under the fold to the left, and hold it there with the thumb of the left hand; now bring the needle down and put it through the canvas below the fold, two threads in advance of the point at which it came out before, and pointing it to the left; take up two threads diagonally forward and upward. this is repeated for each stitch. (illustrate on the blackboard.) . how is the thread joined in hemming? ans. to join the thread in hemming, leave \ in. of the old needleful, and pull this down under the fold of the hem, the edge of which is lifted to place the thread under. then put the newly threaded needle back and under the hem, as far as the second stitch from the last, and, beginning there, hem over these last three stitches and on to the end of the seam. . should hemming stitches be slanting or straight? ans. hemming stitches should be slanting on both upper and under sides. . how should a hem be finished? ans. by taking two hemming stitches over the last stitch; then run the needle under the hem back four stitches, draw the thread tight, and cut close. show these steps on the blackboard. . in what direction is the work done in basting, overcasting, running, stitching, back-stitching and hemming? ans. in basting, oversew- ing, running, stitching, back-stitching and hemming, the work is done from right to left. chapter ii. second year's sewing. the second year sampler is made of coarse unbleached cotton for the following reasons: — the threads are large and easily seen without straining the eyes. it is softer than bleached cloth of the same quality and more easily handled in preparing seams. it is not so quickly soiled. the pupil in learning to thread the needle for work on cotton cloth must use a coarse needle and thread, which should be used only on coarse cloth. fine cloth requires a fine needle and thread. colored sewing cottons are used, because a child can more readily see her stitches and their shape, size, and method of joining. the teacher of this class should interest her pupils, and awaken a desire to know all about steel, from which needles, scissors, and emery are made. also have talks on the nature and growth of cotton, or tree wool, and its various uses.* show cotton seed and tell the processes of growth until the raw cotton appears. tell how the cotton is gathered and made into threads; how the threads are woven to make cloth. cloth has two kinds of threads; these are called length and width threads, or warp and woof. the length threads are always stronger * " every day occupations," by h. warren clifford, s.d., will be found useful as a reference, when studying about these raw materials. second year's sewfng. is than the width threads, because they must be stretched on the loom while the width threads are woven into them. when a piece of cloth is woven or finished, the length is readily known by the selvedge, or fig. . — canvas showing finished edges or selvedges. finished edge. the width is between the selvedges. the bias is the diagonal fold formed by placing the selvedge and width edge evenly together. take one yard of the coarsest penelope canvas (figs. and ); hold this in sight of the class, and have the pupils tell the length and width threads, antl how the bias is formed. progressive lessons in needlework. the pupil should make a drawing on the blackboard of a piece of cloth, showing the selvedge, cut edge, and bias; she should also express in writing the idea formed in her mind by these terms. a clear perception of all this, when once gained, will be a help in every lesson. measuring and cutting : — ^^f-' "!*" the class should be provided with rulers, from which to learn the inch and its divi- sions. have each child cut from stiff b^^lli^rf^'w*'^- ' and unruled paper a piece exactly -£*—'■ in. long and i in. wide, to use ^«r>f)tlhttn.ti vnift^l> for measuring • have the edo-es ^r®f»s*^ww«h!«w!i!i»i ior measuring, nave uic euges ^gk#iimmj*!§w|wwwmim«l igl even and the corners square. *■ *tnnin(iy»iiwmii»l§to rh s measure is kept in ^p^fi(n i»ijhjtinc?hr»rf»rr ml < the work bag. mark, as on a ruler, the whole, half, quarter, and eighth inches. the plipil must re- member these lengths, as they are often spoken of in her work and in places which cannot be easily measured. let the pupils space the different measures on paper and on the blackboard by means of dots and lines, using the ruler as a test of exactness only. folding and cutting : — fig. .— canvas showing width and bias, or diagonal fold. give the child a piece of paper in. x in. ' let her fold the lower left-hand corner over to the upper edge, and crease the diagonal second year's sewing. or bias line thus formed. then crease the line parallel with the outer edge, to mark a piece in. square. measuring with this square, fold and crease the whole nine inches of length into squares. cut the squares apart, and lay aside for patching in paper (fig. ). ''x fig. . — measuring and paper folding. ii. to represent patching on paper : — give to each pupil a piece of thin manilla paper large enough to cut from it a strip in. x in., to represent the size of the paper or cloth to which the patch is applied. fold this strip into two in. squares; fold again and again, making in. squares. now there are eight in. squares. in the centre of one of the in. squares. cut an irregular hole to represent a worn place (fig. ). cut another strip of paper in. x in. fold and cut this into in. squares for patches. crease these patches into four equal parts (fig. ). mark with a pencil on paper, or with a pin on cloth, the length or selvedge way of material and of patch. turn a fold of \ in. -on the patch, then place the centre of the patch directly over the centre of the worn place, making the creases on material and patch match perfectly, continuing progressive lessons in needlework. and forefinger of the left hand, and the needle put through the upper side in the loop of the last stitch, making the joining perfect. diagrams of this work should be drawn upon the blackboard. explain the use of the buttonhole scissors,* and show how to find the length needed for the buttonhole by measuring across the button; then give the class a piece of ruled paper in. x in., and let them fold or double this paper across the lines; on one of these lines make a dot \ in. from the folded edge. now, with the pointed end of the scissors, let the pupil make a small hole at the dot, and cut a perfectly straight slit the length desired for the buttonhole, using the ruled line as a guide. in order to acquire skill for well-finished work, the teacher should impress on the pupils the necessity of grasping the work firmly between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, especially when working the buttonhole, having the thumb-nail just below the point where the needle is to be inserted. running or gathering : — iv- when a longer piece of cloth is to be sewed to a shorter piece of cloth to give additional fulness, gathers are used, as in frills and flounces; skirts are gathered into waistbands; sleeves are gathered into wristbands, etc. test the firmness of the cotton before beginning to gather. gathering should not be undertaken until the running stitch can be well done. a piece to be gathered should be taken from the width of the cloth, as the fulness is easier to arrange, and the stroking has more effect upon the width than the length. a binding should be taken lengthwise of the cloth, because it will not stretch. these points must be carefully explained to the class. the next step is the careful marking of the half and quarter measure of the ruffle and the band with a cross-stitch. the gathering thread should be coarser than the thread of the cloth. the thread should be * buttonhole scissors are not found in every home; and for that reason, it would be better to use ordinary scissors in this lesson. second year's sewing. a little longer than the piece to be gathered, and the needle large enough to carry the thread easily. the thread is fastened firmly about a pin at the end before stroking is begun (see question and answer ), as that part of the work cannot be well done if the thread is loose. a large needle or pin should be used for stroking, as a fine one would tear the cloth, which may b° done also by too hard stroking. any scratching sound is the sign that the stroking is too hard. work bag (fig. ). to hold this and the following year's work, a bag is made of printed calico with a pocket on one side for the thimble, etc. making the bag: — tear the cloth lengthwise into halves. double one strip of cloth in the centre and oversew the selvedges. stitch the raw edges together and overcast. make a hem | in. wide at the top. the pocket can be made of a small piece of calico in. wide and in. long with a hem in. wide. when a pupil has learned to make a buttonhole, let her make one in the middle of this hem, lengthwise with the pocket; turn in \ in. of the three raw edges; now the pocket is in. long and ^ in. wide, and is hemmed to the bag, the hem of the bag being a guide to the placing of the pocket. the thimble, small spool of silk, etc., can be carefully kept in this pocket. progressive lessons in needlework. a small piece of tape i in. square is sewed on the inside of the bag, as a stay for the button. the button is sewed on the bag, opposite to the buttonhole in the pocket. now the pupil first prints with a pencil and then stitches her name on a piece of tape, which is sewed directly over the pocket. work bags should never be drawn with strings, as that will crush the work and make it look untidy. after the work is neatly placed inside, and a pupil selected to collect them, the bags should be placed in a box or drawer until the next lesson. if this care is taken, the work can be more quickly distributed, and pupils may begin to work in a very short time after being seated. to allow children, who are working at the same point on their samplers, to sit near each other, has been found to excite the ambition of all. a pupil should always have in her bag pieces of white cotton, silesia, and woollen cloths, in which one, two, three, or more buttonholes have been cut. whenever there come moments fig. ix.— metal measure. of waiting for the teacher, or at other unoccupied times, the pupil should practise buttonhole making on these, according to the rules which have been given; a perfectly made button- hole being given her as a model. a metal measure of the shape here shown (fig. ) will be found very useful. it combines measurements of the various tucks and hems used in samplers. description of sampler no. . materials required. eight strips of unbleached cotton cloth torn lengthwise, one torn in. x in. two pieces of the same in. square, for patches. i£ in. square of the same, for a gusset. one strip of striped or checked cloth second year's sewing. in. x in. with selvedge on. one side. two pieces of the same in. square, for patches. red, yellow, and blue spool cotton, no. . needles no. . one porcelain button. estimated cost of unbleached sampler, cts. directions for making the sampler. i. basting.— baste two strips together \ in. from the top edge with red cot- ton, the stitches \ in. long and the spaces between ^ in. long. j in. below, a second line of basting in yellow. i in. below, a third line of basting in blue. -| in. below, a fourth line of basting, like the second line. make these basting stitches of different lengths, as on canvas samplers. stitching and back-stitching. — stitch with yellow and blue cotton close below the first basting, and with yellow and red below the fourth basting. n. hem felling.— cut off the under piece of cloth \ in. below the line of back- stitching, turn the edge under ^ in. at a time with needle, and hem with three colors. iv. running. — three rows of running stitches below this, one of each color, red, yellow, and blue. keep the needle in the cloth all the time, as in basting. v. hemming.— take a third strip of cloth, turn one edge down ^ in. and turn again with a metal measure | in.; baste edge of hem, then hem with three colors. second year's sewing. fig. .— sampler no. . progressive lessons in needlework. oversewed patch (question and answer ), matching the stripes or checks. xii. oversewing. — turn down one edge \ in. and baste to the selvedge of the last strip, then oversew with two colors, leaving % in. unsewed. xiii. gusset. —■ a gusset is put into the opening between the unbleached cotton and the striped or checked cloth, according to question and answer . xiv. felling. — the sixth strip of unbleached cotton is then basted to the striped cloth and a fell made, using running and back stitch, instead of stitching, for the first seam of the fell. xv. tucking. — two \ in. tucks are made in this strip according to question and answer . xv . overcasting seams. — the seventh strip is joined by a running and back stitched seam, the edges of which are evenly cut and overcast with three colors. xvii. putting on a band. — the other edge is gathered, stroked, and put into a band in. x \ in., as described in questions and answers to . a buttonhole is then cut in the band and overcast with no. cotton (questions and answers to ), and worked with any -color desired, cotton (questions and answers to ). a button is sewed on according to questions and answers to . xviii. hemmed and whipped ruffle. — make a \ in. hem on one edge and on the second year's sewing. basted. gathering is done in the same way, but with small stitches. (illustrate on the blackboard.) . why is it better to baste for a seam in this way? ans. because it saves much time, and makes a straighter guide by which to sew.* . is a hem basted in this way? ans. no, a hem has a straight edge which can be the guide, and the basting line is made in. from the lower edge of the hem with one or more stitches on the needle before the thread is drawn through the cloth, making the basting stitch \ in. long and the spaces between ^ in. long. . how is basting done for oversewing? ans. the bastings are made for oversewing \ in. below the top edge — the stitches \ in. long and spaces between \ in. long. . why is basting for oversewing made near the edge? ans. that the edges may be held together firmly. . when a seam is basted, where is the line of stitching made? ans. the stitching is always below and as near the basting as possible. . is a knot used in beginning to stitch? ans. no; in beginning to stitch the thread is fastened on the under side by one stitch and a back-stitch. . what colors are used in stitching the first line? ans. yellow and blue are used. . what kind of sewing is made under the fourth line of basting? ans. "back-stitching is made under the fourth line of basting. . what is the difference between stitching and back-stitching? ans. in stitching the stitches touch, in back-stitching there is a small space between the stitches (figs. and ). * fabrics that crush easily cannot be basted in this way. progressive lessons in needlfavork. • fig. . — stitching.* . what colors are here used? ans. yellow and red are used. . how is a stitched or back-stitched seam finished? ans. a stitched or back-stitched seam is finished by sewing back over the last three stitches. . when should stitching and when back-stitching be used? ans. when much wear or strain comes upon a seam, it should be stitched, otherwise it can be back-stitched. . how are running stitches made? ans. the same way as-basting, but with smaller stitches. . why is the needle not drawn through the cloth at every few stitches in making running stitches? ans. in running for gathering the needle is not drawn out until a certain part of the cloth is gath- ered or the needleful of thread is used, be- cause the longer the needle is kept in the cloth, the straighter will be the seam and the quicker the work. but in running tucks, where the cloth is double, the needle is taken out every third or fourth stitch according to the thickness of the cloth. . how can a broad hem be kept straight? ans. by using a measure of the right width and basting carefully. fig. .— back-stitching. * * stitching, or back-stitching, as it is sometimes called, is the work which the sewing machine imitates so accurately; two definitions are here given, because there are two different methods of working it, — one where strength is the important feature, and one where strength is not so important. second year's sewing. . how is the thread joined in overcasting? ans. tie a knot in the end of the thread, and put it between the two edges of the cloth, so that it cannot be seen. . when is a french seam used? ans. a french seam is used on deli- cate material to conceal the raw edges. . in making a fell, how should the work be held in order to turn the edge with the needle? ans. the work should be held as for hemming. . how should the needle be held in order to turn the edge of the fell? ans. the needle should be held nearly parallel with the seam, the eye resting on the thimble, and grasped firmly near the centre by the thumb and forefinger of the right hand. thus held, the edge of the fell should be turned under with the point of the needle ^ in;; when that is hemmed another £ in. is turned, until the seam is finished (fig. ). . when is a fell used? ans. a fell is used when a flat seam without raw edges is required. . how is a hemmed-on patch made? ans. a square piece of cloth is turned down \ in. on its four edges, and basted over the worn or torn place, on the under side, being careful that the length and width threads match the cloth, and then neatly hemmed down. on the upper or right side the cloth is folded over a in. inside the hem- ming stitches and creased hard with the thumb nail; these creases form a square around the tear (see dotted line, fig. ). a pin is put through the cloth at the four corners of this square. bias cuts are then made with the scissors from the torn place to each of these pin-holes, the edges cut off to \ in. from the creases, this \ in. turned under and hemmed to the patch. . what is a bias cut? ans. a bias cut is a cut made diagonally across the warp and the woof. second year's sewing. . what is the warp? am: the threads that run up and down or lengthwise of the cloth are called the warp. . what is the woof? ans. the threads that run across the cloth from one selvedge to the other are called the woof. (show these on the blackboard.) . how is a stitched-in patch made? ans. the worn or torn part is first cut out in a square (see fig. ). the straight edges of the hole are made true by a drawn thread; then two adjoining sides are folded evenly together, and a bias cut \ in. is made at each of the four cor- ners, and the edges of the hole thus cut are folded and creased down on the under side \ in. (see dotted lines in fig. ). then a square piece is basted to these creases, so that it lies perfectly smooth at the corners. be sure to begin and end the basting on the patch, to make smooth and square corners (figs. , , , , )- represent this on the blackboard in the different stages. . how is an oversewed patch made? aits. the torn part is cut out and prepared in the same way as for a stitched-in patch; then the square piece of cloth to be set in is turned down by a thread evenly on one side, and over- sewed, on the under side, to one side of the prepared hole from corner to corner. the second, third, and fourth sides are oversewed in the same way. great care must be taken to turn the edges evenly, so that the patch may be flat when finished (figs. , ). (show this on the blackboard.) . what is a gusset? ans. a gusset is a piece of cloth used to strengthen the ends of a seam. fig. . — worn place cut out; the cloth prepared for a stitched-in patch. second year's sewing. . how is a gusset cut? ans. cut a piece of cloth \ in. square, cut off i in. diagonally from one corner (figs. , , , , ). fig. . fig. . method of preparing and sewing in a gusset. . how is a gusset sewed in? ans. place the apex of the triangle at the end of the seam. oversew to the cloth j in. on each side, second year's sewing. . what should always be done after gathering? ans. after gather- ing, the gathers should be stroked or laid. . how is the stroking done? ans. for stroking, the gathers must be pushed close together on the thread, and the loose end of the thread fastened firmly about a pin set at the end of the running, so that it cannot- slip. then the work is held between the thumb and first finger of the left hand, the thumb being directly over the gather- ing thread; and with a large needle or pin in the right hand, work- fig. , b. — running. fig. . — gathers stroked or laid. ing from left to right, each gather is pressed separately under the left thumb, while the pin strokes down a short distance between it and the next gather (fig. ). then turn the work and stroke above the gathering stitches in the same way, but never so violently as to make a scratching sound with the needle. progressive lessons in needlework. how is a gathered piece of cloth prepared for sewing to a band, or binding? ans. in preparing gathers for sewing to a band, find the middle of the band, and mark it with a line of small basting stitches (see fig. , b); pin the middle of the gathered piece to x fig. . — cloth marked in the centre to match band. the middle of the band, placing the two right sides together. then pin the ends of the gathered piece to the same edge \ in. from the ends of the band. this \ in. of the band is left to turn in, to finish the ends. then place the gathers evenly in each half of the band, and baste the gathered piece and band together, holding the gathers toward the person (fig. ). second year's sewing. . how should the buttonhole stitch be made? ans. in making a buttonhole stitch, the needle is put through the cloth, as for the overcasting, at the lower left-hand end, then the thread from the i i i i i fig. .— showing how the work is held, and position of needle when hemming edge of band. eye of the needle is brought around the point of the needle from right to left, and the needle pulled through, bringing the loop up straight (fig. a). the stitches should be made very near to- gether, especially at the round end (fig. b). chapter iii. third year's sewing. in the third year the sampler is made of fine white cotton. for this and the work of succeeding years on bleached cotton, the yard wide fitchville or masonville cloths have been found most desirable for handsewing, being without dressing. during the first five months of this year, fifteen minutes of the first hour should be devoted to button- hole making with fine cotton, nos. , , and , and silk twist. the teacher should have in readiness pieces of canvas and flannel, in. x in., on which to teach cross-stitch, herringbone, and feather- stitch, also pieces of linen, to teach hemstitching upon. for several months give class instruction of one-half hour each month in these stitches, as all this kind of work will be used in making the white cloth sampler. in order to train the eyes and hands of pupils, that they may be prepared for advanced work, let them now practise in cutting exactly along the lines of striped and checked cloths, material for which can be found in pieces left over from dressmaking in the sixth class. the class drill should be reviewed as often as practicable. letters of the alphabet may be made in cross-stitch (see fig. ). this practice is to train the eye and hand in spacing distance by threads both across and lengthwise of the cloth, and for marking the initials and age on the sampler. its practical value otherwise is small, and too tjo progressive lessons in needlework.. much time should not be given to it. outline-stitch can be used for initials and age, if a pupil's eyesight is too delicate to count threads. fig- - sampler no. . materials required. two strips of bleached cotton (with selvedge on one side) in. x in. two strips of cotton (lengthwise, without selvedge) } in. x in. three pieces of cotton (for patches) in. square. third year's sewing. one piece of cotton (for gusset) in. square. one piece of cotton, cut bias, § in. wide and in. long (for facing the narrow ruffle). one strip of lonsdale cotton (across the cloth) in. x in one strip of lonsdale cotton (across the cloth) in. x \ in one strip of flannel (even threads) lengthwise, in. x in. one piece of crash (even threads) for pocket, in. x ^ in. white spool cotton nos. , , , , , and . needles nos. , , , . fine crewel needle. one needleful of white buttonhole twist. three spools (three yards each) of embroidery silk in some color. one shirt button. one large pearl button. one piece of flannel, \ in. long, in. wide, for patch. the estimated cost of white cotton sampler is thirty cents. directions for making sampler. i. baste together selvedges of the first two strips of cloth and oversew with no. cotton and no. needle, leaving a distance of in. open at one end for a gusset; open the seam and press flat with the thumb-nail. . turn a narrow "handkerchief hem" on the raw edge of the first strip of cloth, as shown in illustration, and hem with no. cotton and no. needle. in. \ in. from the bottom edge of the strip cut a small hole, as shown in illustration, and mend the hole by making a hemmed-on patch, using a no. needle and no. cotton. third year's sewing. x. * make a buttonhole in. long in the broad hem of strip no. ; use no. cotton and no. needle for overcasting, and no. cotton and no. needle for working the buttonhole. make a buttonhole in. long in the broad hem of strip no. . see page . xi. put in a gusset at the opening of the oversewed seam, using no. cotton and no. needle for oversewing, and no. cotton and no. needle for hemming. xii. gather strip no. , \ in. below the top, stroke, and put into the band, using no. cotton and no. needle for gathering and stitching, no. cotton and no. needle for oversewing and hemming. make a buttonhole \ in. long in the right-hand end of the band. sew a shirt button on the left-hand end of the band, using no. cotton and no. needle. xiii. take the smaller strip of lonsdale and make a handkerchief hem on each end and across one side, using no. cotton and no. needle. this is for a ruffle. gather the ruffle \ in. from the raw edge; stroke and stitch to the top of the sampler with no. cotton and no. needle. still holding the ruffle toward the person, baste to this seam the bias strip of cloth, and make one back-stitch and two running stitches directly over the gathering. turn all these edges flat to the under edge of the sampler; turn under the top edge and one end of the bias strip; hem the turned edge to trie sampler and oversew one end. the other end is held in place by the stitching of the flannel. fi£. - —sampler no. . third year's sewing. " questions and answers. . what number cotton and needle are used for all bastings on this sampler? ans. no. cotton and no. needle are used for basting on the white sampler. • . what seam is made first on the bleached or white cloth sampler? ans. on the bleached sampler the oversewed seam is made first. . what number cotton and what number needle are used for the over- sewing? ans. no. cotton and no. needle are used for the oversewing. . for hemming the sampler, what cotton and needle are used? ans. for hemming the sampler, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for sewing the hemmed-on patch, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. for sewing a hemmed-on patch, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for sewing the stitched-in patch, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. for stitching the patch, no. cotton and a no. needle are used; and no. cotton and no. needle for the overcasting. . what number cotton and what number needle are used for the first part of the french seam? ans. no. cotton and no. needle are used for the first part of the french seam. . what number cotton and what number needle are used for stitching the french seam? ans. for stitching the french seam, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for the oversewed patch, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. no. cotton and a no. needle are used for oversewing the patch, and no. cotton and no. needle for overcast- ing it. . how should a torn or cut place be prepared for darning? ans. the edges of the cut or tear should be caught together as evenly as progressive lessons in needlework. possible by fine overcasting on the wrong side, particular care being taken at the corners (fig. a); then a straight line of basting stitches should be made all around the tear, \ inch from the joined edges, to mark where the lines of darning end (fig. ). . what number cotton and what number needle are used for the darn on the sampler? ans. no. cotton and no. needle are used for the darning on the sampler. show this preparation for darning on the blackboard. . how is the torn place darned after being prepared in this way? ans. straight lines of fine stitches are made back and forth from one guiding basting to the other, leaving a very small loop at each turning.* . how are the corners darned? ans. the lines of running stitches are made slanting instead of straight, so that they all come together at the corner of the inside basting. (illustrate on the blackboard.) . why are the little loops left? ans. the little loops are left to allow for drawing or shrinking. (represent such a darn on the blackboard.) . is the basting left in after the darning is finished? ans. no; the bastings are cut at every third or fourth stitch and carefully drawn out. * needles may be used in place of basting at each side of the darn, over which to make the loops in turning. see fig. . third year's sewing. . should a darn be made on the right or the wrong side of the cloth? ans. generally, a darn should be on the wrong side of the cloth. . what number cotton and what number needle are used for stitching the fell? ans. for stitching the fell, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for hemming the fell, what cotton and needle are used? ans. for hemming the fell, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for overcasting buttonholes, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. for overcasting buttonholes, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for working buttonholes, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. for working buttonholes, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . what number cotton and what number needle are used for the gusset on the sampler? ans. for sewing a gusset on the sampler, no. cotton and no. needle are used for oversewing, no. cotton and no. needle for hemming. . what number cotton and what number needle are used for gathering? ans. for gathering, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for stitching gathers into a band, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. for stitching gathers into a band, no. cotton and no. needle are used . for hemming the band down and oversewing the ends, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. for hemming and oversewing the band, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for sewing the button on the band, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. for sewing the button on the band, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for hemming cambric ruffles, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. for hemming cambric ruffles, no. cotton and no. needle are used. o progressive lessons in needlework. . what is a ruffle? ans. a ruffle is a strip of cloth gathered on one edge and hemmed on the other, which is then sewed to a plain piece of cloth.* . what is the use of a ruffle? ans. a ruffle is used to trim, and sometimes to lengthen a garment. . what number cotton and what number needle are used for gathering the narrow ruffle? ans. for gathering the narrow ruffle, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for stitching the ruffled piece to the plain piece, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. for stitching on the ruffled piece, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . what needle and cotton are used for sewing the bias facing to the narrow ruffle? ans. no. cotton and no. needle for the stitching part; no. needle and no. cotton for the hemming part. . how is herringbone or cat-stitch made? ans. a knot is made in the thread and the needle is brought up from the under side of the work, at the point nearest the person, as this stitch is usually worked upward or from the worker; it is sometimes worked from left to right. the work is held over the first finger of the left hand, kept in place with the second finger and thumb. the thread is first drawn through, then the needle is put through | in. to the right and \ in. above and brought up again \ in. below perpendicu- larly, care being taken to keep the thread at the left of the needle. the needle is next put through \ in. to the left and | in. above, and the stitch made in the same manner, keeping the thread to * when gathering a ruffle with a raw edge for a heading, always gather on the under or wrong side. when gathering a ruffle with a finished heading, or a dress skirt, gather on the upper or right side, beginning on the right-hand end, for both upper and under side. then the long end of the gathering thread will be at the left end of the part gathered, and the work can be easily drawn into place. third year's sewing. the right of the needle. the third stitch is to the left and above, as before (fig. ). . how is a hem blind-stitched? ans. a hem is blind-stitched by catch- ing the under part of the first fold down to the single cloth below it, with running stitches, so that no stitches show on the upper side. . what stitch is used to ornament the hem after blind-stitching it? ans. to ornament the hem, feather or vine stitching is used. . how is feather or vine stitch made? ans. a knot is made in the thread, and the needle is brought up from the under side of the fold to edm / ./ t k <• s j lir ilk m iii iii *\w e lilt (iii m iii iii v" ill mi ini p rig- - work, at the point farthest from the person, as feather-stitch is always worked downward or toward the worker. the work is held over the first finger of the left hand, kept in place with the second finger and thumb. the thread is drawn through, then placed under the thumb while the next stitch is taken; the needle is put through to the under side i in. to the right and a trifle below the place where it was brought up, and brought up again £ in. perpendicu- larly; the thread is drawn through until caught in the loop formed by the thread held under the thumb. the next stitch is made in the same manner j in. to the left and a trifle below, the third stitch to the right and below, and so on. this is the simplest third year's sewing. side curve by a line drawn through this point. this marks out the space covered by the stitches. with fine darning or tambour cotton make running stitches on the lines marked out, to strengthen the edge. . how is the embroidery edge stitch made? ans. fasten the thread, to begin the embroidery edge stitch, by taking two or three running stitches between the two curves of the scallop, and bring the needle up at the left-hand point of the first scallop, just on the lower edge of the lower curve, holding the edge toward the person. the central stitch of the scallop should be vertical. see fig. . fig. . . how is a patch made in flannel? ans. to mend a hole in flannel, a square piece of the material with the edges cut even (not turned in) is basted over the worn or torn place and on the wrong side; this is herringbone-stitched very finely all around the edges, using no. needle and no. cotton. the worn place is then cut out square, and the even edge herringbone-stitched, in the same manner, to the patch .(see figs. , ). . why are the edges of the patch not turned under, as in making a similar patch on cloth? ans. because turned edges in flannel are clumsy and unnecessary, as the material will not ravel when held by the herringbone stitches. . of what material is the pocket of the sampler made? ans. the pocket on the sampler is made of crash. third year's sewing. . how is the pocket cut? ans. cut by a thread a piece of crash for the pocket in. x % in. . what is the first step in preparing the hem for hemstitching? ans. to prepare for the hemstitched hem, draw six threads across the crash in. from the end. . what is the -next step in preparing the pocket? ans. after drawing the threads for the hemstitching, turn the edges of the piece of crash down \ in. and baste them with no. cotton and no. needle. . what is the second step in preparing the hem? ans. the second step in preparing the hem is to fold it down and baste it so that the edge of the fold already made lies evenly along the upper edge of the space left by the drawn threads. . haw is the hemstitching done? ans. to begin the hemstitching, make a tied knot in the thread and take two or three running stitches on the under side of the fold, then bring the needle to the lower side at the left-hand edge. now, holding the work over the first finger of the left hand, the hem toward the person, hold the left thumb over the thread and put the needle down between the fourth and fifth threads, take up the four threads to the left, bring the needle up, and pull the loop thus made close to the edge of the hem. holding the thread firmly under the left thumb, take an edging stitch over the edge of the hem close to the right of the four threads just taken up. then take up four more threads and repeat. always work on the side on which the hem is turned, and from left to right (fig. , a, b). . how is the thread joined in hemstitching? ans. tie a knot in the fresh thread. draw the needle through the upper fold of the hem, two stitches back, working over these stitches, and proceed as before. . what number needle and what number thread are used in hemstitch- ing the pocket? ans. in hemstitching the pocket, no. cotton and no. needle are used. progressive lessons in needlework. . how should the ends of the hem be finished? ans. the ends of the hem should be oversewed; it is better to do this before the hemstitching, as it sometimes prevents unequal stretching. . what number cotton and what number needle are used for the but- tonhole on the pocket? ans. for this buttonhole, no. cotton and no. needle are used for overcasting, and no. needle and no. cotton in making the buttonhole stitch. fig. , a.— hemstitching. . how are the letters made on the pocket? ans. to begin the mark- ing stitch, the needle is brought through to the upper side at the place for beginning the letter, the end of the thread being held on the under side until secured by the first stitch. the stitch is made by putting the needle through to the lower side two threads to the right and two threads upward (in marking on canvas or coarse crash) and bringing it up two threads below, perpendicularly. this makes the under half of the stitch. next, the needle is put through to the lower side two threads upward and two threads to third year's sewing. the left, bringing the thread diagonally across the lower half of the stitch and completing it. the pupil can see, from the letter she is copying, where the needle should be brought up to begin the next stitch, which is made in the same way. after finishing the first initial, four threads are left and a period made with a single cross-stitch. leave four threads and begin the next initial, and so on. fig. , b. — hemstitching. . how should the thread be fastened in finishing? ans. the thread should be run between the stitch and the canvas on the under side, for the length of three stitches, and cut off with the scissors. . in what direction should the letters be worked? ans. in marking, the letters should be made from left to right. . how is the place to begin lettering the pocket to be found? ans. to find the place of the first marking stitch, count the number of stitches necessary for all the initials, the periods, and the spaces between, then \ in. below the hemstitching, count from the chapter iv. fourth year's sewing. when the fine white cotton sampler has not been finished in the third year, it must be completed as early as possible in the fourth year, to give the necessary time for advanced work. the work laid out for this year includes advanced patching and darn- ing on fine, plain, and figured woollens, heavy cloths, table linen, and silk,—the darning done with ravellings, fine worsted, linen and silk threads. also stocking-darning. pupils of this year can cut and prepare all that is necessary in the sampler work for younger classes, such as cutting small paper patterns, cutting linen for pockets, lengths of flannel, and ruffles from the widtb of fine cambric. in this way they are learning to handle practically dif- ferent kinds of cloth, to know thoroughly about the length, width, and bias of cloth, and why it should be cut certain ways for different pur- poses. they also gain the ability to use their bands rapidly and easily the class should study about different materials, such as wool, linen, and silk; explain how they are produced and how made into fabrics. if possible, show specimens in various stages from the raw product to the finished goods. patching: — '• • in patching, the pupil has been taught the importance of matching the patch with the cloth of the garment in the direction of the threads, progressive lessons in needlework. cotton (fig. , b); then make straight lines of darning between the two opposite sides of the hole, and leave a loop of the thread at the end of each line of turning, to allow for shrinking; darn across the hole in like manner at right angles to these lines (see fig. ). each line of darning should begin in. or more beyond the edge of the hole, and at fig. . the left side of the worn or thin place. in one line pass the needle over the first thread and under the second, over the third and under the fourth, and so on, and in returning on the next line pass the needle over the threads taken up before, and under the threads left down (fig. ). (illustrate on blackboard.) if fine woollen thread is used in darning cotton stockings, the darn is much softer than when cotton thread is used. care should always be fourth year's sewing. taken when darning a worn place to make the lines of stitches of uneven length for the sake of strength. if the lines are of even length the whole strain is borne by one thread in the cloth, which soon gives way. explain the different kinds of needles used for darning. to show the necessity of darning before the hole actually appears, it should be explained that darning is a method of renewing the part of the cloth destroyed or weakened by wear, and in some cases is really hand- weaving. thus, if the darning is over a thin place and not a hole, the work can be made stronger and less clumsy. it would be well for the teacher to tell the child that, before stock- ings or woollen undergarments are washed, if a few stitches are taken with fine thread, drawing the torn edges evenly and as nearly together as possible, the hole instead of grow- ing larger will full together at the edges and become smaller; thus the work of mending will be lessened, the mended garment will be stronger, and the mend itself is less con- spicuous. such information from a teacher is valuable for home use. for darning woollen material, use a ravelling of the same if possible. otherwise, use a fine worsted thread, splitting it if necessary and match- ing the color of the cloth (see fig. ). in darning on silk or linen fabrics with fine floss, sewing silk, or ravellings of silk, the loops should be left shorter than in other darning, as the linen and. silk threads do not shrink like cotton and wool threads. fig. . — darned with ravellings. progressive lessons in needlework. . how should the ends of the hem be finished? ans. the ends of the hem should be oversewed; it is better to do this before the hemstitching, as it sometimes prevents unequal stretching. . what number cotton and what number needle are used for the but- tonhole on the pocket? ans. for this buttonhole, no. cotton and no. needle are used for overcasting, and no. needle and no. cotton in making the buttonhole stitch. fig. , a.— hemstitching. . how are the letters made on the pocket? ans. to begin the mark- ing stitch, the needle is brought through to the upper side at the place for beginning the letter, the end of the thread being held on the under side until secured by the first stitch. the stitch is made by putting the needle through to the lower side two threads to the right and two threads upward (in marking on canvas or coarse crash) and bringing it up two threads below, perpendicularly. this makes the under half of the stitch. next, the needle is put through to the lower side two threads upward and two threads to third year's sewing. the left, bringing the thread diagonally across the lower half of the stitch and completing it. the pupil can see, from the letter she is copying, where the needle should be brought up to begin the next stitch, which is made in the same way. after finishing the first initial, four threads are left and a period made with a single cross-stitch. leave four threads and begin the next initial, and so on. fig. , b. — hemstitching. . how should the thread be fastened in finishing? ans. the thread should be run between the stitch and the canvas on the under side, for the length of three stitches, and cut off with the scissors. . in what direction should the letters be worked? ans. in marking, the letters should be made from left to right. . how is the place to begin lettering the pocket to be found? ans. to find the place of the first marking stitch, count the number of stitches necessary for all the initials, the periods, and the spaces between, then \ in. below the hemstitching, count from the progressive lessons in needlework. middle of the pocket half this number of stitches to the left, and this gives the place for the first stitch of the first initial. . how is the pocket sewed to the sampler? ans. the pocket is hemmed to the sampler. . what number thread anfl what number needle are used for hemming on the pocket? ans. to hem on the pocket, no. thread and no. needle are used. . where should the button be sewed on? ans. after the pocket is sewed on, lay the sampler flat on the desk and place a pin through the buttonhole and cloth beneath, \ in. from the top of the buttonhole; this gives the place where the button should be sewed. . should the button be sewed on a single thickness of thin cloth? ans. a button should never be sewed on a single thickness of thin cloth, where it has to bear any strain. a small square piece should be hemmed on under the place where the button belongs, to strengthen it. now the white cloth sampler is finished.* . what is this small piece called? ans. this small piece is called a stay. needle. oversewed seam ........ french seam, run and back-stitched ..... french seam, stitched ...... fell, stitched fell, hemmed hems, broad and narrow ....... patch, hemmed on ........ patch, stitched in * the idea of the white cloth sampler originated with miss emma f. ware, milton, mass. the one in use, here illustrated, has several alterations and additions. third year's sewing. cotton. needle patch, overcast patch, oversewed . io darning . . . . ... gathering ° band, stitched on band, hemmed down and ends oversewed buttonholes, overcast ...... buttonholes, worked ....... button sewed on to band ..... button sewed on for pocket ... lonsdale ruffles, hemmed ...... narrow ruffle, gathered narrow ruffle, stitched on . narrow ruffle facing, backstitched and hemmed tucks run in broad ruffle broad ruffle, whipped ...... broad ruffle, oversewed on .... flannel, blind (or slip) stitched .... gusset, oversewed . . . . . . ■ gusset, hemmed pocket, hemstitched . pocket, buttonhole worked ..... pocket, hemmed on . stay for button, hemmed on flannel stitched on to sampler flannel overcast ....... flannel patch, herringbone stitches .... darn on flannel with ravellings of same. * see page . fourth year's sewing. figures, etc. in flannel the way of the nap, the selvedge, and the right and wrong sides of the cloth must be considered. as the edges of a flannel patch will not ravel, the raw edges can be herringboncd to the under side of the cloth, and the raw edges of the cut can be neatly her- ringboned to the patch, as shown in figs. , . fig. .—patch hemmed to the right side. patching woollen dress material must be done according to the nature of the goods, the tear, etc., and judgment must be exercised in doing it. sometimes more than one method may be wisely used. four kinds of patches are described, viz. the hemmed-on (fig. ), the stitched-in, the oversewed, and the darned-on. progressive lessons in needlework. darned-on patch: — h" when a large patch is well matched to heavy cloth, it shows less than a small one. darning is better than a small patch. a thread of the same color as the cloth should be used when patching and darning. a darned-on patch is used for heavy cloths, especially in mending fig. . — showing darn for a thin place. boys' trousers. if possible, use a patch of irregular edges, as when sewed down it is less noticeable than one with straight edges, and can, with care, often be made almost invisible. by fine overcasting of cotton or silk secure the patch to the right side of* the garment, the stitch being taken through the upper surface of fourth year's sewing. the edge of the patch. this brings the upper surface of the patch nearly to the level of the cloth of the garment. then the darning stitches should be taken below the surface of the patch and the garment, never showing on the top. to hide the turning at the end of the lines of darning, take a stitch diagonally (always under the surface) from the end stitch of the line finished to the place where the next line is to begin. fig. , a. fig. , b. pare off as little as possible of the ragged edges beneath, and catch them down securely to the under side of the patch with herringbone stitch so that the stitches do not show through. the most important points of instruction are to consider the char- acter of the cloth, the worn place, and the method of mending it. darning:— m' to darn a,hole in a stocking (fig. , a) or in woollen undercloth- ing (if large), first draw the edges together as n,ear as possible with fine progressive lessons in needlework. cotton (fig. , b); then make straight lines of darning between the two opposite sides of the hole, and leave a loop of the thread at the end of each line of turning, to allow for shrinking; darn across the hole in like manner at right angles to these lines (see fig. ). each line of darning should begin r in. or more beyond the edge of the hole, and at fig. . the left side of the worn or thin place. in one line pass the needle over the first thread and under the second, over the third and under the fourth, and so on, and in returning on the next line pass the needle over the threads taken up before, and under the threads left down (fig. ). (illustrate on blackboard.) if fine woollen thread is used in darning cotton stockings, the darn is much softer than when cotton thread is used. care should always be fourth year's sewing. taken when darning a worn place to make the lines of stitches of uneven length for the sake of strength. if the lines are of even length the whole strain is borne by one thread in the cloth, which soon gives way. explain the different kinds of needles used for darning. to show the necessity of darning before the hole actually appears, it should be explained that darning is a method of renewing the part of the cloth destroyed or weakened by wear, and in some cases is really hand- weaving. thus, if the darning is over a thin place and not a hole, the work can be made stronger and less clumsy. it would be well for the teacher to tell the child that, before stock- ings or woollen undergarments are washed, if a few stitches are taken with fine thread, drawing the torn edges evenly and as nearly together as possible, the hole instead of grow- ing larger will full together at the edges and become smaller; thus the work of mending will be lessened, the mended garment will be stronger, and the mend itself is less con- spicuous. such information from a teacher is valuable for home use. for darning woollen material, use a ravelling of the same if possible. otherwise, use a fine worsted thread, splitting it if necessary and match- ing the color of the cloth (see fig. ). in darning on silk or linen fabrics with fine floss, sewing silk, or ravellings of silk, the loops should be left shorter than in other darning, as the linen and. silk threads do not shrink like cotton and wool threads. fig. . — darned with ravellings. progressive lessons in needlework. measurement expressed in inches for different sizes of drawers. • measurement from upper part of hip to in. below the knee. lower end of upper slope. width of upper front slope. widih of upper back slope. short front length" if desired. width from folded edge to length of seat is the width of the oblong. edge for first turning of hem. fold for hem when turned for sewing. - length of seat. hem. is } } } } i* } } io\ } } } ' } } } vii. pattern of drawers for a child of ten to twelve years (fig. ): — this pattern consists of three pieces, — one-half of the drawers, and the front (fig. , a) and back (fig. , b) band. these bands are cut length- wise of the cloth and sewed to the gar- ment in the manner described in answer to question in the second year. make three buttonholes in each band- if yds. of cloth in. wide is needed for drawers f'e- - of this size. aimnanrf cut. drawer* bawl finished. progressive lessons in needlework. . draw upon the blackboard an oblong in. x in., with the shorter sides horizontal, making the left vertical a dotted line, to represent the line at which the cloth or paper is doubled. . from the upper left-hand corner of the oblong, measure in. down on the dotted line, and mark the point a, for the lower end of the upper slope. from the upper end of the left vertical, measure to the right in. mark the point b, for the width of the upper front slope. from the same end measure to the right in. mark the point c, for the width of the upper back slope. connect a-c by a straight line for the back slope. . from point b draw downward a dotted vertical line of in., mark this point x. connect a-x by a straight line for a short front length, if desired. , . from the upper end on the right vertical, measure down in. mark the point d, for length of seat. connect c-d for the back slope. connect x-d for the front slope. . from the lower end of the left vertical line, measure upward \ in. mark the point g, for width of the hem. from that point draw to the right a dotted horizontal line of in. mark the point e, for the fold of the hem. connect d-e by curving gradually to the left. this gives the curve for the leg. . from the left end of the lower horizontal; measure to the right ^ in. mark the point f. this leaves on the seam a slope for the hem. connect e-f. draw the pattern on paper doubled. cut from a to c, c to d, to e, to f; open the paper and cut from a to x and x to d. through one thickness of the paper only. to make the opening at the side, from a cut down the fold in. from the top. for binding, take a strip in. long, selvedge way of the cloth, and bind the opening. baste the binding on both sides of the opening, to the right side of the garment, by \ in. basting stitches. fourth year's sewing. back-stitch close below the basting, then turn the strip over and hem to the wrong side directly over the stitching. this makes a very strong finish for the side, which will seldom wear or tear. back-stitch and fell the seams. for children it is more economical and quite as comfortable to leave the front and the back of the drawers of the same length; then, being worn evenly, the garment lasts longer. pattern for a chemise waist, for a child eight to ten years : — this pattern consists of four pieces, one-half of the front and back, two pieces for the bias bands. f yds. of yard-wide cloth are needed for two waists. one-half of this will not cut one waist. front (fig. ). . for the front draw an oblong in. x in., with the short sides horizontal, making the left vertical dotted to represent the line at which the cloth or paper is doubled. . from the upper left corner measure vertically downward on the dotted line ^ in., in., in. mark the points, respectively, a for the lower part of the front neck, k' for the upper, and r' for the lower edge of the bias band. . from the upper left corner measure horizontally to the right ^ in., marking the point b, for the upper part of the neck; in., mark- ing the point x, for length of shoulder; q\ in., marking the point y, for width of arm-size. connect b-a by a line, curving grad- ually to the right for the curve of the neck. . from the point x draw downward a dotted vertical ^ in., and mark the lower end e, for length of arm-size. mark the point c on this line in. below the point x, for slope of shoulder seam. connect the points b-c by a straight line to give the slope of the shoulder seam. progressive lessons in needlework. i m i * fig. .—front of chemise waist. scale "- "-. fourth year's sewing. . from y draw downward a dotted vertical in., and mark the lower end of the line f, for the top of the under-arm seam. . from a draw a horizontal line in. to the right, for width of chest, and mark the end d.' connect c, d, e, and f by a line curving to the left for the curve of the arm-size. . from the lower right corner measure vertically upward ^ in., and mark the point g; j in., and mark the point r; and \o\ in., and mark the point k. connect the points f and g by a straight line, to give the slope of the side seam. the points r-k are for the upper and lower edges of the bias band. . from the lower left corner measure in. horizontally to the right, and mark the point h. connect the points h and g, to give the slope at the lower end of the side seam. . connect r and r' and k and k' by dotted lines, for the bias band at the waist. . draw the pattern on paper and cut from a to b, c, d, e, f, g, and h. ■ this garment serves as a chemise and a waist, to which the drawers and skirts can be buttoned. it is a comfortable garment for children. the band is made bias for elasticity and strength, and hemmed on the under side. it is in. wide, to give opportunity to lower the buttons as the child grows. back (fig. ). . for the back draw an oblong in. x in., the shorter sides horizontal, making the right vertical dotted, to represent the line at which the cloth or paper is doubled. from the upper left corner measure | in. horizontally to the right, and mark the point s. from this point draw a dotted vertical to the lower edge of the oblong, to mark the width of the hem at the back. on this line mark measurements for the lower part of back of neck and for width of bias band. from the upper end of •progressive lessons in needlework. fourth year's sewing. this line measure vertically downward i\ in., | in., \ \ in. mark the points, respectively, a for the lower part of the back neo< k' for the upper, and r' for the lower edge of the bias band. . from the upper left corner of the oblong measure horizontally to the right ;? in., and mark the point b, for the upper part of the back neck; f in., mark x, for length of back shoulder. connect a and b, to give the curve of the neck, by a line curving gradu- ally to the right. . from a on the hem line make a dotted horizontal line in. to the right, and mark the end d, for the width of the back. . from the point x draw downward a dotted vertical ^ in., and mark the lower end f, for the length of the back arm-size. mark the point c on this line in. below x. connect b and c by a straight line, to give the slope for the shoulder seam. connect c, d, and f by a line curving to the left, to give the curve of the back arm-size. from the lower right corner measure up \ in., and mark the point g; in., mark the point r; and in., and mark the point k. connect f and g, to give the slope of the side seam. the points r and k are for the upper and lower edges of the bias band. . from the lower left corner of the oblong measure in. to the right, mark the point h. connect g and h by a straight line, to give the slope at the lower end of the side seam. . connect r and r' and k and k' by straight lines for the bias band of the waist. . draw the pattern on paper and fold over the hem at the hem line, then cut from a to b, c, d, e, f, and" g. face the neck, arm-size, and lower edge with a strip of cloth cut on the bias. the advantage of material cut on the bias is in its power to stretch when used as a facing on curves; and on a straight edge it makes a smoother progressive lessons in needlework. lining than a straight strip of cloth. when cutting twilled fabric, fold the corner so that the lines of the twill will be perpendicular to the fold, crease firmly, and cut in the crease. cutting bias strips : — fold the bias edge the desired width, crease as before, cut in the fig. , a and b. as in the preceding years, questions on the work of the year are given out to the pupils from time to time, to which they are required to write full answers; but it is not thought necessary to specify these questions as heretofore. crease. use the first strip as a guide, by pinning it to the bias edge of the material and cutting all the strips necessary. if one strip is not of sufficient length, join the two right sides together by a stitched seam. make the seam flat and the edges even (see fig. , a and b). bias strips are much used in dress- making to cover cord, etc. this cov- ered cord makes a neat finish for a child's dress waist. • chapter v. fifth year's sewing. from the paper patterns cut in the fourth year the pupils may now cut and make undergarments of fine white cotton. flannel skirts are cut and made, either lengthwise or widthwise of the flannel; the seams are finished with herringbone or feather stitching; the hem is embroidered, if the pupil desires it. diagrams are drawn for long tiers and for sleeves. the model form is studied (illustration of model form, fig. ). if very good and careful work has been done in plain sewing, the pupil may select from their drawing lessons a design to arrange for embroidery or advanced mexican work, and when the stitches have been thoroughly learned, a large part of this work can be done at home, thus leaving the study hours for that part of the work which must be done under the supervision of the teacher. study of the model form compared with the pupil's form: — study the general character of the model form and describe it. the front is curved, the back is flat, the sides curve in slightly from the arm-size to the waist line, then curve outward. look at the cloth cover on the form; into how many parts is it divided? tell the name of each part. front, under-arm piece, back, side form for the back. these parts are joined together by seams. tell the names of these seams. progressive lessons in needlework. i dart or bias seams, under-arm seams (all seams from the last dart to the side-form seams are called under-arm seams), side-form seam (this is a curved seam and joined to the back), back centre seamj and shoulder seam. the fronts are joined or closed by a hem, but when the waist is opened at the back, a heni closes the back. notice the length of those parts which extend from the neck to the lower part of the waist; look at the shorter parts; notice and describe the dart seams. the use of a dart or bias is to lessen the fulness of the cloth and make the part smaller. measure around the lower part of the waist for a belt. make a belt \ in., wide and in. longer than the waist measure, so that one end of the belt can lie over the other end for a lap. pin this belt close around the smallest part of the waist, that all vertical measurements may be made from its lowest edge, that edge being called the waist line. measuring the form. . from the lower part of the neck curve, measure vertically to the waist line; this makes a front centre line. . measure from the lower edge of the front centre of the belt to the upper edge of the shoulder seam on the neck. make a note of this and all following measurements. . measure horizontally from the lower part of the shoulder to the front centre line. observe the distance from the centre line to the first dart seam and to the second dart seam. measure hori- fig. . — model form fifth year's sewing. zontally the distance from the top of the darts to this centre line, also from these darts at the waist line to the centre line. compare these measures; tell how they differ; notice that the cloth has been drawn into a small space to make this difference. measure horizontally from the top of the last dart to the first under-arm seam; to the second under-arm seam. at the waist line, from the last dart, measure to these under-arm seams. compare these measurements; tell how they differ. from the waist line at the centre of the back measure vertically to the centre of the back neck. measure horizontally from the lower edge of the shoulder seam to this back centre seam; from the lower part of the back arm-size, measure horizontally to this back centre seam. notice where the side form joins the back by a curved seam, and where this curved seam begins at the back arm-size. at the waist line, measure the distance from the back centre seam to this curved seam; measure from this curved seam to the second under-arm seam at the waist line. on the blackboard make a diagram of these parts. make diagrams on paper, cut them out, pin them to the form, and see how they compare with the parts of the cover. when a pupil has gained a knowledge of the form, let her take a sheet of thin manilla paper and make a pattern of the cioth cover by pinning the paper to the form and using its seams as a guide for the seams in her paper pattern. then make a pattern in cloth. when a satisfactory pattern has been made in cloth, let the pupil tell in writing how she made it. take measurements like these on the pupil's form and cut a paper pattern from them. let a teacher not be discouraged when her pupil fails to make a perfect pattern from these measurements, since this is but preparatory work, and pupils have not yet suffi- cient judgment necessary for perfect work. progressive lessons in needlework. pattern for a tier. this pattern consists of five pieces: one-half of the front, one-half of the back, upper and under part of sleeve, and neck band. pattern of the front of tier, having chest measure of in. and length measure of in. (fig. ). measurements: — for the length of the tier, measure from the upper part of the shoulder to the lower edge of the dress skirt. for the chest measure, pass the tape over the chest, under the arms, and across the back. allow the tape measure to lie smoothly over these parts and observe the number of inches. . draw upon the blackboard an oblong in. x in., the shorter sides horizontal; and make the left vertical dotted, to represent the line where the cloth or paper is doubled. . from the upper left corner, measure vertically down in. and mark the point a, for the lower part of the front neck. from the point a, draw to the right a horizontal dotted line y\ in. and mark the right end d, for width of chest. . from the upper left corner, measure horizontally to the right in. for the upper part of the front neck, in. and in. for the length of shoulder and width of arm-size, marking the points respectively b, x, and y. connect b and a by a line curving gradually to the right, for the curve of the neck. • . from the point x draw downward a dotted vertical of in. and mark the lower end e, for length of arm-size. on this line mark the point c in. below x. connect c and b by a straight line for the slope of the shoulder. . from y draw downward a dotted vertical j\ in. and mark the lower end f, for the upper end of the under-arm seam. beginning at c, connect c, d, e, and f by a line which curves gradually to the left, for the arm-size. .fig- - g progressive lessons in needlework. basting and making a sleeve. when the cloth has been cut from this pattern, place the lower edges of the inner seam evenly together and baste from this point to the top; place the lower edges of the back seam evenly together and baste in the same way. stitch the seam below the basting; turn, baste, and sew the hem. at the top of the upper part of the sleeve make two lines of running stitches, the first line \ in., the second ^ in. below the top edge, with which to gather the fulness. make a notch in the edge at the point b, and place this point i in. in front of the shoulder seam on the arm-size, and then arrange the fulness to the arm-size in. in front of b and in. back of b, being careful to keep the inner seam of the sleeve well under the arm. this pattern allows for one-half inch seams. when a coat sleeve with a full top is desired for the sleeve of a dress, cut by this tier sleeve pattern; if it is too loose below the arm- size, curve the back seam to fit the arm. in cutting sleeves, never double the. cloth except in double width material, because the four pieces can be cut more economically from single cloth. pupils should learn to cut some of their patterns freehand. the following description is for a blouse or shirt sleeve. the pupil watches the teacher, who cuts out the pattern from a doubled piece of paper, the folded edge of which is used as an inner seam. after the upper side of the sleeve is cut, the paper is unfolded, and the curve of the top is cut for the under side. the pattern is then tried on the arm and pared to fit exactly. the pupil now takes the pattern and traces it upon the blackboard. she then spreads the pattern upon her desk and compares it carefully with the one drawn on the black- board. she then erases the drawing on the blackboard and draws on paper, freehand, a sleeve for the right arm, then a sleeve for the left arm. she then takes a piece of paper and cuts freehand this pattern of a sleeve. fifth year's sewing. ioi chest, and the loop of the thread held to the right of the line. draw the needle through, and carry it backward another ^ in. along the line of the design, and continue as before; and so on. at points or corners the ingenuity of the worker must be exercised in deciding how to shorten the stitch, and where to put the needle through so as to preserve the outline. when a large design is made, or worked on coarse material, a longer stitch is made. sixth year's sewing. io ■ at the waist line i| in. after the seams are sewed; they should be increased or lessened according to the size of the waist. to prepare a lining and fit it to a form: — * for a form which has a bust measure of in. and waist measure of in., take ^ yds. of lining. (the cut edges are on the width of fig. — pattern of a basque. the cloth.) pin the cut edges^ together, as the cloth is to be cut double, and both sides of the lining are fitted to one side of the form. turn \ in. for a hem. the width is now vertical, the length of the cloth horizontal. the width threads of cloth stretch in wearing, and the lining is cut in this way to remove all tendency to wear short-waisted. * for a round waist or basque. sixth year's sewing. j together for the shoulder seam, which should be in. long. make this seam in. back from the top of the shoulder. to cut the back arm-size and curve for the side form: — cut vertically downward in. from the lower end of the shoulder seam for the back arm-size; from this point cut the curve for the side form, making the back centre pieces in. wide at the waist line. m to fit the side form : — pin two straight pieces of the lining by a horizontal thread to the waist line and pin by a vertical thread from the waist line to the upper part of the curve; pin this side form smoothly to the curve, taking ^ in. seam from the back curve; this seam curves the side form exactly like the back; below the waist line the side form has a straight edge. (we are describing a plain basque, — all these seams can be altered at the fancy of the maker.) the curve to fit the body below the waist line is cut on the front edge of the back centre pieces. pin the side forms to the under-arm piece. having brought the front and back smoothly together, begin pinning these parts together half-way between the waist line and the arm-size; from this point continue pinning the seam down to the waist line, then pin from the centre of the seam to the arm-size. by following these directions, the seam will not wrinkle. the curve to fit the body below the waist line is cut on 'the back edge of the under-arm piece. when all the seams are securely pinned, take the pins from the front hem and from the back centre fold, pare all the seams to within in. of the pins. make a notch in every seam at the waist line for guides to commence basting the different parts together. a dress waist, to be in good proportion, should have that part of the waist lining which is between the last dart and first under-arm seam nearly equal in measurement to the back side form and under-arm piece (or pieces). if the eye is trained in proportions, a good pattern may be cut without exact measurement. a round waist or a basque lining may be fitted to a pupil's form in sixth year's sewing. then take the thinnest kind of manilla paper to represent the dress material, and pin it over the dress lining in the same manner as the tissue paper was arranged on the small model. use the manilla paper for a pattern from which to cut the dress material. in cutting the dress goods, be careful to have the corresponding pieces for the two sides of the waist correct. if both are cut together, the cloth must be folded so that the right sides lie together. single width cloth can be cut more economically if not folded. if one piece is cut first, it should be laid either right side on the right side, or wrong side on the wrong side, of the cloth from which the other is to be cut. show on the blackboard the proper position of the right sleeve to the left sleeve when cut correctly. be very exact in cutting curves. after the dress material is cut, the pieces should be laid on the corresponding pieces of#the lining, and the two smoothly basted together in. from the edge, with stitches from in. to in. long. the seams should then be basted with short basting stitches of \ in., always beginning at the notches made at the waist line. fig. . — paper dress made by a pupil. . i io progressive lessons in needlework. to prepare a plain round skirt for sewing to the waist or band: — divide the skirt and waist or band into corresponding halves by cross-stitches of a colored thread, which show readily against the cloth. turn the top edge until the skirt is the desired length. gather the skirt on the right side, making the stitches \ in. long and spaces \ in. long for gathering the back breadth; gathering stitches \ in. long and spaces \ in. for the side breadths; for the front breadth even stitches and spaces of \ in. to sew a skirt to the waist or band: — pin the centres of the waist and skirt firmly together; hold the skirt and gathers toward the sewer, take one gather on' each stitch, and sew firmly with strong thread. sew the gathers of the back breadth into a space in. long. the gathers of the front breadth sew into a space in. long. the side breadths should be sewed between these measures. if the figure requires more fulness at the sides than this gives, the gathers can be spread a little from the front and back. this description is for a skirt made from four widths of gingham. pattern of one-half of gored skirt (fig. ). this pattern consists of three pieces, viz. front, back, and side gore, which is one-half the skirt. quantity of material in. wide needed for a skirt, yds. half of front breadth. . draw on the blackboard an oblong in. x in., having the shorter lines horizontal and the left vertical a dotted line, to show where the cloth or paper is doubled. « . from the left upper corner, measure horizontally to the right \ in., | in., | in., and in., marking the points respectively a, b, c, and d. sixth year's sewing. . from the lower left corner draw a straight line to the point e. this line slopes the lower edge of the side gore, making it even with the straight edge of the back breadth. back breadth. . draw on the blackboard an oblong in. x in., the shorter lines horizontal, and the right vertical dotted, to show where the cloth is doubled. . mark two notches in the centre of the left vertical, to correspond with the notches in the side gore. in putting the breadths together, several points must be carefully observed. . baste together a straight and gored edge according as they are notched, — an edge having one notch to an edge having one notch, an edge having two notches to an edge having two notches. . always hold the gored edge to the person in basting or sewing. . in order to keep the gored edges always toward the person in working, two seams on one side of the skirt should be com- menced at the top, the top edges being exactly even; the seams opposite must be commenced at the bottom, and the lower edges can be measured and arranged from the side already done. the even hanging of the skirt depends upon the careful observation of these points- cut evenly the lower edge of the skirt. make all seams of equal length, turn the upper edge until the skirt is the desired length. sew a bias facing in. wide to the lower edge of the skirt, and gather (as a round skirt) the upper edge of the back breadth and the side gores to the v. oversew to the band or waist, as sixth year's sewing. when making eyelets in soft woollens, or in any material that ravels easily, it is better first to overcast the edges with fine silk or cotton. the edge of the eyelet when finished should feel like a piece of fine twine. a round waist may be fitted with one dart at each side of the front, one seam in the back; the waist may be fitted without the under arm piece, making one less seam. when a waist is cut this way, it is called a french waist. fitting a round waist to a form: — when fitting a lining to the left side of the form for a round waist, pin the hem to the centre of the front, as described,on page , from the fold of the hem, at the fullest part of the chest, measure horizontally to the left in., place a pin vertically at this point for the top of the dart; from the folded edge of the hem at the waist line measure in. horizontally to the left; here place a pin vertically. the line between these two pins will be the fold of , the dart; below the bust, the fulness for the dart is held firmly between the thumb and first finger of the left hand, while pinning it with the right. beginning at the top of the dart, draw the fulness until the lining is perfectly smooth; pin the dart to fit the form. at the waist line the width of the dart should measure inch or more, according to the fulness of the chest or bust. appendix a. the following papers, prepared by the pupils, are added to show the relation of drawing and language to needlework; demonstrating a lesson in this way makes the work educational as well as practical. third year's sewing. a stitched-in patch. i first cut the worn or torn place out square. the four edges are made true by a drawn thread. then i make the bias cuts, which are small cuts \ in. in each corner, and crease the edges to mark for a line of stitching. then i mark the lengthwise of my cloth and patch by a pin or a crease. i lay the patch on the under side, and baste the edges even, first taking a few stitches out on the patch; and when one side is finished, i sew a few stitches out on the other side of patch, as before. this is to make the corners square. i then cut the thread, and turn to the width of my cloth, and begin out on the patch. then i sew the sides, as i ! progressive lessons in needlework. , did before, until i have the four | ri sides sewed, and overcast the raw edges. my first diagram represents the torn or worn place. my second diagram represents the torn or worn place cut out square; the dotted lines show where it is creased. my third diagram represents the patch basted on to the garment. my fourth diagram represents the patch stitched in, and the edges overcast. my fifth diagram represents the patch finished. mary steverman w. h. lincoln school. (age years). second year's sewing. for oversewing we put the two edges together, and baste ^ in. from the top. we use no. . basting line. we begin at the right hand, and sew to the left. we commence oversewing by taking a stitch on the right-hand end; draw the thread all but |- in., put that j in. on the top, and go on sewing over it three stitches. if the end of the thread is now seen, cut it off. joining. to join a new thread, we go back three stitches, then take a stitch and pull the thread through, leaving j in.; put that on the top with the other end; sew over it four stitches. if the end is seen, cut it off; when we are through, we sew back two stitches. agnes brown w. h. lincoln school. (age years). • . appendix. third year's sewing. how i sew on a wristband. in preparing a piece of cloth to sew to a band, i find the middle, and mark it with a cross-stitch. fig. represents my cloth. i find the middle of the band, and mark it with a small line of basting stitches like fig. . i make a line of running stitches for gathering. now i draw these gathers into as small a space as possible, and wind' the thread around a pin, and stroke when this is done, i pin the ends of piece i in. from the ends of the band, like fig. , and baste it to the band y ^ in. below the gathering fig. . \ fig. . my gathers; the gathered ® r fig. - thread, fastening the ends securely by three over- sewing stitches down to the gather- ing thread, now holding the gathers toward me, take one back-stitch on fig. . every gather, take out the bastings, turn the band up from the gathers, baste and oversew the ends of the band; baste and hem the other edge of the band to the gathers, take one stitch in each gather. fig. shows band finished. nellie e. johnson heath school, drookline, april , . (age years). appendix b. circular to h.m. inspectors. the lords of the committee of the privy council have issued the following circular to h.m. inspectors: — [circular .] "education department, " th april, . "sir, — my lords find that in the children's needlework, which has been examined by the directress of needlework at this department, there were many instances of the materials having been prepared and fixed before they were distributed to the children. the table of exercises, in the instructions to her majesty's inspectors, distinctly prescribes- that, except in and below standard i., no fixing or preparation of pieces is allowable, and you should impress this rule upon the teachers. the children must themselves fold hems, draw threads for stitching, make bands, place tapes, fix buttons in position, cut button- holes, cut holes before patching, place patches, trace patterns, etc. it is the desire of my lords that the needlework instruction in public elementary schools should be of a practical nature, and suitable to the wants of the children in after-life; it is therefore essential that children should know how to set about a given exercise in order to produce a certain result — their aptitude in fixing a patch the right side and way of the material is equal in importance to the neatness and regularity of the stitches. the correct fixing and preparation of the test specimens (by the children) must be taken into account in assessing the value of the needlework of a school; and, in cases where assistance is given in such fixing or preparation, the teachers should be warned that any repetition of it at future examinations will be regarded as equally unfair with assistance in other parts of the examination. — i am, sir, your obedient servant,' "p. cumin. "to "h.m. inspector of schools." needlework. progressive lessons in the art and practice of needlework for use in schools. by catherine f. johnson, teacher of sewing in public schools, brookline, mass. cloth. illustrated. pages. this is a text-book which explains needlework from its rudiments, and gives, with over one hundred illustrations, full directions for leading pupils from the simpler steps of the art through six years of well-graded work. the course of instruction outlined was planned for pupils in the lincoln school, brookline, mass., and has been improved from year to year, until the results are so satisfactory as to warrant the author in yielding to the public demands for its publication. what is taught. plain and fancy sewing, drawing, designing, cutting by measurements, fitting, — all the arts of tailor and seamstress. the subject is treated systematically and with an intelligent idea of the needs of the pupils, resultant from long experience, thus placing sewing on an equality with other branches of industrial training, in its practical value in the schools, as an educational force. the system has for its constant purpose — i. the training of the body to assume and keep correct position. ii. training of the fingers to handle properly the implements used. iii. training of the eye to quick and accurate perceptions. iv. training to correct expression by requiring oral and written de- scriptions of work done. v. training of taste, will, and judgment, so that neatness, decision, perseverance, patience, promptness, thoroughness, and economy of materials becomes second nature. this complete and systematic treatment of a comparatively new depart- ment of industrial training will help teachers to secure for sewing a recognition in every manual training course. while boys are learning carpentry, metal-working, and printing, girls should have an opportunity for perfecting themselves in one of the great domestic arts. this book makes such a work both practical and pleasant. the following testimonials are from those whose position and experience enables them to speak with authority. professor john d. runkle, massachusetts in- stitute of technology', and chairman of industrial committee of school board, brookline, mass.: i think it excellent in all respects. i might not feel so certain of the method if i had not seen the results in our own schools. every part of the book is the result of experience in the class-room. it has not been hastily prepared, but has been an actual outgrowth cf long experience. it is not a large and portentious book; includes only so much as can be carefully and thoroughly gu/ie over dur- ing the course. we need the book very much in our schools, and i feel sure that it is needed elsewhere. elizabeth h. little, teacher of sewing, neiv- bury, mass.: it is the best book i have seen on the subject. i think the method of work is far beyond the methods that i have seen used in other cities. mary a. spear, late principal of model school, state normal school, west chester, pa.: i have read the manuscript carefully and from a teacher's stand-point. i think the ideas there given could be worked out and most satisfactory results ob- tained by any one, even though she may have had little or no experience in teaching sewing. the method is a progressive one, — the work gradually and steadily becoming more and more difficult. it contains plain and practical direc- tions for doing various kinds of useful needle- work, and also a few hints for ornamental work. teachers can scarcely fail to obtain good results i when they have such a book for a guide. it is equally good for pupils, or for any one learning to sew. louisa p. hopkins, board of supervisors, boston, mass.: it is more distinctly educational than that of most of our cities. it begins with first principles, and is gradually developed in con- nection with language and drawing and close observation of process and material with a careful study of the latter. it concerns itself with the elements of sewing, progressing by a natural order, and therefore more educational than industrial in motive. the general plan of the work and progression is excellent, and the experience of the author is a safe foundation for its precepts and details of method. i have no doubt it will meet a wide necessity, and be a very successful book. d. c. heath & co., publishers, boston. new york. chicago. london. needlework. home testihony. the author of progressive needlework is teacher of sewing in the public schools of iirookline, mass. from the superintendent, committee, and teachers we have recently received the following testimony to the value of this method. from samuel t. dutton, supt. of schools, brookline, mass. progressive lessons in needlework. . the book contains work for six years. and, as its name implies, is a thoroughly progressive course. "from the easy to the difficult," is a ruling principle throughout. if children in the kindergarten and primary schools have worked designs with the needle upon perforated cards, they find it an easy step to the first exercises of this course. in case they have had no such training the initiatory steps are so simple that no great difficulty is experienced. . the course recognizes hygienic principles. much attention is given to positions at the desk, finger exercises to promote flexibility and strength and variety of muscular effort in the various exercises. . it aims to secure mental training as well as manual skill. the perception of color and form, the exercise of taste in designing and the training of the judgment in all creative work are incidental features of the method. . it provides for the co-ordination of needlework with other branches of study. drawing of design and pattern, language through written exercises, arithmetic in con- nection with measurement and estimates; geography in learning the sources of material used, history in considering the clothing of other people, chemistry as re- lated to dyes, etc. — these are instances of co-ordination suggested. . the plan and its execution are so displayed in the book as to engage the interest and approbation of all thoughtful teachers. it is no longer an experiment, and all who have seen its practical working pronounce it unexcelled as a scheme of educa- tional needlework. {jan. , s .) from prof. j. d. runkle, industrial committee, school board, brookline. it is excellent in every respect. it is the result of long experience in the class-room. i have seen the results of its method. we need the book itself very much in our schools, and i am sure it is needed elsewhere. from ruth e. lander, head ass't, wm. h. lincoln school, brookline, mass. this method of teaching sewing was introduced into the schools of brookline four years ago. during this time it has become a part of the school curriculum. by its method the pupil has attained a mental training equalled in no other department, as a lesson in sewing includes one in english, drawing, and careful measurement. needlework. expert evidence. harriet s. sackett, dept. of domestic art, pratt institute, brooklyn. it is decidedly the best book on the subject ever printed in english. it will be most helpful and suggestive to teachers, and i shall take great pleasure in recom- mending it and putting it on the list of books. {oct. is, .) from louise howe, supervisor of primary sewing, south end industrial school, boston. this book has been of great service to me. i have several copies, and keep them in constant circulation, loaning them to the teachers in turn, to study at home. it is especially valuable in this work, as the teachers are volunteers and some have had lit;le experience in teaching. the illustrations of darns and pitches have b^en invaluable. last week i followed the suggestions and had two classes baste paper patches with great success. i am thoroughly convinced that the sampler work is the best and most satisfactory for begin- ners. last winter after studying the work in the lincoln school, brookline, i started every child in tiie school on a sampler. the results were very gratifying. i have adopted a very simple form of sampler on unbleached cotton, with red thread; it comprises stitching,- felling, hemming, over-sewing, over-casting, bisting, ruffle, buttonholes, darn and patch, also name in outline. in all cases where the teachers have taken to the work, the children have been much interested. i think almost all the teachers approve of the system now, bat at first many were skeptical. this year i started two younger classes as an experiment, having them make a canvas sampler according to the book. i have been so much pleased with the work that another year i shall have more of these classes, giving preference to the younger children who apply. they will make the cotton samplers when they finish the canvas. for public school work i should thoroughly endorse the whole system, considering it a great advance over the old methods. {jan. , ^ .) from j. c. greenough, prin. normal school, wcstfield,'mass. it is an admirable book — simple, direct and progressive. it is the book with which to teach the subject. {march , s .) from mrs. emma epley, teacher of sewing, public schools, philadelphia, pa. i have been very much pleased with the book, and have found many helpful ideas in it. {sept. , .) from miss mary a- spear, recently principal of model school, west chester state normal school, pa. the careful study of progressive lessons will nut only fit a girl to do such work as will really present itself in her home life, but it will give such exercises for her hands, eye*, and mind as will increase her power to think, and to express thought. it will help her to form habits of order, exactness, and perseverance- and she will be better fitted to do and to appreciate the value of perfect work wherever it is found. reading. badlands suggestive lessons in language and reading. a manual for pri- mary teacher*. plain and practical; bung a transcript of work actually done in the school room. $ i. . badlam's stepping-stones to reading.— a primer. supplements the -page book above. boards. cts. badlamrs first reader. new and valuable word-building exercises, designed to follow the above. boards. cts. bass's nature stories for young readers: plant life- intended to supple- ment the first and second reading-books. boards. cts. bass's nature stories for young readers: animal life. gives lessons on animals and their habits. to follow second reader. boards. cts. fuller's illustrated primer. presents the word-method in a very attractive form to the youngest readers. boards. cts. fuller's charts. three charts for exercises in the elementary sounds, and for combin- ing them to form syllables and words. the set for f . . mounted, $ $. hall's how to teach reading. treats the important question: what children should and should not read. paper. cts. miller's my saturday bird class. designed for use as a supplementary reader in lower grades or as a text-book of elementary ornithology. boards. cts. norton's heart of oak books. this series is of material from the standard imagin- ative literature of the english language. it draws freely upon the treasury of favorite stories, poems, and songs with which every child should become familiar, and which have done most to stimulate the fancy and direct the sentiment of the best men and women of the english-speaking race. book i, passes, cts.; book ii. pages, cts.; book iii, pages, cts.; book iv, pages, 'cts.; book v, pages, cts. smith's reading and speaking. familiar talks to those who would speak well in public. cts. spear's leaves and flowers. designed for supplementary reading in lower grades or as a text-book of elementary botany. boards. cts. ventura's mantegazza's testa. a book to help boys toward a complete self-develop- ment. $ . . wright's nature reader, no. i. describes crabs, wasps, spiders, bees, and some univalve mollusks. boards. cts. wright's nature reader, no. ii. describes ants, flies, earth-worms, beetles, bar- nacles and star-fish. boards. cts. wright's nature reader, no. iii. has lessons in plant-life, grassnoppers, butter- flies, and birds. boards- cts. wright's nature reader, no. iv. has lessons in geology, astronomy, world-life etc. boards. cts. for advanced supplementary reading see our list /books in english literature. d. c. heath & co., publishers, boston. new york. chicago. drawing and manual training. johnson's progressive lessons in needlework. explains needlework from its rudiments and gives with illustrations full directions for work during six grades. pages. square vo. cloth, $ . . boards, cts. seidel's industrial instruction (smith). a refutation of all objections raised ?gainst industrial instruction. pages. cts. thompson's educational and industrial drawing. primary free-hand series (nos.- - ). each no., per doz., $ . . primary free-hand manual. pages. paper. cts. advanced free-hand series (nos. - ). each no., per doz., $ . . model and object series (nos. - ). each no., per doz., $ . . model and object manual: pages. paper. cts. ^esthetic series (nos - ). each no., per doz., $ . . ^esthetic manual. pages. paper. cts. mechanical series (nos. - ). each no., per doz., $ . . mechanical manual. pages. paper. cts. models to accompany thompson's drawing: set no. i. for primary books, per set, cts. set no. ii. for model and object book no. , per set, cts. set no. iii. for model and object book no. , per set, cts. thompson's manual training, no. i. treats of clay modelling, stick and tablet laying, paper folding and cutting, color, and construction of geometrical solids. illustrated. pages. large svo. paper. cts. thompson's manual training, no. . treats of mechanical drawing, clay- modelling in relief, color, wood carving, paper cutting and pasting. illustrated. pp. large svo. paper. cts. waldo's descriptive geometry. a large number of problems systematically ar- ranged, with suggestions. pages. cts- whitaker's how to use wood working tools. lessons in the uses of the universal tools: the hammer, knife, plane, rule, chalk-line, square, gauge, chisel, saw, and auger. pages. cts. woodward's manual training school- its aims, methods, and results; with detailed courses of instruction in shop-work. fully illustrated. pages. octavo. £ . . woodward's educational value of manual training. sets forth more clearly and fully than has ever been done before the true character and functions of manual train- ing in education. pages. paper. cts. sent postpaid by mail on receipt of price. d. c. heath & co., publishers, boston. new york-. chicago. english language. hyde's lessons in english, book i. for the lower grades. contains exercises for reproduction, picture lessons, letter writing, uses of parts of speech, etc. cts. hyde's lessons in english, book ii. for grammar schools. has enough tech- nical grammar for correct use of language. cts. hyde's lessons in english, book ii with supplement. has, in addition to the above, pages of technical grammar. cts. , supplement bound alone, cts. hyde's advanced lessons in english. for advanced classes in grammar schools and hign schools. cts. hyde's lessons in english, book ii with advanced lessons. the ad- vanced lessons and book. ii bound together. cts. hyde's derivation of words. cts. mathews's outline of english grammar, with selections for practice. the application of principles is made through composition of original sentences. cts. buckbee's primary word book. embraces thorough drills in articulation and in the primary difficulties of spelling and sound. cts. sever's progressive speller. for use in advanced primary, intermediate, and gram- mar grades. gives spelling, pronunciation, definition, and use of words. cts. badlam's suggestive lessons in language. being part i ana appendix of suggestive lessons in language and reading. cts. smith's studies in nature, and language lessons. k combination of object lessons with language work. cts. part i bound separately, cts. meiklejohn's english language. treats salient features with a master's skill and with the utmost clearness and simplicity. $ . . meiklejohn's english grammar. also composition, versification- paraphrasing, etc for high schools and colleges- go cts. meiklejohn's history of the english language. pages. part in of eng- lish language above, cts. williams's composition and rhetoric by practice. for hi?h school and col- lege. combines the smallest amount of theory with an abundance of practice. revised edition. $ . strang's exercises in english. examples in syntax, accidence, and style for criticism and correction. cts. huffcutt's english in the preparatory school. presents as practically as pos- sible som: of the advanced methods of teaching english grammar and composition in the secondary schools. cts. woodward's study of english. discusses english teaching from primary school to high collegiate work. cts. genung's study of rhetoric. shows the most practical discipline of students for thi • making of literature. cts. goodchild's bojk of stops. punctuation in verse. illustrated. cts. see also our list of books for the study of english literature. d. c. heath & co., publishers, boston. new york. chicago. tec . t stands at the head! the light-running kardia emia ols eccl, tas n chr) adem onvin the largest armed, barvard college library from bis domestic sewing machine company. broadway and th street, new york. chicago, distributing offices: detroit, san francisco, st. louis, milwaukee, cleveland, mack bros. kansas city, richmond, cincinnati, mace advertisements. books on art. introduction to the study of art. by m. a. dwight, author of “grecian and roman mythology." mo. cloth, $ . . ii. great lights in sculpture and painting. a manual for young students. by s. d. doremus. mo. cloth, $ . . "this little volume has grown out of a want long felt by a writer who desired to take a class through the history of the great sculptors and painters, as a preliminary step to an intelligent journey through europe."-from preface. iii. schools and masters of painting. with an appendix on the principal galleries of europe. with numerous illustrations. by a. g. radcliffe. mo. cloth, $ . . "the volume is one of great practical utility, and may be used to advantage as an artistic guide-book by persons visiting the collections of italy, france, and germany, for the first time. the twelve great pictures of the world, wbich are familiar by copies and engravings to all who have the slightest tincture of taste for art, are described in a special chapter, which affords a convenient stepping-stone to a just appreciation of the most celebrated masterpieces of painting. an important feature of the work, and one which may save the traveler much time and expense, is the sketch presented in the appendix, of the galleries of florence, rome, venice, paris, dresden, and other european collections."-n. y. tribune. iv. studio, field, and gallery, a manual of painting, for the student and amateur ; with infor. mation for the general reader. by horace j. rollin. mo. cloth, $ . . "the work is a small one, but it is comprehensive in its scope; it is written as tersely as possible, with no waste sentences, and scarcely any waste words, and to amateur artists and art-students it will be invaluable as a hand-book of varied infor- mation for ready reference."-n. y. evening post. v ruskin on painting. with a biographical sketch. (forming no. of appletons “new handy-volume series.") mo. paper, cents; cloth, cents. majati royal full weight royal pawns absolutely pure royan une don were saking powder absolutely pure. this powder never varies. a marvel of purity, strength, and wholesomeness. more economical than the ordinary kinds, and can not be sold in competition with the inultitude of low test, short weight, alum, or phosphate powders. sold only in cans. royal baking powder co., wall st., n. y. a copy of the “ royal baker and pastry cook,” by pro- fessor rudmani, containing over baking and cooking receipts, will be mailed-free to any address. royal baking powder co., p. o. box , new york. appletons' home books. the home needle. by ella rodman church, author of "how to furnish a home,” “the home garden,” etc. new york: d. appleton and company, , , and bond street. . ᏢᎡ e fa c Ꭼ . of books on embroidery and fancy-work, and all kinds of home decoration, there is no lack, and very charming and suggestive these dainty volumes are; but the humbler occupations of plain sewing and useful needle-work are too much neglected. in a “home series,” at least, these topics should have a place; and the making of garments at home, as well as the many other practical uses to which that es- sentially feminine implement—the needle—can be put, is a subject that interests all women, except, perhaps, the favored few whose pathway lies among the velvets and roses of life, and whose only use of the marvelous little instrument is when it is threaded with embroi- dery-silk. for purposes of economy, and even of money-mak- ing, a deft use of the needle is a power not to be despised; and the encomium, “she can make anything that is to be made,” applied to a skillful needle-wom- an, is of itself a liberal endowment. the suggestions preface. in this little volume are intended for those who desire a practical knowledge of plain sewing, millinery, and dress-making, who may find in the hints here offered a safe guide to experimental knowledge. the home needle. “go teach the orphan-girl to sew.” it is not at all probable that the lady who received this very practical exhortation knew anything about sewing ; and, in this respect at least, there are many who resemble the proud daughter of a hundred earls. the sewing-machine, though undoubtedly a great gain as a labor-saving invention, has much of this to answer for. like a willing servant, more is expected of it than it is able to perform. “just run it up on the machine" is a direc- tion that does not apply with equally good results to all kinds of sewing; and the habit is apt to produce a careless style of working. then, too, the finishing off of work after the machine has done its duty is quite an important item; the working of button-holes is no trifle; and even preparing the garments to be stitched requires neatness, regularity, and dispatch. work that is too hastily done is never well done; and the tearing manner in which some people attack a piece of sewing promises an abundant harvest of broken needles, snapped threads, and drawn and twisted seams, in lieu of the garments made by steam, which is their apparent aim. tee . it stands at the head! - ... the light-running tardia tana ard mwali emia eccle chris esia novi osiang cade | the largest armed, barvard college library from domestic sewing machine company. broadway and th street, new york. distributing offices : chicago, detroit, san francisco, st. louis, milwaukee, cleveland, mack bros., kansas city, richmond, cincinnati, mack bros. advertisements. books on art. . introduction to the study of art. by m. a. dwight, author of “grecian and roman mythology." mo. cloth, $ . . ii. great lights in sculpture and painting. a manual for young students. by s. d. doremus. mo. cloth, $ . . "this little volume has grown out of a want long felt by a writer who desired to take a class through the history of the great sculptors and painters, as a preliminary step to an intelligent journey through europe."-from preface. iii. schools and masters of painting. with an appendix on the principal galleries of europe. with numerous illustrations. by a. g. radcliffe, mo. cloth, $ . . "the volume is one of great practical utility, and may be used to advantage as ad artistic guide-book by persons visiting the collections of italy, france, and germany, for the first time. the twelve great pictures of the world, which are familiar by copies and engravings to all who have the slightest tincture of taste for art, are described in & special chapter, which affords a convenient stepping-stone to a just appreciation of the most celebrated masterpieces of painting. an important feature of the work, and one which may save the traveler much time and expense, is the sketch presented in the appendix, of the galleries of florence, rome, venice, paris, dresden, and other european collections."-n. y. tribune. iv. studio, field, and gallery, a manual of painting, for the student and amateur; with infor. mation for the general reader. by horace j. rollin. mo. cloth, $ . . “the work is a small one, but it is comprehensive in its scope; it is written as tersely as possible, with no waste sentences, and scarcely any waste words, and to amateur artists and art-students it will be invaluable as a hand-book of varied infor- mation for ready reference."--n. y. evening post. ruskin on painting. with a biographical sketch. (forming no. of appletons' “new handy-volume series.") mo. paper, cents; cloth, cents. vi. majolica and fayence: italian, sicilian, majorcan, hispano-moresque, and persian. by arthur beckwith. with photo-engraved illustrations. second edition, mo. clotb, $ . . d. appleton & co., publishers, , , & bond street, n. y. ers&stationersi kw.b.clarke cos booksellers&stat tremont st.& court sq.,boston. va roy full weigh royal powder absolutely purs royal o powder baking powder absolutely pure. this powder never varies. a marvel of purity, strength, and wholesomeness. more economical than the ordinary kinds, and can not be sold in competition with the inultitude of low test, short weight, alam, or phosphate powders. sold only in cans. royal baking powder co., wall st., n. y. a copy of the “ royal baker and pastry cook," by pro- fessor rudmani, containing over baking and cocking receipts, will be mailed free to any address. royal baking powder co., p. . box , new york. appletons' home books. the home needle. by ella rodman church, author of “how to furnish a home,” “the home garden," etc. new york: d. appleton and company, , , and bond street. . ter , gvard collect harvard june , c library haverhill public lidictie microfilmed at harvard copyright by d. appleton and company. . preface. of books on embroidery and fancy-work, and all kinds of home decoration, there is no lack, and very charming and suggestive these dainty volumes are; but the humbler occupations of plain sewing and useful needle-work are too much neglected. in a “home series," at least, these topics should have a place; and the making of garments at home, as well as the many other practical uses to which that es- sentially feminine implement—the needle—can be put, is a subject that interests all women, except, perhaps, the favored few whose pathway lies among the velvets and roses of life, and whose only use of the marvelous little instrument is when it is threaded with embroi- dery-silk. for purposes of economy, and even of money-mak- ing, a deft use of the needle is a power not to be despised; and the encomium, “she can make anything that is to be made,” applied to a skillful needle-wom- an, is of itself a liberal endowment. the suggestions preface. in this little volume are intended for those who desire a practical knowledge of plain sewing, millinery, and dress-making, who may find in the hints here offered a safe guide to experimental knowledge. contents. page . . . . i.—“go teach the orphan-girl to sew” ii.-beginning right.-under-garments iii.—under-garments.--(continued.) . iv.—“the song of the shirt” . v.-rudiments of dress-making . . . . ress-making in detail . vii.—sewing and finishing viii.—the milliner's art ix.-children's garments . x.—house-linen . . xi.—the mending basket . xii.-a patchwork chapter . . . . . . . . . . . tie home needle. such workers will destroy nearly a paper of needles of an afternoon, sow pins broadcast over the floor, and make seams and hems that fray out for want of sufficient "edge." for, to do any work well, requires time; and seamstresses who twitch and jerk their thread, with an assumed superi- ority over more careful workers, rarely accomplish any- thing worth the doing. in teaching the orphan-girl to sew—the average one at least, who frequents the saturday sewing-school-it will invariably be found that she pins her work to her knee, and pulls and stretches the seam, with the laudable desire of reaching the end as soon as possible. the idea of run- ning or hemming while holding the work in her hands is to her mind an innovation which she is very slow to adopt. yet so many people do their work in the wrong way, and teach others as they do it themselves, that this is not to be wondered at. it is better, however, to make the orphan understand at once that pinning the work to her knee is bad both for the work and for herself, as it bends the back and chest in a most injurious way for a growing girl. the proper way to hold the work is on a line with the chest ; and the stitches should never be drawn, but lie easily when finished. roll- ing the work around the finger is another fault with pu- pils, who should be taught to hold it properly between the thumb and forefinger. to prevent the side of a seam next to the worker from drawing up, and thus becoming shorter than the other, it should be gently stretched from time to time. the first requisite for good sewing is good implements. a great many respectable people never have a decent pair of scissors : dull points, uneven edges, and even rusty blades, prevail to such a degree, that one would suppose this very necessary appendage to an ordinary needle-woman to be a foreign article of luxury unattainable except by the the home needle. case of stitching (back-stitching ?), when a coarser cotton can be used. the choice of thread merits great consider- ation, because upon the strength of the thread or silk the solidity of the work depends. in order to judge the strength of the thread to be used, it is well to try and break a nee- dleful. the stronger it is the greater will be its resistance before it breaks. it ought to be sound and equal, without being too twisted ; it should, however, be twisted suffi- ciently to form a sharp point, and to wear well when pass- ing constantly through the stuff. for the same reason, care must be taken not to use too long a needleful. the thread ought always to be cut, and never broken off.” a thimble with a poor sewer is usually lost or mislaid ; and, when found, it is apt to be of the cheapest material, and battered in at the side. a thimble should fit the fin- ger closely, without pinching it; and if a souvenir of gold, with the owner's monogram or initials prettily engraved upon it, the sewing will be none the worse for it, and the thimble will last all the longer. a work-table, with a good-sized drawer divided into compartments for holding the various trimmings in ordi- nary use, is almost indispensable in a sewing-room ; but, where it can not be had, a large box, divided in the same way by pieces of pasteboard, will answer very well. here should always be found a stock of needles, cotton, sewing- silk, pins, tapes, buttons, cord, hooks and eyes, and all the innumerable odds and ends so constantly used in household sewing, that no time may be lost by almost daily going or sending for one or other of these small necessities. a lady who was in the habit of sending her one servant from the wash-tub to buy her a spool of cotton or a piece of braid often wondered why the work of the house did not get on better. the sewing-machine, when well constructed and well managed, and kept to its proper duties, is a valuable aid in the home needle. stem-stitch, d.—this is a sort of back-stitch in which the stitches overlap, as seen in the illustration. it is taken fig. . from left to right, and forms a neat finish for the right side of a hem. “go teach the orphan-girl to sew.” stitching, e.—this is composed of a row of back- stitches without any interval between them—the needle being at once inserted backward into the stitch just made, to be drawn out at an equal distance in front of the stitch which has to be formed. hem - stitch, f.—this stitch is employed to fit a hem in any stuff, the needle to be placed under the material, and drawn out about two threads above the edge. side - stitch, g.–by the help of this stitch the folds, or rather the folded edges, of two pieces of stuff are joined ; the stitch is made slantingly in the opposite side to that which is held toward the worker. sewing - stitch, h.-this is employed to join two edges of material. the needle, directed over the edges, stitches through the outer fold, and comes under that which is held nearest the worker. a depth of some threads must be observed. this stitch is always required to join the two selvages of calico or other cloth, and is familiarly called sewing a seam. herring-bone or cross-stitch, i. - this is used to join two edges of matertal which, instead of being folded together, are laid one over the other and worked from left to right, making alternately a stitch below and one above. the cross-stitch is made by the thread being drawn out each time above the stitch which has just been done. this stitch is used particularly for making flan- nel garments. button-hole stitch, j, and fig. .—a straight slit having been fig. . cut for the button-hole (and it is of advantage in order to strengthen the work to run two threads, one below and one above the hole), the stitches are taken from left to right in the slit of the button-hole, to be drawn out behind the tracing at the upper end, the home needle. making the thread form a species of knot. this is done either by holding it with the thumb below the needle, or in casting it upward ; the thread is drawn out gently to- ward the slit upon the edges of which the knots ought to be formed. it is of importance to remember, when making button- holes, to place some stitches across each end of the hole, to give it a nice appearance, and also to insure its wearing well. in needle-work, nothing is more difficult than to make a button-hole properly, especially in stuffs of all kinds, it being easier to form them in linen or calico than in any other material. there is a difference in the appearance of the back and front of the button-hole. this stitch is also used for making eyelet-holes. the eyelet is a round hole pierced with a stiletto. it is prepared for working in the same manner as the button-hole, having a thread run round below and above the hole in order to strengthen the work and to guide the stitch. chain-stitch, k.-the needle is held straight, and always placed in the last ring or stitch, to be drawn out at an equal distance to the length of the following ring ; the cotton is to be held below the needle. seams are formed by the various stitches explained above, and may be called simple or double. a simple seam is that which is finished at once-for example, the hem of a handkerchief or of any garment double seams and over-sewing exact double work. the former are frequently made with two sorts of stitches, such as turned-down seams, those turned up, those flattened out, etc. a turned-down seam is used when it is desired to give extra finish to any work. two pieces of material are joined that one side is higher than the other. one side of the seam is made either by “english stitch,” b, or by the running-stitch, a. when this is done, the material is un- folded, so as to flatten out the sewing; then the longer side “go teach the orphan-girl to sew.” is turned down in a tiny fold and hemmed. these seams, which are as much flattened as possible, are made, with few exceptions, very narrow. a turned-up or french seam.—this is used in fine linen and light stuffs. two pieces of material are joined together near the edge. a running or slip stitch is used. when the seam is finished, the work is turned so as to make a similar seam at the back and close to the first. these seams are often employed for the bodies of habit-shirts, sleeves, etc. flattened seams.— these are employed in making the seams of garments. after the two pieces of stuff are joined, whether by a simple running or by a back-stitch (the latter is far better for making bodices, etc.), they are opened and laid upon an ironing-board, and a hot iron is passed quickly over them. in the case of a thin material, this process greatly improves the appearance of the work. when this is done, the edges of the seams are fixed to the garment in question in various ways. it is best to use a cross-stitch, or to run them down, taking care, however, that the stitches do not go through to the right side of the article. the seams of shirts, chemises, and under-linen, unless they are sewed together, that is, overhanded, are made by simply running up the widths, and hemming or “felling” them down. a double hem, or hemmed seam, is employed to join pieces of material of moderate thickness, folding them down together, and at once hemming the seam, dispensing with any other stitch. rolled hem.—this is made in fine linen, light stuffs, etc. this hem is prepared as required-that is to say, by rolling the edge of the material between the fingers while sewing. whipped scroll.- this is prepared like the foregoing hem ; the difference exists in working the needle over the the home needle. edge so as to take several stitches at the same time. this whipping is generally used to make tiny frills, as the thread, if taken loosely, can be drawn up to form a gathering. gathering proper is formed by a running-stitch, a. these stitches for running can not be too regularly made, but are larger or smaller according to the thickness of the mate- rial. only one needleful of thread is used to make a gath- ering. this is never broken off until the running is fin- ished. this work exacts a certain amount of skill, because, while making the needle run in front, the back-stitches are thrown off as they amass themselves. when the gathering is of requisite length, it is firmly fastened off at the end. this must be carefully seen to, as few things are more irritating than for the thread to run back and all the work to come undone. the running must be graduated, it being above all necessary to equalize the gathering. this is done by taking a strong needle or pin and stroking down each plait of the gathering separately, so that it is all equally divided. ii. beginning right.-under-garments. to cut out the materials for garments in an exact and careful manner requires good judgment, a steady hand, and proper conveniences. the cook who in instructing a younger sister charged her “always to have a good fire to begin with,” understood her business ; but those workers who do their cutting out on uneven surfaces, on their laps, or on the floor, have not yet mastered the rudiments of needle-work. nothing can be well done except in the right way; and an inequality in the two sides of a joining, the redundant side being slightly puckered, or the lacking one pulled “ to make it come right," or an irregular bias, will spoil the entire appearance of a garment. a single-bed, that can be approached from both sides, or a dining-table, will answer very nicely for large pieces of work; but for ordinary garments nothing is so convenient as the low table, folding or adjustable, at which the wea- ried worker can sit comfortably. a lap-board is the next best thing ; but one or the other is indispensable where patterns are to be laid down smoothly and carefully fol- lowed. having made sure that the material is placed to run the right way, the pattern should be laid on it and carefully secured from slipping even a hair's breadth, by slender pins. the best pins for white goods, silk, and thin stuffs are nee- the home needle. dles with sealing-wax heads, as these leave no marks of their presence; but for woolen goods, cloth, etc., ordinary pins are more substantial. it is better to arrange the dif- ferent parts of a pattern on the goods before using the scis- sors, as the material is then cut to better advantage ; and, if a number of garments are cut out at once, there will be quite a saving of cloth. careless workers and people who “work by steam " are always wasteful of material, while fashionable dress-makers are proverbial for “never turning a pattern.” but a great deal may be gained in valuable material by changing the arrangement of a pattern until it fits almost as closely as a puzzle—although the example of the frugal lady who spent her time over a chemise composed of sixty small pieces of shilling muslin is not to be recommended for general imi- tation. patterns should always be cut to allow for seams, as, besides preventing mistakes, this insures a better fit and more harmonious joining of the different parts. for children in sewing-schools, etc., the first actual garment which they are permitted to make is usually an apron of the simplest kind. this involves very little cut- ting out—the material, which is calico or gingham, being torn off of the proper length--and it is finished with a band and strings at the waist. a child's apron often has a bib attached ; or the garment is cut out in sacque-shape, with or without sleeves, and buttoned up in the back. the making of the simplest kind of apron will teach a beginner to run up seams, overcast, hem, gather, etc.; while the more complicated ones include the making of button-holes, sewing on of buttons, and facing. a lady's apron for use, instead of ornament, should be of substantial size ; and gray or white linen, although mus- lin may be used, will be found the best material. a kitchen apron can scarcely be too wide ; if made without gathers, under-garments. two breadths of wide linen will answer-one breadth being cut into two narrow ones, which are joined one on either side of the wide one. such aprons should always have bibs or waists, in order to protect the dress as much as pos- sible; and a quarter of a yard extra of material will make three or four bibs, according to the width. these are cut straight across the top, and slope at each side to the waist. these bibs are either hemmed or faced round—the smaller part joined to the apron at the waist, and the upper part pinned at each end to the dress. patterns for all kinds of aprons are so easily obtained, with the amount of material required marked on them, that it is scarcely safe to give an estimate of yards, as this varies with the style of apron and the size of the wearer. a plain, straight apron of calico, to cover the dress well and tie around the waist--the fullness at the top being gathered into a band will take three yards ; with a bib attached, a quarter of a yard more. aprons of gray linen cut in some pretty shape (which need not interfere with their usefulness), and trimmed with worsted feather-stitching in red or blue, can be made quite ornamental. they should have a pocket on either side. a sewing-apron is very convenient when made of extra length to allow of the turning up of a quarter of a yard or so for a pocket. in this case, the bottom of the apron should be hemmed on the right side, and also as much of each side as is to be turned up. the ends of the pocket thus formed have their two sides joined by an overhand seam ; and the pocket may be divided into two compart- 'ments by a row of stitching down the middle. thread, worsted, embroidery silk, and the various small parapher- nalia of sewing, can all be carried in this convenient re- ceptacle, which prevents much tiresome searching for the thimble, scissors, and thread, that are so apt to go astray when the worker is called off for a moment. the home needle. the cutting out of a chemise was, some years ago, an intricate and mysterious proceeding because of “gores” and “gussets.” but modern progress has changed all that ; gussets are things of the past; and with wide french mus- lin, or our own american products, gores in this age of narrow skirts are well-nigh discarded. stout people, however, still require them, as a garment that forbids any but the most circumspect movement of the limbs is an uncomfortable affair. it will be seen by the illustration (fig. ) how much a gore on each side adds fig. . to the width of a chemise ; and fig. shows the shape and comparative size of the gore. under-garments. a gore has always one straight side, being cut from the selvage edge of the material ; and this is joined by a fine overhand seam to the corresponding edge of the garment, the wide end being at the bottom and the narrow or pointed end at the top. in the illustration, the gores are cut from each side of the chemise ; and in this way the garment is pre- vented from being too wide at the top and not wide enough at the bottom. the directions for cutting these gores are : first, to mark with pins the width required for the neck—about five inches representing the width of the gore at its base, e; from this the material must be cut bias and narrowed to a point toward the middle of the chemise, or the outside edge of the muslin. for a beginner, it will be safer, be- fore cutting, to crease the material just where the scissors are to go. after these first gores are cut -two being cut at the same time, one from the back-width and one from the front—the others are cut in the same manner from the other side of the chemise, and all are then joined by the selvage to their proper sides. this method of cutting forms gores that reach only about half the length of the chemise, and makes the top of the garment quite narrow in proportion to the width of the bottom. another plan is to put gores on one side only, using two instead of four ; and this answers admirably with wide material. these gores, one for the back-width and one for the front, are larger than when taken from both sides ; and they are sewed to the opposite sides from which they have been taken. after sewing them on by the selvage, the gores (as in all other cases) are closed at the sides by running and felling the seam. for felling, one edge of the e fig. . the home needle. seam is left wider than the other, and this longer edge is. neatly turned under with the needle and hemmed down. a quick and lazy way of making a chemise (when ele- gance is not required) is the bag method in fig. . after cutting off whatever amount of material is required for sleeves and other things, that intended for the chemise is folded into three parts (a, b, c), so that two ends meet in the middle of the piece. the sides are then sewed togeth- dle fig. . er; and this forms a double bag with two ends (d and e). the gores are cut from each side of this bag near the sew- ing, so that the straight ends of each of them meet in the middle of the under portion of the bag. the edges of the opening of the bag are the lower ends of the chemise, which lie exactly on the center of the material, that cen- . ter being the top of the chemise. under-garments. it is from the lower portion of the chemise that the gores are cut-taken, as usual, from the width remaining after the size of the shoulders has been arranged. fig. shows one gore, which serves as a sample of all. when the gores are all cut, the bag is unfolded ; and the gores are found to be sewed up. it only remains to finish the che- mise according to one of the ways described further on. the chemise is closed at each side by a seam run and felled from the slope ; and the bottom is finished with a hem, which varies from one inch to two and a half according to taste. a general rule for the neck of a chemise is to slope it at least an inch in the middle of the front, and to put a little more fullness in the front than in the back. a band straight at the top, and cut down into sleeve-gussets on the lower side, is neatly stitched on after the neck of the che- mise has been gathered and “stroked." a needle of good size is a neater implement than a pin for this stroking- the gathering having been previously done on one or two threads, taking up and skipping alternately. the band is sewed first on the right side, using the english stitch and taking up a gather with each one, and then basted carefully down and done in the same way on the wrong side. a slit of some inches is often made in the front of the chemise, and it is then necessary to finish the band with a button and button-hole, or with two button-holes, one at each end, to accommodate a stud. sometimes, this slit is finished merely with a hem, the side that laps over being considerably wider than the other, and sometimes a piece of inserting is laid over it and trimmed around with lace. it is quite optional to have the slit at all; and it is less trouble to leave the chemise closed and define the front by tucks and inserting. for sleeves there are various styles ; but all should be short and cut to wear well. the puffed sleeve and the the home needle. “dollar” sleeve are great favorites, as they both look and wear well, the latter being the more simple of the two. to cut this, double, down the length, a piece of muslin or linen about thirteen inches long and ten wide; then cut a round hole for the bottom of the sleeve, leaving six inches at the lower end on which comes the strain of the arm. begin at this end on the other side of the crease, making a point of it, and round up, the top of the sleeve to be about two and a half inches deep. a band is stitched on the lower end of the sleeve, and the top is gathered into the armhole for rather more than half its length, the lower portion being sewed in plain. the lower part of the sleeves is always sewed into a che- mise before the band is put on. very pretty french patterns for chemises can be bought at the pattern-stores, and among these patterns the french sacque-chemise is the simplest and most comfortable, sleeves and all being cut in one, without even a band to put on the neck, only a tape facing, through which is run a draw- string. the neck above this can be scalloped or trimmed with narrow edging. the princess shape is very much liked by some be- cause of its fitting rather close at the waist, and not being bunchy elsewhere. this is a very comfortable garment when properly cut; but, when it is cut badly, it drags and pulls in a most annoying manner. for those who wish to look particularly slender, it is very much in demand ; but it can be cut only by a regular pattern. the combination garment also has its advocates, as saving trouble and being conducive to health. it consists of chemise and drawers in one, buttoning in front to the end of the bust, while the gathers at the back are put on a narrow band. in other ways, it is made like the ordinary chemise and drawers; and fig. gives a diagram of the pieces belonging to this curious garment. under-garments. d shows the center of the line a c. the third line, near the extreme end, makes an angle with point e. these duidiiiiiiiiii - - fig. . three straight lines indicate, first, the measurement of the waist ; secondly, the width at the lower part of the thigh ; and, thirdly, the width of the lower part of the leg. the measurement of the waist is taken at point a, and is shown at the right at point e. if the length of the side be thirty the home needle. inches, fifteen inches (the half) will be the measurement of the widest part of the leg. this width is to be laid at d, upon the straight line at the center shown at point f. the measurement for the lower part of the leg is marked upon the third straight line. the length of this line must always depend more upon personal convenience than upon custom. this size is to be placed upon the pattern at e, and the length shown at g. by the help of the above measurements, carefully marked, the pattern for the front half of the drawers may be traced in the following manner : a few inches from e, a straight line is to be drawn to h, which ought to be at half the distance from the second line (d f). a slanting line is to be drawn from h to f to form the slope of the drawers. again, another slanting line, hollowed out in the center, and almost straight at the end, is to be drawn from point f to g. this line is for the inner seam of the leg. to make the back of the drawers higher and wider than the front, about five inches must be marked off above the first straight line, i, which will not be exactly over e, but taken some inches toward the right. a sloping line from i to a is to be drawn for the shape of the top, and a curved line from i to f for the line of the back. the illustration shows, at the same time, the front and the back of the drawers. the two halves are always cut at the same time from one piece of material, which is doubled for the purpose, and cut after the shape of the pattern from the lower end c to the top. then the stuff is to be unfolded in order to cut half after the shape c, e, h, f, and the front part; and the other half to follow the shape a, e, f, of the back, allowing about half an inch everywhere for seams. the pattern is now taken off and the material unfolded, and one half of the drawers is found complete. the second half is to be cut exactly like it.. each half of the drawers is joined by a run and felled under-garments. seam, and the bottoms can be finished according to indi- vidual taste. if tucks are wanted (and narrow tucks above a hem and ruffle are exceedingly neat), room must be al- lowed for them in cutting out. puffings and hamburgh edging are also used, while some prefer a simple hem with button-hole scallops. the two halves are next joined in the front by a strong seam from the waist, e to h, where the slope begins. the two back halves remain separate from e to f; these, with the remaining open portion, have a strong facing of the material, two inches wide, at the widest part, which is about the middle of the whole, and tapering off to half that width at the top of the back. some persons use nothing stronger for facing than a moderately wide tape, while others, again, only use this for the middle, merely hemming the backs, the strong facing being “ too much trouble.” but it is a trouble that pays, as this portion of the garment is sure to wear out first. in preparing the band for the waist, it is quite custom- ary to tear off a straight piece of muslin, about an inch wide when doubled, and to fasten this with one large but- ton and button-hole. a better way is to slope up the band to two inches in the back, the even width of one inch to cover about one third of the band in the middle of it, and the opposite third (the middle of the back) to contain the two-inch portion, the small portion between being used for the slope. two medium-sized (not small) buttons and but- ton-holes bear the strain better than one large one on a narrow band; and they should be sewed on three thick- nesses of the material, one being placed between the double binding. the upper, or folded, edge is, of course, straight, and the slope is made at the bottom, where it is joined to the garment. in putting on the band, there are scarcely any gathers un- til the slope begins, and most of the fullness is put in the back. fig. represents the garment complete ; but in the the home needle. pattern it is finished with drawing-strings at the waist in place of buttons and button-holes. the former are de- . .. i od fig. . cidedly perishable and inconvenient. the general prin- ciples are the same for all patterns of drawers, the ends in view consisting chiefly of strength and neatness. iii. under-garments.-(continued.) in order to a right understanding of the method of cutting a night-dress, it is necessary, although rather out of place among under-garments, to describe the process of constructing a sacque. this useful article is invaluable both for out-door and in-door wear, and can be made to suit any need. the style is that of the basque waist; and, if intended to fit the waist, the basque can be lengthened to the required depth, and widened in proportion. if, as in figs. and , the garment is to be half-fitting, it is only necessary to enlarge the size of the waist, upon which the size of the whole de- pends. the depth of the side, front, back, etc., should be marked, so that the length ( ) of the latter is placed about one or two inches above the proper place for the waist. this shortening the waist gives the garment a more pro- nounced bend over the hips. if the skirt is large, no plaits will be required, hollowing out the lines of the side (a, c) being sufficient. the back is finished first (if the pattern has been traced on the lining) by adding the skirt of the garment. then the material must be cut in one piece for the back, two for the sides, and two for the fronts. these different parts are joined, using the outline of the pattern as the place for the seams. the sleeves can be made after any desired style, and the home needle. adapted to the current fashion. the neck is finished by a band, a small turned-down.collar, or a straight, upright one. the edge of the garment is bordered by a false hem fig. . fig. . or an appropriate trimming. a simple and inexpensive one is made by cutting bands of the material on the cross, slightly raveling the edges, and plaiting them in the cen- ter. this looks especially well in cashmere; and, placed at the top of lace or fringe, or even by itself, is very suit- able for some jackets. this same shape can be used as a dressing-sacque, and made in any material, such as cambric, flannel, etc.; or it forms a handsome out-door jacket in velvet, cloth, or other iv. “the song of the shirt.” more tears have probably been shed over amateur shirt- making, with its frightfully complicated "seam and gusset and band,” than over any other branch of needle-work. often the most painstaking toil seems to be rewarded with the least success; and “giving up” is the only alternative left to the disheartened young wife. a generation or two ago, to be able to make a shirt was an indispensable accomplishment for a young lady who aspired to the honors of matrimony; for in those days there were no establishments where dozens could be had ready- made at a moment's notice, and at wonderfully reasonable prices. in view of these facts, it is often a source of won- der why some industrious mater familias will spend so many hours, day after day, over her needle and sewing- machine, making shirts for husband and sons, when they can go to a dozen places and be as well supplied at a great saving of time and trouble. but mater familias will answer that they are not so well supplied. the shirts look beautiful—that first gloss of bosom, collar, and cuffs, is indescribable—but, like the bloom on the fruit, once rubbed off it never comes again. ordinary laundrying gives them a different aspect; and soon edges begin to fray out, seams to give way, and join- ings to slit, until a general air of shabbiness pervades the whole. ready-made clothes are seldom well made; in the the home needle. haste attendant upon accomplishing them in wholesale fashion, there is no time to turn in proper seams, to put stays where the strain comes, or to sew in any other way than with the machine. the good housewife declares that a set of bought shirts last but one year, while the same number of home manu- facture are good for two. experience proves that it is the same with all under-garments; and, for this reason alone, it is desirable to know how to do the work one's self. much of it may be done on the sewing-machine; and by “making a day” of it, with one to sew, and one to baste- and another, if possible, to finish off—a great deal can be accomplished in a comparatively short time. besides, shirts are not what they once were, with their long, wide, bulgy bosoms, tucked to the bitter end, and opening in front for the further maliciousness of buttons and button-holes; and neither are carefully-stitched collars and cuffs now appended. the generation that cried over shirts had reason to cry; a fact of which any one who reads ancient volumes of needle-work soon becomes convinced. “ the song of the shirt” is a dismal ditty, but the subject was dismal too. in the illustration, fig. , the bosom is made in the old style ; but with this exception it answers very well to explain the modern method. the best way of proceeding in making shirts at home is to have a good paper pattern (which is very easily pro- cured), but, if this is not at hand, exact measurements must be taken from the person. the points to be noted in do- ing this are : . the length of the whole shirt, which is taken from the nape of the neck at the back to the knee. . the width of the chest, taken from under one arm to the corresponding point on the other side. . the size of the neck. “ the song of the sairt.” . length of the sleeves. . size of the wrist. for a medium-sized man, the shirt would measure in the back about a yard and six inches; and in the front . fig. . (which is always cut shorter) a yard and three inches. three yards and a half of muslin will make the garment. it is well to cut off sleeves and yoke first, and make the two straight breadths of what remains. these breadths are prepared separately before being sewed together. for the front a crease is first made down the middle, to mark the exact half, but this is neither plaited nor cut out, as in the old method, in order to form the bosom. the latter is made of linen, about fifteen and a half inches being a medium length, and eight inches of breadth. a crease is marked down the middle of this piece, on which to work the eyelet-holes for studs; and it is tapered to the home needle. about half the width at the bottom. sometimes the bosom is quite plain, and sometimes a single tuck, which must be allowed for, is made on either side of the eyelets. too fine a quality of linen is not desirable, but one with some body," as this retains the starch better. it is lined with “butchers' linen,” and stitched on over the corresponding place in the middle of the front breadth, thus making two thicknesses of linen and one of muslin. after hollowing out the neck, the linen bosom should descend on the shoulder for about two inches. at the lower end of the bosom a sort of flap, represented in fig. , is stitched, to keep the front down smoothly. this is accomplished by means of a button-hole fastened on a button of the vest. the needle-woman who does not particular- ly fancy either patching shirts or making new fig. . ones, will next baste on a muslin facing, stop- ping at the line where the shirt-bosom stops, and covering every inch above it except where there are already three thicknesses. this will be found an excellent preventive against wearing out, and a great improvement on the two-inch facing generally used. when the bottom is hemmed, and neck, shoulders, and arm-holes cut out, the front may be considered finished. - the modern shirt opens in the back; and the most elegant style of treating the slit is to turn down a hem of an inch in width, or rather to put a facing of that depth on the right side of the muslin, but left side of the shirt, and lap it over a narrow hem on the other side, the whole to be stitched down. a less troublesome and more com- mon way is to put a narrow hem on each side, and secure the end with a small gusset. the upper part of the back below the yoke has the same facing as the front; and these two linings are evenly joined under the arms. this half of the shirt is sewed, after be- “the song of the shirt." ing gathered, on a yoke, which is necessarily in two pieces, one of which is represented in fig. . this yoke is lined, and the gathers are placed between and stitched on uuluu inatiiviistituintitu itintin unt noor fig. . each side. on either end is a plain piece of about two inches, and midway of the yoke, where it joins, are button and button-hole to fasten the shirt together. the bottom of the back is hemmed in the same way as that of the front, both being rounded at the corners; and the sides are also hemmed for a space of about two fingers. the two halves of the shirt are then united by a felled seam, as the sides are sloped ; and a small gusset at the end of this seam prevents it from giving way. rudiments of dress-making. dress-making, when one understands it, and has an eye for color, and some taste and ingenuity in trimming, is one of the most fascinating phases of needle-work. the results are more showy than in making under-garments; there is a greater amount of creative skill implied ; and a dress ranks so much higher in the world of clothing than a garment that is hidden from sight, that the triumph of such an achievement is great in proportion. if there is economy in making under-garments at home, the saving is incomparably greater in the making of dresses. unless the material is costly, the dress-maker's bill frequently exceeds the price of the dress pattern, and it swells in pro- portion to the value of the stuff, “trimmings” and “find- ings” being most convenient cloaks for inordinate charges. careless work, too, often emanates from the hands of the over-driven sewing girls, who really execute what madame directs, and only half superintends; while the loss of time, and wear and tear of temper, under the disappointments and mistakes that seem inevitable in putting work out, are worthy of more consideration than they receive. many a dress has finally been altered at home, after paying largely for a misfit and waste of material. having a dress-maker in the house, the plan usually pursued by the economical, is a species of bondage, a tying down to days and hours which, like some matrimonial en. rudiments of dress-making. gagements or “understandings,” binds one side while the other is free. the dress-maker who goes out by the day- especially if she is greatly in demand-is not apparently bound in the least. you make all your arrangements for her in advance, decline pleasant invitations for the ap- pointed day, or days, of her expected visitation, put your- self in other ways to great inconvenience because of the mysterious perversity of inanimate things; rise at some unwonted hour, that has, at least, the bloom of the dawn upon it, to transact before breakfast various matters that are indispensable to the proper beginning of the day, but which are generally postponed until after that meal, dis- pense with anything like “a social time” at table, and hurriedly regain your room, that has the look of decks cleared for action, to be for the next hour a marianna in a moated grange, saying to yourself, with more and more of certainty; "she cometh not.” and she doesn't come. in the course of the day, per- haps, a postal card brings the information that she has a cold, or a felon, or has remembered a previous engagement; or, as likely as not, nothing is heard from her. when sought out and remonstrated with, you find that she had quite forgotten you, or “thrown you over” for the delights of ball or wedding finery. for dress-makers are not unlike small colored persons in their fondness for places where “things are going on”; and such engagements are of far more importance in their eyes than those which concern economical walking-dresses or humdrum black silks. there are, of course, fortunate people, whose dress-mak- ers always come when they are expected, and who seem exempt from the usual troubles encountered with madame; but the experience recorded is that of many, and few would not be free from the dress-maker's tyranny if they could, while many, in fact, might be if they would but think so. some women have no other way of making money than the home needle. by saving it; and in making one's own dresses the dollars saved count up very rapidly. from eight to ten dollars is the common price for making an ordinary dress, and twenty dollars is thought reasonable for a handsome silk, these charges not including even a spool of cotton; while a dress-maker who goes out to work is paid from two to three dollars a day, sometimes rather more and occasionally a little less, car fares being paid besides. in the latter case, the employer's time is almost entirely taken up in helping her and attending to her wants; and, considering that, be- sides this, there is usually so much left to finish afterward, the question arises whether the lady could not, with the same outlay of time and trouble, make her dress without the inconvenience of the dress-maker's presence, and at a saving of whatever sum she would pay her ? another item of economy in making one's own dresses is the amount of material used. an unnecessary quantity is always consumed at a fashionable establishment, where no account has to be rendered ; but, when the cutting out is done at home, there is some chance of saving the mate- rial. one's own property is usually more precious than that of another, and one who is in the constant habit of cutting up goods is apt to become a little reckless. there- fore, the person who is portioning out her own material with a realizing sense of the difficulty of replacing it is far more likely to cut it economically. fathers of families, who have a peculiar dread of dress- makers' bills, and are by no means partial to the visits of the dress-maker at home, always advocate the theory of making one's own dresses ; and one gentleman offered as an incentive to his oldest daughter a new dress for every one that she made for her little sisters. the younger girls may not have enjoyed this arrangement, but the grown-up sister did ; and in a comparatively short time she became an accomplished dress-maker. the home needle. fits well, and lay it smoothly on the pattern. as the latter is generally too large, it will easily allow of alteration. it is a very difficult matter to fit one's self, but some ladies who are highly successful in home dress-making have frames made exactly the size of their own figures, and simi- lar to those used in the shops for displaying dresses and cloaks. this is an excellent plan, but one that can not be followed by all. a simpler and more economical one is to arrange a dress that fits well over a small pillow, using stockings and handkerchiefs for the necessary filling out, until a perfect fac-simile is obtained of the owner's own figure. this pliable dummy can be handled with ease, and have pins stuck in it without crying out; so that a good paper pattern may be cut on it with very little trouble. many prefer taking exact measurements from the per- son with a tape measure, which must, of course, be done by an assistant. the illustrations in figs. and show the method of doing this, in connection with the directions below furnished by a practical frenchwoman. the speci- fications given in small capitals are to be written down and supplemented by each measurement as it is taken : . length of skirt, back.-(fig. .) measure from the waist at the middle, b, to touch the floor, or longer, as desired, allowing an extra half inch at top and bottom. . length of skirt, front.—(fig. .) measure from the waist in front, b, to touch the floor, making the same allowance at top and bottom as for the back. . length of waist in front.-(fig. .) place one end of the measure at the base of the neck, a, and carry it down to the waist, b. . breadth of the chest. — place one end of the measure at the right side of the chest, close to the arm, at the point d, and carry it, not too tightly drawn, across to the left arm, e, rudiments of dress-making. . length under the arm.—place the measure under the arm at the point e (fig. ), and carry it down to the waist, c. la . mwengusasuloruerunt leurs ecole arralandirbruilladdaren logitenkoderus me fig. . . size of the waist.-bring the tape around the waist evenly, neither tight nor loose, and reduce the meas- ure by a scant half inch, because the measurement is taken outside the clothes. . first height of shoulder.—(for the height of the shoulders two measurements must be taken to allow for the slope.) place one end of the measure at the middle of the waist, (fig. ), carry it to the point f at the neck, and thence down the back to the middle point, (fig. ). . second height of shoulder.—place one end of the home needle. the measure at the point e (fig. ), carry it straight up over the shoulder at the point g, and down straight to the point c on the waist (fig. ). . arm-size. -slip the measure under the arm and arne tttttoo titutumlinsolituidutinitulioluttautuu fig. . meet it, without drawing it tightly, on the shoulder at the point h (fig. ). . length of arm.—the measure is placed under the arm, c (fig. ), and carried to the wrist, i. (the out- side measure of the arm is useless.) . size of wrist.—this measure is taken loosely. . length of waist, back.—this measure is taken rudiments of dress-making. from the nape of the neck, a (fig. ), to the waist at the point b. . breadth of back.—this measure is taken across the shoulder-blades from e to d (fig. ), and the tape should be drawn tightly. . length of shoulder. —place one end of the measure at the base of the neck, f (fig. ), carry it down the slope of the shoulder to g, and an inch farther upon the arm. . size of neck.-draw the measure very loosely around the neck and meet it. these measurements are intended for a plain, high- necked waist, which is the foundation of all waists or dresses, the varieties consisting of additions to this super- structure. in cutting any pattern, only half the width of the back and front is needed, as the two halves are always alike. having taken exact measurements, according to the above directions, a smooth piece of pattern-paper, suffi- ra minercorgorodilibrio m andant nooit secqbossologicolossordbog loe boeratorudscoa tounocom fig. . ciently large, is laid on the cutting-table ; and a straight line from a to (fig. ) is traced for the front of the waist. the home needle. this shows where the buttons are to go. at the bottom of this line another straight one is taken—from the left to the right-making an angle with b, and this shows the place for the waist. after these first lines are drawn, the dif- ferent measures are marked in the following manner : length of the center of the waist.—this is laid at b and taken to c. width of the chest.—the measure must be laid on line a b, at a distance of about two thirds from the straight line for the waist, and taken to the left and marked at d. depth of side.—this is found by placing the width of the chest on the line of the waist at i, immediately under d. the true place for the top of the side is at e, which should be one fourth of the straight line d. first shoulder-depth.—the measure laid at b and taken to the top in a slanting direction to the left at f, the sixth part of the size of the neck, to be laid in a straight line above point e of the line, for the front of the slope from f to e, when cut, gives one third of the neck. second height of the shoulder.—the half is taken and laid at the waist, g, near to the measure of the line at the side to be taken straight up and marked at h. width of the shoulder.—this is laid slantingly between the points of h of the first and of the second height. with all these different points marked, it will be easy to trace the lines between them for the pattern of the front of the waist. this is done in the following manner : a sloped line from the points h d, and from thence a slope to e for the arm-hole. a straight line from e to g for the line at the side. on a pattern thus drawn, the size of the sleeve can be exactly obtained by laying half its measurement around the slope h d e. the size of the neck can be arrived at by the third of this being laid be- tween the points e f. in preparing a pattern for the back of the waist, a ver- the home needle. first height of shoulder.–take half the measure, place one end at the point c, and carry it up a little ob- liquely to a point, h, which is fixed by taking one sixth of the neck measure, placing it against the vertical line a b, a little above the point d, and directing it toward the left. the point h, however, will be removed a scant half-inch farther to the left. second height of shoulder. —take half the meas- ure, place one end at a point, k, on the horizontal line, carry it straight up to i, verifying the position of this point, and consequently of k, by applying the measure for the length of shoulder between h and i. ni simildinitionsruthibitiosusinslu fig. . these measures being indicated, the outlines are drawn from point to point, until the complete pattern of the back is represented as in fig. . the sleeve of a plain waist is usually the plain coat- sleeve as in fig. . to draw this pattern, begin with an the home needle. the front and waist-line meet exclusive of margins; then mark the point (the dot to the left of a) as the base of the fig. , first dart. the height of the dart falls two inches below the arm-size. the plait is now taken up, as shown in the figure, straight down from the point b on the side toward the back, and obliquely to a on the front. measure again a third of the chest-measure from this dart to the outer side of the second, and take up the second dart. these darts should be nearly of the same length; the one nearer the arm may be a little longer; if the figure to be fitted is very short, both must be somewhat shorter than here rep- resented. the “margin" alluded to above refers to the lining cut from the paper pattern, in which an allowance is recom- mended of two inches on the shoulder, one inch in front, under the arms, and at the waist; while neck and arm- holes exactly follow the pattern. the beginner in dress-making will find it easier to buy dress_making in detail. at the left; then draw the horizontal line ab across the pattern, crossing the arm-size at about the middle, and cut do fig. .-blouse waist. away what is above this line for the yoke. the outline of the rest of the arm-size and the seam under the arm are removed as far to the left as is desired, allowing two or back front fig. . fig. . the home needle. three times the width of a plain waist for the gathers at top and bottom. the yoke and its lining (if there is one) being put to- gether, the lower part is gathered and sewed in between them, a narrow ruffle, or some other trimming, being fre- quently placed on the seam. plaits are often substituted for gathers, in flannel and other thick materials, with very good effect; and these waists, like the blouses, are finished with a belt. the appropriate sleeve for the blouse and yoke waists is a full sleeve, or the ordinary shirt-sleeve; but a plain one is often used. the gathered sleeve (fig. ) is cut from a piece of material folded double, the straight way of the cloth. the upper edge, a b, is drawn like that of the plain coat-sleeve in fig. ; but it takes in the whole width of the sleeve, which should be about twice that of the plain c.. fig. . fig. . sleeve. the length is determined by the measure of the arm; the corner d (see fig. ) is cut off from the bottom of the inner side, which is hollowed out a little. the home needle. the shape of the basque may be varied according to taste and fashion, but the general principles of cutting are the same. the sleeves for a basque also vary according to the prevailing style ; at the present time ( ) the plain coat-sleeve is most in demand for ordinary wear. under-skirts for dresses have scarcely changed at all for some time past, the short, round skirt being used on most occasions, while evening dresses are made with very long trains. from two yards to two and a quarter, depending fig. . on the slenderness or stoutness of the wearer, is a good width at the bottom; and from twenty-seven to thirty dress-making in detail. inches is put in straight for the back. the front is gored, and also the side pieces, of which there are but two. the manner of cutting these gores from a straight breadth is given in fig. , and it is very important that both sides of the skirt should be exactly alike, or it will hang badly; and the hang of the skirt is a very prominent feature in the general appearance of a dress. front and sides have little or no fullness, what there is being gauged or plaited into a small compass at the back, to which it is still further drawn by strings, or elastic, at least half way down. the breadths having all been carefully cut and laid to- gether, to make sure of their being even, a facing of twelve or fourteen inches in depth should be cut by each breadth and basted on it before the skirt is run up, leaving one edge of the facing free on each side to be hemmed down afterward, in order to cover the raw edges. this facing is cut lengthwise of the muslin, instead of across, as it hangs better, and is not so likely to sag. in sewing up the breadths, the gored or bias side of one breadth is always put to the straight side of another, and this gored side should be held easily, and on no account stretched. the opening, or placquet-hole, may be left at the top of the back or side, as is preferred. it should measure from nine to twelve inches for a person of ordinary size, and be finished, to prevent gaping, with a doubled or hemmed piece of the dress material, two or three inches wide, sewed down the length of the under side. a worsted braid, which has been thoroughly immersed in water to shrink it, and thus prevent it from shrinking after it is on the dress, should be bound, or faced, on the bottom of the skirt, leaving, in the latter case, one edge in sight below the edge of the dress. the waistband must be of strong material, cut lengthwise of the stuff, and doubled. it is marked in the middle of the front and dress-making in detail. and lay it along the waist-line, beginning at the seam under the arm, and mark the other end. then take half of this and lay it upon the waist-line, beginning at the front, and mark the point where it ends. a vertical line is then drawn from the middle of the shoulder-seam to the point first marked on the waist-line; and from the point last marked on the waist-line, a curving line, similar to the front outline of a dart, to meet the vertical line about mid- way of its height. the paper is then cut, following these lines, and the front thus divided into two pieces, cutting away a space equivalent to what, in the plain waist, is taken up for darts; mo ano agot fig. . and the same rule that determines the height of darts for persons of stouter figure than the average decides here the home needle. whether the curved line shall meet the vertical midway of the latter, or a little lower than that. the portion of the waist toward the arm is now cut in two, as shown in fig. , for the purpose of obtaining suf- ficient fullness in the skirt. on the paper, when unfolded, only the first part of the garment can be drawn in full. the pattern must be pieced at the dotted line, a, a, for the second and third part. to make the size and shape of these two parts perfectly clear, bias fig. . the pattern of each is given in full in figs. and after being pieced. the back is cut as for a basque; but frequently the middle is cut in two pieces, as shown in fig. , so that the u the home needle. middle of the back middle of the back piecing guigald straight bios bias fig. . fig. . dress-making in detail. the others) plaited into each other; arranged, in fact, in any style, the basis of the cut of the garment being always the same. very pretty morning dresses, as well as dressing-gowns and wrappers, are made from the princess pattern; and the only alteration needed is to make it rather looser, par- ticularly at the waist. the watteau fold is especially suit- able and becoming for a garment of this character. the home needle. closed and even locked doors would be a wise precau- tion at such a momentous period as the cutting out of a dress, if one desires to wrestle with the problem alone; for pleasant conversation may cause the cutting of two backs to one front; or bits of advice (to which fallen human nat- ure is prone) culminate in the hopeless spoiling of a sleeve. “i love you very much, but i don't want to see you for some good hours, at least,” is a thought that, if spoken, would prevent many mistakes. sewing, when all is "plain sailing," is a sociable employment in which fingers fly as fast as tongues; but when there is cutting out to be done; which requires thought and consideration, solitude is the best companion. the cutting table, or a good-sized table stripped of its usual belongings, is especially necessary in dress-making; although the bed is frequently used, and needles unpleas- antly discovered in the watches of the night to be sticking into the mattress. a firm, moderate-sized pin-cushion, abundantly provided with slender, sharp-pointed pins, or needles made into pins with sealing-wax, as described in a previous chapter, is also an indispensable accompaniment; and a large basket should be at hand in which to lay the separate portions of the dress as they are cut and basted. for this latter purpose, the white basting-cotton, which can be bought for six or eight cents the dozen spools, is now very generally used. in chapter v mention was made of two little plaits at the top of the waist in front, made in the lining only, which are shown in fig. . a similar plait will be seen at the arm-hole, neither of which appear on the outside of the dress; and this is one of the minor points likely to be overlooked by the inexperienced dress-maker. the object of these plaits is to prevent wrinkles in the waist at those places in which they are very likely to appear. an- other point for wrinkles is the waist-line of a basque, which sewing and finishing. is also provided for by laying a plait lengthwise, as fully described before. the proper putting in of the sleeves is full of difficulties to the novice; and to be assured on this point, she will find it an advantage to examine the sleeves of all her ready-made dresses. they will scarcely vary from the rule of placing the top seam from two and a half to three inches back of the shoulder-seam, while the under seam is about two inches in front of the seam under the arm. the object is to have the longest part of the sleeve loose on the top of the shoulder, where length is most needed ; and to be quite sure of accomplishing this, the sleeves should be closely basted and tried on before the final sewing is done. in putting a dress together, the backs and fronts—first carefully prepared by close basting of their seams—are joined, at the shoulders and under the arms, by evenly- basted seams, the waist being then tried on to see what alterations are needed. these alterations should be made with care, basting a second time if too loose or too tight, and never sewing until the proper fit is secured. the sleeves are not basted in until the waist is finished up to that point, as, if they are right, they can then remain to be sewed. the stitching of the seams of a dress, a tiresome opera- tion by hand, can be admirably done on the sewing-machine -provided the tension is not drawn too tight. this is a common fault with sewing-machine workers, who seem to be insatiable in their demands for speed; but the effect of too tightly drawing the silk or thread on the waist-seams is extremely bad. the dress may have been nicely cut and fitted, but, with the seams pulled and drawn by careless machine-work, it will show innumerable little wrinkles. it is very rarely indeed that dress-making is not done alto- gether on the machine, and the effect, when the work is properly done, is very good. the home needle. hand-work is as likely to be bad as machine-work; and the dress-maker who goes out by the day often groans at the quality of the assistance that is tendered her. such draw- ing of seams, and puckering of folds, and uneven plaitings, do not speak well for the skill of the worker where plain sewing is concerned ; and it is an unmanageable fact that, without being well grounded in the rudiments of sewing, no one can hope to use the needle skillfully in the more intricate mazes of dress-making. “it is of consequence to understand the different sorts of seams. all seams are ugly if they are drawn up, or shortened, by drawing the cotton too tightly. also, it is of importance to know how to make button-holes (these, it may be observed, are exceedingly difficult to make well); also, how to place a string and sew on a button. in fact, it must be understood that the better a person knows how to do 'plain sewing,' the better will she be able to make dresses.” when the seams of the dress are finished, either by a machine or a close “ back-stitch” by hand, the most impor- tant part is the making of button-holes and sewing on of buttons. this is sometimes done before the fronts and backs are joined, as the waist can then be tried on to better advantage. they shouid fasten evenly; and great care is necessary to prevent a bulging between the button-holes, which entirely destroys the neat appearance of the dress. if the button-holes are too small for the buttons, it will be very disagreeable work to fasten them; if too large, the effect is slovenly. the distance between should be care- fully measured ; and the buttons, being sewed on the left side, are placed at about the middle of the hem, while the middle of the button-hole is in the middle of the corre- sponding hem on the right. a disposition to gap apart and show white underneath is easily remedied by sewing on the wrong side of the but- ton-front a piece of the outside material, or of ribbon to sewing and finishing. match it in color. it is not at all necessary that this should be new. the next point to secure is the neck, as this is apt to get stretched with much handling, unless the binding is sewed on it. the dress should be held next to the worker in sewing on this binding, which is generally finished with a collar of the material. in sewing in the sleeves, the sleeve should be held next to the person; and any disposition to fullness is to be brought under the arm, as the slightest visible gather spoils the look of the sleeve. but it is still worse for the arm-hole to gather; and great care should be taken, in cutting both sleeve and arm-hole, that this is not the case. many persons still cling to whalebones in the waist of a dress (especially stout people); but these are very undesira- ble, as, besides giving a stiff look to the figure, and prevent- ing the dress from adjusting itself to its motions, they wear unsightly holes in the material. a disagreeable part of the work, too, is avoided by not being obliged to sew on bone- casings and cut the whalebones to fit them. in finishing the bottom of the basque or polonaise, one should be very particular to see that the two sides are exactly alike, as no dress can look well if it is at all uneven. seam should be laid to seam, and the tape-measure brought into requisition before the final “trimming off” is done. for making the various kinds of trimming in ordinary use, di- rections have already been given ; but the present fashion is to finish the waist of a dress quite plainly. the proper looping or tying back of the skirt is not so intricate as it looks, a broad elastic placed a little back of the seams of the front breadth, and about midway the length of the back, answering most purposes. a piece of lining should always be sewed on where the elastic is fast- ened, as the strain upon the single material would soon tear it out. the home needle. curling feather, from another; hums a gay tune as she seats herself in the midst of the contents—perhaps of the rag-bag—and, taking the bare frame in hand, produces in a magically short time such an admirable imitation of the old masters in french bonnets that she is the envy of all her girl acquaintances at the opera that night. miranda, however, is a true artist; and if the privilege of earning her own living had been bestowed upon her, the world of fashion would not dare to wear any bonnets but hers. every one can not be a miranda ; but a great deal may be accomplished with some taste and much perseverance. a young lady who desires to turn some real or imaginary talent for bonnet-making to account in the family would do well to take lessons of some good milliner. she need not be afraid of the work-room, for there her experience is to be gained, and she will soon become deeply interested in the work. to make a bonnet from beginning to end, under the milliner's eye, will give her an amount of prac- tical insight into the subject which no description could possibly impart; and there are certain ways of doing things the knowledge of which saves a world of trouble. the generally accepted idea in making a bonnet is, that a frame is to be bought and covered just as it is-evidently under the delusion that those who make the frames can not err. french frames, of course, are the best; and french frames, of course, must be right. but whoever has seen a milliner who understands her business, cutting and piec- ing and bending, and otherwise maltreating one of these very french frames to suit the style of the person for whom it is intended, would speedily become disabused of this notion. a bonnet-frame in the hands of the expert is not, like a pin-cushion, to have a cover fitted on it just as it is ; but it may be bent in here, and pulled out there, and nar- rowed or deepened, until it has an entirely different ex- pression. a milliner lately told the writer that she sel- the milliner's art, knowledge of this precise spot comes to miranda by intui- tion, while sarah jane gropes painfully for it, and does not find it after all. a bonnet of thin material, such as tulle, crape, lace, etc., has an under-covering of the same material inferior in quality, a white frame being used when the covering is light, and a black one for black material. some people are gifted with such keen powers of observa- tion and such naturally deft fingers that, after studying a bonnet for a short time in a milliner's window, they can produce a fac-simile in every respect, however unique the design may be; and to such, making bonnets is simply a delight. others, while lacking this executive power, have the same amount of taste and industry; the rudiments of the mechanical process once mastered, they are ready for action ; and to those a few plain suggestions, gathered from an experienced milliner, may be of use. making one's bonnets is almost as great a convenience as making one's dresses, and quite as great a saving, bonnet- making being a particularly remunerative occupation. the lady who makes her own bonnets is constantly appearing in new ones; and there is a strong temptation to excess in this respect. it is the fancy work of plain sewing, if such a contradiction is admissible, and is, therefore, a far more interesting employment than dress-making. a gift for trimming hats and bonnets is sometimes pos- sessed by those who yet do not venture on their manufac- ture; and when the article is of straw, it makes a great difference in the expense whether it is left at the milliner's to have lining, ribbon, and feathers or flowers added at her discretion, and to the increase of her bill—or brought forth partly, perhaps, from some box at home, and what is lack- ing purchased economically, while home fingers deftly put the component parts together. to be able to trim one's own hats is a great convenience the milliner's art. professional cap-makers say that caps should be made on a block; but this is not necessary when a foundation of stiff bobbinet is used. a slight point and depression in front is a generally becoming style ; but some prefer a per- fectly straight edge. the frame, or foundation, is cut in two pieces; and for an old lady, rather than an elderly one, the crown is round, and cut large enough to plait down on the front. it is in forming this crown that the block comes into use ; but the head of the wearer may be substituted, or the size taken from the crown of an old cap. the front piece should be about half a yard long and two and a half inches deep at the sides, while the point is an inch or more in width. the outside covering is cut by the foundation, the latter taking the place of a lining; and this foundation is neatly put together before the lace is arranged on it. caps should be neatly made, as they require more stitches than bonnets, and it is not so easy to conceal their defects with trimming. wash-blonde is a very nice material for a cap of this de- scription, which should have a thick ruching of the same around the edge and at the joining point of the front and crown, the latter being sometimes further embellished by two rows of the ruching placed lengthwise. this ruching would be less troublesome to make if wide footing is used in place of the blonde, as in using the latter it is necessary to roll the edge. a whipped roll, done with black worsted, is sometimes used; but it is much prettier to have the cap entirely of white. the ruching is made in double box- plaits—for which three times the length is needed—and it is attached to the cap by running it on the wrong side with moderately fine cotton. a bow and ends of the cap material ornament the back; and the finishing touch is a pair of wide strings (also of the blonde) one yard in length, with a hem nearly three quar- the milliner's art. meheim uti cititi mithiththoutite hinduismenimi inimestem mini midtnammonit. nel fig. .–front. fig. .-back. and marked opposite at c at this point; the width of the shoulders is placed at the lower end, of which a quarter of the space of the shoulders is placed at d, and this ought to touch the front line at e. these different points are joined by lines drawn from each. the back is drawn on the same plan, with the exception that the sixth part of the entire neck is used instead of the third. by rounding the shape in fig. , or by making the back longer or shorter, a high or low fichu can be made- fig. .—entire cape. indeed, almost any shape, as will be seen by the lines in the figure. the home needle. by lengthening both back and fronts, a crossed fichu, with the ends tied at the back, and the fronts sloped at pleasure, can be made. these dressy capes are sometimes made by joining the back and fronts with a seam upon the shoulders; but they can also be cut without any seam at all by folding and cutting the material on the cross. fichus are made of the same material as the dress, or of muslin, lace, tulle, etc. ix. children's garments. the same general rules apply to the cutting and mak- ing of children's clothes, except, perhaps, that in the first dainty outfit the finest and softest of materials are used, and sewed with invisible stitches-as though fairies had created the whole wardrobe instead of mortal fingers. the layette varies with circumstances—from that of royalty on exhibition, consisting of twelve dozen of every- thing, to the slenderest possible store with which the morsel of humanity can make a decent appearance. a very fair supply, for people in comfortable circumstances, is: a dozen plain slips for ordinary wear, and six elaborate dresses; a dozen night-dresses ; a dozen white skirts ; six flannel skirts; a dozen flannel bands; one dozen cambric shirts; a thick and a thin cloak for outdoor wear; merino and lace and muslin caps for the same purpose ; half a dozen pairs of socks; and hoods, blankets, knitted shawls, and various other coverings, as the devotion of friends and rela- tives may decide. patterns for all these articles may be had at any of the pattern establishments; and, in addition, it will be found a great assistance to a novice to order one ready-made gar- ment of each kind, as all mistakes in putting together can thus be avoided. for the plain slips, night-dresses, and under-skirts, lonsdale cambric is a good material ; for the little shirts, children's garments. ties are gathered and fastened into bands. these bands can have elastics run in them (for trousers); and they are always arranged to fasten beneath the child's knee. these little trousers can be trimmed in various ways- with rows of buttons, or braid, down the sides, or whatever happens to be worn. charming patterns for children's dresses of all de- scriptions—both girls and boys—as well as the dresses them- selves, are to be had at the furnishing stores; but there are few prettier garments for a little girl than the gabrielle dress. it is cut, like the princess, all in one, and has an ease and grace peculiarly its own. this is cut almost ex- actly like a deep sacque; the back has a seam on each side that reaches the shoulder, but none in the center (unless for an older child than four or five); each front has, very near the hem, a seam, like a dart, reaching the shoulder, where it joins the back side-seam. fig. .—dress of white cambrio. the dress is buttoned from the neck to the bottom, and may be trimmed in any way desired. plain and exceedingly the home needle. comfortable little dresses of calico, gingham, or thicker cheap materials, can be made from this pattern, and also very elaborate ones. two very pretty yoked dresses for young children are given below, the styles being taken from “harper's ba- zar.” fig. is made of white cambric, with a square yoke at the top, to which back and front are gathered, and also gathered at the waist. the borders that trim it are strips of white lace-striped piqué-embroidered with two shades of red cotton, as shown in fig. . the cross-seam ny suihin in inzininin in yannn anya in nan ninin dahanin annn invanininin innanininis . fig. .- embroidery for dress. on the solid stripe of the fabric, which forms the middle of the border, is in the lighter shade; and the cross-stitches on the open-work, or lace stripe on each side, are in the darker. narrow embroidered edging finishes the sleeves, the front, and the bottom of the dress. a ribbon sash is attached at the side-seams. fig. represents a very pretty dress of white baptiste, or nun's veiling, the waist of which is tucked, and the top edged with wide embroidery. this is joined to a yoke com- posed of alternate bands of lace and embroidered insertion. the skirt is side-plaited, and edged with similar embroidery, which is headed by a cluster of tucks. the neck and the short puffed sleeves are trimmed with lace insertion, through which narrow pink gros grain ribbon is drawn in and out; and a broad sash of the same ribbon completes the dress. children's garments. a hood and cape made in one is a very useful thing for children; and this is done by folding a square of mate- < < a fig. .—dress of nun's veiling. rial on the cross, so that it forms a double fichu. one of these fichus or capes is placed on the head, the corner fall- ing over the forehead; the other covers the shoulders. it will be necessary to make some plaits upon the line which separates the actual hood from the cape, and also to fasten the hood under the chin by a clasp or ribbon. this simple form may be improved on, and the hoods lined or wadded, as may be desired. the shape is a very becoming one for a grown person. the pattern in fig. has the back made very large and the front exceedingly narrow—so narrow, in fact, as to be almost imperceptible. the back—which is cut on the cross, through the center, and the entire shape rounded- is drawn together by a very full gathering, although the cap itself is tight to the head. in order to make this gath- ering, the outline of the back ought to be a third larger than the edge of the front. house-linen. there is a fashion in the making of house-linen- sheets, pillow-cases, table-covers, etc.—as in other things; the size and elaboration of such articles have increased wonderfully of late years, and the lady who was in the habit of using her teeth in the desperate struggle of estab- lishing a pillow in a fresh case would find, in the broad, easy coverings of the present day, no necessity for such ex- treme measures. “in the old days,” says a modern writer, “housewives used to pride themselves upon the quantity and quality of the house-linen stored in their presses, handed down from mother to daughter-each adding to the stock. many a long year ago this custom passed away, and a scantily-ade- quate supply was purchased by a newly-married couple, used, discarded, and replaced again and again, before the daughter's day came. fashion has now taken the matter in hand, and, as everything in our modern houses must be superfluous, house-linen has, at last, received its turn, and no effort is spared to make it as elaborate and costly as pos- sible; and, in æsthetic houses, each bed-chamber shows a distinct style of beauty of workmanship and delicacy of material.” house-linen consists of chamber-linen, or bedding : sheets, pillow-cases, bolster-cases, towels. table-linen : ta- ble-cloths, side-cloths, table-napkins. pantry and kitchen- linen : aprons, towels, table-cloths, etc. the home needle. suggested which seems to combine economy and a good ap- pearance. this is done by using two different qualities of material—one of ordinary and the other of better linen, the latter being intended for the sides of the bed. one way of managing this combination is to have a width of the better and a width of the commoner material, the former being split and joined to each side of the other; while a second method is to put the better material as a border around that which is coarser or commoner. the last plan is the more economical, one width of fine linen, cut in two, being sufficient for a pair of sheets. the work, however, is to be considered, four seams in all being required to join the edges to the center, and the patched appearance of such a sheet would certainly detract from its elegance. the same expenditure of money and loss of time would procure a whole sheet, of a quality finer than the center and coarser than the edges; but the idea is given for the benefit of those who may fancy putting it in practice. linen is, of course, the handsomest, and, in warm weather, the most comfortable material for sheets, but it is not indispensable, and, with the thermometer in the region of zero, either below or above, the feeling of it is indescrib- ably icy, so that many who use it in summer discard it, on hygienic principles, in winter. a straight piece of linen, as long as the bed is wide, and about three quarters of a yard in depth, is often used to turn over the quilt after the bed is made. this is sometimes finished only with a plain broad hem, and the monogram handsomely worked above it-sometimes with the addition of a fluted ruffle, and sometimes it is elaborately embroidered. pillow-cases naturally follow sheets, and of the vari- ety of these there is no end, according to the shape of the pillows. these are sometimes long and sometimes three- cornered, but more frequently square. the home needle. from the handsomely embroidered and fringed affair to lay over the towel-rack in the best bedroom, to the crash roller behind the kitchen-door. the needle seems, at first sight, to have very little to do with these, and often it has less to do than it should have. fringed towels, unless overcast with white cotton where the fringe begins, will soon ravel further in a very uneven way, which spoils the looks of the handsomest article ; and a worked initial or monogram at one end is a great im- provement. old table-cloths are sometimes made into towels for common use, and these are very soft and pleas- ant. they require hemming all around. from a yard to a yard and a quarter in length is considered a good size. kitchen towels are usually a yard long, with a hem at each end and a loop on one corner. crash of different qualities, according to the purpose for which they are de- signed, is the ordinary material. table-cloths.—these, from a simple white covering for the dining-room table, may be made articles of extreme luxury. wide damask linen is used for this purpose, and may be purchased either by the yard or in the complete bordered cover. in the latter case there is often a fringe besides, which gives a very handsome finish. there are few articles, says an authority upon the sub- ject, in which there is a greater variety than in table-cloths. those intended for large dinners, etc., can be, and are, very costly, having in some cases the crest, monogram, etc., woven in the pattern of the damask in the center of the cloth, which is, of course, in one piece. table-linen such as this, having generally sets of table-napkins to corre- spond, is an heir-loom in the family for which it has been made. cloths, however, intended for ordinary use, are two and a half and three yards in length, the width being in pro- portion to the length. these are for the usual long dining- the home needle. seldom worth patching; it is better economy to supply its place with a new one. neither is a garment that has many thin places, for these will soon be dragged into holes by the patches. linen is worth mending almost as long as it will hold together, for nothing is more delightful wear dur- ing a heated term than old linen. it is worth mending well, too, and deserves the finest and most durable of work. holes that are “caught together," instead of hav- ing a piece properly set in, are soon gaping open again; and darning that covers only the worst of a worn place makes the surrounding part worse than ever. darning and patch- ing are not to be done at hap-hazard, but according to a regular process, like any other species of needle-work; and the following rules and illustrations, from the little english work referred to, will be found a valuable assistance : the first class of repairs is darning, of which there are many sorts, which can be classed thus : . a plain darn. . a crossed darn. . an opened or figured darn. . the xx x + + + fig. .—plain darn. invisible or joined darn. all these are made at the back of the article to be repaired. for all darns, a warp and a woof have to be formed ; a the mending basket. linen, is especially used in other materials. there is also another way of piecing by overcasting, intended for worn fig. . linen and thick stuff. for this, the worn or torn part, which has to be cut away, is left until the piece has been laid upon it and overcast or sewn there. before sewing, it should be carefully basted all around. the torn part, cut away on the wrong side, should have enough allowed all around its edges to make a good turned-down seam, with which this kind of patch is often finished. piecing by a turned-down seam is prepared like the above, and sewed either by overcasting or running, so that the right side (or where the stitches are placed) is always found above the turned-down seam. in this patch the corners are very difficult to form, and, done by unprac- ticed hands, they are sure to “pucker.” it is just this detail which forms the greatest difficulty in patching. in order to make the corners well, it is neces- sary to keep to the straight thread for the seam ; and, when the notch is arrived at, care must be taken to seize with the the mending basket. in order to place these last-mentioned stitches, it is use- less to cut notches in the sides, as the patch is cut exactly to the same size as that taken away ; about the depth of two or three threads may be left half-way round the piece, so as to make a tiny turning by which to fit it into the hole. it is kept in its place by the aid of a tuck like a darn, and then the stitches are joined by the invisible stitch. the thread used for this ought to be finer than that of the cloth material. in cloth, a fine sewing-silk is used, and only half the thickness of the cloth is sewed. when the piece is sewn in, the work is turned on the right side so as to slightly raise with the needle the nap of the cloth upon all its repaired sides. this renders the patch completely invisi- ble, and after this it is requisite to pass a hot iron over the sewed edges at the back, as this greatly improves the ap- pearance of the repair. (fig. .) fig. . darning stockings is perhaps the most constantly- recurring phase of mending in ordinary use, and the stock- tie iiome needle. ing-bag, with all proper accompaniments, is one of the ac- cessories of the sewing-room or work-basket. this bag is usually made of bright-colored chintz, with pasteboard at the front and back and a puffing of the material between. on the outside of one half is a needle-book, and on the other a pocket. the needle-book is well stocked with large needles of graduated sizes, from the huge darning-needle to its youngest brother; and the pocket contains darning- cotton of various colors and qualities. the inside of the bag affords abundant room for the stockings—supposing that they are mended, as they should be, once a week. frequently stockings are left for the convenient season that never comes, and, when this is the case, they have a steady way of accumulating that is utterly disheartening. a sudden raid is made upon the bag when any are needed, and the most promising pair fished from its depths, but the kind of darning done under such circumstances is not one that would figure well in fancy work. to darn stockings well one must not hurry over them, and for this reason there is no better work to pick up for a long chat with one's “ familiar," or a steady thinking. the neatness of the work depends on the closeness and reg- ularity with which the “ warp and woof” cross and recross each other, and the careful manner in which the threads are joined to the edges of the hole. some skillful workers will take stockings with dreadfully gaping toes and heels and make things of beauty of them by their exquisite darn- ing; while others “botch” the simplest hole, as though to stop it, however temporarily, were the sole object in view. many persons use a wooden or china egg in darning stockings, others use the old-fashioned mock-orange, while a still greater number merely stretch the stocking over the hand while working on it. whichever of these methods is most convenient to the person at work is the best one to follow. xii. a patchwork chapter. of late years the feminine world has run very much to patchwork of various kinds—not exactly the patchwork of our grandmothers and their daughters, perhaps, who spent their odd moments and many, too, that were not odd) in piecing together infinitesimal scraps of calico, feel- ing abundantly repaid for all this weary labor by the ris- ing suns, stars, points, and fox-and-geese patterns which adorned the quilts of their best bed-chambers. modern patchwork scorns these humble materials, and arrays itself gorgeously in silk and velvet. much of it is very handsome, and admirably calculated for “company work," and work to pick up when one is out of sorts with ordinary employments. a silk quilt, or couvre pied, is a particularly comfortable affair, being light, soft, and suffi- ciently warm ; while the bright, well-arranged colors please the eye and relieve the whiteness of the ordinary coverlet. patchwork may be called the fancy work of plain sew- ing, the same stitches being used for its execution ; while the arrangement of color and pattern take off the monotony which the making of under-garments and house-linen pro- duces. it is essentially the occupation of the home nee- dle, and therefore not foreign to the other subjects of these pages, while its general popularity demands some mention in a book of this nature. before beginning a silk quilt, it will be well to take ac- a patchwork chapter. count of stock in the way of scraps and pieces, not forget- ing that ribbons are equally serviceable, and that very shabby ones may be induced to take on quite a fresh ap- . pearance by a judicious application of ammonia and hot iron. ugly silks and ribbons, if sufficiently light, can be dyed any desirable color. figured material should be dis- carded if the quilt is to be a handsome one. a great deal of silk will be needed, and some patterns require more of one kind than some others; buying will be found expensive and begging precarious. fortunately, there is a strong chord of sympathy between people who have made silk patchwork and those who are about to make it, and the former class are always ready to help the latter. donations of silks pour in from various quarters ; an obliging milliner, perhaps, contributes a valuable pack- age; the dress-maker empties her rag-bag ; this one and that one open their hoards, until finally there is a goodly- sized box full. this store should be carefully sorted, and made into bundles of each color and shade. the log-cabin pattern (see fig. ) is the least work, and perhaps, on the whole, the most effective of the vari- ous patterns used. in sewing the pieces together, the quilt is wadded and quilted at the same time, and, as the run- ning-stitch is used instead of the more tedious overhand, the work is in every respect lessened. before making a beginning, it will be necessary to provide an old cotton gar- ment, that can be torn into squares for the lining, and some sheet-wadding. five and a half inches is a pretty size for the squares, and to begin one of these, first crease a square of muslin from end to end, on the bias, both ways. this gives the central point, and on this is to be placed the center of a small square of black velvet-size, one inch and three quarters. this center is the same in every block. the blocks are made of two shades of one color, as represented the home needle. in the light and dark of the illustration. about a yard in length is required for the light, and something like an fig. .. eighth more for the dark. the width of these strips, as cut, is rather more than three quarters of an inch, to allow a good seam on both sides. all these measurements in- clude seams. the wadding is cut in strips about the width of the silk, and, before beginning to sew, it will be best to prepare sev- eral foundation-pieces, several velvet centers, a number of silk strips, and several lengths of the wadding. neither silk nor wadding should be cut off until joined to the foun- dation. sewing-silk of the same shades, or nearly the same, a patchwork chapter. as the silk, and about letter “b” in quality, will look best, and wear best, for sewing the quilt. having carefully basted the velvet square in the center, begin with the lighter shade of silk, and run a strip (with the wrong side up) on one side of the velvet. then lay a strip of wadding on this, turn up the silk (with the wad- ding under) on the right side, and baste down. a second strip of light silk, beginning at the edge of the last strip and leaving off at the edge of the velvet, is treated in the same way; then follow two strips of dark; then two more strips of light; and so on, until eight of each have quite covered the foundation-square. when this is done, all bastings, except those on the outer strips, can be removed. a glance at the illustration will make this process quite plain ; but, in joining the blocks together, there is great variety of taste. four blocks are formed into one by close- ly back-stitching together on the wrong side, and joining all the dark shades, then sewing these in stripes by putting the light shades together. an afghan made in this style is in the writer's possession, and the effect is very hand- some. another way of putting them together is to make four blocks exactly alike and join them by the light shades, finishing the large square with a border all around of black silk, like a picture frame. a third style is to have light and light, dark and dark, face each other in the same square, with the velvet center between ; and this is more like the real log-cabin. some, again, make “mosaic" patchwork of this same pattern by using different colors in the rows; and this is much more economical than the former, as it requires only small scraps. it is often very pretty, but the squares should be small. the proper bordering for such a quilt or afghan is black velvet to match the centers, but, as this is quite expensive, a patchwork chapter. be very handsomely arranged for silk and velvet, with small pieces of white silk between to simulate the ground-work. fig. . another very pretty quilt could be made by taking an old silk dress (if one has it to take) and dividing it into stripes, squares, oblongs, etc., with narrow strips of silk or ribbon of a darker shade, and edging these strips with her- ring-bone or feather-stitch. but this sounds like wander- ing out of plain needle-work into the regions of fancy work and embroidery. all these quilts or afghans, with the exception of the a patchwork chapter. color effect. it is necessary to cut the silk into strips about half an inch wide (a little more or less makes no dif- ference), either straight or on the bias. sew the pieces to- gether strongly and roll into balls, keeping each color and shade in a ball by itself. pieces of narrow ribbon, old cra- vats and sashes, old waists of dresses-in fact, every scrap of silk-can be made of use, whether soiled or fresh.” when a sufficient number of balls has been made, a pound and a half of silk for every yard of material desired, they are sent to a carpet-weaver (unless it is preferred to crochet or knit them at home), who will do his part of the work for twenty-five or twenty-eight cents a yard. three quarters of a yard is the width of his loom, and the amount required must be calculated accordingly. if careful direc- tions are given him about arranging the colors, an oriental looking material will be produced that is very effective. the coloring of roman scarfs is an excellent guide in the weaving of silk rags, and with large spaces of black and light blue, the effect will be very handsome. a material of this sort should be hung on rings, with little or no fullness, and it will be found more satisfactory for portières than for curtains. in the latter case there seems to be too much of it at once. it would also be a very durable material for furniture covering, and any one with a propensity for sewing carpet- rags, and a goodly supply of silk scraps, might thus adorn a sofa or two. nor are carpet-rags proper worthy of the contempt into which they have fallen, for many are the uses to which this simple work can be put. sewing carpet-rags is an oc- cupation very generally liked by children and adopted by the aged, and in economical households it is one that, in some shape or other, is usually on hand. the materials may be finer or more humble, but carpet-rags it is, by whatever name it may happen to be called. rag carpets even may be made very pretty, and the a patchwork chapter. another style of rug equally strong, but involving more labor, is made of carpet-rags with the addition of carpet- ravelings and the aid of the needle and knitting-pins. the odd pieces, which may be of all sorts of material, are cut on the bias, the thick ones being about half an inch wide and the thin ones two inches, and the edges pulled into rough ravelings. all are then loosely wound into balls of carefully assorted colors, having previously been sewed together like carpet-rags, and blocks are knitted, with large wooden needles, of twelve-inch squares. the blocks are then sewed together like patchwork, lined, and finished with fringe of the carpet-ravelings. children delight in this work, and, being a happy com- bination of patchwork and plain knitting in small pieces, to say nothing of the carpet-rag element, it is very con- venient to pick up at odd moments. the caterpillar rug is also made of the general con- tents of the rag-bag, cut on the bias, if possible, and strung on heavy linen thread. the strips are about an inch wide, and arranged without any regard to color, as everything is mixed up together in sewing on to the foundation. they are of uneven lengths, just as the goods will admit of being cut, and are run through the middle of the width and gathered closely together without sewing the ends. a piece of old carpet makes a good foundation, and the strips can be tacked on in lengths from end to end or turned around the corners. a bordering of black an eighth of a yard deep is a great improvement, and a square rug of this kind will be found very useful. another style, which is handsomer, but more work still, is made entirely of woolen goods in scraps an inch and a half square, which are strung through the middle on stout thread and sewn on a foundation. very handsome mate- rials can be introduced into this mat, as so little is required for each square. a patchwork chapter. exact pattern made from it, no difficulty need be found in cutting out another just like it, and, with the aid of a mat- tress-needle (taking long stitches on the under side), even the tuftings could be regularly followed. in addition to the renovated furniture, there will probably be an aching back; but then, what would you ?—the upholsterer will have been defrauded of his unjust dues.. slip-covers, for protecting the furniture in summer, are comparatively easy to make at home, and if there is a worn- out set for patterns, it is only a question of cutting and stitching. neat sewing and exact measurements show to great advantage here, and produce covers that give the room an attractive air, even when the glories of plush and raw silk are hidden from view. rainy days are a boon to the housekeeper with a view to executing various pieces of work that will not brook inter- ruption. one of these odd jobs is connected with feathers, which have an uncanny propensity for flying long after they have been detached from the body that gave them life ; and the making of pillows is an occupation that ne- cessitates retirement into strictly private life. this work is not often undertaken except in the country, or where the making of two small pillows into one large one, or vice versa, is suddenly required ; but it is well to know how to do it in case of emergency: square pillows are not made quite square ; for one of goodly proportions, twenty-eight by thirty-two inches is considered the proper proportion. about five pounds of best feathers, and seven of an inferior quality, will fill this case comfortably. a double row of stitching is necessary to strengthen the seams, for the volatile property of feathers enables them to obtrude themselves upon the world again through the slightest approach to an opening in their pris- ons. flying feathers whenever a pillow is beaten up are an unmitigated nuisance. school needleworkolive c. hapgood ^arbart college iltbrarg school needlework a course of study in sewing designed for use in schools by olive c. tjapgood teacher of sewing in boston public schools "learn the sound qualities of all useful stuffs, and make everything of the best you can get, whatever its price. . . . and then, every day, make some little piece of useful clothing, scwn with your own fingers as strongly as it can be stitched; and embroider it or otherwise beautify it moderately with fine needlework, such as a girl may be proud of having done." john ruskin. pupil's edition boston, u.s.a. ginn & company, publishers copyright, , by olive c. hapgood. all rights reserved. ©inn s. company ttbe atbeneeum press boston preface. the importance of instruction in sewing in the public school is now generally recognized. as manual training comes into greater prominence, new methods and helps are necessary. the demand for these was felt by the author, and this book is the result of practical experience in the class-room. its purpose is to assist both teacher and pupil; lightening the teacher's labors by saving constant repetition, and giving the pupil a manual for reference, with the hope that the information thus ac- quired will assist in fitting her for the duties of life. simplicity with completeness has been the aim through- out. in the teacher's edition, the work is further supple- mented by practical hints and suggestions as to successful methods of teaching the lessons, and by courses of study on kindergarten, primary, and industrial sewing. it also contains a list of articles obtainable for a sewing cabinet, and talks on kindred subjects. the author wishes to acknowledge her indebtedness to the teachers who have so kindly assisted her, and to members of the school board for their advice and interest in the preparation of the work. contents. part i. general suggestions i part ii. plain sewing --------- - part iii. ornamental stitches - - - part iv. drafting, cutting, and making garments - - - index ------ school needlework. . a pair of scissors, for girls in the higher classes. your name should be written with ink on the bag, paper of needles, spools of thread, and sample cloth. an easy way to remember the necessary articles is to let the hand represent the cloth; the thumb, the bag; the first finger, the spools of cotton; the second finger, the thimble and emery bag; the third finger, the needles and pins; and the fourth finger, the tape measure and wax. directions for putting away the work. — . before fold- ing the work, run the needle in and out of the cloth, near the last stitches, so as to keep it secure and aid in finding the place at the next sewing lesson. . to fold the work, smooth it out, fold it lengthwise and narrow enough to go into the bag; then fold it the opposite way. . put the thimble into the bag first, as it is apt to be forgotten. . after all the articles are placed in the bag, draw it up closely. . wind the tape tightly around the bag until about six inches of it are left. . place two fingers of the left hand over the coil of tape, and wind once over the fingers and around the bag. . as the fingers are withdrawn, slip the end of the tape through, and draw tightly. if the above directions are carefully observed, no girl should report any missing article at the next lesson. directions for sewing. — . be very careful to have clean hands. . sit in an erect position, never resting any part of the arm on the desk. . do not fasten the work to the desk or knee. school needlework. needles and thread. needles. — a needle is a small piece of steel, pointed at one end, and having an eye at the other to receive a thread. needles are of various sizes and shapes, according to the uses for which they are intended. three kinds of needles are used in sewing on cotton cloth, — sharps, ground-downs, and betweens; the sizes range from no. i, the largest, to no. , the smallest. sharps are long needles, ground-downs are shorter, and betweens are still shorter. ground-downs are excellent for school use, as they do not bend or break easily. betweens are used for heavy work. worsted and darning needles are used for yarn, and are of different sizes. worsted needles have a long eye, and either a sharp or a blunt point. a very long needle is used in millinery work. a bodkin or tape needle has a long eye, and is used for running tape into a hem or casing. let us examine our paper of needles. it is assorted so that we may have needles suitable for all kinds of stitches. to open it, place a finger between the folds of the paper and separate them. now, opening the sides and short ends which cover the needles, we find twenty- five needles in a secure case. keep them in their places so that we may know the proper size to use for the thread or stitch. beginning at the middle, we find three no. needles, which should be used only with very coarse thread ; they are suitable for sewing on boot-buttons, etc. the needles on each side are alike, so following down one needles and thread. side, we find two no. needles, used for sewing on coarse materials ; next are three no. needles, suitable for hem- ming on towels, etc. ; then there are three no. needles, for stitching; next are two no. needles, used in hem- ming cotton cloth; and the last is a no. needle, for very fine work. after taking out a needle, fold and tie up the paper so that none may drop out. never use a bent needle, as it makes uneven stitches. in passing a needle, hand the eye of the needle to the person, keeping the point towards yourself. thread. — a small twist made from flax, silk, cotton, or wool, is called thread. thread made from flax is called linen thread, and is very strong. thread made from silk is called silk or twist, and is used when sewing on nice textures. cotton thread can be obtained in many num- bers, and is used when sewing on wash goods; the finer the thread, the higher the number. thread made from wool is called yarn, worsted, zephyr, etc., and is used for darning, canvas-work, and fancy-work. a new spool of thread can be unfastened by slipping a pin under the thread, where it is caught in the wood. to unwind the thread, hold the spool in the left hand, with the end of the thread between two fingers. unwind the thread until it is of the required length. break it by holding it securely in each hand, and snapping it across the ends of the thumbs. when not using a spool of thread, keep the end of the thread fastened in the wood. use a piece of thread the length of the desk, or about as long as the arm. when using very fine thread, take a shorter needleful. if the thread kinks, remove the school needlework. needle, and beginning at the work, draw the thread tightly between the thumb-nail and the end of the forefinger. to prevent thread from kinking, thread the needle with the end that hangs from the spool. when using double thread, as in gathering, sewing on buttons, etc., before making the knot, draw the double thread, beginning at the needle, across the wax. threading the needle. — i. sit erect, bringing the needle and thread as close to the eyes as necessary. . roll the end of the thread between the thumb and cushion of the forefinger, so as to twist it tightly. . hold the needle steadily between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, with the eye a little above. . take the end of the thread between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, letting about half-an-inch protrude, and put the thread through the eye of the needle. if preferred, the thread can be held in the left hand, and the eye of the needle passed over it. to aid in threading a round-eyed needle with worsted or loosely twisted thread, a few fibres of cotton-batting or a fine thread can be rolled over the end. waxing the end of the thread before rolling it, is also helpful. threading a long-eyed needle. — . hold the end of the zephyr between the left thumb and forefinger, allowing half-an-inch to show. . place the pointed end of the needle on the cushion of the forefinger, and over the zephyr. . with the left thumb fold the end of the zephyr tightly over the needle. . withdraw the needle, and pass the eye of the needle over the loop of zephyr. cloth. collars, cuffs, handkerchiefs, table-cloths, napkins, towels, etc. silk is made into dress-silks, ribbons, satins, vel- vets, etc. soft, pliable, white cotton cloth (often called muslin) of medium quality is best for a beginner to use at first. the threads of the cloth are called the warp and the woof. the threads running lengthwise are the warp, those running across from selvedge to selvedge are the woof; both can be easily seen on a piece of coarse crash. the warp is usually stronger than the woof, and for this reason, any part of a garment requiring strength, should be cut lengthwise of the cloth. cloth is woven straight, but is sometimes drawn out of shape by pressing. when you can ravel a thread the width or length of the cloth, it is straight, or will become so after washing. if it looks uneven, it can be drawn into place by stretching it on the bias. calico, when torn, often looks very uneven, and should be pulled into shape. the selvedge of cloth is the finished lengthwise edge, and cannot be ravelled. the raw edge is the edge that is cut or torn. a fold is the edge made by doubling one part of the cloth over the other. the nap is the shaggy substance on the surface of the cloth. to tear a piece of cloth, cut in one inch by a thread, then, holding a corner of the cut between the thumb and forefinger of each hand, roll the edges from you, and tear steadily ; a fine piece of cloth must be torn carefully. what is cloth? name some kinds of cloth made from cotton; from wool; from linen; from silk. what are the threads of the cloth running lengthwise of the goods called? those running across? how can you tell when a piece of cotton cloth is straight? if it looks uneven, how can it be drawn into shape? what is the selvedge of cloth? the raw edge? what is a fold? how should a piece of cloth be torn? scissors and cutting. marked, either by plaids or stripes, there is no need of drawing a thread or folding the cloth. fig. . — showing a bias cut. fig. . — showing an exact bias cut. to cut bias, cut on a slanting line across both the warp and the woof. to cut an exact bias, lay the selvedge or a warp thread of the cloth, on a line with a woof thread, and cut on the fold. what is a pair of scissors? name the different kinds of scissors. how should shears be held? how can cloth be cut straight? how can it be cut when a thread is not easily drawn? how is an exact bias cut? part ii. plain sewing. sewing is work done with the needle and thread. the following directions should be before the pupil during class work. ill fig. . — measure. the above represents a three inch rule, to use when certain measurements are required. the first inch is divided into halves and quarters, the second inch into eighths, and the third inch into sixteenths. fractions of a yard: — feet or inches is a yard. inches is three quarters of a yard. inches is one half of a yard. inches is a quarter of a yard. ^ inches is an eighth of a yard. % inches is a sixteenth of a yard. how many inches in a yard? three quarters of a yard? one half? a quarter? an eighth? a sixteenth? the illustrations generally represent the stitches enlarged. school needlework. drills. drill no. . — for practice in using the needle and thimble. materials. — a needle and a thimble. directions. — i. place the thimble on the second finger of the right hand. . hold the pointed end of the needle between the end of the thumb and forefinger of the right hand. . place the thimble on the eye of the needle. . push the needle between the thumb and forefinger, being careful not to cramp the other fingers. . with the left hand push the point back into its former position. . repeat until it can be done easily. drill no. . - for practice in the motion of stitching, hemming, etc. materials. — no. needle, no. thread, and a strip of fig. —showing the work and hands in position. directions. — . thread the needle, but make no knot. . hold the cloth over the forefinger of the left hand, drills. keeping it in place with the thumb and second finger, as in fig. . . hold the needle between the thumb and the fore- finger of the right hand. . insert the needle from right to left, taking up a little of the cloth, and push the needle nearly through. . take the pointed end of the needle between the thumb and cushion of the forefinger of the right hand. . draw the needle and thread through, bringing the thimble finger down near the forefinger, with the thread passing between the third and little fingers. keep the little finger nearly straight to guide the thread. . repeat until the motion is learned. • drill no. . — for practice in the motion of basting, running, gathering, etc. materials. — no. needle, no. thread, and a strip of cotton cloth. fig. . — showing the work and hands in position school needlework. directions. — i. have the needle threaded, but make no knot. . hold the cloth between the thumb and forefinger of each hand, as in fig. . . with the right elbow away from the side, put the point of the needle through a few threads of the cloth, placing the thumb and forefinger of the right hand over it. . pressing the end of the thimble against the eye of the needle, take three or more stitches in the cloth over the cushion of the left forefinger, moving only the elbow joint. (fig. .) . draw the needle and thread through as in drill no. . . repeat until the motion is learned. drill no. . — for practice in the motion of overcasting. materials. — no. needle, no. thread, and a folded edge of cotton cloth. fig. . — showing the work and hand in position. directions.— . have the needle threaded, but make no knot. drills. . hold the fold of the cloth slanting across the edge of the cushion of the left forefinger, keeping it in place with the thumb and second finger, as in fig. . . put the needle in from the back of the fold, point- ing it towards the left shoulder. . draw the needle and thread through as in drill no. . drill no. . — for practice in the motion of over- handing. materials. — no. needle, no. thread, and a folded edge of cotton cloth. fig. . — showing the work and hand in position. directions. — . have the needle threaded, but make no knot. . hold the fold of cloth horizontally along the edge of the cushion of the left forefinger, and around the end of the finger, keeping it in place with the thumb and second finger, as in fig. . school needlework. . hold the right elbow away from the side, without bending the wrist, and so that the palm of the hand is towards you. . insert the needle from the back of the fold, point- ing it directly towards the chest. . draw the needle and thread through as in drill no. . canvas-work. the stitches in sewing can be easily learnt on canvas, using bright-colored single or split zephyr, according to the quality of the canvas. fig. . — showing different stitches taken on canvas. creasing and pinching. fig. represents a corner of a square of canvas, with the stitches taken in the following order: — . uneven basting. . catch-stitch. . running. . button-hole stitch. . stitching. . darning. . overcasting. . the edges are worked with . overhanding. the blanket or loop-stitch. creasing and pinching. a crease for sewing is made by folding the cloth, and pressing the edge until a line is made, which serves to sew on. materials. — a ten-inch strip of bleached or half- bleached cotton cloth. (a more distinct line can be made on the bleached than on the half-bleached cotton cloth.) fig. ii. — showing the position of the hands. creasing. — . hold the cloth firmly with the hands as in fig. . school needlework. . beginning at the upper right-hand end of the cloth, turn down towards you the edge one-fourth of an inch in depth, for three or four inches. . holding the cloth tightly between the hands, crease the edge with the end of the thumb-nail and the cushion of the left forefinger, until it will remain flat and has a sharp edge. . fold and crease the next three inches in the same manner, and so continue to the end. . holding the right-hand corner of the fold firmly, crease the entire length. pinching. — . at the right end of the crease, lay a half-inch fold between the 'thumb and forefinger of the right hand. . lay another over this, and so on, until all the cloth is folded. . pinch the folds, and turn up the edge. . turn the other side of the cloth towards you, and the sharp edge will serve as a line to sew on. if the cloth has been well creased, pinching is seldom necessary. what is a crease? what purpose does it serve in sewing? how should you hold the cloth in creasing? at which end should you begin? how is the edge turned? how is it creased? how should the edge of the fold look? after the cloth has been once creased, what should be done to the entire length? after turning up the edge, what should be done? why i school needlework. the basting, in fig. , is done by taking one long and two short stitches alternately. fig. . — showing a method of basting used on heavy cloth, needle in the proper position for putting away the work. basting, — practise drill no. (page ). . make a knot in the thread to hold it securely. . begin at the right-hand side of the cloth. . place the right-hand corners exactly together, hav- ing the sharp edge of the crease towards you. fig. . — showing the needle in position for beginning. . insert the needle on the crease one-eighth of an inch from the end of the cloth, and take up a few threads (fig. is). . let the needle remain in the cloth, and pin the opposite ends together, by placing a pin vertically through the cloth. . put a pin in the middle vertically. school needlework. . make a small knot in the thread. . hold the work over the cushion of the left fore- finger, as in fig. (page ). . insert the needle at the right-hand corner of the cloth, between the edges of the seam, one-eighth of an inch from the end, and one thread of the cloth below the basting. . draw the needle and thread through. . put the point of the needle back a few threads from where the needle comes through the cloth, and bring it out the same distance beyond. fig. . — showing the stitches . continue, putting the needle back each time into the last stitch. . make the stitches even and keep the seam straight (fig. ), leaving one thread of the cloth between the stitches and the basting. . fasten the thread, by inverting the cloth, and tak- ing a few stitches directly over the last ones made. . join the thread, by making a small knot, and con- cealing it in the seam; or by taking one stitch with the new thread, leaving half-an-inch of the thread to be brought to the left, and to be sewed over with the next few stitches, allowing it to wind in and out. half-backstitching. suggestions. — in the same manner sew all seams hav- ing raw edges, if a strain is coming on them, as in shoulder seams, the seams of drawers, etc. a bias seam should be sewed from the broad part to the narrow. how is stitching done? how is the work held? where is the needle first inserted? where next? where is it brought out? as you continue, where should the needle always be inserted? how should the stitches be made? how many threads of the cloth should be left between the basting and the stitches? how should the thread be fastened? how should the thread be joined? fig. i . — showing the stitches and the needle in position. half-backstitching is the same as stitching, except that the needle is put only half-way back, thus leaving a space between the stitches (fig. ). how does half-backstitching differ from stitching? hemming. a hem is a fold, made by twice turning over the edge of a piece of cloth, and then sewing it down. materials. — no. needle, no. thread, and a strip of cotton cloth. school needlework. to prepare the hem, make a fold one-fourth of an inch wide, and crease; then fold again one-fourth of an inch deep and crease. baste near the edge of the first fold with uneven basting stitches. for wider hems, have the first fold one-fourth of an inch wide, being careful to crease it thoroughly, as much depends upon this; crease the second fold the required width, which can be done evenly, by measuring every two inches with a paper or other measure. if a very wide hem is required, baste as you measure, first along the upper edge of the hem, and then along the lower edge. on woollen cloth, baste down the first narrow fold, then baste as for a hem on cotton cloth. fig. . — bhowing the needle in position for beginning the work. hemming. — practise drill no. (page ). . have no knot in the thread. . hold the hem across the cushion of the left fore- finger, as in fig. (page ). . pointing the needle from you, insert it at the edge of the fold, one-third of an inch from the right-hand end, and bring it out close to the end, as in fig. . . carefully draw the needle through, leaving a little of the thread at the end, to be tucked under the hem with school needlework. new needleful, as when commencing the work, putting the needle into the last hole the short end came out of, and sewing both ends down with the next stitches. . at the end of the work, fasten the thread by taking two or three stitches over each other in the fold. suggestions. — hems should be begun and finished by neatly overhanding the ends of the fold. a narrow hem on stiff cloth, as on table linen, need not be basted. the seams of a garment should be sewed before hemming, to conceal the edges. before turning the first fold, the end of the seam should be cut to avoid extra thicknesses and wear; when basting the hem, seams or stripes should exactly match. in sewing, to hold a wide hem easily, fold it over and over until it is a convenient width. what is a hem? how should the hem be folded? where and how should it be basted? how many times should a wide hem be basted? how many times should a wide hem on woollen cloth be basted? should there be a knot in the thread? how is the hem held? how should the needle point? where is the needle inserted? how should the thread be drawn through? what is done with the end? how is the stitch made? how should the needle be held? how should the stitches be taken? in joining the thread, where should the end of the old thread be left? where should the end be drawn? in starting with a new needleful of thread, where should the needle be put? what should be done with the two ends? in fastening, where and how should the stitches be taken? what should be done to the ends of a hem? running. running is done by passing the needle in and out of the material at regular intervals. the rule for running is to take up two threads of the cloth and pass over two threads, but the light in the aver- age school-room does not permit this, nor is it wise to strain the eyes trying to do so. the general principle is to pass over as much of the cloth as you take up. running. materials. — no. needle, no. thread, and a half- yard strip of cotton cloth, doubled and basted. running. — practise drill no. (page ). . make a small knot in the thread. . hold the work in the left hand, between the thumb and cushion of the forefinger, as in fig. (page ). . sew directly below the basting. . insert the needle between the edges of the seam, at the right-hand corner, and take the stitches (fig. ) over the cushion of the left forefinger, as in drill no. (page ). fig. . — showing the stitches, and the needle in position. . fasten, by putting the needle through to the under side, and taking two or three stitches in the same place. . join the thread, by sewing over the last stitches, or by making a knot and concealing it between the edges of the seam. suggestions. — to avoid puckering in running, begin at the right hand and smooth the seam between the left thumb and forefinger. running is used for seams, which do not require great strength, also for tucking. how is running done? what is the principle to be followed in running? how is the work held? where are the stitches taken? where is the needle inserted? how should the stitches be taken? how should the thread be fastened? how should the thread be joined? when is running used? school needlework. running and a backstitch. running and a backstitch consists of two or more run- ning stitches and a backstitch, taken alternately. materials. — no. needle, no. thread, and a half- yard strip of cotton cloth, doubled and basted. fig. . — showing the stitches, and needle in position for putting away the work. running and a backstitch. — . begin as for running. . take three running stitches. . take one backstitch. . repeat, which will cause every third and fourth stitch to meet (fig. ). suggestions. — another method is to take three running stitches, making the third twice the length of the others, and then, putting the needle back to the middle of the last stitch, proceed as before. in this manner, the stitches on the right side resemble running, but on the wrong side there is a slight difference. running and a backstitch is used when the seam needs to be sewed a little stronger than by running. of what does running and a backstitch consist f when is running and a back- stitch used? overcasting. overcasting. overcasting is done by taking loose stitches over the raw edge of cloth, to keep it from ravelling, materials. — no. needle, no. thread, and a stitched strip of cotton cloth. fig. . — showing the stitches, and needle in position. overcasting. — practise drill no. (page ). . find one-eighth of an inch and one-fourth of an inch on the measure (page ). . place the thumb-nail on the cloth one-eighth of an inch below the raw edge. the stitches are to be of this depth, and twice as far, or one-fourth of an inch, apart. . make a small knot in the thread. . hold the work over the left forefinger, as in fig. (page ). . begin at the right-hand end of the seam. . insert the needle one-eighth of an inch below the edge, and between the edges of the seam, in order to hide the knot.- . pointing the needle towards the left shoulder, take school needlework. the next stitch one-fourth of an inch to the left, and over both edges of the cloth. . continue, taking up the same number of threads each time, being careful to make the spaces equal. . do not draw the stitches tightly, but let them lie loosely over the edge (fig. ). . to fasten the thread, draw the needle nearly through the cloth where the next stitch should come. turn over the cloth, withdraw the needle, and fasten the thread at this point, being careful that the stitches do not show on the right side. . to join the thread, make a small knot in the new thread, and put the needle between the edges of the seam, through the little hole, which was made when the needle was withdrawn. suggestions. — before overcasting, take out the basting threads and trim the edges evenly. all seams whose edges ravel should be overcast, and, therefore, a selvedge seam does not need to be overcast. overcasting is very difficult to do nicely. the above directions are for over- casting on underclothes, etc. in overcasting a dress waist, or any fine material, smaller stitches should be taken. a bias seam should be overcast from the broad part to the narrow, or with the grain of the cloth. what is overcasting? how deep are the stitches taken? how far apart? how is the work held? at which end is the work begun? where is the needle inserted? why? how should the needle point? how far to the left should the next stitch be taken? how do you continue with the stitches? how is the thread fastened? how is the thread joined? what should be done before overcasting? when does a seam need to be overcast? how is a bias seam overcast? school needlework. . pointing the needle towards the chest, put it through both edges, taking up as little of the cloth as possible. fig. . — showing how the stitches should look on the under side, with the seam opened. . take the stitches at the side of the cushion, and make them close and even, having perpendicular lines on the under side of the seam (fig. ), and oblique lines across the edges (fig. ). fig. .— showing, the edges of the seam being separated, how the end of the thread is fastened in beginning, how the stitches should look on the side towards you, and how to join the thread (the double line representing the old thread, and the black line the new thread). overhanding. s . joining the thread (fig. ). when the thread becomes too short for use, draw the needle through the further edge of the cloth, as in taking a stitch. insert the needle at the opposite edge, one-fourth of an inch to the left, taking up one thread of the cloth. draw the thread through, and remove the needle. have no knot in the new thread. pointing the needle from you, insert it at the hole where the old thread is hanging. draw the thread through until about an inch is left, and hold the end under the thumb. pointing the needle towards you, insert it at the nearest edge, exactly opposite the last stitch on the other edge. hold the ends under the thumb, while the threads along the top are being over- handed ; afterwards, cut the ends off. the thread can also be joined as in fig. . if pre- ferred, a knot can be used by beginning back and sewing over a few stitches, and afterwards cutting off the knot. . finish the seam by turning the work around, and overhanding back four or five stitches; this will fasten the thread securely. . when the seam is finished, draw out the basting thread, open the seam, and rub it first on one side and then on the other with the thumb-nail until it is flat. fig. . — showing another way of joining the thread. gathering. . use a single or double thread a little longer than the space to be gathered. a double thread helps to keep the gathers in place, but is more apt to knot than a single thread. . make a good-sized knot in the thread, so that it cannot slip through the cloth. . with the right side of the cloth towards you, hold the work in the left hand, between the thumb and cushion of the forefinger, as in fig. (page ). . insert the needle on the wrong side, so as to conceal the knot, and through the hem to keep the knot secure. fig. . — showing the middle marked by a notch and by a cross- stitch, also showing gathering stitches. . sew on the crease, taking several stitches before drawing the needle through. . do not count the threads, but take up about half as many as you skip, i.e., take up two threads and pass over four threads (fig. ). . if a knot, that cannot be untied, comes in the gather- ing thread, you will have to begin again. . when the seam is finished, remove the needle from the thread, and make a knot in this end of the thread. § school needlework. . put a pin in vertically, close to the last stitch, tak- ing up a few threads of the cloth. . carefully draw up the thread, but not too tightly. fig. . — showing the thread drawn up, and fastened around a pin. . wind the thread over the top, and under the point of the pin a number of times, crossing the threads at the middle of the pin (fig. ). fig. . — showing the placing of gathers, with a large blunt needle. placing or stroking of gathers. — . with the right side towards you, begin at the left-hand edge. gathering. . hold the work between the left thumb and fore- finger, as in fig. , keeping the thumb below the gathering thread. . put the point of the large needle under the gather- ing thread, holding it obliquely. . press the needle towards the thumb, bringing the little plait under the thumb, and drawing the needle downwards. . pinch it down tightly. . continue in this way, putting the needle under each stitch. suggestions. — the part to be gathered should be divided into halves, quarters, or eighths, according to the width. when the part is only divided into halves, a notch may be avoided by beginning the gathering in the middle. in placing, the eye of the needle can be used instead of a blunt-pointed needle. the upper part of the gathers often need a stroke of the needle. if a scratching sound is made in placing, marks are apt to be left, and the cloth torn. in thin, stiff materials, instead of placing, many stitches can be taken on the needle at once, and before drawing the needle through, push them close together; holding firmly, pull them into place and press them. how is gathering done? when is it used? how is the cloth prepared? how long a thread should be used? what kind of a knot is required? how is the work held? how are the stitches taken? what is done after the seam is finished? how should the thread be drawn? how should the thread be wound? at which end should stroking begin? how is the work held in stroking? where should the needle be put? what is done next? school needlework. double gathering or gauging. double gathering is done by making two rows of gathering, with the stitches of the second row directly under those of the first. materials. — no. needle, no. thread, and two pieces of cotton cloth, each half-a-yard long and seven inches wide, hemmed at the sides and lower edge. fig. . — showing double gathering on single material. double gathering on single material. — . gather one- fourth of an inch from the raw edge. . when the end is reached, remove the needle, but do not draw up the thread. . make a crease one-fourth of an inch below the gathering. . on the crease make another row of gathering, taking each stitch directly below the one above it (fig. ). . remove the needle. . take hold of both threads near the cloth, and gradually draw the gathers up to the required width. double gathering. double gathering which is to be overhanded on to a binding. — i. find the middle of the cloth, and mark it one and a half inches from the raw edge by a cross-stitch. . crease one inch from the raw edge of the cloth, and let it remain folded. . make two or more rows of gathering, the first row being one-eighth of an inch from the edge of the fold. suggestions. — when double gathering is used, there is no need of placing. double gathering should be used on woollen materials, and quite long stitches be taken, if there is much fulness. where the gathers are large, the second row can be easily made by closely drawing up the first gathering thread, and inserting the needle through many gathers at once. how is double gathering done? how far from the edge should the first row, in single material, be made? in double material? how is the middle of the cloth marked for double gathering, that is to be overhanded to a binding? scalloped edge. scalloped edge. a scalloped edge is used as a fancy heading for fulness. materials. — no. needle, no. thread, a strip of soft woollen cloth, and strong silk or thread to match in color. scalloped edge. — . fold one of the lengthwise edges five-eighths of an inch from the edge, and baste close to the raw edge. . on the wrong side, and beginning at the right-hand end, mark the outer edge of the fold into inches with a colored pencil. fig. . — showing a scalloped edge. . half-an-inch below the outer edge of the fold, and beginning half-an-inch from the right-hand end, make another row of dots one inch apart. these dots should be midway between those of the upper row. . make a good-sized knot, and inserting the needle at the upper right-hand dot, take small running stitches, slanting up and down, from dot to dot (fig. ). . carefully draw up the thread every few inches. for what is a scalloped edge used? what kind of stitches are taken? school needlework. honey-combing or smocking. honey-combing is drawing fulness together for orna- mental effect. materials. — no. needle, a piece of fine woollen cloth eleven inches long and three and a half inches wide, silk to match, and a red and a blue pencil. o od ob o o oc q " i 'i fig. . — showing how to mark the cloth, diamonds representing red dots, and circles blue dots. honey-combing. — . on the right side of the cloth, and beginning at one end, mark the entire length, as in fig. , placing red dots in the place of diamonds, and blue dots in the place of circles. fig. . — showing honey-combing begun, needle in position honey-combing. . drawing the needle through from underneath at a (fig. ), take up a few threads of the cloth at b (fig. ), and fasten a and b together with two or three over and over stitches (fig. , a). . passing the needle underneath, bring it out at the next red dot (fig. , c), and fasten c and d together. fig. . — showing diamond honey-combing. . continue to the end of the row, fastening together the red dots which are connected in fig. . . beginning the second row at the right, fasten together, in a similar manner, the blue dots (circles, fig- )- bindings. preparations. — i. find the middle of the band, and mark the place by cutting a notch (fig. ) at the edge of each side, or by taking a cross-stitch (fig. ) with colored cotton. . cut off each corner of the band one-fourth of an inch deep (fig. ), to avoid having many thicknesses of cloth, when the corners are turned. . loosen the gathering thread. fig. . — showing half of the gathers basted and stitched. . holding the wrong side of the gathered piece to- wards you, place the middle of the band at the notch in the middle of the gathers, and put in a pin vertically, to hold them together (fig. ). . pin the ends of the gathers one-fourth of an inch from each end of the band. . tighten or loosen the gathering thread, so that the length of the gathered edge exactly matches that of the band. bindings. is coming, as on underclothing. a narrow binding for finishing a garment should be cut on the bias. the binding and gathering should be equally divided by notches, so that there may be no more fulness in one part than in another. if there are but few gathers, half- backstitching can be used instead of stitching. great care should be taken to have the ends of the band neat; some prefer to turn the ends of the band under before stitching, others stitch the ends of the band together, before putting it on to 'the gathers. binding no. . — sewed by setting-in the gathers. materials. — same as for binding no. i. fig. . — showing gathers set into a band. preparations.— i. mark the middle of the band by a cross-stitch, and cut off the corners, as in fig. . . crease the four edges of the band. . baste and overhand the ends, beginning at the corners. . loosen the gathering thread. school needlework. . hold the right side of the gathers towards you. . pin the middle of one edge of the band to the mid- dle of the gathers, and exactly over the gathering thread (fig. , b). . pin the ends of the gathers, inside the ends of the band (fig. , a and c). . draw up or loosen the gathering thread, so that it is the same length as the band, and fasten around the pin. . arrange the gathers with the needle. . baste the band on, so that the gathering thread is covered. setting-in of gathers. — . begin as for hemming, but make the stitch vertical on the side towards you. . take up, close below the gathering thread, one gather and then a thread or two of the band (fig. ). . take the next stitch by inserting the needle into the next gather (which should be directly under the place where the thread comes out of the band) and at the same time take up a thread of the band. . take a stitch in each gather. . when this side is finished, fasten securely, and cut off the gathering thread. . baste and sew the under part of the band in the same manner, taking care that the edge of the band corresponds exactly with the edge on the opposite side, in order that the band may not be twisted. . do not let these stitches show on the right side. suggestions.—the shape of the stitch is like the letter n, as in overhanding, but the slant here is underneath, while in overhanding it is on the top. a binding is more easily sewed on in this manner, if there is a double row of gathering. to strengthen a binding, where a bindings. button is to be placed, turn in one inch at the end of the band before folding it, and baste pieces of cloth on the under side where other buttons are to be placed ; at the button-hole end, turn in half-an-inch. cut a button-hole in a binding nearer the gathers than the folded edge, so that the garment will be held in place firmly. binding no. . — sewed by overhanding. materials. — same as for binding no. , with the larger piece of cloth gathered for overhanding to a binding (page ). fig. . — showing gathers overhanded, with needle in position preparations. — . mark the middle of the band by a cross-stitch, and cut off the corners, as in fig. . . crease the four edges of the band. . double each end, and beginning at the corners, overhand both ends. . baste the lengthwise edges together. school needlework. . place the folded edge of the cloth across the cushion of the forefinger of the left hand, allowing the tip of the finger to show. . hold the cloth firmly, keeping the end of the thumb near the folded edge. . work from you, instead of towards yon. . draw the needle through from underneath, close to the folded edge of the cloth, which will bring the thread into position for the stitch. . again insert the needle one-eighth of an inch from the edge, and exactly back of its first position. fig. . — showing the work in position, and button-hole stitches. . let the needle remain half-way through the cloth, and pointing towards you. . take the two threads at the eye of the needle, bring them towards you at the right of the needle, then under the point of the needle and from you (fig. ). . pull the needle out, drawing the thread so that the twist or purl comes at the top of the folded edge of the cloth (fig. ). . one-eighth of an inch beyond take another stitch in the same manner. school needlework. cutting. — cut the slit by a thread of the cloth, one- fourth of an inch from the folded edge, and a little longer than the diameter of the button. barring. — i. make a small knot in the thread. . with the folded edge from you, place the slit across the cushion of the left forefinger (fig. ). . hold the slit firmly between the thumb and fore- finger, and slanting as in fig. . . work from you, beginning at the end farthest from the folded edge of the cloth. fig. .—a, showing the barring of a button-hole; b, showing the overcasting of a button-hole; c, showing a finished button-hole; i), showing a button-hole on heavy cloth. . draw the needle through from underneath, at the left of the slit, and three or four threads from the raw edge, a (fig. , a). . turn the cloth, so that the folded edge is towards you. . insert the needle at b (fig. , a), and bring it out at c, taking up three or four threads of the cloth at each side of the slit. . again insert the needle at b, and bring it out at c. this makes a side and end barring. button-holes. . turn the cloth, and bar the other side and end in the same manner, i.e., inserting the needle at d, bring it out at a, and repeat. this brings the needle to the start- ing point. overcasting. — . hold the barring tightly near the edge of the slit. . taking up three or four threads of the cloth, over- cast one side, making the stitches over the barring and fig. . — showing button-hole stitches, fig. . — showing a finished enlarged, needle and thread in posi- button-hole, enlarged, tion. the straight lines represent the threads of the cloth. one-eighth of an inch apart. bring the needle at the last stitch into the corner, where the side and end barring meet, b (fig. , b). . turn the cloth, and take one overcasting stitch in the opposite corner, c (fig. , b). . overcast the remaining side and end in the same school needlework. manner, which will again bring the needle to the starting point. button-hole stitch or purl. — i. draw the needle half- way through at the left side, and one thread beyond, taking up about four threads of the cloth. . with the needle pointing towards you, take the two threads at the eye of the needle, and bring them towards you at the right of the needle, then under the point of the needle and from you (fig. ). . draw the needle and thread out, at right angles to the slit, and so that the twist or purl comes at the top edge of the slit (fig. ). in making the purl, the thread will form the figure eight ( ). . continue in this manner, leaving a thread of the cloth between each stitch, and make the stitches even. . take seven or eight stitches across the outer end (fig. ), drawing the purl towards the-folded edge, and making either a square or round end. the greatest wear from the button comes here. . holding the folded edge of the cloth towards you, work the second side until close to the end barring. if, in taking the button-hole stitch, you fail to put the thread around the needle, the stitch can be picked up, by leaving a small loop, and, with the thread be- yond it, passing the needle from underneath through the loop. finishing. — . without turning the cloth, draw the needle down through the first button-hole stitch taken, bringing it up on the opposite side, where the side and end barring meet. . draw this stitch so tightly as to bring the sides close together. button-holes. . make a barring exactly over the one already there, which will leave the thread at the left side. . holding the thread under the left thumb, draw the needle under the two end barrings and over the thread, which will form the loop stitch. . take another loop stitch in the middle of the bar- ring and one in the right hand corner. . draw the needle down through the cloth dose to the purl of the last loop stitch, and fasten on the wrong side. joining the thread. — . if the thread should prove too short, put the needle through the slit, and turn to the other side of the cloth. . fasten lightly beside the last stitch. . after threading the needle, insert it beside the last stitch, drawing it towards the purl. . turning the right side towards you, draw the needle up through the last purl, and proceed with the button- hole stitch. suggestions. — on materials that ravel, make two par- allel rows of stitching, and cut between the rows ; or the place may be dampened with glue and cut when dry. it is important to remember when making a button-hole, to work from you and begin at the end farthest from the edge. try to keep the slit straight and not to press it out of shape. some hold the slit horizontally on the forefinger. the distance that the button-hole is cut from the edge, depends upon the garment. the side of the garment in which the button-hole is made, is a matter of choice, but it is wise to decide upon one side and adhere to it. in woollen goods a triangle of a few threads of the cloth can be cut out of the end nearest the edge, or the end can be rounded. loops. . holding the hook firmly between the left thumb and forefinger, unfasten it. . begin at the further side, and overhand closely the two circles (fig. ), being careful not to let the stitches show on the right side. . overhand the under part of the hook, as far as the bend. . fasten, by taking three or four stitches in the same place, at one side of the hook; then run the needle to the opposite side, and again fasten. a great strain comes here, and it is necessary to fasten securely. suggestions. — if the eye is on a garment, where it is liable to show, cover it with button-hole or loop stitches. when sewing on hooks and eyes, use a strong thread or twist, and as fine a needle as possible. what is a hook? what is an eye? where is the eye placed? how is it sewed on? how should the thread be fastened? what is done to the two pieces of cloth before sewing on the hook? where is the hook placed before it is put in position? how is it sewed on? how is the thread fastened? loops. a loop is a catch made in a garment, to take the place of an eye. materials. — no. needle, no. thread, and a folded and basted piece of cotton cloth. loops. — . make a knot in the thread. . holding the folded edge of the cloth towards you, work from left to right. . half-an-inch from the folded edge take three or four stitches one-fourth of an inch in length, and over each other (fig. , a). gussets. fig. . — showing the gusset folded over. on three sides; for the gusset a quarter of a four-inch circle of cloth. gussets. — . find the middle of the side of the cloth not hemmed, and cut two inches and a half, by a thread. . make a hem on each side, having it one-eighth of an inch wide at the top, and turned to a point at the bottom. . find the middle of the rounded side of the gusset, and crease to the opposite corner. . baste with even stitches along the crease. . on all the sides, fold and crease one-fourth of an inch. . cut off all unnecessary thicknesses of cloth in the folds, and baste the folds down. . on each side, five-eighths of an inch from point a (fig. ), make a pin-hole; then fold and crease from pin- hole to pin-hole (fig. , b to b). setting-in the gusset.— . with a small knot in the thread, draw the needle through from the wrong side of the gusset, at point a (fig. ). . holding the wrong side of the cloth towards you, in- sert the needle from the right side, two or three threads from the end of the opening. . holding the right sides together, overhand the gusset to the cloth, as far as the crease or point b (fig. ) ; fasten securely. . overhand the other side in the same manner, begin- ning at point a. school needlework. . fold the gusset over on the crease. . pin the end of the middle line of basting to the cloth, a little below the opening (fig. ). . baste and hem the gusset to the cloth. . make a row of stitching at the fold of the gusset, to strengthen it (fig. ). fig. . — showing other ways of cutting a gusset. suggestions. — the gusset can be made as large or small as desired; it can also be cut in different shapes (fig. ). an easy method of inserting a gusset is to cut a small square of cloth; fold and crease the edges; placing a corner at the end of the opening, overhand two sides; fold fig. . — showing the middle of the gusset pinned, and the finished gusset on the wrong side. fig. . — showing the finished gusset on the right side. gussets. on the bias and hem the remaining sides over the over- handing stitches. gusset and facing. — . make a paper pattern the desired size, having the gusset in the proportions of fig. . . fold the pattern at the dotted lines (fig. ), and place this edge on an exact bias fold of the cloth, which will bring the edge of the gusset on a line with a thread of the cloth. fig. . — showing the shape of a gusset and facing combined. . cut the cloth by the pattern, and then cut in one- fourth of an inch to a (fig. ). . make a narrow fold on the inner edges of the facing, and on the sides of the gusset make a fold turned to a point at a. . fold the edges of the opening in the garment. . with the wrong sides together, overhand the gusset, and then the inner edges of the facing, to the opening in the garment. . hem the opposite edges. what is a gusset? what is its use? how should the hem in the opening be made? in setting-in a gusset, how is the point brought to the opening? what kind of stitches are then taken? what kind of stitches are used after folding the gusset? school needlework. placket. a placket is an opening made in a garment. materials. — no. needle, no. thread, and a piece of cotton cloth five inches square, hemmed on three sides. placket. — . at the middle of the side not hemmed, cut three inches by a thread. . hold the wrong side of the cloth towards you. . at the left of the opening, make a hem turned to a point at the bottom, and one-eighth of an inch wide at the top. . at the right, make a hem three-fourths of an inch wide the entire length. . turn to the right side of the cloth. . at the bottom of the wide hem make a horizontal crease by a thread. . on the right side of the opening, make a vertical crease by a thread, three-fourths of an inch from the edge. . place the edge of the wide hem on this crease. . holding the hem carefully, baste with small stitches, on the horizontal crease. . make two rows of stitching, one a little below, and one a little above the basting. what is a placket? when the wrong side is towards you, how wide a hem is made at the left? how wide at the right? how many rows of stitching are taken in tacking the hem? plaiting. the chief difficulty is in measuring and folding them; when it is decided at what distance apart and what width the tucks are to be made, a paper measure can be made as follows. — make a mark as far from the end of the paper, as the sum of the distance apart and the width of the tucks; make a second mark beyond the first mark, the width of the tucks; make a third mark as far from the second mark, as the sum of the distance apart and twice the width of the tucks; make a fourth mark beyond the third mark, the width of the tucks; continue as for the third and fourth marks. when two tucks have been made, the next can be easily marked by folding the wrong side together at the second tuck, and making pin- holes at the folds of the first tuck. the edge of one tuck may form the guide for measuring the next, though it is better to mark and baste all the tucks for a short distance. narrow tucks, one-eighth of an inch apart, are neat and pretty, but must be made very carefully, as the difference of a thread is quickly noticed. what is a tuck? what is its use? how should the tucks be sewed? which way of the cloth can they be made? what is the chief difficulty in making tucks? plaiting. a plait is a fold made in a garment, for fulness or trimming. materials. — no. needle, no. thread, pins, and a piece of cloth nine and a half inches long and four inches wide, with a narrow hem at the ends and lower edge. plaiting.— . on the raw edge of the cloth, with the right side towards you, measure one inch from the right- school needlework. hand end, and mark it by cutting a small notch or insert- ing a pin vertically. . mark every inch and a half to the left of this. . fold the cloth at the first notch, and bring the fold to the edge of the hem. . insert a pin in the middle of the three thicknesses of cloth. . fold at the next notch, and bring it exactly to the underfold of the first plait. fig. .— showing basted plaits, half-an-inch wide- . place a pin in the middle of the plait. . fold and pin the other plaits in the same way. . baste with even stitches, one-fourth of an inch from the edge (fig. ). suggestions. — plaits can be laid either to the right or to the left. there can be spaces between the plaits, or they can meet, as in fig. . if the plaits meet, the material must be three times the length that is desired, when finished. box-plaiting is made by beginning at the slip or blind-stitch. . cut the ravellings from the edges of the seam. . turning the wrong side of the calico towards you, fold the right sides together, and crease at the sewing of the seam. . baste, so that the raw edges are enclosed. . half-backstitch the seam, being careful that no ravellings can be seen on the right side. suggestion. — trimming can be put on in this manner, having the seam very narrow. what is a french seam? which sides of the cloth should be placed together? how wide a seam should be made? with what kind of stitches should the seam be finished? french hem on damask. french hemming is used in hemming table-linen. materials. — no. needle, no. thread, and a strip of cotton cloth or table-linen. french hem.— . crease a narrow hem. . holding the wrong side towards you, fold and crease the cloth, so as to make it even with the first fold of the hem. . proceed as in overhanding. slip or blind-stitch. a slip or blind-stitch is used to fasten a hem lightly. materials. — no. needle, no. thread, and a strip of cotton cloth. slip or blind-stitch. — . fold and crease a hem half-an- inch wide. school needlework. . baste about a fourth of an inch from the edge. . make a small knot in the thread. . conceal the knot by drawing the needle through the under part of the fold, one-eighth of an inch from the end. . take up one or two threads of the cloth, and before drawing the needle through, take up one-fourth of an inch of the edge of the fold. . continue in this manner, being careful not to draw the thread tightly. . fasten securely. suggestions. — this stitch is used for sewing hems on woollen cloth, where it is desired to conceal the stitches. trimmings of silk and velvet are often put on with this stitch. for what is a slip or blind-stitch used? how are the stitches taken? edgings and ruffles. an edging is a trimming on the border of a garment. lace edging. lace edging is made of fine threads woven into a net. materials.—no. needle, no. thread, pins, half- a-yard of inch-wide lace, and a piece of cotton cloth six inches long and four inches wide, with a narrow hem at the ends and upper edge, and an inch hem at the lower edge. lace edging. — . holding the scalloped edge towards you, make a narrow hem at the right-hand end of the lace. edgings and ruffles. six inches long and one and a half inches wide ; for the ruffle, a piece of cambric nine inches long and two inches wide, with a very narrow hem at the ends and lower edge. a ruffle faced on. — i. mark the raw edges of the ruffle and the cloth, by notches, into halves and quarters. also mark the middle of the facing by a notch. . gather the ruffle. . place the right sides of the cloth and ruffle together, and pin at the corresponding notches. . draw up the gathering thread, and fasten around the pin. . adjust the gathers, and run exactly on the gathering thread. . pin the middle and ends of the facing to the ruffle, and baste. . turn the other side towards you, and half-backstitch close below the running stitches. . take out the basting threads. . turn the facing over and crease it carefully at the seam. . baste and hem the opposite edge of the facing. suggestions. — a heading on a ruffle can be made by folding the required width for the heading, and gathering it, making one or more rows as desired. the fulness of the ruffle depends upon the material; a narrow cambric ruffle should be about one and a half times the length of the part to which it is to be sewed. in making a ruffle of more than one breadth, the ends should be joined neatly before hemming or gathering. what is an edging? of what is lace edging made? how should the lace be held in overhanding? what allowance for fulness should be made in turning a corner? how should lace be sewed on, when fulness is required? what is hamburg edging? in what ways can it be sewed on, when there is no fulness? when fulness is required? from what are ruffles made? what is first done to the ruffle, the cloth, and the facing? school needlework. whipping. whipping is forming gathers by overcasting a rolled edge of fine material, and drawing up the thread. materials. — no. and no. needles, no. and no. thread, pins, scissors, a strip of paper, and a piece of cotton cloth six inches long and four inches wide, with a narrow hem on the ends and upper edge, and an inch hem on the lower edge; for the ruffle, a piece of plain cambric, twelve inches long and two inches wide, with a narrow hem on the ends and one side. fig. , — showing the rolling and overcasting of the ruffle. whipping. — . practise rolling tightly the edge of the piece of paper. it must be rolled, not folded. . divide the edge of the inch hem, and the raw edge of the cambric, into halves and quarters, and mark, one inch from the edge, by cross-stitches. . trim the ravellings from the raw edge. . hold the wrong side of the cambric towards you. . beginning at the right-hand corner, roll the first half-inch of the cambric towards you, between the thumb and the forefinger of the left hand. whipping. . take the coarse needle and thread, and make a small knot. . inserting the needle at the corner, under the roll, take one or two stitches, to fasten the end. . hold the end of the roll between the right thumb and forefinger, and, placing the cambric between the third and little finger of the left hand, draw tightly. . pressing the left thumb against the forefinger, rub an inch of the edge upwards and downwards, until a small, firm roll is made. . overcast, as far as the cloth is rolled tightly, insert- ing the needle under the roll (fig. ). . draw up the thread, holding it on a line with the raw edge. if the roll is small, and the stitches are taken loosely and at regular intervals, the ruffle will draw easily on the thread. . continue, rolling and whipping an inch or two at a time. . placing the right sides of the ruffle and hem to- gether, pin the divisions of the ruffle to the divisions of the hem. . draw up the ruffle to the length of the hem, and wind the thread around the pin. . holding the ruffle towards you, overhand, inserting the needle in each fold of the whipping, so that the thread will lie between the folds (fig. ). . fasten both the whipping and the overhanding thread. suggestions. — the fingers should be perfectly clean, to prevent soiling the work. in whipping, some prefer to take hemming stitches instead of overcasting stitches. a ruffle, for whipping, should be twice the length of the school needlework. part to which it is to be sewed; it is sometimes advisable to make it more than twice as full. a ruffle cut across the cloth whips easier than one cut lengthwise. a fine ma- terial whips more readily than a coarse one. ruffles should be cut by a thread, which can be done by tearing, and then trimming the edges. fig. . — showing the overhanding of the ruffle to the cloth. it is best to use short lengths of thread, as a great strain comes, when the ruffle is drawn. in making a long ruffle, have a thread for each division, and measure as you draw the thread. the thread will draw easier, if a large needle is used. when corners are to be turned, allow extra ful- ness, so that the ruffle will lie flat (page ). in over- handing a ruffle, the garment can be held towards you, but, if the whipping thread should prove too short, there is no way to lengthen it ; while, if the ruffle is held towards you, the thread can be drawn up or lengthened. what is whipping? in whipping, which side of the ruffle should be held towards you? how do you begin? what kind of a needle and thread should be used? how is the roll held? how rolled? what is done next? how is the thread drawn? how continue? how is the ruffle sewed on to the hem? stockinet darning. . with the needle pointing towards you, make the next row of three stitches, taking up the threads of the stockinet, that were passed over in the preceding row. . so continue, making each row a little longer at both top and bottom, as in fig. , till the centre of the circle is reached; then decrease in the same proportion (fig. ). fig. . — showing a hole cut, and partly darned. . be careful to put the needle through the loops of the stockinet, at the edge of the circle. . cross the darn in the same manner, making per- fect lattice-work, (fig. ). suggestions. — the stockinet is put on the cardboard to keep it in place while being worked, and silk is used that the stitches may be easily seen, and also that the lesson may be interesting. in mending a stocking, hold the school needlework. work across three fingers of the left hand. a darning ball can be used, which prevents the fingers from being pricked, but it is apt to stretch' the stocking and the darn. the darning can be done on either side of the stocking, and should be worked as far as the stocking shows signs of weakness; it should first be worked vertically and parallel to the ribs of the stocking. loops of about one- sixteenth of an inch can be left at each end, to provide for shrinkage; stretching the darn slightly, when it is finished, will take up these loops. the edge of a darn must never be made on one thread, as a single thread is not strong enough to bear the strain; a diamond or oval shape is better. it is wise to darn a thin place before a hole appears. in mending a large hole, draw out the rough ends, and, using a fine needle and thread, bring the loops or threads as near as pos- sible to their proper position. to retain the proper shape of a large darn, begin the crossing at the middle instead of the end. the darning yarn should correspond in color and quality to the stocking. if too coarse a yarn is used, a hard bunch is made. for what is stockinet darning used? how should the stockinet be held? where should the darning begin? how is the first row made? how is the second row made? how continue? what care should be taken at the edge of the circle? how should a darn be crossed? in mending a stocking how should the work be held? what are the best shapes for darning? school needlework. opposite the last upper loop, bring it out in the next loop (fig. , d). . continue, taking two upper loops, then two under loops, using one new loop each time, which will cause the needle to be inserted twice in each loop. . fasten the yarn, by darning it in and out on the wrong side. swiss-darning. —the stitches in swiss-darning are taken in a manner similar to grafting, and are worked over the stitches in the stockinet, to strengthen a thin place. suggestions. — a patch in stockinet can be put in almost invisibly as follows : cut a square or oblong hole in the stockinet, carefully, by a thread, and ravel the sides until the loops are even ; cut the patch, by a thread, the exact size of the hole, and clear the loops ; graft in the top and lower edges, and swiss-darn the side edges together, working over four or five stitches at each side of the joining. what is grafting? what is first done? how are the edges placed together? how are the stitches taken? how are the stitches taken in swiss darning? stocking-web stitch. stocking-web stitches are used for filling in a hole in stockinet, so as to present the same - appearance as the woven stockinet, and are made on a foundation of strands. materials. — a long-eyed needle, no. needle, no. thread, a piece of coarse stockinet three inches square, yarn to match in color and quality, and a piece of card- board two inches square. cloth darning. s . on a line, slanting so as to cut off one-eighth of an inch on the opposite line, take six running stitches, bring- ing the needle out a little below the upper line (fig. , b), and leaving an end of the thread to be cut of later. . insert the needle above the line, and pointing it towards you, take six stitches on a line, all having the same slant. bring the needle out above the lower line at the sixth stitch. . insert the needle below the lower line and take six stitches, having the same slant as before; at the fourth stitch, draw the needle down through the tear (fig. , c). . continue in this manner, always drawing the needle down through the tear, at the fourth stitch. . in finishing the darn, make several rows beyond the tear. bias-darn. materials. — same as for a straightway-darn (page ). bias-darn, or across both the warp and the woof. — a blue thread represents the tear. . crease the square of cloth diago- nally from corner to corner. . leaving two inches at each end, run on the crease with blue thread. /' . make two creases, one, one-fourth of an inch above; -' and one, one-fourth of an' inch below the running.' ,' . leaving an inch and a ,' fourth at both ends, make a running on each crease with pink thread. fig. , . — showing a bias-darn, school needlework. . thread the needle with red thread. . at the right, and beyond the blue line or tear, make four rows of eight stitches each, (as for a straight- way-darn, page ) on a line with the vertical threads of the cloth (fig. ). . beginning the fifth row above the lower line, draw the needle down through the tear at the fourth stitch (fig. , c). . take three more stitches, bringing the needle out below the upper line. . insert the needle above the line, to finish the row; drawing it out below the line for the next row. . continue in this manner, always drawing the needle down through the tear, at the fourth stitch. . in finishing the darn, make several rows beyond the tear. corner-darn. materials. — same as for a straightway-darn (page ). corner-darn. — a blue thread represents the tear. a . . crease one side of the \v\ ' cloth one inch from the edge. sf^m . at right angles with the crease, make another i\- - crease one inch from the v fig. . — snow- , ing the cloth edge. prepared for call the vertex of the practice in , /t,. . , darning a cor- angle a (fl&- ). ner-tear,andthe . with the pink thread 'corner darned. nm qn the crease, on both sides of the angle, one and a half inches from point a (fig. ). cloth darning. . crease an angle half-an-inch inside the first angle. . with the pink thread, run on the crease, on both sides of the angle, one inch (fig. ). . crease half-way between the two angles, and run with blue thread. . using red thread, make a large knot (cut it off after- wards), and insert the needle from the right side, at the corner (fig. , b). the knot is made to aid in drawing up the corner. . run to point a, putting the needle down through the tear, at the fourth stitch. . slightly curving to the right, return to point b. . make a row very close and to the left of the first row, taking the stitches alternately. . slightly curving to the left, return to point b. . at the left, make a row directly on a line with a thread of the cloth, to the outer pink line. . make a curved line at the right to point b. . on the opposite side of the corner, make a row on a line with a thread of the cloth, as far as the outer pink line. . making a line, curving to the left, return to point b. . beginning at the corner, darn both sides with ver- tical stitches (page ), or slanting stitches (page ). darning with a piece underneath. in darning a tear, where the garment is worn thin, or is badly torn and ravelled, a piece of cloth should be placed underneath. cloth darning. being careful to insert the needle in the cloth exactly where it came out. another way to darn a tear on heavy material is to overcast the raw edges closely together, on the wrong side, then rub the seam open and darn lightly. lay a wet cloth over the darn, and press. to make a perfectly flat seam on sel- vedges or heavy woollen cloth, the edges may be joined, as in fig. . suggestions. — the aim in darning a tear is to repair the rent so nicely that it can not be perceived. in darning twilled ma- terial, instead of taking the stitches alter- nately, make them in slanting rows to cor- fig. . respond with the twill. a rent should be repaired with fine thread or silk, matching the material in quality and color; if the same color can not be obtained, use lengthwise ravellings of the material. on fine woollen goods, hair can be used, and the needle should be threaded with the root. when darning with very fine thread or ravellings, use short needlefuls. as fine a needle as possible should be used. darning can be done on the right or wrong side, accord- ing to the material. for a tear in coarse material, the stitches should be taken more than one-fourth of an inch from the edge. the closeness of the rows of stitches depends upon the material and the tear. edges should always be worked in and out alternately to secure them. always protect the ends of a tear by darning beyond them. to keep the edges of a long tear even, it is best to begin to darn in the middle. when a darn is finished, it should school needlework. sented by the large piece of cloth, through, and across the centre (fig. ). . cut a small piece out of the centre, to aid later in cutting the hole. . cut across each corner of the patch one-fourth of an inch deep. fig. . — showingthewrongsideofa figured-calico patch, overhanded. . holding the wrong side of the patch towards you, make a crease, by a thread, one-fourth of an inch deep, on the four sides. . crease through, and across the centre of the patch. . place the garment on the desk, with the right side upwards. io school needlework. . crease a square, by a thread, on a line with the pins. . cut the square out on the creasing, being careful in cutting the corners. . crease through, and across the centre of the patch. . place the garment on the desk, with the wrong side upwards. fig. . — showing the right side of the patch; the straight lines repre- sent the edges of the hole. . place the right side of the patch upon the garment, with the nap of the two pieces running the same way. . match the creases, and put in pins. . with each edge of the patch even with a thread of the garment, baste one-fourth of an inch from the edge. patching. . holding the garment towards you, baste one-fourth of an inch from the edge of the hole. . draw the needle through the garment from under- neath, one-eighth of an inch from the raw edge. . catch-stitch (see page ) around the square, taking the inner stitches through the patch, close to the edge of fig. . — showing the wrong side of the patch; the straight lines represent the edges of the patch. the garment ; and the outside stitches one-eighth of an inch from the edge, and through both thicknesses of cloth (fig. ). . turning the wrong side towards you, catch-stitch in the same manner, the edges of the patch to the garment (fig- )- io school needlework. . take out the basting threads, and press on the wrong side. suggestions. — in practical mending, judgment and con- sideration are necessary, and the material should be treated as common sense suggests; the object is to replace the torn or worn part with as little display as possible. a patch can be put on in various ways : as, hemming on the right side and overcasting the raw edges together on the wrong side; it can also be put on by stitching. a patch can be overhanded on the wrong side, so that the stitches may show less, but the corners are not easily turned. catch-stitching should be used, when the material does not easily ravel, as on flannel. thin, woollen materials can be hemmed. when a material is worn, it is better to hem the patch on, for, if it is overhanded, the strain comes on one thread at each side. stripes, checks and figures should akvays match, as otherwise they attract attention. care must be taken to have the warp and the woof of the patch run the same way as those of the garment, the straightest threads of the cloth generally represent the warp. the nap must also run in the same direction, which can be ascertained by passing the hand lightly over it. a patch can be either square or oblong, according to the shape of the damaged part, but should be large enough to cover the worn place. fine thread or silk, matching the material, should be used; silk should be chosen a shade darker than the material, as it will work lighter. what is a patch? what is its use? in hemming on a patch, on which side of the garment should the patch be placed? on which side, in overhanding on a patch? how should the wrong side of an overhanded patch be finished? what stitch is used in patching flannel? which side of the garment is the patch placed upon? what is the object of patching? what care should be taken concerning the warp and the woof bias piecing. io bias piecing. bias piecing is the joining of two diagonal edges of cloth. materials. — no. needle, no. thread, pins, scissors, and a piece of calico five inches square, cut by a thread. fig. . — showing the strips placed in a line before joining. bias piecing.— . fold the square diagonally, from corner to corner. . crease the fold, and cut on the crease. . from each piece of calico, cut two bias strips, each being one inch wide. . with the right sides upwards, place the strips on the desk in a line for joining, as in fig. . fig. . — showing the two edges sewed. . place the right sides of the two middle pieces together, with the edges of the ends that are to meet even. move the edge of the upper piece, one-fourth of an inch to the left (fig. ). i io school needlework. . holding the edges securely, insert the needle at a (fig. ) and sew across to b (fig. ), with a running and a backstitch. . press open the seam, and cut off the corners that protrude. . join the other two pieces in a similar manner, except that the upper edge must be moved to the right. suggestions. — to join the ends evenly, the seam must be begun at the vertex of one of the angles, formed at the side by the two pieces of cloth, and finished at the other. when many bias strips are required, they can be easily and accurately cut, by measuring for four widths, and then cutting into halves and quarters. what is bias piecing? where should you begin so as to join the ends evenly? where finish? piping. piping is a cord covered with material cut on the bias, and is used to strengthen and finish the edge of a garment. materials. — no. needle, no. thread, a small cord eleven and a half inches long, a bias strip of cotton cloth twelve inches long and one inch wide and a piece of cotton cloth eleven and a half inches long, four inches wide, hemmed at the ends and one side. piping. — . place the cord on the wrong side of the bias strip, one-fourth of an inch from the lengthwise edge, and one-fourth of an inch from the end. . fold the end of the bias strip, and then folding the edge over, baste close to the cord. corners mitred. i i i . holding the cord downwards, place the wrong side of the strip to the right side of the piece of cloth, with the raw edge of the fold even with the raw edge of the cloth. . sew the piping to the edge, with a running and a backstitch, keeping close to the cord. . turn to the wrong side, and hem the opposite edge down. what is piping? for what is it used? corners mitred. to mitre a corner is to join two edges of cloth, so that they form a right angle. to mitre two strips of cloth. materials. — no. needle, no. thread, scissors, and a piece of calico five inches square, cut by a thread. to mitre two strips of cloth. — . fold and crease the square diagonally from corner to corner. . cut on the crease. . from one of the pieces cut two bias strips, each strip being one inch wide. . place the right sides of the strips of calico fig. .-showingthe right together, so that the two ends are side of a mitred corner. exactly even (fig. ). fig. . —show- ing the two ends basted. part iii. ornamental stitches. hem-stitch. hem-stitching is a method of hemming, in which the threads of the cloth are drawn and separated. materials. — no. needle, no. thread, and a length- wise strip of linen crash. hem-stitch, from right to left. — . one inch from a lengthwise edge of the cloth, draw out from four to six threads (see suggestions) according to the coarseness of the cloth. . carefully baste the hem to the line thus drawn. . begin at the right-hand side, as for hemming. . pointing the needle towards you, take up three or four cross-threads, and draw the thread through. . put the needle back, take up the same threads, and insert the needle exactly above in the fold of'the hem (fig. ). fig. . — showing hem-stitching done from right to left, needle in position. n school needlework. . continue in the same manner, drawing the thread tight, to separate the cross-threads. hem-stitch, from left to right. — i. draw the threads, and baste the hem as before. . fasten the thread in the hem, at the left- hand side. . pointing the needle towards you, take up fig. . — showing hem-stitching done three or four cross- from left to right, needle in position. threads. . draw the needle through, and insert it in the fold of the hem exactly above where it was inserted under the cross-threads (fig. ). . continue in the same manner, drawing the thread tight. suggestions. — to draw the threads, choose a coarse thread, one-fourth of an inch from the edge, and pick it out with the point of the needle. holding this end with the right hand, draw it out carefully, continually pushing the gathers towards the opposite end with the left hand. should the thread break, hold the cloth to the light, and again pick out the end of the thread. the chief difficulty is in drawing the first thread. threads can be drawn any width desired. hem-stitching can be done either lengthwise or cross- wise of the cloth. on fine materials, do not count the threads, as it is too great a strain on the eyes, and for this reason, school-girls should not do much drawn-work. catch-stitch. catch or herringbone-stitch. catch-stitch is a kind of cross-stitch, used to secure the edges of flannel. materials. — a long-eyed needle, a knot of split zephyr, and a piece of canvas. fig. . — showing catch- fig. . — showing a corner turned, stitches, and the needle in and the needle in position for turning position; the straight lines a corner, represent the threads of the canvas. catch-stitch. — . work from you, holding the canvas over the left forefinger. . insert the needle from underneath, at the lower left-hand corner. . from the place where the zephyr comes out, count to the right four threads, then forward four threads; n school needlework. insert the needle, and pointing it towards you take up two threads. . from the place where the zephyr comes out, count to the left four threads, then forward four threads, and take up two threads as before. . continue in the same manner, making the stitches to the right, then to the left; the zephyr crossing diago- nally (fig. ). . notice that the little cross at one side, comes between the crosses on the opposite side, and that the needle comes out on a line with its insertion for the pre- vious stitch. . turn the corner, by taking a stitch, at the left, insert the needle at the right, and pointing it towards the left, take up two threads (fig. ). turn the canvas, and holding the next side across the left forefinger, continue as before (fig. ). suggestions. — in catch-stitching on flannel, small knots may be made if they can be concealed. when ending, fasten the thread by running it in and out under the last stitch. the thread can be fastened in beginning and finishing, by leaving an end to be sewed over and over with fine cotton on the wrong side. the raw edge of a hem on woollen material may be fastened by catch-stitches, to avoid the ridge formed by folding the edge. the edges of a seam in flannel may be fastened in several ways; the seam may be folded to one side, and the edges fastened by a row of catch-stitches; the seam may be opened and each edge fastened sepa- rately; or, with the seam opened, a row of catch-stitches may be put in the middle. feather-stitch. feather-stitch. feather-stitching is used for ornamenting garments, etc. materials. — a long-eyed needle, a knot of split zephyr, and a piece of canvas. fig. .—a, showing single feather-stitches, taken on a line with the threads of the cloth; b, showing double feather-stitches, taken on a line with the threads of the cloth; c, showing single feather- stitches, taken slanting across the threads of the cloth; d, showing double feather-stitches, taken slanting across the threads of the cloth; f, showing treble feather-stitches, taken slanting across the threads of the cloth. feather-stitch. — . work towards you, holding the canvas over the left forefinger. . draw the needle through from underneath at the upper left-hand corner (fig. , b). . from the place where the zephyr comes out, count two threads to the right, insert the needle, and pointing it towards you take up two threads of the canvas. school needlework. . draw the needle out over the zephyr, which is held down by the thumb. . from the place where the zephyr comes out, count two threads to the right, and take a stitch as before. . from the place where the zephyr comes out, count two threads to the left, and take a stitch, being careful to hold the zephyr down with the thumb. . from the place where the zephyr comes out, count two threads to the left, and take another stitch. * . continue taking the stitches in this way (fig. , b). suggestions. — for fastening the thread see catch- stitching (page ). this stitch may be changed into various designs, as in fig. . whatever the pattern, the stitches should be compact and uniform. chain-stitch. chain-stitching is a method of em- broidering, by which the stitches resemble a chain. materials. — an embroidery needle, embroidery silk, and a strip of cloth. chain-stitch. — . work towards you, holding the cloth over the left fore- finger. . draw the needle through from underneath at the upper end, a short distance from the edge. . holding the thread to the left with the thumb, insert the needle where the thread comes out, and bring it fig. . — showing chain-stitches, needle in position. blan ket-stitch. i . continue in this manner. . to fasten the thread, turn to the wrong side, take a running stitch under the last blanket-stitch. draw the thread through, and cut it off. fig. . — showing blanket-stitches taken in different forms. . to join the thread, put the needle in under the last stitch, as in beginning the work, and draw it out over the thread that lies along the edge. suggestions,— if the thread is not fastened and joined carefully, the symmetry of the stitches will be broken. the order of the stitches may be varied by taking them at dif- ferent depths, and leaving spaces between, as in fig. . a pretty border can be made with this stitch (fig. ), by making the first row the desired width from the edge, and taking the stitches for the second row through those of the first row, and so on. fig. . — showing a bor- der of blanket-stitches, needle in position. school needlework. embroidery knots. embroidery knots are used for ornamentation. materials. — an embroidery needle, embroidery silk, and a piece of flannel. embroidery knot no. . — i. holding the flannel over the left forefinger, draw the needle through from under- neath, at the place desired for the knot. . take a small backstitch leaving the needle half-way through the flannel. . take the silk, where it comes through the flannel, and wind fig. — showing em- jt tw;ce arqund the broidery knot no. i , and the needle in needle (fig. ). position. . holding the coil under the left thumb, draw the needle through and insert it where it came through the flannel, bringing it out where the next knot is to be made. fig' — showin£ em" broidery knot no. , embroidery knot no. .— i. holdi ng and the needle in the flannel over the left forefinger, position, draw the needle through from underneath, at the place desired for the knot. . draw the silk towards you to the left; holding it under the thumb, bring the silk to the right, and cross below where the silk came out of the flannel (fig. , a). hold the loop thus formed under the thumb. marking. . insert the needle one or two threads back of a, bring it out at a, and pass it through the loop (fig. ). . draw the needle and silk out straight upwards. . insert the needle again at a, and bring it out where the next knot is to be made. marking. page consists of capital letters ; page consists of small letters and upright numerals ; page consists of small letters, suitable for fine material, and slanting numerals. the- material, thread and needle should correspond. the marking stitch consists of a cross-stitch taken over two threads of the canvas. to make the stitch, draw the needle through from underneath at the lower right-hand corner of the square for the stitch; insert the needle at the upper left-hand corner, bringing it out at the lower left-hand corner; insert the needle at the upper right-hand corner, and bring it out at the lower right-hand corner of the next stitch. make no knots, but leave an end of the thread to be worked over with the first stitches, or it can afterwards be run in and out under the letter. fasten the thread in the same manner. the stitches should all be crossed the same way; the thread should be fastened after finishing a letter, not carried from one to another. have the back of the work look neat. when marking on canvas is understood, fine material can be easily marked, by basting a piece of scrim over the place to be worked, and, after taking the stitches, draw- ing out the threads of the scrim. part iv. drafting, cutting, and making garments. a few general directions for the cutting of garments are here given. a table or lap-board, large enough to lay the entire pattern upon, is required; also paper, sharp shears, weights, pins, tape-measure, needles, and thread. the first thing to be observed in cutting is whether the cloth has a right and a wrong side. if it has a design, consider the heavier part as the bottom; a vine should run upwards; the nap on the cloth should run down- wards. before cutting, ascertain if there is sufficient cloth by laying the different parts of the pattern upon the cloth in such positions, that the cloth will not be unnecessarily wasted; being careful in regard to the up and down of the cloth. when there is a scarcity of material, the underneath parts of the sleeves may be pieced, hems may be faced, and the small pieces may often be used for the trimmings. the length of the main parts of a garment (as back, front, and sleeves) should be cut parallel to the selvedge or warp of the cloth. fig. represents a wrapper placed on cloth, which is folded lengthwise through the school needlework.. middle; the edge of the fig. i . — wrapper. is placed on the selvedge, and the back on the fold of the cloth, to avoid a seam at the back of the skirt. the ver- tical perforations in the side- back and both portions of the sleeve are placed lengthwise of the cloth. the perfora- tions near the edges of the patterns show the seams, where alterations should be made. the perforations near the centre of the front indi- cate where the darts should be taken up. in cutting plain goods, two similar parts can be cut at once by folding either the right or the wrong sides to- gether ; the selvedges or edges of the material should first be pinned together to prevent slipping. when the cloth can not be doubled, great care must be taken not to cut similar parts (as sleeves) for the same side; this can al- ways be avoided by laying one part upon the material, with either the right or wrong sides together. having the cloth spread school needlework. from a checked or evenly plaided material are cut off in the middle of a check, the breadths will readily match. in other plaids or designs, cut the lower edge of each breadth on the same line of the plaid or design. in cut- ting a garment, similar to a dress-waist, which opens in front, first decide what part of the plaid, stripe, or design will look best for the middle of the front and back. then lay the pattern for the front on the cloth, so that the outer fold of the hem is one-eighth of an inch (or one-half of the width to be lapped) beyond the middle desired. cut this side out, and cut the other half of the front, by laying the part already cut on the cloth, with the right sides together, and plaids or designs exactly matching. lay the pattern for the back on the cloth, so that the back edge of the pattern is one-fourth of an inch beyond the middle desired ; this allows for the seam. cut the other half of the back as in cutting the second half of the front. in order to cut twilled material on the bias, with the twill perpendicular, the cloth must be folded at right angles to the twill. to do this, lay the cloth lengthwise on the table, with the right side downward, fold over the lower right-hand corner, and cut on the fold. linings for broad hems or a curved edge (as a hat) should be cut on the bias (see page n). cotton cloth, calico, or flannel may be torn (page ), when a straight edge is required ; linen should be cut by first drawing a thread (page ). drafting. — the following rules for drafting are given as suitable in ordinary cases, but the drafter should use discretion in regard to personal taste and prevailing styles. two-breadth apron. in the illustrations, each square represents an inch. dots are marked by letters, lines are marked by numbers. remember that the dot is the important mark, the letter being but a name to the dot, and may be placed in any convenient position near the dot. two-breadth apron. a two-breadth apron, one yard long, having a four inch hem, requires two and one-fourth yards of material. . find half of the length of the material, tear across, or fold and cut on the fold. . fold the lengthwise edges of one of the pieces together. . one and one-half inches each side of the fold, tear the entire length, or fold again one and one-half inches from the edge of the fold and cut both thicknesses of material on the last fold. this gives a strip for the bind- ing and the two side-breadths. making. — sew the raw edges of the side-breadths to the front-breadth, thus avoiding a seam in the middle. if desired, hem the sides. make a four inch hem at the lowgr edge, overhanding the ends of the hem before hemming. gather the upper edge and put it into the band, being very careful to sew securely at the ends of the gathers, as this is where a strain comes. the fulness of the gathers depends upon the width of the material and the form of the person. overhand the edges of the band together on each side of the gathers. if strings are desired, they should be cut before sewing the breadths together. make a narrow hem at the sides of the school needlework. fold the edges of the pocket together, with the facings on the outside. beginning one-fourth of an inch below a (fig. ), make a french seam at the side and across the lower edge of the pocket. on the bias edge measure six inches from the seam, and from this point, stitch to c (fig. ). turn the pocket inside out. in a seam of the skirt, beginning four and a half inches from the bind- ing (this distance depends upon the length of the arm), make a slit six inches long, and fasten each end securely. & b ni vmt scl i figs. and i . — pockets, with the facing of the pocket to the right side of the skirt, place the lower seams exactly together; baste, and stitch the pocket in. after overcasting, turn the pocket. fold the edges in from b to c and overhand them. lay ■ child's drawers. a small plait at the upper end of the pocket, and tack it securely to the binding. fig. shows another way of cutting a pocket, which is to be inserted in the opening of the skirt between a and b. child's drawers. (age, years.) take a piece of paper twenty-two inches long and four- teen inches wide. . place the narrow side of the paper horizontally in front of you. . write your name and school two inches from the left-hand side of the paper, and eight inches above the lower edge. under the name of the school, put in a column the words, waist measure, twenty-two inches ; leg measure, seventeen inches ; knee measure, thirteen inches. . mark the upper left-hand corner a, the upper right- hand corner b, the lower left-hand corner c, and the lower right-hand corner d (fig. ). . make a dot two inches above c; mark it e. . make a dot two inches above d; mark it f. . draw a dash-line from e to f. . fold the paper under on the line; this is for the hem. . make a dot seven and one-half inches above f; mark it g. . make a dot three inches below a ; mark it h. . make a dot four inches to the left of b ; mark it /. . draw a line from h to /. school needlework. . draw a line from g to /. . make a dot eight and one-half inches to the right of e; mark it j. . draw a light dash-line from g to j. a ! - b u na ne $ sch ool wai st mei re inc het — l sg r 'ne ) ].: - — j f a i \ d fig. . — child's drawers. . draw an inward-curving line from g to j, allowing one-inch curve in the middle. erase the dash-line. . without unfolding the hem, cut the pattern on the outside lines. night-dress yoke. making. — for drawers this size, one and one-fourth yards of material are required. fold the cloth lengthwise fourteen inches from one of the edges, and pin the thick- nesses of cloth together at the selvedge edge. unfold the hem, and lay the longest edge of the pattern on the fold, with the lower edge at the raw edge of the cloth. carefully pin the pattern on, and then cut. remove the pattern, lay it on the other end of the cloth in the same manner, and cut the other leg. for an opening at the side, cut a slit on each fold seven and one-half inches deep. cut two lengthwise bindings, each three inches wide and twelve inches long. the lower edge is cut by a thread ; begin there to baste, and, if one side proves a little longer than the other, pare it off. sew each leg as far as g (fig. ). place the right sides of the legs together, with the seams exactly meeting. turn one seam to the right, and the other to the left, and pin. beginning at g, sew the upper portions together. fold and sew the hem of each leg. at the side openings, make narrow hems and set in gussets. if preferred, the openings may be faced or bound. leaving two inches at each end, gather each side, and put on the bindings, allowing more fulness at the middle. night-dress yoke. (bust measure, inches.) take a piece of paper seventeen inches long and nine inches wide. place the long side of the paper horizontally in front of you. school needlework. write your name and school three inches from the left- hand side of the paper, and three inches above the lower edge. front.— . draw a vertical dash-line one and one-half inches from the left-hand side of the paper. . fold the paper under on the line, this is for the hem. . mark the upper left-hand corner of the paper a, the upper right-hand corner b, the lower left-hand corner c, the lower right-hand corner d (fig. ). a e b . f - j — if . a nt im ; l > sc hex >v :c d fig. . — night-dress yoke, . draw a vertical dash-line eight and one-half inches from the left-hand side of the paper; mark it /. . make a dot two and one-fourth inches to the right of a ; mark it e. . make a dot three and three-fourths inches below a ; mark it f. . make a dot one inch below e; one-eighth of an inch to the right of this dot make another dot; mark the last dot g. . draw a light dash-line from f to g. school needlework. i . draw a line from k to l. . make a dot, on line /, one-half of an inch above the lower edge of the paper; mark it m. . draw a light dash-line from l to m. . draw an inward-curving line from l to m, allowing seven-eighths of an inch curve at the middle. erase the dash-line. ' . draw a line from d to m. mark a notch on the curved line, one inch from l. . mark a notch on the curved line, one inch from k. . without unfolding the hem at the front, cut the patterns on the outside lines, making the notches small. child's sack tier (age, years.) take a piece of paper one yard long and twelve inches wide. place the narrow side of the paper horizontally in front of you. mark the upper left-hand corner a, the upper right-hand corner b, the lower left-hand corner c, the lower right-hand corner d (fig. ). front. — . make a dot twenty-one and one-half inches above c; mark it e. . make a dot two inches above e; one and one-half inches to the right of this dot and parallel with it, make another dot; mark it f. . draw a light dash-line from e to f. . draw an inward-curving line from e to f, allowing three-fourths of an inch curve at the middle. erase the dash-line. fig. . —child's sack tier. child's sack tier. . make a dot five inches to the right of m and par- allel with m; mark it n. . draw a light dash-line from m to tv. . draw an outward-curving line from m to n, allowing one and one-fourth inch curve at the middle. erase the dash-line. . mark a notch at the middle of this curve. . make a dot two and one-half inches to the right of n and parallel with n; one and one-fourth inches exactly below this dot make another dot; mark it o. . draw a slightly inward-curving line from n to o. . make a dot nine and one-half inches to the right of k, and parallel with k; mark it p. . draw a line from o to p. . draw a line from k to p. take a piece of paper one yard long and eleven inches wide. place the narrow side of the paper horizontally in front of you. mark the lower left-hand corner a; mark the lower right-hand corner b. back. — . make a dot one inch above a ; mark it c . draw a light dash-line from b to c . draw an outward-curving line from b to c, allowing one-fourth of an inch curve at the middle. erase the dash-line. . make a dot eighteen inches exactly above c; three and one-half inches to the right of this dot, and parallel with it, make another dot ; mark it d. . draw a line from c to d. . make a dot one inch to the right of d and parallel child s sack tier. vedges of the cloth together, lay the longest side of the back pattern on the selvedge edge, and cut the two backs at once. with the right sides of the cloth folded together, lay the lower edge of the sleeve pattern on a woof thread of the cloth, and cut two sleeves at once. lay the narrow edge of the cuff pattern on a woof thread of the cloth, and cut one cuff; cut the other cuff in a similar manner. baste an inch and a half hem at each side of the opening in the back; baste the side and shoulder-seams together, allowing half-an-inch seam. try the tier on, make any alterations necessary, and then sew the seams. make an inch hem at the lower edge. sew each sleeve together, making a narrow seam. gather the upper edge of each sleeve, leaving a space of two inches each side of the seam. gather the lower edge of each sleeve, leaving a space of an inch and a half each side of the seam. sew the narrow edges of each cuff together. holding the right sides together stitch the cuffs to the sleeves. fold the cuffs over, and hem on the wrong side at the stitching. holding the sleeve towards you, with the upper part of the sleeve marked m (fig. ) towards the front, and with the notch at the shoulder- seam, sew the sleeve in. bind or face the neck. make the button-holes, and put on the buttons. if strings are desired make them each three inches wide and three- fourths of a yard long; laying a plait, insert the strings into the side-seams five inches below the arm-scye. drawers. c — e v \ / ,— — l — r - n oil s * i school wflis t u v — — k lee — a ■i a fig. . — drawers. child's waist. child's waist (opening in the back). (age, to years.) take a piece of paper sixteen inches long and twenty inches wide. . place the long side of the paper horizontally in front of you. . write your name and school three inches from the left-hand side of the paper, and eight inches above the lower edge. under the name of the school, put in a a column the words, waist measure, bust measure, length from tape to back of neck, length from tape to waist, length of shoulder. . take the waist measure, and record it. . take the bust measure by putting the tape-measure around the body close under the arms; pin the ends to- gether at the middle of the chest. record this measure, leaving the tape still in position. . measure from tape to the bone in the back of the neck, and record it. . measure from tape to waist, and record it. . measure the length of shoulder, and record it. . draw a horizontal dash-line nine inches above the lower edge of the paper; mark it / (fig. ). . draw a vertical line two inches from the left-hand edge of the paper; mark it . . draw a vertical dash-line one inch to the right of line ; mark it j. this allows for the hem. . find one-half of the bust measure, and at this distance from line j draw a vertical line; mark it . . bisect the distance between lines j and^, and half- school needlework. an-inch to the left of the middle draw a vertical dash-line; mark it . . draw a horizontal dash-line from line j to line , as many inches above line /, as is the measure "from tape to neck"; mark it . . draw a horizontal dash-line from line j to line ^, as far below line /, as the measure "from tape to waist"; mark it j. : — a * y — ^» f t \ kt sc wt { — --- ft — — — — r — fig. i , —child's waist. . draw a horizontal line two inches below line /; mark it . back. neck. — . make a dot one and one-half inches to the right of line j, and one-fourth of an inch above line ; mark it a. child's waist. . make a dot at the junction of lines j and ; mark it b. . draw a slightly curved line from a to b (see fig. ). shoulder. — . draw a horizontal dash-line from line j to line , one and one-half inches below line ; mark it g. . place the end of the ruler on a, and, bringing the shoulder measurement to meet line , make a dot; mark it c. . draw a straight line from a to c. arm-scye. — . make a dot half-an-inch below line /, on line ; mark it d. . draw a curved line from c to d (see fig. no). front. neck. — . make a dot two and one-fourth inches to the left of line , and one inch above line ; mark it e. . on line make a dot one and one-half inches below line ; mark it f. . draw a curved line from e to f (see fig. no). shoulder. — . place the end of the ruler on e, and, bringing the shoulder measurement to meet line , make a dot; mark it g. . draw a straight line from e to g. arm-scye. — to complete the arm-scye, draw a curved line from g to d (see shape in fig. ). waist. — . if the waist measure is less than the bust measure, divide their difference by two, and make a dot this distance on line at each side of line ; mark them h and /. . draw a straight line from d to h, and another from d to /. hints for a plain basque. the edge of the hem of the opening should be laid on the selvedge, to avoid making two folds in the hem. great care must be taken to baste the seams of a basque according to the marks; few beginners realize that the difference of an eighth of an inch in the width of the seven seams, around the waist, will amount to one and three-fourths inches. even basting stitches should be used. after the basque is basted, try it on. altera- tions for tightening or loosening "the basque, around the waist, should be made at the under-arm seams. after the seams are sewed, take out the bastings ; pare the seams, making notches at the waist-line, and two inches above the waist-line, to allow for the curving of the dress. the under-arm seams may be left wider than the others, that the basque may be let out. press the seams open. overcast the seams closely, or bind them with a narrow silk binding obtainable for this purpose. whale-bone casings can be bought, or a bias strip of silesia can be sewed on to the seams, fulling it a little. soak the whale-bones in hot water for an hour, before using, which will render them soft and pliable enough to sew through. they should be firmly fastened an inch above and an inch below the waist-line. to finish the lower edge of the basque, baste a bias strip of plain lining muslin, two inches wide, on the edge of the basque; then fold the edges over half-an-inch, and catch them to the lining, fastening securely at the scams. put on a facing of a thin material cut on the bias. in er u 'iist sack, ueeve \u ider 'aist ha fofl ack sack 'leeve jppe, hal) if of. voiri \ jndev half sack 'of b wrt ippei sleei « / st half l ick it xck j f fro dr iwers — / / f i / hal vrapi 'oft er 'out hal) w appe of st ck i —, fig. iii. — doll's patterns. index. alphabets, , , . articles needed, . hasting, . bias piecing, . bindings, . stitching and hemming, . setting-in, . overhanding, . blanket-stitch, . blind-stitch, . button-holes, . buttons, . canvas work, . catch-stitch, . chain-stitch, . cloth, . corners mitred, . creasing, . cutting, , . two-breadth apron, . child's bib, . pockets, . child's drawers, . night-dress yoke, . child's sack tier, . gored skirt, . drawers, . child's waist, . hints for a plain basque, . doll's patterns, . darning — cloth darning, . straightway-darn, . bias-darn, . corner-darn, . darning with a piece under- neath, . fine drawing on heavy woollen material, . stockinet darning, . practice in weaving, . stockinet darning, . grafting, . swiss darning, . stocking-web stitch, . directions for sewing, . drafting, . drills, . edgings, . lace, , hamburg, . embroidery knots, . eyelet-holes, . facings, . feather-stitch, . felling, . fractions of a yard, . french hem on damask, . french seam, . gathering, . index. gathering— double gathering, . placing or stroking of gathers, grafting, . gussets, . gusset and facing combined, . half-backstitching, . hemming, . hem-stitch, . herringbone-stitch, . honey-combing, . hooks and eyes, . kensington outline-stitch, . knots, . loops, . loops of tape, . marking, . measure, . mitreing a corner of a hem, . mitreing two strips of cloth, . needles, . numbers of needles and thread, . overcasting, , overhanding, . patching, . hemming, . overhanding, . catch-stitching, . piping, . placket, . plaiting, . putting away the work, . ruffles, . running, . running and a backstitch, . scalloped edge, . scissors, . shirring, . slip-stitch, . smocking, . stitching, . stocking-web stitch, . thread, . threading the needle, . tucking, . whipping, . ■ books in higher english. introd. price alexander: introduction to browning $ . arnold: english literature . bancroft: a method of english composition '. cook: sidney's defense of poesy shelley's defense of poetry the art of poetry . newman's aristotle's poetics addison's criticisms on paradise lost .... . bacon's advancement of learning corson: primer of english verse . emery: notes on english literature . english literature pamphlets: ancient mariner, . ; first bunker hill address, . ; essay on lord clive, . ; second essay on the earl of chatham, . . burke, i. and ii.; webster, i. and ii.; bacon; words- worth, i. and ii.; coleridge and burns; addison and goldsmith each . fulton & trueblood: choice headings, $ . ; chart .... . college critic's tablet gamett: english prose from elizabeth to victoria . . . . gayley: classic myths in english literature genung: practical elements of rhetoric . handbook of rhetorical analysis . gummere: handbook of poetics . hudson: harvard edition of shakespeare's complete works: — vol. edit. cloth, retail, $ . ; half-calf, retail, . vol. edit. cloth, retail, $ . ; half-calf, retail, . life, art, and characters of shakespeare. vols. cloth, . new school shakespeare. each play, paper, . ; cloth, . essays on education, etc. paper text-book of poetry; text-book of prose . each . classical english reader . lockwood: lessons in english, $ . ; thanatopsis maxcy: tragedy of hamlet minto: manual of english prose literature . characteristics of english poets . schelling: ben jonson's timber sherman: analytics of english prose and poetry .... . smith: synopsis of english and american literature . . . . sprague: milton's paradise lost and lycidas thayer: the best elizabethan plays . thorn: shakespeare and chaucer examinations .... . white: philosophy of american literature whitney: essentials of english grammar whitney & lockwood: english grammar winchester: five short courses of reading in english literature . . and other valuable works. ginn & company, publishers, boston, new york, and chicago. greek text-books. xntbod. pbicb allen: medea of euripides $ . flagrg: hellenic orations of demosthenes . seven against thebes, $ . ; anacreontics goodwin: greek grammar <rev. ed.) . greek moods and tenses (rev. ed.) . greek reader . goodwin & white: anabasis, with illustrated vocabulary . selections from xenophon and herodotus . hofrue: the irregular verbs of attic greek . jebb: introduction to the study of homer . leigrhton: new greek lessons . liddell & scott: greek-english lexicon, $ . ; abridged . parsons: cebes' tablet seymour: homer's iliad (school edition) with vocabulary, books l-hx, $ . ; books i.-vi . language and verse of homer, paper, . ; cloth... . homeric vocabulary, . ; selected odes of pindar.. , sidgwick: greek prose composition . tarbell: philippics of demosthenes . tyler: selections from greek lyric poets . white: beginner's greek book . anabasis dictionary . first lessons in greek . cedipus tyrannus of sophocles . passages for translation at sight, part iv whiton: orations of lysias . 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"meas. for meas." omitted. scott's tales of a grandfather. *martineau's peasant and prince. bunyan's pilgrim's progress. scott's lady of the lake. scott's lay of the last minstrel. lamb's adventures of ulysses. tom brown at rugby. church's stories of the old world. scott's talisman. complete. scott's quentin durward. slightly abridged. irving's sketch book. six selections, including '. rip van winkle." shakespeare's merchant of venice. scott's guy mannering. complete. scott's ivanhoe. complete. scott's rob roy. complete. johnson's rasselas, prince of abyssinia. gulliver's travels. the voyages to lilliput and brobdingnag. plutarch's lives. from clough's translation. irving-fiske's washington and his country. goldsmith's vicar of wakefield. 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that the fundamental principles of the art must determine the progressive series of lessons upon which the instruction must be based. any teacher who is an expert in the use of the needle, and will faithfully follow the method of this book, cannot fail to secure good results; and particularly, if she keep in mind that learning to sew is by no means the only end to be gained by the study of the subject. i heartily commend this book to the attention of all who are in any way interested in the subject of industrial education. john d. runkle, chairman of industrial committee of school board. brookl ne, mass., april , . preface. dur ng several years' experience in teaching sewing, i felt the need of a text-book which would explain needlework from its rudiments and give directions for practical demonstration in class work. for my own use, i planned a course of instruction for the pupils of the w. h. lincoln school, brookline. its use has given such satisfactory results that a demand has arisen for its publication. for valuable assistance, sincere thanks are due to miss marion s. deveraux, first superintendent of the south end industrial school, rox- bury, mass.; mrs. joshua crane, member of the school board, brookline, mass.; miss florence m. starbuck, teacher of drawing, south end indus- trial school, roxbury, mass.; and mr. arthur r. wilmarth, photographer, jamaica plain. c. f. j. jama ca plain, mass., april , . contents. introduction chapter i. first year's sewing. class drill. — practice in position. — practice with thimble. — thimble exercise. — holding the needle. — threading the needle. — making the knot.— prac- tice with scissors description of sampler no. . — materials. — basting. — stitching. — back- stitching. — running. — oversewing. — hemming. — buttonhole. — cross- stitch.— buttonhole stitch.—patching. — darning ...... questions and answers chapter ii. second year's sewing. work for this year. — measuring and cutting. — paper folding and cutting. — patching on paper. — buttonhole. — running and gathering. — work bag description of sampler no. . — materials. — basting. — stitching and back- stitching. — felling. — running. — hemming. — oversewing. — french seam. — name. — felling. — patching. — oversewing. — gusset. — felling. — tuck- ing. — overcasting. —band. — ruffle questions and answers v page vii - - - contents. chapter iii. third year's sewing. page work for thia- year. — buttonhole making on flannel and on linen. — cross- stitch.— herringbone. — feather-stitch. — hemstitch. — practice in cutting , description of sampler no. . — materials. — hemming. — oversewing. — gusset. — darning. — hemmed-on patch. — stitched-in patch. — french seam. — oversewed patch.— darn.— buttonholes made with cotton and with twist. — band. — tucking. — whipping. — ruffling. — marking initial and age. — embroidered edge on flannel. — flannel patch .... - questions and answers - cottons and needles used in sampler work , chapter iv. fourth year's sewing. work for this year. — patching. — darned-on patch. — darning. — mexican work. — cutting. — how to measure for drawers pattern. — scale of measure- ments for different size drawers ......... - directions for cutting patterns for a child - chapter v. fifth year's sewing. work for this year. — measuring the form.—pattern for front of tier.— pattern for back of tier. — sleeve. — measuring for sleeve.—front or upper part of sleeve. — back or lower part of sleeve. — basting and making sleeve. — ornament . . . . . . . . . - chapter vi. sixth year's sewing. work for this year. — basting wide hems and facings. — to fit a basque lining. — to pin the lining to a form. — to form the darts. — to fit the under-arm pieces.—to fit the back. — to cut the back arm-size. — to fit the side form.—a plain round skirt. — to sew a skirt to the waist or band. — to cut a gored skirt. — front. — side gore. — back . . . - introduction. the system of instruction in needlework, as given in this book, is the result of many years' study of the subject, and of practical application of the methods in the public schools of brookline, massachusetts. experience has shown that careful preparation can make sewing as educational as any other subject of* school instruction. drawings of the various stitches and kinds of work, with accurate written descriptions of the same copied into blank books for future refer- ence; drawing diagrams of patterns from measurements; fitting the parts of these patterns together for garments; cutting and fitting simple dresses, first cutting to a model and fitting to a form which can be easily handled, afterwards fitting to a pupil's form, — all these can be taught step by step in a progressive course. such a course tends, not only to train the hand, but to develop, strengthen, and mature the mind and judgment. by these methods, sewing can be taught in our schools with the most satisfactory results, and may lead both teacher and pupil to a clearer knowledge of the many beautiful possibilities of the needle. . when the kindergarten is fully established in the public school system, and its value is understood, the first sewing, that on coarse canvas, may be done in the two or three succeeding primary grades. but when there has been no kindergarten instruction let this work begin in the primary grade or the lowest grammar grade. the methods used in the vii viii introduction. class work of the first three years are given in the form of questions and answers at the end of each chapter.* questions for the day's work, not exceeding three in number, should be upon the blackboard, and if for any reason a child is waiting for direction in her sewing she can write the answers. when questions are given to a class, great care should be taken to frame each in a complete sentence and to have the child's written answer in another complete sentence, in which the point of the question is embodied. this creates a habit of thinking and of expressing clearly. i. the position of the body while sewing is of great importance, because a careless attitude may cramp the arms and hands and also be prejudicial to the health. the chair should be of a height to permit the feet to rest flat . upon the floor; the lower end of the spine should be firm against the back of the chair, the rest of the body free and erect, and the work never nearer the eyes than is necessary for a clear view of the stitches. the shoulders should be kept well back to allow the chest full expansion, and the head should not be allowed to droop so as to affect the circulation of blood to and from the brain. the arms should never rest upon the desk while sewing. the position of a pupil indicates the amount of interest felt in her work; if the attitude be free and alert, the mind will co-operate, and not otherwise. while most children rest their eyes more than sufficiently by allow- ing them to wander from their work, there are, occasionally, pupils who need to be cautioned against fixing their eyes too intently upon it. ii. when a class is large, it is difficult to keep all the pupils at the same point in the progress of the work even in simultaneous instruction; the quicker ones are employed by various devices continuing active thought, such as assisting the slower ones or making a drawing of their own finished work on the blackboard and writing a description of this work and its use. * a strict adherence to these questions and answers may not always be practicable; any ingenious teacher will be able to form rules and questions from her own idea of the needs of her pupils. introduction. x v. in the first-year practice in position, the use of the fingers and of the implements of sewing should precede actual work. thoroughness in this is a safeguard against awkwardness and mistakes that otherwise would waste time and material. the class drill is given minutely in chapter i. the drill secures prompt obedience, cultivates the faculty of observation, and trains the muscles for future work. at the period allowed for the lesson one girl is selected to have charge of the box or boxes of cotton and of the needles. whenever a pupil's work requires either cotton or needle different from that which she has, she makes known her wants and is supplied by the one having charge of the boxes. in this way every pupil soon becomes familiar with all variations of size, and understands what she needs and the reasons for it. in the third year's sewing, a piece of flannel is marked , , , , , and one needle corresponding to each number is placed at the side of that number. this is kept in the work bag always ready for use. small pieces of cloth for practice work should always be in the work bag, ready for a pupil to take up while waiting for the teacher's attention. when a piece of this practice work is especially well done, it may be fastened upon a sheet of card-board known as the "class card of models." this may be considered an honor. see description of work bag in second year. vi. each pupil should have a clean apron to wear in the class, or the work will soon become soiled; bags containing the apron, work, thimble, etc., may be collected and put away by some pupil after each lesson. this has a marked influence fig. . — sewing desk. introduction. xi in making children careful and neat. when special sewing desks (fig. ) are provided, the scissors stand in one corner of the waste pocket and the spools of thread with the pincushion and emery bag are left on the rod at the back or the side of the desk. otherwise a teacher must use some device by which she can carry with her the things needed; a cord may be fastened on her apron, to which may be attached scissors, while spools, etc., are carried in the work apron pocket. vii. if the day's work be clearly mapped out in the mind of the teacher before she goes into her class, and diligent use made of the two hours a week given to the sewing, most excellent results may be obtained by following such a system as the one given in this book. when a pupil has reached the fifth year of sewing, she has gained sufficient self-reliance to work with less help from the teacher. viii. the first sampler is composed of penelope canvas* worked with colored yarns. in the construction of this sampler nearly all stitches used in plain sewing can 'be taught. the strips, when finished, are joined by oversewing to make the sampler. the transition is naturally to a coarse, unbleached cotton sampler, and by the time a pupil has finished these two samplers, she is ready for finer work upon bleached cotton. having satisfactorily made the three samplers, the pupil is now trained to the point of doing good work, and can proceed to the cutting and making of garments. ix. when the uncut cloth or a prepared garment is brought from home, it causes endless complications and hinderances, and makes it impos- sible to systematize the work or teach the cutting. therefore, it is con- sidered more practical for schools to provide material used in the grade work, letting the pupil pay for each garment as it is made, thus lessening the cost. * coarse penelope canvas no. i or . xii introduction. general remarks. . every child instinctively uses the teeth for biting the thread. she should be taught that she must never do this. it injures the teeth and soils the work. never draw the thread under the little finger, but always over it. if the thread is grasped in the hand, it becomes dampened and soiled. . never use a knot in sewing when it cannot be hidden completely. . never let the scissors become too dull to cut well. . never use a bent, rusty, or too large needle. . never turn under a selvedge in a hem or a band. . never hurry, especially in the preparation of work. however little is done, let that little be done thoroughly. . never waste material of any kind. progressive lessons in needlework. practice with thimble : —' . give each child a thimble which fits snugly. let her place it on her desk directly in front of her. . as in the exercise "preparing for use of thimble," raise the right hand in position; then, taking the thimble between the thumb and finger of the left hand, place it on the erect second finger of the right hand. put thimble back on desk, rest, and repeat. thimble exercise : — . again raise the right hand, and place the thimble as has been directed. turn the arm till the palm is opposite to the chest; then bend the thimble- finger at the second joint until the thimble rests upon the top of the thumb. raise the finger, and repeat the movement five times. . raise the thimble just to clear the top of the thumb; and keeping all the joints limber, move the thimble-finger hori- zontally back and forth five times over the top of the thumb. . with the right hand raised and all the fingers free, bring the thimble-finger into the sewing position, having the front and back of the thimble parallel with the palm of the hand. now make movements with the thimble-finger, as if the eye of a needle were resting against the back of the thimble. the thimble-finger is thus bent, and the needle pushed by the back of the thimble in order to exercise more force. if this habit is once acquired, a stitch is taken with less effort than when the top of the thimble is used.* * when a child has formed the habit of using the top or side of her thimble, it is not always best to change, as a slow and poor result is produced, which is discouraging to her; however, in simultaneous teaching, all the pupils must follow the teacher's directions. fig. , a. fig. i, b. fisst year's sewing. holding the needle : — . give each child one of the finest chenille needles, and have her place it on her desk, with its length parallel with the front edge of her desk, the eye of the needle to the right hand. . let the child grasp the needle near the point between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and, lifting it, place it between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, with the eye against the back of the thimble \ in. from the top. see fig. , a and b. moving the needle as for sewing : — let the child move the thimble-finger as in the thimble exercise; and pushing the needle forward its full length, through a small piece of cloth or paper, slip the thumb and forefinger of the right hand forward and grasp the needle \ in. from the point, drawing it through the cloth. repeat this movement. threading the needle : — . give each child one of the finest chenille needles and a needleful of fine darning cotton. . direct the child to hold the needle between the thumb and first finger of the left hand, with the eye uppermost and squarely in front of her so that she can see through it. . let the child take the thread between the thumb and first finger of the right hand \ in. from the end, and pass this end through the eye of the needle, while, at the same time, she pushes the needle between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, where it must be grasped, drawing the thread through with the left thumb and forefinger about in. making the knot: — holding the threaded needle in the right hand, take the other end of the thread between the thumb and first finger of the left hand, and, first year's sewing. description of sampler no. i. materials required. strips of canvas,* in. x in. strip of canvas, in. x in. skeins of saxony yarn, red, yellow, and blue.f chenille needle, no. . for methods of work on first strip, refer to nos. , , , in questions and answers of the first year's work. for methods of work on second strip, refer to nos. , , , in ques- tions and answers of the first year's work. estimated cost of canvas sampler, cents. first strip of canvas, in. x in. . basting. — make a line of basting j in. from the top, in red worsted, as described in answer to question . ten threads below this line make a second line of basting in yellow worsted. ten threads below make a third line of basting in blue worsted. . stitching. — fourteen threads below make a line of stitching, using the three colors, each one-third the length of the line, as described in answer to question . n. backstitching. — fourteen threads below this make a line of backstitching, as described in answer to question . this is also done in three colors. for joining the colors, refer to questions and answers and . * commercial name, penelope canvas. t this will supply twenty pupils. progressive lessons in needlework. second strip of canvas, in. x in. iv. running. — j in. from the top make a line of running stitches in red, as described in answer to question . ten threads below make a similar line in yellow. ten threads below make a similar line in blue. v. oversewing. — fourteen threads below crease the canvas for the whole length, so that the two threads will be on the edge; oversew this, as described in answer to question . make the line in three colors, joining as described in answer to question . lay the canvas flat again. vi. hemming. — eight threads below make one line of hemming stitches. on the lower edge of the canvas turn up four threads for the first turning of a hem; turn again, to make a hem of about | in. sew the hem in three colors, as described in answer to question . join as described in answer to question . third strip of canvas, in. x in. vii. buttonhole. — in. from the upper edge and \ in. from the left-hand edge, begin a buttonhole. hold the canvas with the left hand, between the thumb and forefinger, working lengthwise. with a needleful of red worsted make three running stitches on the under side. put the needle up from the under side, draw the thread through, cross diagonally four threads, take up two threads, with the needle pointing directly towards the chest; and proceed in this way until seventeen stitches are made. turning the canvas round, make a line of stitches same as the first, with two threads between. first year's sewing. twenty threads below, repeat this; fasten off the red worsted. beginning with yellow worsted in the same place, cross each stitch until the closed end is reached, when the cross-bar must be made. this is done by making one stitch to the left, then one to the right, until three have been made on each side. continue with cross- stitch until the starting-point is reached. viii. darning. — this is a series of running stitches in parallel lines, taking up two threads and going over two, beginning with one stitch in the first line, increasing to twelve stitches in a line, then decreasing to one. fourth strip of canvas, in. x in. ix. cross-stitch. — fourteen threads from the top make a line of cross-stitches, as shown in the illustration, three colors. x. buttonhole stitch. — twenty threads below draw the needle through the upper side. take up vertically four threads. then the thread from the eye of the needle is brought around the point of the needle from right to left, — care being taken that it passes over the other end of the thread, — and the needle pulled through, bringing the loop up straight to the top of the four threads, continuing these stitches across the canvas, in three colors. fifth strip of canvas, in. x in. xi. patching. — cut a small hole in the canvas \ in. from the end. cut a piece of canvas -| in. square. turn in the edges \ in. and baste on the under side of the canvas, the centre of the patch coming progressive lessons in needlework. directly over the centre of the hole, being careful to have the threads match. now cut the hole in. square. on each corner cut diago- nally across four threads. turn in the edges all around, and baste to the patch. xii. darning. — let a torn place be represented by two lines making a right angle, as shown in the cut. overcast these lines, taking up two threads. make a line of basting all around, \ in. from these lines. in the corner of the darn make oblique lines of running stitches, being careful to leave a small loop at each turning, so that they will come together at the corner of the inside basting. the remainder of the darn is made by straight lines of running stitches back and forth, making small loops at each turning. the first four strips of canvas, when finished, are joined by oversewing, the edges being turned down \ in. the fifth strip is joined to the others by a line of buttonhole stitches, worked over the raw edges. this finishes the canvas sampler (fig. ). questions and answers. . on what finger should the thimble be worn? ans. the thimble should be worn on the second finger of the right hand. . of what use is the thimble? ans. the thimble protects the finger, and helps in pushing the needle through the work. show how the thimble should move in sewing. . how should the needle be held? ans. the needle should be held between the thumb and first finger of the right hand, \ in. from the point, the eye of the needle resting against the thimble. . what part of the thimble should the needle rest against? ans. the needle should rest against the back of the thimble, \ in. below the top. io progressive lessons in needlework. . what is the back of the thimble? ans. the back of the thimble is that part which covers the back of the finger. . why is the needle pressed against the back of the thimble, and not against the top? ans. because more force can be used when both joints of the thimble finger are bent; when the top of the thimble is used, only one joint is bent. stitches can be more rapidly and more evenly made when more force is used. . what is the name of the cloth on which practice stitches are made? ans. the cloth on which practice stitches are made is called canvas. . what is the name of the thread used? ans. the thread used is called worsted. . how is a worsted needle threaded? ans. to thread a worsted needle, hold it between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, the eye pointing towards the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, between which is held a loop of the worsted. pass the eye of the needle through this loop, and draw the worsted tightly over it. then pull out the needle, and push the loop of worsted through its eye. (illustrate on the blackboard.) . how should the scissors be held? ans. for cutting light cloths, especially woollens, the blunt side of the scissors should be under- neath; then the point will not catch in the cloth. the thumb should run through the upper bow, and the third finger through the lower, the first and second fingers supporting and guiding the scissors. (illustrate on the blackboard.) . how many kinds of basting stitches are made? ans. three kinds of basting stitches are made. . how are the basting stitches made on canvas? ans. to make basting stitches on canvas, begin at the right-hand edge, the first , line of basting \ in. from the upper right-hand corner. for the even stitches, pass the needle first under four threads, and then first year's sewing. the stitches be made? ans. to fasten the thread to begin hem- ming, start two threads from the right-hand edge of the canvas and take up the two threads of the folded edge diagonally to the right and directly above; pull the thread of red worsted through all but \ in. at the end; put this remaining \ in. of thread up under the fold to the left, and hold it there with the thumb of the left hand; now bring the needle down and put it through the canvas below the fold, two threads in advance of the point at which it came out before, and pointing it to the left; take up two threads diagonally forward and upward. this is repeated for each stitch. (illustrate on the blackboard.) . how is the thread joined in hemming? ans. to join the thread in hemming, leave \ in. of the old needleful, and pull this down under the fold of the hem, the edge of which is lifted to place the, thread under. then put the newly threaded needle back and under the hem, as far as the second stitch from the last, and, beginning there, hem over these last three stitches and on to the end of the seam. . should hemming stitches be slanting or straight? ans. hemming stitches should be slanting on both upper and under sides. . how should a hem be finished? ans. by taking two hemming stitches over the last stitch; then run the needle under the hem back four stitches, draw the thread tight, and cut close. show these steps on the blackboard. . in what direction is the work done in basting, overcasting, running, stitching, back-stitching and hemming? ans. in basting, oversew- ing, running, stitching, back-stitching and hemming, the work is done from right to left. chapter ii. second year's sewing. the second year sampler is made of coarse unbleached cotton for the following reasons : — the threads are large and easily seen without straining the eyes. it is softer than bleached cloth of the same quality and more easily handled in preparing seams. it is not so quickly soiled. the pupil in learning to thread the needle for work on cotton cloth must use a coarse needle and thread, which should be used only on coarse cloth. fine cloth requires a fine needle and thread. colored sewing cottons are used, because a child can more readily see her stitches and their shape, size, and method of joining. the teacher of this class should interest her pupils, and awaken a desire to know all about steel, from which needles, scissors, and emery are made. also have talks on the nature and growth of cotton, or 'tree wool, and its various uses.* show cotton seed and tell the processes of growth until the raw cotton appears. tell how the cotton is gathered and made into threads; how the threads are woven to make cloth. cloth has two kinds of threads; these are called length and width threads, or warp and woof. the length threads are always stronger * " every day occupations," by h. warren clifford, s.d., will be found useful as a reference, when studying about these raw materials. second year's sewing. than the width threads, because they must be stretched on the loom while the width threads are woven into them. when a piece of cloth is woven or finished, the length is readily known by the selvedge, or fig. . — canvas showing finished edges. finished edge. the width is between the selvedges. the bias is the diagonal fold formed by placing the selvedge and width edge evenly together. take one yard of the coarsest penelope canvas (figs. and ); hold this in sight of the class, and have the pupils tell the length and width threads, and how the bias is formed. progressive lessons in needlework. the pupil should make a drawing on the blackboard of a piece of cloth, showing the selvedge, cut edge, and bias; she should also express in writing the idea formed in her mind by these terms. a clear perception of all this, when once gained, will be a help in every lesson. measuring and cutting: — the class should be provided with rulers, from which to learn the inch and its divi- sions. have each child cut from stiff and unruled paper a piece exactly in. long and in. wide, to use for measuring; have the edges even and the corners square. this measure is kept in ^fttimmmtttitifi* the work bag. mark, ^^pf^!?!!!'^!?'?!?!"!".!*?*!!: as on a ruler, the whole, half, quarter, and eighth inches. the pupil must re- member these lengths, as they are often spoken of in her work and in places fig. . — canvas showing width and bias, or diagonal fold. which cannot be u easily measured. let the pupils space the different measures on paper and on the blackboard by means of dots and lines, using the ruler as a test of exactness only. folding and cutting : —' give the child a piece of paper in. x in. let her fold the lower left-hand corner over to the upper edge, and crease the diagonal second year's sewing. the patch match perfectly, the centre of the patch being exactly over the centre of the worn place. baste \ in. from the edges of the patch. a patch well matched is less conspicuous hemmed to the outside of most garments; on white and many. other kinds of cloth, it is better to sew the patch to the wrong or under side, as described in answer to question . fig. . — buttonhole overcast twice with worsted (buttonhole stitch commenced). buttonhole : — although the buttonhole is a very difficult part of the work for young children, if the method of making it is early learned it is a great help to careful sewing, and can be practised on canvas in the early part of the second year. a fine needle and thread should be used in overcasting a button- hole on cloth, because the edges may be overcast twice with a fine thread, and these stitches will not show under the buttonhole stitch when it is made with the coarser thread. a buttonhole should be made with one needleful of thread, if possible. in case of accidental breaking, it can be joined underneath by a running stitch, while the unthreaded end is firmly held with the work by the thumb > . • a . y ,' progressive lessons in needlework. and forefinger of the left hand, and the needle put through the upper side in the loop of the last stitch, making the joining perfect. diagrams of this work should be drawn upon the blackboard. explain the use of the buttonhole scissors,* and show how to find the length needed for the buttonhole by measuring across the button; then give the class a piece of ruled paper in. x in., and let them fold or double this paper across the lines; on one of these lines make a dot \ in. from the folded edge. now, with the pointed end of the scissors, let the pupil make a small hole at the dot, and cut a perfectly straight slit the length desired for the buttonhole, using the ruled line as a guide. in order to acquire skill for well-finished work, the teacher should impress on the pupils the necessity of grasping the work firmly between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, especially when working the buttonhole, having the thumb-nail just below the point where the needle is to be inserted. running or gathering: — iv. when a longer piece of cloth is to be sewed to a shorter piece of cloth to give additional fulness, gathers are used, as in frills and flounces; skirts are gathered into waistbands; sleeves are gathered into wristbands, etc. test the firmness of the cotton before beginning to gather. gathering should not be undertaken until the running stitch can be well done. a piece to be gathered should be taken from the width of the cloth, as the fulness is easier to arrange, and the stroking has more effect upon the width than the length. a binding should be taken lengthwise of the cloth, because it will not stretch. these points must be carefully explained to the class. the next step is the careful marking of the half and quarter measure of the ruffle and the band with a cross-stitch. the gathering thread should be coarser than the thread of the cloth. the thread should be * buttonhole scissors are not found in every home; and for that reason, it would be better to use ordinary scissors in this lesson. second year's sewing. a little longer than the piece to be gathered, and the needle large enough to carry the thread easily. the thread is fastened firmly about a pin at the end before stroking is begun (see question and answer ), as that part of the work cannot be well done if the thread is loose. a large needle or pin should be used for stroking, as a fine one would tear the cloth, which may b° done also by too hard stroking. any scratching sound is the sign that the stroking is too hard. work bag (fig. ). to hold this and the following year's work, a bag is made of printed calico with a pocket on one side for the thimble, etc. one width of calico in. wide and in. long will make two bags in. long and in. wide and without a pocket. making the bag: — tear the cloth lengthwise into halves. double one strip of cloth in the centre and oversew the selvedges. stitch the raw edges together and overcast. make a hem f in. wide at the top. the pocket can be made of a small piece of calico in. wide and in. long with a hem in. wide. when a pupil has learned to make a buttonhole, let her make one in the middle of this hem, lengthwise with the pocket; turn in \ in. of the three raw edges; now the pocket is in. long and \ in. wide, and is hemmed to the bag, the hem of the bag being a guide to the placing of the pocket. the thimble, small spool of silk, etc., can be carefully kept in this pocket. second year's sewing. one strip of striped or checked cloth g in. x in. with selvedge on one side. two pieces of the same in. square, for patches. red, yellow, and blue spool cotton, no. . needles no. . one porcelain button. esti- mated cost of unbleached sampler, cts. directions for making the sampler. i. basting. — baste two strips together \ in. from the top edge with red cot- ton, the stitches \ in. long and the spaces between \ in. long. j in. below, a second line of basting in yellow. \ in. below, a third line of basting in blue. \ in. below, a fourth line of basting, like the second line. make these basting stitches of different lengths, as on canvas samplers. . stitching and back-stitching. — stitch with yellow and blue cotton close below the first basting, and with yellow and red below the fourth basting. n. hem felling. — cut off the under piece of cloth \ in. below the line of back- stitching, turn the edge under \ in. at a time with needle, and hem with three colors. iv. running. — three rows of running stitches below this, one of each color, red, yellow, and blue. keep the needle in the cloth all the time, as in basting. v. hemming.— take a third strip of cloth, turn one edge down \ in. and turn again with a metal measure f in.; baste edge of hem, then hem with three colors. progressive lessons in needlework. vi. oversewing. — turn down the edge of the first strip \ in. and baste to edge of hem; then oversew with three colors. vii. french seam. — put a fourth strip to the wrong side of the third and baste on the right side, \' in. from the top; make a line of two running stitches and a back-stitch just below the basting; cut off the edges \ in. above the sewing and turn the seam the other side out; crease hard, stitch with three colors just below the raw edges of the first seam, so as to close them. viii. name. — print the pupil's name with a pencil in the middle of this strip, and stitch with any color preferred directly on the pencil marks. ix. felling. — baste the raw edge of the fifth strip to the fourth j in. below the top edge and stitch with the three colors; then cut the edge of the under side \ in. above the line of stitching, and the edge of upper side \ in. above stitching. open the seam flat, turn the broader edge under with the needle, and hem with three colors, making a fell. x. patching. — cut twov small holes in. from either end of the last strip and midway between the fell and the selvedge. mend one hole with hemmed-on patch (question and answer ), and the other with stitched-in patch (question and answer ). xi. patching. — take a piece of striped or checked cloth for the sixth strip, cut holes as in the fifth strip, and make a stitched-in patch and an second year's sewing. fig. —sampler no. a. progressive lessons in needlework. oversewed patch (question and answer ), matching the stripes or checks. xii. oversewing. — turn down one edge \ in. and baste to the selvedge of the last strip, then oversew with two colors, leaving \ in. unsewed. xiii. gusset. — a gusset is put into the opening between the unbleached cotton and the striped or checked cloth, according to question and answer . x v. felling. — the sixth strip of unbleached cotton is then basted to the striped cloth and a fell made, using running and back stitch, instead of stitching, for the first seam of the fell. xv. tucking. — two \ in. tucks are made in this strip according to question and answer . xvi. overcasting seams. — the seventh strip is joined by a running and back stitched seam, the edges of which are evenly cut and overcast with three colors. xvii. putting on a band. — the other edge is gathered, stroked, and put into a band in. x in., as described in questions and answers to . a buttonhole is then cut in the band and overcast with no. cotton (questions and answers to ), and worked with any color desired, cotton (questions and answers to ). a button is sewed on according to questions and answers to . xviii. hemmed and whipped ruffle. — make a \ in. hem on one edge and on the second year's sewing. sides of the eighth strip. mark the centre with a cross-stitch with the blue cotton. mark the centre of the band in the same way. whip the raw edge of the ruffle and oversew to the band (question and answer and ). (fig. .) questions and answers. . cloth. what kind of cloth is now used? ans. unbleached cloth. . why is this kind of cloth used? ans. because it is made without dressing and is easier to handle while learning to sew and to prepare the seams. . is unbleached cloth the only kind made without dressing? ans. no, bleached cotton and a great many kinds of cloth are made without dressing. (memorandum to teacher. show a kind of fabric made with and without dressing.) . then why is not undressed, bleached cotton now used? ans. because undressed, bleached cotton is made with finer threads and is not so easy to prepare seams upon; a fine needle must be used when using fine cloth. . what number needle and thread is used on this unbleached cloth? ans. no. needle and no. thread is used. . what length of thread should be used? ans. a thread in. long should be used on the unbleached sampler. {memorandum to teacher. make plain to the pupils how time is wasted by drawing a long thread through the cloth, how work can be better and more rapidly done with a short thread.) . how many different colored threads are used for this sampler? ans. three different colors are used. red, blue, and yellow or orange. . why are these different colors used? ans. to make the stitches plain, and show how neatly thread can be joined. o progressive lessons in needlework. fig. .— stitching.* . what colors are here used? ans. yellow and red are used. . how is a stitched or back-stitches seam finished? ans. a stitched or back-stitched seam is finished by sewing back over the last three stitches. . when should stitching and when back-stitching be used? ans. when much wear or strain comes upon a seam, it should be stitched, otherwise it can be back-stitched. . how are running stitches made? ans. the same way as basting, but with smaller stitches. . why is the needle not drawn through the cloth at every few stitches in making running stitches? ans. in running for gathering the needle is not drawn out until a certain part of the cloth is gath- ered or the needleful of thread is used, be- cause the longer the needle is kept in the cloth, the straighter will be the seam and the quicker the work. but in running tucks, where the cloth is double, the needle is taken out every third or fourth stitch according to the thickness of the cloth. . how can a broad hem be kept straight? ans. by using a measure of the right width and basting carefully. j ( u fig. .— back-stitching.* * stitching, or back-stitching, as it is sometimes called, is the work which the sewing machine imitates so accurately; two definitions are here given, because there are two different methods of working it, — one where strength is the important feature, and one where strength is not so important. progressive lessons in needlework. ing to the middle of the edge of the left thumb-nail (fig. ). make the stitches small, but to show distinctly on the under side. (illustrate on the blackboard.) y. / fig. .— work held for oversewing. \) fig. .- - oversewing. . how should the work be held for oversewing? ans. the work should be held around the end of the first finger of the left hand, and kept firmly in place with the thumb and second finger (fig. ). . how should the needle be pointed in oversewing? ans. in oversewing the needle should be pointed directly toward the chest (fig. ). . what must always be done after the seam is oversewed? ans. press the stitches flat on the wrong side, with the right thumb-nail, to finish the oversewing seam. . when is an oversewed seam used? ans. an oversewed seam is used in joining two selvedges or two folded edges. . what is a selvedge? ans. a woven or finished edge. . what is a raw edge? ans. a cut or torn edge. . what is overcasting? ans. over- casting is the same as over- sewing, the stitches being larger, and is used over raw edges to prevent them from ravelling (fig. ). fig. . — overcasting. progressive lessons in needlework. fig. .— a hemmed-on patch. under or wrong side. fig. . — a hemmed-on patch. upper or right side. second year's sewing. . what is the warp? ans. the threads that run up and down or lengthwise of the cloth are called the warp. . what is the woof? ans. the threads that run across the cloth from one selvedge to the other are called the woof. (show these on the blackboard.) . how is a stitched-in patch made? ans. the worn or torn part is first cut out in a square (see fig. ). the straight edges of the hole are made true by a drawn thread; then two adjoining sides are folded evenly together, and a bias cut \ in. is made at each of the four cor- ners, and the edges of the hole thus cut are folded and creased down on the under side \ in. (see dotted lines in fig. ). then a square piece is basted to these creases, so that it lies perfectly smooth at the corners. be sure to begin and end the basting on the patch, to make smooth and square corners (figs. , , , , ). represent this on the blackboard in the different stages. . how is an oversewed patch made? ans. the torn part is cut out and prepared in the same way as for a stitched-in patch; then the square piece of cloth to be set in is turned down by a thread evenly on one side, and over- sewed, on the under side, to one side of the prepared hole from f'g- a - — worn place cut out; the cioth prepared for a stitched-in patch. corner to corner. the second, third, and fourth sides are oversewed in the same way. great care must be taken to turn the edges evenly, so that the patch may be flat when finished (figs. , ). (show this on the blackboard.) . what is a gusset? ans. a gusset is a piece of cloth used to strengthen the ends of a seam. / ^ \\ \\\\ \\\\\\\\\^, \\\\\w\ \\\ ww\www\x s. u a a e second year's sewing. . how is a gusset cut? ans. cut a piece of cloth \ in. square, cut off f in. diagonally from one corner (figs. , , , , ). fig. . fig. . method of preparing and sewing in a gusset. . how is a gusset sewed in? ans. place the apex of the triangle at the end of the seam. oversew to the cloth \ in. on each side, progressive lessons in needlework. beginning at the apex. the remaining part is folded over on the under side of the work, carefully basted to lie smooth, and hemmed down (see figs. , ). . why does a gusset make the seam stronger? ans. a gusset makes the seam stronger because its folded edge is on the bias, and if it is strongly sewed at the corners, it is impossible to tear it. . how is a tuck made? ans. a tuck is made by folding the cloth straight by a thread from edge to edge, and basting this fold at the desired width. a running seam close below the basting fin- ishes the tuck. . how are the stitches made in basting for a tuck? ans. the basting stitches are made one inch long for a tuck. . how long are the spaces between? ans. the spaces between are \ in. long. . . why should the stitches be longer than in basting an ordinary seam? ans. the basting stitches should be longer for a tuck because they make a better guide for the running stitches, which must be very straight. . how is the thread joined in running tucks? ans. in running tucks make a tied knot that can be easily concealed between the folds of the tuck three stitches back. . what is the use of a tuck? ans. a tuck is used for ornament, or in order that the garment may be lengthened at some future time by letting it down. . what is gathering? ans. gathering is making a line of running stitches, and drawing the thread so as to full or gather the cloth (fig. , a and b). . what should always be done before gathering? ans. the edge should be marked in halves and quarters by colored cross-stitches (see fig. , a). second year's sewing. . what should always be done after gathering? ans. after gather- ing, the gathers should be stroked or laid. . how is the stroking done? ans. for stroking, the gathers must be pushed close together on the thread, and the loose end of the thread fastened firmly about a pin set at the end of the running, so that it cannot slip. then the work is held between the thumb and first finger of the left hand, the thumb being directly over the gather- ing thread; and with a large needle or pin in the right hand, work- fig. , b. — running. fig. . — gathers stroked or laid. ing from left to right, each gather is pressed separately under the left thumb, while the pin strokes down a short distance between it and the next gather (fig. ). then turn the work and stroke above the gathering stitches in the same way, but never so violently as to make a scratching sound with the needle. progressive lessons in needlework. ans. the buttonhole should be overcast immediately after being cut. . where is the overcasting of a buttonhole begun? ans. begin to overcast a buttonhole at the lower left-hand end. . how is a buttonhole overcast? ans. to overcast a buttonhole, hold fig- - — cloth oversewed, and stitched to the band turned up and basted. it lengthwise of the left forefinger, keeping that pointed to the right, and having the folded edge of the cloth toward the wrist. then begin at the lower left-hand corner and overcast the left-hand side. then turn the buttonhole, bring the folded edge to the end cf the finger, and overcast the right-hand side (see fig. ); then back in cross-stitches to the outer end of the buttonhole. here make a second year's sewing. cross-bar by overcasting one stitch to the right, and then one stitch to the left, until three cross-stitches have been made. (this makes i fig. . — band finished. a round, strong outer end to the buttonhole when worked.) now cross-stitch the left-hand side back to the starting-point (fig. ). then put the needle through to the under side, take one running stitch, and cut the thread. see buttonhole in canvas sampler. represent on the blackboard the different steps of preparing and the way of holding a buttonhole. progressive lessons in needlework. . how is a buttonhole worked? ans. from the lower left-hand corner to the lower right-hand corner, then a straight bar is made across the lower or inner end. . how should the buttonhole stitch be made? ans. in making a buttonhole stitch, the needle is put through the cloth, as for the overcasting, at the lower left-hand corner, then the thread from the eye of the needle is brought around the point of the needle from right to left, and the needle pulled through, bringing the loop up fig. -—buttonhole overcast twit straight, care being taken that it passes over the other end of the thread. the stitches should be made very near together, especially at the round end. . how should the straight bar be made at the lower end? ans. draw the worked edges together by making four stitches, one over the other, across the lower end of the buttonhole, then, beginning at the right-hand side, make five buttonhole stitches covering these, the middle stitch directly in the middle between the two sides of the buttonhole. draw these steps in buttonhole making on the blackboard. progressive lessons in needlework. then the needle put through the cloth from the right or upper side, leaving the knot where the button is to be sewed. then put the needle up through the cloth and one hole in the button and down through an opposite hole until the needle goes through a little hard, then bring the needle up between the button and the cloth and wind the thread three times around the thread there, to stem the button, and then fasten the thread on the wrong side. how is the whipping done? ans. after cutting the edge evenly by one thread and marking with a cross-stitch the half and quarters, the edge of the ruffle is rolled under in a small, hard roll, on the wrong side between the thumb and first finger of the left hand, one inch at a time, and stitches like hemming stitches are made over it, except that the needle is put up under the roll and brought out at the top of the roll (fig. ). at every fifth stitch the thread is held firmly, and the ruffle is fulled as on a gathering thread. how is this ruffle sewed to the sampler? ans. pin the middle of the ruffle to the middle of the band; holding the sampler toward the person, oversew the ruffle to the band, sewing from left to right in order to make one stitch come in every little groove made by the whipping (see fig. ). although the pupils have learned to oversew from right to left, the teacher should tell them that, in some kinds of work, a better effect will be produced by sewing from left to right; as, over- casting woollens that fray or ravel easily, oversewing a whipped ruffle to a band, herringbone stitch, etc. chapter iii. third year's sewing. in the- third year the sampler is made of fine white cotton. for this and the work of succeeding years on bleached cotton, the yard wide fitchville or masonville cloths have been found most desirable for handsewing, being without dressing. during the first five months of this year, fifteen minutes of the first hour should be devoted to button- hole making with fine cotton, nos. , , and , and silk twist. the teacher should have in readiness pieces of canvas and flannel, in. x in., on which to teach cross-stitch, herringbone, and feather- stitch, also pieces of linen, to teach hemstitching upon. for several months give class instruction of one-half hour each month in these stitches, as all this kind of work will be used in making the white cloth sampler. in order to train the eyes and hands of pupils, that they may be prepared for advanced work, let them now practise in cutting exactly along the lines of striped and checked cloths, material for which can be found in pieces left over from dressmaking in the sixth class. the class drill should be reviewed as often as practicable. letters of the alphabet may be made in cross-stitch (see fig. ). this practice is to train the eye and hand in spacing distance by threads both across and lengthwise of the cloth, and for marking the initials and age on the sampler. its practical value otherwise is small, and too progressive lessons in needlework. much time should not be given to it. outline-stitch can be used for initials and age, if a pupil's eyesight is too delicate to count threads. r \ :::;:;:;-;::::::::-::::;- .^rr * :. . . i v aa jw w ? y fig- - sampler no. . materials required. two strips of bleached cotton (with selvedge on one side) in. x in. two strips of cotton (lengthwise, without selvedge) in. x in. three pieces of cotton (for patches) in. square. one piece of cotton (for band) in. x in. progressive lessons in needlework. iv. ^ in. above this patch cut another hole, and mend it by inserting a stitched-in patch, using no. cotton and no. needle for stitching, and no. cotton and no. needle for overcasting. v. join by a french seam (for direction see second year) the two strips j in. x s in.; join on widths, making strip no. in. long. vi. in. above the bottom edge of this strip make a cut having two right angles, in this shape j |, and darn it according to questions and answers to . vii. in. above the french seam cut a hole and mend with an oversewed patch, using no. cotton and no. needle for the oversewing, and no. cotton and no. needle for overcasting. viii. join strip no. to the raw edge of strip no. , making a fell, as de- scribed in sampler no. ; use no. cotton and no. needle for stitching, no. cotton and no. needle for hemming. when felling a bias seam, lay the hem with the grain of the cloth. it is bias seam hemmed. fig. . much easier to hem with the grain than against it (fig. ). ix. on the lower edge of the sampler turn a hem \ in. broad, and hem with no. cotton and no. needle. progressive lessons in needlework. xiv. make a handkerchief hem on the ends of the second piece of lonsdale, then make a \ in. hem on one side of it. above this hem make three tucks the same width as the hem, using no. cotton and no. needle. whip the upper edge of the ruffle, using no. cotton and no. needle. oversew this ruffle to the lower edge of the sampler, holding the sampler toward the person, sewing from left to right, so as to make one stitch come in every little groove made by the whipping. use no. cotton and no. needle. xv. turn down one end of the flannel strip ^ in., baste it, and then make herringbone stitch over the edge with embroidery silk, using the crewel needle (see question and answer ). hold the flannel so that the herringbone stitches just made will be at the right-hand side and on the under side of the flannel; then turn down and baste the upper edge of the flannel \ in., turn again in., and baste for a hem. then blind-stitch this hem with no. needle and no. cotton, according to question and answer . with embroidery silk, feather-stitch over the edge of this hem, according to question and answer . measure the strip of flannel with the raw edge of the sampler, and with a pencil draw scallops on the end so as to make it the same length as the sampler when finished (see question and answer ). then, with embroidery silk, work as described in question and answer . in. above the scalloping make a cut in the flannel j in. long, and darn, using no. cotton and no. needle for overcasting the third year's sewing. cut edges together, and no. needle and ravellings of flannel for darning. half way between the darn and the top of the flannel strip cut a hole and mend it with a patch, according to question and answer . in the hem of the flannel strip, cut a buttonhole in. long, over- cast with no. cotton and no. needle, and work with buttonhole twist. baste the flannel to the raw edge of the sampler \ in. from the edge, and stitch with no. cotton and no. needle, holding the flannel toward the person. xvi. prepare and hemstitch the pocket according to questions and answers to . a buttonhole is cut in the middle of the hem of the pocket, and overcast with no. cotton and no. needle, and worked with no. cotton and no. needle. the initials are to be worked in the centre of the pocket, \ in. below the hemstitching; work with embroidery silk, in cross-stitch or outline-stitch (see questions and answers to ). the age is worked in the same way, below the initials. a row of double feather-stitching is made around the pocket, at the option of the pupil. the pocket is basted to the centre of the sampler and hemmed on with no. cotton and no. needle. xvii. a stay is placed on the wrong side of the sampler (see questions and answers to ), where the button is to be sewed on. this is hemmed with no. cotton and no. needle. the button is sewed on with no. cotton and no. needle (white cloth sampler, fig. ). progressive lessons in needlework. third year's sewing. questions and answers. . what number cotton and needle are used for all bastings on this sampler? ans. no. cotton and no. needle are used for basting on the white sampler. . what seam is made first on the bleached or white cloth sampler? ans. on the bleached sampler the oversewed seam is made first. . what number cotton and what number needle are used for the over- sewing? ans. no. cotton and no. needle are used for the oversewing. . for hemming the sampler, what cotton and needle are used? ans. for hemming the sampler, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for sewing the hemmed-on patch, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. for sewing a hemmed-on patch, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for sewing the stitched-in patch, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. for stitching the patch, no. cotton and a no. needle are used; and no. cotton and no. needle for the overcasting. . what number cotton and what number needle are used for the first part of the french seam? ans. no. cotton and no. needle are used for the first part of the french seam. . what number cotton and what number needle are used for stitching the french seam? ans. for stitching the french seam, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for the oversewed patch, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. no. cotton and a no. needle are used for oversewing the patch, and no. cotton and no. needle for overcast- ing it. . how should a torn or cut place be prepared for darning? ans. the edges of the cut or tear should be caught together as evenly as third year's sewing. . should a darn be made on the right or the wrong side of the cloth? ans. generally, a darn should be on the wrong side of the cloth. . what number cotton and what number needle are used for stitching the fell? arts. for stitching the fell, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for hemming the fell, what cotton and needle are used? ans. for hemming the fell, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for overcasting buttonholes, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. for overcasting buttonholes, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for working buttonholes, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. for working buttonholes, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . what number cotton and what number needle are used for the gusset on the sampler? ans. for sewing a gusset on the sampler, no. cotton and no. needle are used for oversewing, no. cotton and no. needle for hemming. . what number cotton and what number needle are used for gathering? ans. for gathering, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for stitching gathers into a band, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. for stitching gathers into a band, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for hemming the band down -and oversewing the ends, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. for hemming and oversewing the band, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for sewing the button on the band, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. for sewing the button on the band, no. cotton and no. needle are used. . for hemming cambric ruffles, what cotton and what needle are used? ans. for hemming cambric ruffles, no. cotton and no. needle are used. third year's sewing. l the right of the needle. the third stitch is to the left and above, as before (fig. ). . how is a hem blind-stitched? ans. a hem is blind-stitched by catch- ing the under part of the first fold down to the single cloth below it, with running stitches, so that no stitches show on the upper side. . what stitch is used to ornament the hem after blind-stitching it? ans. to ornament the hem, feather or vine stitching is used. . how is feather or vine stitch made? ans. a knot is made in the thread, and the needle is brought up from the under side of the / / / s k / / k / / / \ iii iim inn iul jit ;n in / ml /iii p tx>e s v" llll t fig. . work, at the point farthest from the person, as feather-stitch is always worked downward or toward the worker. the work is held over the first finger of the left hand, kept in place with the second finger and thumb. the thread is drawn through, then placed under the thumb while the next stitch is taken; the needle is put through to the under side \ in. to the right and a trifle below the place where it was brought up, and brought up again \ in. perpendicu- larly; the thread is drawn through until caught in the loop formed by the thread held under the thumb. the next stitch is made in the same manner \ in. to the left and a trifle below, the third stitch to the right and below, and so on. this is the simplest third year's sewing. centre of the curve in each scallop, connect the ends of each out- side curve by a line drawn through this point. this marks out the space covered by the stitches. with fine darning or tambour cotton make running stitches on the lines marked out, to strengthen the edge. . how is the embroidery edge stitch. made? ans. fasten the thread, to begin the embroidery edge stitch, by taking two or three running stitches between the two curves of the scallop, and bring the needle up at the left-hand point of the first scallop, just on the lower edge of the lower curve, holding the edge toward the person. then hold the thread down with the left thumb, and put the needle through to the lower side on the upper edge of the upper curve, just over this point, and bring it up again on the lower edge of the lower curve, close to where it came up at first, and over the thread held down by the thumb. the stitch is then tightened by drawing the thread downward. this is repeated, taking care to keep the stitches as close as possible. the central stitch of the scallop should be \ in. long and vertical, the others should shorten and slope gradually to each end. . how is a patch made in flannel? ans. to mend a hole in flannel, a square piece of the material with the edges cut even (not turned in) is basted over the worn or torn place and on the wrong side; this is herringbone-stitched very finely all around the edges, using no. needle and no. cotton. the worn place is then cut out square, and the even edge herringbone-stitched, in the same manner, to the patch (see figs. , ). . why are the edges of the patch not turned under, as in making a similar patch on cloth? ans. because turned edges in flannel are clumsy and unnecessary, as the material will not ravel when held by the herringbone stitches. . of what material is the pocket of the sampler made? ans. the pocket on the sampler is made of crash. third year's sewing. . how is the pocket cut? ans. cut by a thread a piece of crash for the pocket j in. x in. . what is the first step in preparing the hem for hemstitching? ans. to prepare for the hemstitched hem, draw six threads across the crash in. from the end. . what is the next step in preparing the pocket? ans. after drawing the threads for the hemstitching, turn the edge of the piece of crash down \ in. and baste them with no. cotton and no. needle. . what is the second step in preparing the hem? ans. the second step in preparing the hem is to fold it down and baste it so that the edge of the fold already made lies evenly along the upper edge of the space left by the drawn threads. . how is the hemstitching done? ans. to begin the hemstitching, make a tied knot in the thread and take two or three running stitches on the under side of the fold, then bring the needle to the lower side at the left-hand edge. now, holding the work over the first finger of the left hand, the hem toward the person, hold the left thumb over the thread and put the needle down between the fourth and fifth threads, take up the four threads to the left, bring the needle up, and pull the loop thus made close to the edge of the hem. holding the thread firmly under the left thumb, take an edging stitch over the edge of the hem close to the right of the four threads just taken up. then take up four more threads and repeat. always work on the side on which the hem is turned, and from left to right (fig. , a, b). . how is the thread joined in hemstitching? ans. tie a knot in the fresh thread. draw the needle through the upper fold of the hem, two stitches back, working over these stitches, and proceed as before. . what number needle and what number thread are used in hemstitch- ing the pocket? ans. in hemstitching the pocket, no. cotton and no. needle are used. progressive lessons in needlework.. middle of the pocket half this number of stitches to the left, and this gives the place for the first stitch of the first initial. . how is the pocket sewed to the sampler? ans. the pocket is hemmed to the sampler. . what number thread and what number needle are used for hemming on the pocket? ans. to hem on the pocket, no. thread and no. needle are used. . where should the button be sewed on? ans. after the pocket is sewed on, lay the sampler flat on the desk and place a pin through the buttonhole and cloth beneath, ^ in. from the top of the buttonhole; this gives the place where the button should be sewed. . should the button be sewed on a single thickness of thin cloth? ans. a button should never be sewed on a single thickness of thin cloth, where it has to bear any strain. a small square piece should be hemmed on under the place where the button belongs, to strengthen it. now the white cloth sampler is finished.* . what is this small piece called? ans. this small piece is called a stay. number of cotton and number of needle for sampler work. cotton. needle. oversewed seam french seam, run and back-stitched ..... french seam, stitched . . . . . . . • fell, stitched fell, hemmed hems, broad and narrow ....... patch, hemmed on ........ patch, stitched in * the idea of the white cloth sampler originated with miss emma f. ware, milton, mass. the one in use, here illustrated, has several alterations and additions. third year's sewing. cotton. needle. patch, overcast patch, oversewed darning gathering band, stitched on band, hemmed down and ends oversewed ... . buttonholes, overcast buttonholes, worked ........ button sewed on to band button sewed on for pocket ... lonsdale ruffles, hemmed narrow ruffles, gathered narrow ruffle, stitched on narrow ruffle, overcast . tucks run in broad ruffle broad ruffle, whipped ....... broad ruffle, oversewed on ° flannel, blind (or slip) stitched ..... gusset, oversewed gusset, hemmed ° pocket, hemstitched pocket, buttonhole worked ° pocket, hemmed on . ... stay for button, hemmed on flannel stitched on to sampler flannel overcast ° progressive lessons in needlework. cotton (fig. , b); then make straight lines of darning between the two opposite sides of the hole, and leave a loop of the thread at the end of each line of turning, to allow for shrinking; darn across the hole in like manner at right angles to these lines (see fig. ). each line of darning should begin in. or more beyond the edge of the hole, and at fig. . the left side of the worn or thin place. in one line pass the needle over the first thread and under the second, over the third and under the fourth, and so on, and in returning on the next line pass the needle over . the threads taken up before, and under the threads left down (fig. ). (illustrate on blackboard.) if fine woollen thread is used in darning cotton stockings, the darn is much softer than when cotton thread is used. care should always be progressive lessons in needlework. measurement expressed in inches for different sizes of drawers. measurement from upper part of hip to in. below the knee. lower end of upper slope. width of upper front slope. width of upper back slope. short front length, if desired. width from folded edge to length of seat is the width of the oblong. edge for first turning of hem. fold for hem when turned for sewing. length of seat. hem. } * io ij is i* i ij } is * ii } ° is } li } vii. pattern of drawers for a child of ten to twelve years (fig. ): — this pattern consists of three pieces, — one-half of the drawers, and the front (fig. , a) and back (fig. , b) band. these bands are cut length- wise of the cloth and sewed to the gar- ment in the manner described in answer to question in the second year. make three buttonholes in each band, f yds. of cloth in. wide is needed for drawers of this size. fllillljlw cut. finished -//-"- fig. . fig. . progressive lessons in needlework. fig. g. — front of chemise waist. fourth year's sewing. . from y draw downward a dotted vertical in., and mark the point f, for the top of the under-arm seam. . from a draw a horizontal line in. to the right, for width of chest, and mark the point d. connect c, d, e, and f by a line curving to the left for the curve of the arm-size. . from the lower right corner measure vertically upward ^ in., and mark the point g; | in., and mark the point r; and j in., and mark the point k. connect the points f and g by a straight line, to give the slope of the side seam. the points r-k are for the upper and lower edges of the bias band. . from the lower left corner measure in. horizontally to the right, and mark the point h. connect the points h and g, to give the slope at the lower end of the side seam. . connect r and r' and k and k' by dotted lines, for the bias band at the waist. . draw the pattern on paper and cut from a to b, c, d, e, f, g, and h. this garment serves as a chemise and a waist, to which the drawers and skirts can be buttoned. it is a comfortable garment for children. the band is made bias for elasticity and strength, and hemmed on the under side. it is j in. wide, to give opportunity to lower the buttons as the child grows. back (fig. ). . for the back draw an oblong in. x in., the shorter sides horizontal, making the right vertical dotted, to represent the line at which the cloth or paper is doubled. from the upper left corner measure j in. horizontally to the right, and mark the point s. from this point draw a dotted vertical to the lower edge of the oblong, to mark the width of the hem at the back. on this line mark measurements for the lower part of back of neck and for width of bias band. from the upper end of progressive lessons in needlework. > fig. . — back of chemise waist. chapter v. fifth year's sewing. from the paper patterns cut in the fourth year the pupils may now cut and make undergarments of fine white cotton. flannel skirts are cut and made, either lengthwise or widthwise of the flannel; the seams are finished with herringbone or feather stitching; the hem is embroidered, if the pupil desires it. diagrams are drawn for long tiers and for sleeves. the model form is studied (illustration of model form, fig. ). if very good and careful work has been done in plain sewing, the pupil may select from their drawing lessons a design to arrange for embroidery or advanced mexican work, and when the stitches have been thoroughly learned, a large part of this work can be done at home, thus leaving the study hours for that part of the work which must be done under the supervision of the teacher. study of the model form compared with the pupil's form: — study the general character of the model form and describe it. the front is curved, the back is flat, the sides curve in slightly from the arm-size to the waist line, then curve outward. look at the cloth cover on the form; into how many parts is it divided? tell the name of each part. front, under-arm piece, back, side form for the back. these parts are joined together by seams. tell the names of these seams. ) progressive lessons in needlework. . from the lower right corner, measure upward in. on the right verti- cal and mark the point g. connect f and g by a straight line for the side seam. . from the lower left corner, measure horizontally to the right in. and mark the point h. connect g and h by a straight line, to give the slope at the lower end of the side seam. . copy on doubled paper and cut from a to b, c, d, e, f, g, and h, leaving j in. outside the shoulders and side lines for seams. pattern of the back of tier (fig. ). . draw upon the blackboard an oblong in. x in., the short sides horizontal, and the left vertical dotted, to represent the line where the cloth or paper is doubled. . from the upper right corner, measure horizontally to the left in.; mark this point a. from a draw a vertical line to the lower edge of the oblong. this line gives the width of the hem for but- tons and buttonholes at the back. . from the upper right corner, measure horizontally to the left in., j in., and j in., for the length of the shoulder seams, marking the points respectively b, x, and y. . from x draw downward a dotted vertical line in. and mark the lower end d, for the curve of the back arm-size. on this line mark the point c, | in. below x, for lower end of shoulder seam. connect b and c by a straight line. . from the point y draw downward a dotted vertical | in. and mark the lower end f. connect c, d, and f for the curve of the arm- size by a line which curves slightly to the right. . from the lower left corner, measure upward in. on the left vertical and mark the point g. connect f and g by a straight line for the side seam. fifth year's sewing. ornament. in this year a pleasing arrangement can be made from their drawing lessons (fig. ) for a design to embroider in couching, french knot, and outline-stitch, not alone for ornament, but to lead the pupa to fig. . — design for embroidery from a drawing lesson. study, the grace and beauty of designs for that kind of needlework which will make a garment or any article to which it is applied more beautiful, thus carrying into ornament what has been learned for actual use, such as hemstitching, darning, herringbone stitch, etc. embroidery darning is for ornament and is worked on the right side of the cloth. it is made with straight edges and without loops. progressive lessons in needlework. the stitch is the same as that used in darning a thin place which is not yet worn into holes. couching is fastening a cord on a piece of work by oversewing or by embroidery edging stitches; it is used only in ornamental work (fig. ). to make a french knot, fasten the thread with a rolled knot on the under side; then bring the needle to the upper side, pulling the thread through the cloth. hold it by the left thumb down to the cloth at nearly an inch from this place, and pass the needle alternately under and over the thread from above to below between this place and the thumb, pointing it toward the thumb. turn the needle back and pass it perpen- dicularly through to the under side as near as possible to the place where the thread comes up, then draw the thread through, not too tight. with heavy worsted there should be but one twist, with silk or cotton two or more twists about the needle, according to the size of the knot required. this french knot is used only for embroidery. outline-stitch is the stitch with which designs are outlined, and is also used to fill in on some kinds of embroidery. to make outline stitch, the work should be held so that the line to be embroidered runs from the person. fasten the thread by three running stitches along this line; with the needle pointing toward the chest, draw the thread through until but two stitches remain in the cloth; this leaves the end on the under side. now carry the needle \ in. backward over these stitches, and take up on it four threads along the line of the design with the needle still pointing toward the fifth year's sewing. ioi chest, and the loop of the thread held to the right of the line. draw the needle through, and carry it backward another ^ in. along the line of the design, and continue as before; and so on. at points or corners the ingenuity of the worker must be exercised in deciding how to shorten the stitch, and where to put the needle through so as to preserve the outline. when a large design is made, or worked on coarse material, a longer stitch is made. sixth year's sewing. at the waist line in. after the seams are sewed; they should be increased or lessened according to the size of the waist. to fit a basque lining: — for a form which has a bust measure of in. and waist measure of in., take ^ yds. of lining. (the cut edges are on the width of fig. o. — pattern of a basque. the cloth.) pin the cut edges together, as the cloth is to be cut double, and both sides of the lining are fitted to one side of the form. turn j in. for a hem. the width is now vertical, the length of the cloth horizontal. the width threads of cloth stretch in wearing, and the lining is cut in this way to remove all tendency to wear short- waisted. sixth year's sewing. together for the shoulder seam, which should be in. long. make this seam in. back from the top of the shoulder. to cut the back arm-size and curve for the side form: — cut vertically downward in. from the lower end of the shoulder seam for the back arm-size; from this point cut the curve for the side form, making the back centre pieces in. wide at the waist line. to fit the side form : — pin two straight pieces of the lining by a horizontal thread to the waist line and pin by a vertical thread from the waist line to the upper part of the curve; pin this side form smoothly to the curve, taking \ in. seam from the back curve; this seam curves the side form exactly like the back; below the waist line the 'side form has a straight edge. (we are describing a plain basque, — all these seams can be altered at the fancy of the maker.) the curve to fit the body below the waist line is cut on the front edge of the back centre pieces. pin the side forms to the under-arm piece. having brought the front and back smoothly together, begin pinning these parts together half-way between the waist line and the arm-size; from this point continue pinning the seam down to the waist line, then pin from the centre of the seam to the arm-size. by following these directions, the seam will not wrinkle. the curve to fit the body below the waist line is cut on the back edge of the under-arm piece. when all the seams are securely pinned, take the pins from the front hem and from the back centre fold, pare all the seams to within in. of the pins. make a notch in every seam at the waist line for guides to commence basting the different parts together. a dress waist, to be in good proportion, should have that part of the waist lining which is between the last dart and first under-arm seam nearly equal in measurement to the back side form and under-arm piece (or pieces). if the eye is trained in proportions, a good pattern may be cut without exact measurement. a round waist or a basque lining may be fitted to a pupil's form in h progressive lessons in needlework. a round skirt, being careful to fasten the gathering threads when the oversewing is finished. . from the middle of the top of the back breadth cut down in. for a placket. the front breadth and part of the side gores are fitted to the band by basting the v to fit the figure. n progressive lessons in needlework. did before, until i have the four | n sides sewed, and overcast the raw i ,' edges. my first diagram represents the torn or worn place. my second diagram represents the torn or worn place cut out square; the dotted lines show where it is creased. my third diagram represents the patch basted on to the garment. my fourth diagram represents the patch stitched in, and the edges overcast. my fifth diagram represents the patch finished. mary steverman w. h. lincoln school. (age years). second year's sewing. for oversewing we put the two edges together, and baste in. from the top. we use no. . basting line. we begin at the right hand, and sew to the left. we commence oversewing by taking a stitch on the right-hand end; draw the thread all but ^ in., put that j in. on the top, and go on sewing over it three stitches. if the end of the thread is now seen, cut it off. joining. to join a new thread, we go back three stitches, then take a stitch and pull the thread through, leaving j in.; put that on the top with the other end; sew over it four stitches. if the end is seen, cut it off; when we are through, we sew back two stitches. agnes brown w. h. lincoln school. (age years). {' j; .m.nt) . / clothing & health harvard college library i i i i i . the home-making series clothing and health an elementary textbook of home making by helen kinne professor of household arts education, teachers college columbia university, author of " food and household management" and "shelter and clothing" and anna m. cooley, b.s. assistant professor of household arts education, teachers college columbia university, author of "food and household management" and "shelter and clothing" the macmillan company all rights reserved preface this volume, like its companion, food and health, is in- tended for use in the elementary schools in those sections of the country where the home life is of the type described. it is hoped that both volumes will be used by the home people as well as by those at the school. this volume treats largely of the clothing problems and of the elementary work in sewing which precedes garment making. it also includes the subject of the leading textile materials, — where they are grown and how they are manu- factured ready for our use. such topics as the hygiene of clothing, buying materials and clothing wisely, the clothing budget, the use of the commercial pattern, the care and re- pair of clothing, color combinations, and attractiveness in dress, are woven in with the lessons on sewing and textiles, in a very simple and elementary way. the authors are indebted to the united states depart- ment of agriculture, to the smithsonian institution, to the draper company, hopedale, massachusetts, to the york street flax spinning company, belfast, to the whittall rug company, to cheney brothers, silk manufacturers, and to others, for kind permission to use the pictures iii iv preface shown. we acknowledge, also, the permission of the cor- ticelli silk mills of florence, massachusetts, for use of their copyrighted photographs of silkworms. teachers will be glad to know that they can obtain from the corti- celli mills, at slight expense, specimen cocoons and other helps for object lesson teaching. contents page the pleasant valley school i chapter i. the pleasant valley girls learn to sew: lesson i. toweling and other cotton samples .... lesson . the story of how cotton grows . . . . lesson . the hemming stitch ....... lesson . the stitching stitch ....... lesson . the overhanding stitch ...... lesson . planning to make an apron . . . . . lesson . using the running and back stitch on the apron . lesson . making and attaching the apron yokes ... lesson . how to make a buttonhole ...... lesson . the use of the commercial pattern .... lesson . taking measurements and cutting out the petticoat . lesson . making the petticoats ....... chapter ii. the girls of the pleasant valley school learn to make simple garments: lesson . cotton materials suitable for underwear ... lesson . selecting a pattern and the cloth for a nightdress . lesson . how cotton cloth is woven ..... lesson . the spinning of cotton into yarn .... lesson . cutting out a nightdress ...... lesson . the parts of the sewing machine .... lesson . practice in threading and running the machine . lesson . the french seam and its use .... . . lesson . protection for the body at night..... lesson . laces and their use ....... lesson . trimming the nightdress ...... v vi contents page lesson . choosing the pattern and material for a white petticoat lesson . learning to make the petticoat . . . . . lesson . how to make a corset cover ..... chapter iii. learning to make attractive gifts for christ- mas or for a birthday present: lesson . the story of how silk is produced .... lesson . simple articles easily made from silk scraps . . lesson . the names and uses of several silks are discussed . lesson . more useful gifts and how to make them . . . lesson . cousin ann tells how silk is made into cloth . . lesson . the blanket stitch can be used in many ways . . lesson . learning to make the cross-stitch .... lesson . how to make the hemstitch ..... lesson . another useful gift and a new stitch .... lesson . the darning stitch chapter iv. the pleasant valley girls learn to care for their clothes and to help repair the household linens: lesson . care of clothes . . lesson . learning to darn straight tears . . . . . lesson . darning stockings lesson . patching saves clothing and other articles . . lesson . the story of how linen is grown . . . . lesson . common linen materials are identified . . . lesson . removing common stains from table linen . . lesson . learning to wash and iron the table or bed linen . lesson . the story of the manufacture of linen yarn into cloth lesson . a talk about buying linens chapter v. the pleasant valley girls learn to make other garments: lesson . the pattern of the bloomers lesson . the story of where wool is grown .... lesson some of the most common materials made from wool lesson . making a pair of bloomers . . . . . . lesson . the story of how wool is made into cloth . . the pleasant valley school this is a story of the way in which the mothers and fathers, the teacher and pupils, and their friends in the township work together to make the broad valley in which they live truly a pleasant valley. the new school stands where the little red schoolhouse was built for those who are now grandmothers and grand- fathers, when the town was first settled. the old building had become too small for all the young folk, but everybody loved the place and it was not until a fire had destroyed it that money was voted for larger and better housing for the school girls and boys. these small books can describe only a part of every- thing that is being done in and for the school, and for the home people too, for you know that no town can prosper and no country be great unless the homes are b i clothing and health healthful and happy, where all the members of every family work and play together. do you not want to help, too, in your home, and in your town? clothing and health chapter i the pleasant valley girls learn to sew our clothes are important for they help to keep us well. shall we learn how to choose the materials for them, and how to make some useful articles of clothing? sewing is an art which all girls should learn. if we know how to sew, we can keep our clothes in order and always be neat and attractive in appearance. we can, also, make acceptable articles and gifts for others. it is useful, too, to know about materials and about their costs and uses; for, when we buy our clothing and household articles ready-made, we should know how to tell whether the material is durable and will wear. the women of the home should know how to clothing and health make a dollar buy the very best things. the mothers and grandmothers of pleasant valley are delighted to know that their children are to be taught at school. if we understand about materials, we will be able to help a great deal. do you know that the women of the united states spend a billion of dollars every year for textile materials alone? isn't it interest- ing to know, too, that our clothing materials come from plants or ani- mals? do you know how they are obtained and manufactured? do you belong to a sewing club or society? perhaps you can form a sewing club at your school or in your town as the girls of pleasant valley did. marjorie allen (fig. i) has been made presi- dent of the girls' sewing league of pleasant valley. all the school girls be- long; they meet once a week and usually sew for their annual fair. sometimes they make garments for the little children who come during the summer to the fresh air home near their town. marjorie fig. .—marjorie allen, president of the girls' sewing league. learning to sew buys all the materials; so she must know how to buy. she goes once a month with her mother, mrs. allen, to town where there is a good store. some- times she orders by mail. the girls of the league have decided to make some kitchen towels and potlifters. these are useful and !-»— : ' '—-—-—; " /'s ^rt tl id '■mp' t : v jj. .j^w ^ * ,<: 'v '■"" '''■'"'''-.. . fig. . — miss james and some of the pleasant valley girls. they are sewing for the league fair. always sell well. as the girls do not yet know how to make these articles, they have promised to make a towel for themselves for school use, on which to learn. then they will make others for the sale. cooking, sewing, and housewifery are a part of the school work. besides miss james, the teacher, will give credit for the clothing and health sewing done by the girls' league. the girls are anx- ious to prove to miss james (fig. ) that they can really work outside of school. later the girls hope to make aprons and caps to wear for their school work in housewifery, and also some petticoats for the children at the fresh air home. miss james says she will help them at school to get started. lesson i toweling and other cotton samples marjorie sent for samples of toweling materials. she also went to the town store to see what it had to offer, and to look for ma- terials for petticoats and aprons. one day at school all the girls wrote for samples. miss james criticized the letters, and chose the best one to be sent. perhaps you can do this at your school. what material is best for toweling? as soon as all the samples arrived at pleasant valley, marjorie took them to school, and miss james spent an hour with the girls studying the materials. the toweling samples were examined first. what a difference in them! some are smooth and feel cold and look almost shiny, and others feel soft and look more fuzzy on the surface. do you know why? it is because some are woven of linen fibers made from the flax plant, and others from cotton which comes from the cotton plant. which do you think are made from cotton? then, there is a difference in width: some are only inches wide, and others are inches. learning to sew some have a red or blue edge, and others are plain. there is also difference in price. which costs more, linen or cotton? are the prices not given on the samples? marjorie and the girls decided that the towels are to be one yard long. they would like to make four dozen for the sale and plan to tie them up attractively, half a dozen in a package. they had # left in the treasury from last year. as they will have many other things to buy, they decided to pur- chase cotton towels this year. later, if there is enough money, they can add some linen towels. cotton towels do not absorb the water as easily as the linen. we call this a difference in the properties of the two materials. barbara oakes said her mother always buys linen towels. cotton fibers have a kind of waxy coating which throws off the water. linen fibers draw in moisture quickly, and linen materials dry very rapidly. why, then, is linen really better for dish towels? gingham, calico, and chambray are pretty and useful. let us look at some of the other cotton materials. miss james had many samples for the girls to see. grandmother stark sent over some from her piece bag. perhaps your teacher will bring some, and your mother may send some, too. there are several samples of material for the aprons and caps. the blue and white, and pink and white stripes and checks are ginghams; the white with the little spots and thin stripes are percales. the plain blues and pinks are clothing and health textile sample book chambray; the plain blues and pinks of cheaper grade are ginghams. those with printed designs on one side are calicos. the dark brown and blue samples are heavier and are called denims. suppose we make a book of brown paper and mount all the cotton materials we can find. this book can be kept at the school for reference. everybody must help. see if it is possible to write under each sample the name and common uses of the material as well as its price. miss james had some smooth brown paper to fold for a book. she suggested ways to bind it. if each girl wishes her own book, a number can be made if so many samples can be ob- tained. barbara and marjorie decide to make their books at home. there are several varieties of cotton flannel. the fuzzy soft cotton samples are outing flannels and canton flannels. what is the difference in their appearance? the canton flannel is heavier, and it has one twilled surface and one fuzzy surface. it costs cents a yard and comes about inches in width. outing flannel, which is fuzzy on both sides, can be bought from to cents a yard, and it is inches wide. the flannelette samples are also soft and cost from fig. .-—the girls made brown paper books for their textile samples. learning to sew to cents per yard; but flannelette is only inches in width. it has a slight nap or fuzzy surface, and is sometimes plain in color and sometimes printed on one surface. compare these three materials. outing flannel is very dangerous unless treated with ammonium phosphate. dissolve one quarter of a pound of am- monium phosphate, which costs about cents, in one gallon of cold water. soak the clothing in this solu- tion for five minutes. this is easily done and may prevent much trouble. can you tell why outing flannel is dangerous unless it is treated? many other cotton materials are useful. miss james has ever so many more cotton materials. she told the girls the use and name of each. can we learn them all? cheesecloth. thin, sheer, plain weave. costs from to cents per yard, and comes yard wide. it is used for wrapping butter or cheese, for curtains, and for many other purposes. it may be used for baby, too, because it is so soft. the unbleached cheesecloth costs from to cents and is yard wide. crinoline. something like cheesecloth in appearance and stiffer in texture. it is used by dressmakers for stiffening parts of garments. it comes from about to inches wide and costs j cents up. scrim. an open mesh weave but heavier than cheesecloth. it is used for curtains and household furnishings, and comes bleached or unbleached. what is the difference in their color? cost, from to cents. width, from to inches. cretonne and chintz. printed materials with flowers or designs on one side, sometimes on both. they cost from to cents per yard and are used for curtains, covers, cushion tops, etc. they vary in width from to inches. io clothing and health denim. strong material and has an uneven twilled weave. it is used for furniture covers, for aprons, and for floor covering. it costs from to cents per yard and comes about yard in width. your big brother or father wears overalls of this material; perhaps some of the boys in school do, too. gingham. a material used for aprons or dresses, skirts, etc. it is from to inches wide and costs from to cents per yard. fine ginghams are very beautiful. sometimes they are plain in color or striped or in plaids. percale. a good piece can be bought for ^ cents per yard, inches wide. it comes plain or printed, and is firm and closely woven. it is good for aprons or summer dresses. ticking. a material used for pillows or mattress covers. it is striped, is twilled in weave, and wears very well. it costs from i § cents per yard up to or cents per yard, and is woven inches wide. do you understand what is meant when we read that cloth is woven inches wide? do you know how cotton cloth is made and where it comes from? grandmother allen told some of the girls; for she knows about all such things. in our next lesson we shall study where cotton is grown, and in another learn how it is woven. another day we will learn the names of other fig. . — the surprise box. . , . cotton materials and their uses. then, we can add them to our book of cotton samples. the little white box on miss james' desk is a surprise box (fig. ). any one who finds a new cotton material different from those studied at school, miss james says, learning to sew u may drop it through the little hole in the cover of the box. what fun the girls of pleasant valley will have when it is opened. exercises and problems . if you were buying kitchen toweling for use at home, what material would you buy? . name three fuzzy cotton materials and tell their uses. . decide whether you are to make a sample book. begin to collect samples of cotton materials for it. . write quickly on the blackboard the names of six common cotton materials. ask mother to name six. lesson the story of cotton growing do you know that our country produces three-fourths of the cotton of the world? where is it grown? have you heard the story of cotton? let us learn about it. while the girls of pleasant valley school waited for the cotton toweling to come from the store, they studied about where cotton is grown. cotton is the cheapest and most important textile fiber. what does the word textile mean? look up the word in the school diction- ary. more clothing is made from cotton than from any other fiber. where does cotton grow? perhaps you have lived in the southern states. can you name them without looking at your geography? can you tell why it is warmer in those states and why cotton grows clothing and health so well there, and not in northern states? texas produces more cotton than any other state. in what other countries of the world do you think cotton is grown? john alden and frank allen heard the girls studying about cotton, and they told miss james that they thought the boys would like to learn, too. how cotton grows. the farmer plants the cotton seeds in rows, — you have seen corn planted in that way. what color is corn? the cotton seeds do not look like kernels of corn; but some are fuzzy and soft and gray or green in color, and others are black and smooth. this is because there are many varieties or kinds of cotton. some grow to be five feet tall like corn; others, ten feet in height. some have yellow flowers, and some brown and purple red. there are over one hundred varieties of cotton. if you do not live near a cotton field, per- haps you can ask some boy or girl in your school to write to the united states department of agricul- ture at washington. this department will send you some cotton seeds. perhaps you can plant the seeds in the school garden and see if they will grow. in the south the planter prepares the fields about february and plants in april or may. by the midcourtesy of the united states department of agriculture. fig. .—the flower and leaf of the cotton plant. the size of the flower is about four inches across. learning to sew die of august, the plants are five or six feet high and are covered with fuzzy little white balls, soft and dry. the cotton fields, or plantations as they are called, look like fairyland. in the picture (fig. ) you will see the men, women, and children busy picking the cotton and putting it into baskets. the courtesy of the united states department of agriculture. fig. . — picking cotton. cotton bolls, as they are called, are brown and dry look- ing; but when ripe, they burst, and the woolly looking white ball pops out of its brown house, or shell (fig. ). in each cotton boll there are about thirty or forty seeds, and the cotton fibers are all attached to these seeds. the fibers are made into thread and clothing, and the seeds are used for many purposes. clothing and health courtesy of the united states department of agricutture. fig. . — cotton bolls when burst are about the size of a small apple. cotton fibers differ. we shall learn how the fiber is pulled from the seeds. this process is called ginning and is done by a machine. if you have a miscroscope in your school, look at a cotton fiber under the glass. miss james will send for some fibers. you will see that it looks like a ribbon which has been twisted. the natural twist helps very much when cotton is twisted or is manufactured into yarn. cotton is a wonderful little fiber and varies in length from | to inches. the cotton called sea island cotton is the long fiber cotton, and is grown near the sea, for it needs the sea air. the cotton called upland grows away on the uplands and is shorter. these are the principle kinds grown in the united states. the cotton seeds are taken from the fiber. after the pickers have gone up and down the long rows and filled their baskets, they empty the cotton bolls into wagons which carry the cotton to the gin house, where fig. . — cotton fibers magnified. learning to sew the seeds are separated from the fibers and the brown pieces of the pod are blown away as it is separated and cleaned. long ago in india and other countries, cotton was ginned by hand. what a long tedious pro- cess, for only one pound could be separated by a person in a day. the picture (fig. ) shows a little girl at school trying to gin some cotton with a little ginning machine which she has made at school. while george washington was presi- dent of the united states, a man named eli whit- ney invented a machine, called the saw gin, for separating cotton fibers from the seed. this in- vention has saved much time. to-day cotton is all ginned by machinery; and so great quantities can be separated in a day. the machine works in such a way that the cotton fibers are pulled away from the seeds, and the seeds are kept separate for other purposes. the cotton seeds are used, too. some of the seeds are kept for planting, just as you keep corn and oats courtesy of speyer school, new yort. fig. . — a pleasant valley girl trying to gin some cotton with a little ginning machine which she has made at school. clothing and health on your farm; and others are pressed. cottonseed oil comes from the seeds when pressed, and is very useful for many purposes, such as salad oil, soaps, candles, cooking fats. the hulls of the seedsare used for fertilizer, and the dry cake which is left, after the oil has been extracted, is used for feeding fig. io. — bales of cotton on a steamboat dock ready for shipping. the cattle. isn't cotton a very valuable plant? how poor we should be without it, for silk and wool and linen cost so much more. cotton is the cheap, useful fiber. the cotton is baled and shipped to manufacturers. after cotton has been freed from the seed, it is sent to the cotton mills all over the world; some in this learning to sew i country and some in europe. it is sent by boats and sometimes by train. in the picture (fig. ) you will see bales on the dock ready to be shipped. in order to ship it safely after it is ginned, it is pressed into bales like the hay you have on your farm; and it is covered with coarse cloth to keep it clean, and is bound with courtesy of united states department of agriculture. fig. . — bales of cotton from different countries. the third from the left is the american bale. the second is egyptian; the fourth, east indian. iron bands. the american cotton bales weigh about pounds. this is the size of a bale: " x " x ". see if you can measure off in your school- room a space which will show the size of the bale. when these bales are taken to the steamboat piers, they are again made smaller by a machine, called a clothing and health compressor, which reduces them to inches in thick- ness. this is so the bales will not take up so much room in being transported. sometimes, however, this pressing injures the fiber. the united states ships cotton to liverpool, bremen, havre, genoa, and many other places. can you find these on the map and see what a long journey the cotton takes? john alden went to the map and traced the journey. he used the pointer and started from one of the ports of louisiana. can you imagine which one? which way do you think the steamer sailed in order to reach england as soon as possible r perhaps you live near a shipping port and can go with your teacher to see the cotton loaded on the ships. notice how the bales are lowered into the hold. there are large exporting companies which take charge of ship- ping bales of cotton. what is the difference between import and export? we import some cotton from egypt, because it is a very long fibered cotton and is good for thread, hosiery, and cotton gloves. another day we shall study how the manufacturer at the mill opens the cotton bale and makes it into cloth. exercises and problems . where is cotton grown in the united states? find the states on the map. tell why cotton is grown in these states. . examine a cotton fiber with the microscope. how does it look? draw a picture of it. . look up the story of eli whitney's invention. why was it important? learning to sew lesson the hemming stitch let us begin to make the dish towels. what must we think about in order to hem them very-neatly? why is the hemming stitch useful? the hemming stitch is a very useful one to learn, for it can be used for so many purposes. let us learn on something simple — a dish towel or dish cloth for mother. then you can perhaps hem something for the sale of your girls' league. mrs. oakes says she has a dozen new towels ready for barbara when she learns how to hem. the raw edges of material would ravel unless turned and hemmed. the turning is called a hem. it is held with a temporary stitch called basting, and then with the hemming stitch which remains. if the edges were not hemmed, the material would ravel away or look very untidy. the warp threads run lengthwise of the cloth. the firm selvedge is made by the filling thread passing around the warp as the cloth is made. it is this filling thread which will ravel in dish toweling or other material unless a hem is made. how is the hemming stitch made? this is how miss james taught the girls of pleasant valley to hem: . turn hem of desired width. for the towels, one-fourth inch will be about right when finished. there are two turns because one would ravel. turn towards the worker. first, turn one- eighth inch to wrong side of material. second, turn one-fourth inch. turn and pinch to hold until basted. learning to sew curely. now you are ready for the stitch. point the needle which is in your right hand towards the left shoulder. the fig. . — this shows how to start the hemming. fig. . — the hemming stitch. notice the slant of the needle. point of the needle is passed first through the cloth under the edge of the hem, with a tiny stitch which shows on the right clothing and health side. the needle, at the same time, catches the edge of the basted hem. this makes a tiny slanting stitch on the right side, so: /. the next stitch is taken about one-sixteenth of an inch from the first, in exactly the same way. as the thread carries from one stitch to the next, it makes a slanting line on the wrong, or hem, side but in the opposite direction from the stitch which shows on the right side. it slants like this: \ together these two make this : / the part marked i shows on the right side of the cloth; and on the wrong, where the hem is turned (fig. ). when the end of hem is reached, fasten with two or three tiny stitches. if the thread breaks, ravel out a few stitches and let the old end iii /iof thread lie under the hem. the '". '' new thread can then be started as at the beginning by putting needle in the hole of last stitch. there will be two ends under the hem to work over. the picture (fig. ) shows how to join a new find out how many places the hemming stitch can be try it at home on something before next lesson. fig. . thread used. -the hemming stitch. start- ing a new thread. when this stitch has been well learned, it will be pos- sible for the girls' sewing league to make many things. learning to sew exercises and problems . practice turning hems neatly on a scrap of cloth before starting to turn them on the dish towel. . study the pictures carefully so as to have the stitch exactly the right slant. . practice hemming on a scrap of cloth for a few stitches before beginning the towel. lesson the stitching stitch shall we try to make a potholder and learn another new stitch? holders are very useful to the housekeeper. mrs. stark has a bag with pockets hanging near the kitchen stove and says it makes such a convenient place to keep holders, for they are always at hand ready for use. they can be made many sizes. for the cook- ing class at school, it is convenient for each girl to have a holder on a tape attached to the band of her apron (fig. ). it is always with her, then, for use. this can be done by making a loop at the end of the tape and slipping the holder through the loop. a hand towel attached at the same place is convenient, too. fig. . the holder. clothing and health planning, cutting, and basting the holders. holders can be made from old scraps of woolen cloth, from either pieces of garments which have been worn and cast aside, or new scraps from the piece bag. six inches square is a good size. place several squares, one on top of the other, according to the thickness of the cloth. can you tell why wool makes a better holder than cotton? for appearance we can cover the holder with some pretty piece of chintz or cretonne; perhaps you have in the piece bag some pieces which are large enough. denim is strong for a covering. a piece of asbestos might be placed inside. why? pin all these thicknesses together, with a cover top and bottom. now baste from corner to corner and from side to side. this is good practice. make basting stitches of even length such as you made on the towels. then baste carefully all around the four sides so that the edges are held securely. we are going to bind the edge to pre- vent it from raveling and to make it strong. tape is good for binding; and so is a bias strip of the cre- tonne cover, or of a pretty contrasting color. what does contrasting mean? cutting and placing a bias strip. can you learn to cut a true bias strip of cloth? you have learned that the warp threads are the strong threads of the cloth and run lengthwise of the material. to prepare to cut a true bias strip (fig. ), fold the warp of the cloth over so that the warp threads lie exactly on the filling threads. the fold is a true bias edge. cut learning to sew through the fold. a true bias edge is made by cutting a square from corner to corner. does it cut the warp or the filling threads? to make one-inch strips for binding the holder, measure at right angles to the fold you have just cut. make a dot, and rule a light line which will be one inch from the cut edge. these are true bias strips. baste the strip or tape carefully around the four sides of the holder, and allow a little fullness at the corner. the edge of the strip or tape should be even with the edge of the holder, and the basting should be one-fourth of an inch from the edge in a straight line for a guide for the next stitch. miss james showed the girls how to turn the corners by taking a flg. l . — cutting a true bias. tiny plait. making the stitching stitch. now we are ready for a new strong stitch. it is called stitching stitch, for it is used where machine stitching might be used, and resembles it in appearance on the right side. ask your grandmother if she remembers when there were no sewing machines and all grandfather's shirts were stitched by hand? grandmother allen and grand- mother stark of pleasant valley remember. look at the picture (fig. ) and follow the direc- tions carefully, and you will be able to make this clothing and health stitch. it is started with two or three tiny stitches, one over the other for strength. the row of stitches you are to make should be in a straight line just below the straight row of basting stitches. hold the cloth in the same way as for hemming, with the material over the fingers and the thumb on top. now you are ready to make the new stitch. the stitch is started at the right-hand end of the cloth. make a fig. . — the stitching stitch. stitch back over the two starting stitches and carry the needle forward twice the length of this starting stitch. you will have a tiny space on the right side between the place where the needle comes up and the end of the starting stitch. each time your thread should fill this space, for your needle should go back into the end of the last stitch and twice the length forward on the opposite side as it comes up. see the needle in the picture (fig. ). notice the space. learning to sew look at your work. what is the appearance of the stitch on the wrong side? on the right side? this stitch is also called the backstitch. why? finishing the holder. make a row of stitching stitches all around the edge of the holder, holding the binding securely. be careful to catch the corners well. remove your basting stitches. turn the tape or strip over to the other side of the holder and baste. if you have used a bias strip, the edge must be turned under one-fourth of an inch or more before basting. this edge is to be held with the hemming stitch. i am sure that you can all make the hemming stitch by now. if you wish a loop or long tape for holding the holder, hem it neatly at one side, turning in the end of the tape to prevent raveling. if you have some colored" silk thread, it will look well to make tiny stars like this * at the center of the holder and at four places about two inches from the corners on the diag- onals. these will hold the materials firmly together. other uses for the stitching stitch. the stitching stitch can be used for many other purposes. it is a strong stitch for seams. do you know what a seam is? two pieces of cloth sewed together may form a seam. look for seams in your skirt, in your sleeve, in your waist. can you find any? some one tell the difference between a hem and a seam. after this lesson mollie stark helped her grandmother sew some long seams. mr. stark's overalls had ripped, and the sewing machine was being repaired. clothing and health exercises and problems . practice cutting some bias strips. be sure they are true bias edges. how can you tell? . try to make the stitching stitch on teacher's demonstration cloth, with the large needle and red worsted. lesson the overhanding stitch a new game and a new stitch. let us make the bags with the new stitch before we learn to play the game. perhaps, instead of a potholder, you had rather make iron holders or bean bags for your league fair. have you ever played bean bag game? the pleasant valley school children often play this game at recess. you can easily make the bags and also the board. fig. . — the overhanding stitch. learning to sew making the bean bag. bean bags can also be sewed with the stitching stitch, as it is strong. cut the bags of denim x inches, or so as to make a bag inches square. fold, baste the edges on three sides, sew them with stitching stitch, and turn inside out. fill with beans. two inches at the middle of one side should not be sewed until after the beans have been put in. would you like to learn the overhanding stitch for closing the edges of that side? the two edges of the bag are turned in, and the overhanding stitch is made on the very edge. it is a very simple stitch, and is used for sewing seams or edges together firmly. the edges are held in the left hand be- tween the thumb and first finger. the needle in the right hand is pointed straight f,g- ". ~the bean bag board. through towards the worker as in the picture (fig. ), and the needle is passed through the two edges. the end of the thread is drawn carefully, and one- half of an inch allowed to lie on the edge. this is worked over. the needle is pointed with each stitch towards the worker, and the stitches are placed about one-eighth of an inch apart. be very careful to catch both edges, but do not make your stitches too deep. the overhanding stitch is a strong stitch and is easy to make. it is finished by working backwards from left to right on the edge with three or four of the same stitches. a o , q - is clothing and health playing the bean bag game. the boys will surely wish to help prepare the board for the bean bag game. frank allen and john alden made the one used at pleasant valley school. perhaps there is an old box somewhere which can be braced with sticks and made to stand slanting. the bottom of the box will have courtesy of mrs. e. j. esseistya. fig. . — john alden's little brother trying for a high score. to be cut in holes (see fig. ). each hole can be a different shape and numbered , , , or . the object of the game is to see how high a score can be obtained by throwing the bags through the holes. one should stand six feet or more from the board. each should have ten turns. some one must keep the score. the boys will have to help saw or whittle to get the holes just right. do you think you can make both learning to sew the bags and the game board? the picture (fig. ) shows john alden's little brother playing the game. exercises and problems . try to make the bean bag board. perhaps you can think of an easier way. . find five places where the overhanding stitch is used and report at the next lesson. lesson planning to make an apron the girls of pleasant valley school decided to make caps and aprons. they help every day with the preparation of the school lunch. the aprons will keep their dresses clean, so the girls will look neat and tidy. the aprons can also be used at home. let us too learn how to cut them carefully. the samples which marjorie allen brought from the store have been examined and studied carefully. the girls know now the difference in appearance between percales, calicos, ginghams, chambrays, and also how much they cost. most of the girls have decided to make pink and white, or blue and white, checked aprons of gingham. it costs ^ cents a yard; and the girls require from two and one-half to three yards, accord- ing to size. they are to make their own pattern for the aprons, as they are so simple. when they make the petticoats for the fresh air children, they will learn to use a commercial pattern. cutting the skirt part. each girl will need two lengths for the skirt part of the apron, measuring from clothing and health the armhole at chest, to the desired length. no pattern is necessary for this skirt part. on each length allow four inches extra for hem. tear one length, lengthwise; be careful not to tear it crosswise of the material. the two pieces torn down are to be placed one on each side of the whole width, with selvedges together. planning the pattern for the yoke. now the yoke pattern is to be made. miss james helped the pleas- ant valley girls with the patterns. you will need a good-sized piece of paper, pencil, and a tapeline. measure the width of chest from side to side, just at the armhole in front. look at diagram (fig. ); this measure is the bottom of the yoke. draw a line the length of chest measure across the bot- tom of your paper. measure up six inches, and draw a line at right angles to each end of the chest line. this is to find the shoulder. draw a dotted line three inches at right angles to this, as shown in the diagram. then draw a line three inches to form a third side of the square. do this for the other shoulder and con- nect the two lines with a line parallel to the chest line. you will have a yoke three inches wide in front. the shoulder lines are too straight; so draw slanting lines just a little towards the outside or armhole side, taking ■i.n. in. v•--- <r z w z fig. .- . the plan for the yoke of the apron. learning to sew off one-half inch on shoulder edge. this is the only pattern needed; for the back pattern is exactly the same, but is divided in half and cut straight through the center for the opening in back. cutting the yoke. lay the pattern on the cloth so that the width of chest line is on the filling threads of the cloth. four pieces will be needed. can you double your cloth and cut two at once? the yoke is made double of two thicknesses; that is why we must cut two pieces for the back and two for the front. cut the two back portions through the center back, on the thread of material. now our aprons are all cut. care- fully roll up the pieces and material left, for you will need them if you make the caps. basting the skirt part. let us make the skirt of the apron first. pin the widths together, selvedge to selvedge, to form seams. you all know what the selvedge is. look in the dictionary. how is it made so firm? the whole width is for the center front; the half width for each side. pin together and baste one-fourth inch seams, to within or inches of each fig. . — four of the pleasant valley girls wearing their finished aprons. clothing and health length; this will be left open under each arm. baste also one-fourth inch hems at the outside edges of the side lengths which are raveling. turn the hems to the same side as the seams, the wrong side. now all the basting is done, and next time we shall be ready for a new stitch. the picture (fig. ) shows some of the pleasant valley girls wearing their aprons. can you guess which is mollie stark or barbara oakes? exercises and problems . look up these words in. the dictionary: selvedge, warp, woof, pattern. . name other materials, besides gingham, suitable for work aprons. lesson using the running and back stitch on the apron a new stitch called running and back stitch is very useful for seams (fig. ). it is a quick stitch, and it is strong. let us learn to make it on the seams of the aprons. we shall need it later for other things. the apron seams are all basted with one-fourth inch seams. the selvedges have not been removed. some day we shall learn to make a seam which will be sewed twice, and then we shall remove the selvedges. a seam made with one sewing is called a plain seam. the basting is only a temporary stitch. to sew seams. hold the material in the left hand over the fingers, with thumb on top. you will sew learning to sew from right to left. start with two or three tiny stitches, one over the other, without knot. pull needle through after the starting stitches. now take two or three tiny running stitches; they are like basting, only much smaller. as you make the running stitches, the last one is to be twice the length of the others as the needle is pulled through. this is because the next stitch is to be backwards — a backstitch to cover half the space. fig. . — a new stitch called the running and back stitch. on the side towards you, your row of stitches should look like running stitches; on the wrong side, it will be different because of the backstitch. you should have the stitches in a straight row under the line of basting. the backstitch, which covers half the space left by the running, is twice the length of the running stitch on the wrong side. this will bring the needle up ahead of the stitch and ready for the next group of running stitches. both seams of the skirt of the apron. are to be sewed to within or clothing and health inches under the arm. finish with three tiny stitches, one over another. remove bastings, and press open the seams. can you not take this home and sew the other long seam there, now that you know how; or can you not do it at the meeting of the sewing league? the girls of pleasant valley did. sometimes they sat under the big oak trees on friday afternoons and had their sewing lessons outdoors. to hem sides. hem sides of apron which you have basted, making small stitches. you know how. to hem bottom of apron. turn hem at bottom of apron. the cloth should be even. four inches were j|n allowed. the first turn may be one-fourth of an inch; the second, three and one-half inches. the fig. .-a gauge for the apron hem. °ther quarter inch al- lowed is for gathering at top of apron. pin carefully and measure, with a tapeline or a gauge. can you make a gauge? a piece of cardboard with a notch for one or three inches ac- cording to measure desired, is a gauge. the diagram (fig. ) shows how to cut a one-inch gauge. can you make a three-inch gauge, and keep your hems even by following the marked notch? baste hems carefully after pinning. hem neatly. to gather the top of apron. you are now ready to gather the top of the widths. they are to fit into the yoke; and, as they are too wide, we shall have to make - in. clothing and health when both yoke and lining are ready, pin together so that the two right sides are together and seams match at shoulders. baste carefully together all around with one-fourth inch seams only, except across the bottom at width of chest line. be careful not to take deeper seams, for then the yoke will be too small. the chest line width of the yoke is left open so the skirt can be placed between. the back portions of the yoke are also left open at the bottom. after basting, sew below the basting with running and back stitch. remove the bastings and turn the yoke inside out. crease edges carefully. your yoke will lap one-half inch in back when finished. now you are ready to attach the skirt to the yoke. to attach the yoke. you will attach the front of the yoke to the front gathered width. find the center of front yoke. mark with pin. find the center of gathered width. place the right side of the yoke to the right side of the skirt width, center to center; and pin. do not pin the lining yoke, for it is to be sewed down later to cover the seam you will now make. pin the ends of the width to the ends of the front yoke. pull your gathering thread until the full- ness fits the yoke; then move the gathers along until they fall evenly. can you not distribute the gathers carefully, as you pin them to the yoke? hold the gathers towards you, and baste with a one-fourth inch seam, not any more. now sew securely with the strong stitching stitch, which you used on the bean bags. learning to sew to place the yoke lining. you are ready now to cover these rough edges of the seam with the lining. turn in one-fourth of an inch to match the width of the seam taken from the yoke. baste flat to the seam so that the edge of the turned lining just covers the sewing of the yoke seam. finish with a neat hemming stitch. do you not think you can join the two back portions of the yoke to the skirt portions of the apron without any further help? exercises and problems . find three places where you think running and back stitch can be used. . notice other places where gathers are drawn in to fit a space. mollie stark discovered several places on the garments worn by the children at school. lesson how to make a buttonhole the apron is now entirely finished, except for fastenings. shall we learn to make a buttonhole, and how to sew on buttons? the pleasant valley girls had a contest. barbara oakes won a prize at the pleasant valley county fair. practice in making the buttonhole. long ago little girls were taught to make buttonholes, when they were five or six years of age. grandmother allen learned at that age. surely by the time a girl is twelve years old she should begin to learn how to make buttonholes. one must practice on a scrap of cloth, clothing and health before making the buttonhole on the garment, are the steps to consider in practicing: these . decide about placing the buttonhole. is it to be in a vertical or horizontal position on the garment? how far from the edge? . cutting. . overcasting the cut edges. how deep and how far apart to take the stitches. correct position to hold work. . making buttonhole stitch along one edge. . turning corner. . turning and buttonholing opposite edge. . finishing second end. is important to place some garments, whereplacing the buttonhole. it the buttonhole correctly. in there is no strain, as in the front of a shirtwaist or of loose corset cover, the buttonholes can be made to run up and down. one should decide how far from the edge and exactly where the but- tonhole is needed. mark the place with pinholes. for the apron place three buttonholes in the yoke, one in middle and others near each end, about one- fourth inch from the edge of the yoke at center back. cutting the buttonhole. one should cut truly and exactly, on a thread. if a pair of buttonhole scissors is not available, fold the material halfway between the pin fig. . — cutting the button- hole. learning to sew i pricks which marked its location, so that the pin passes through both ends of the located buttonhole. cut from the folded edge to the pin, by placing the fold well within the opened scissors and cutting evenly (fig. ). for the apron cut one-half inch buttonholes and one- fourth of an inch in from the edge. overcasting the buttonhole. you have not all learned the overcasting stitch. practice it on a scrap fig. . — the overcasting stitch for rough edges. of cloth. look at the picture (fig. ) carefully. the overcasting stitch is used on edges to prevent raveling. hold the buttonhole along the top of the first finger. begin without knot, and at the end farthest away from a finished edge; as at the end of skirt band or edge of waist. work over end of thread. point needle toward left shoulder to make a slanting stitch. make about three or four stitches on each clothing and health i side of the buttonhole (fig. ). the depth should be about one-eighth of an inch. the corner stitches should be taken so that the needle is pointed at right angles to the cut before the buttonhole is turned. do not forget that, after one side is overcast, it is necessary to turn the buttonhole around so the other cut edge may be overcast. y . / —fig. . — overcasting the cut buttonhole. making the buttonhole stitch. when the button- hole has been overcast, the needle should be in position at the beginning of the buttonhole where the overcast- ing was started. point the needle at right angles to the edge, and take a stitch one-eighth of an inch deep (fig. ). hold buttonhole so that it lies flat on top of the first finger. do not spread it open. throw the double thread from the eye of the needle, around the point, in the same direction as the buttonhole is being worked, from right to left. draw needle through, learning to sew pulling the thread at right angles to and toward the cut edge of the buttonhole. a little finishing loop called the purl will be formed at the edge. it is this which prevents the edge of the button- hole from wearing. continue along one edge until the corner is reached. remember all stitches are to be the same depth and to have about the space of a thread between stitches, and the purl is to lie exactly on the edge. turning the corner. there are several ways of finish- ing the corners of buttonholes. they may have two fan ends, or one fan and one bar, or two barred ends. how can we tell which way to plan? a barred end is stronger than one which has only a fan. one must judge how the buttonhole is to be used, and then make the proper combination of ends. the picture (fig. ) shows both the fan and the bar. the fan is made with the same buttonhole stitch. five stitches make fig. . — the buttonhole stitch. clothing and health a good fan. the third one is taken on a line with the cut and is the deepest, and the two stitches each side are slanting and of a depth to make an even fan effect at the turn. the fan can be made more easily by turn- ing the buttonhole so that the end to be worked with the fan is pointed towards the worker and the cut edge is over the finger. buttonholing second side. after making the fan, turn the buttonhole, and along the second side make the buttonhole stitch of the same depth and evenness as along the first side. finishing second end. practice a bar end. turn buttonhole so that the end to be finished lies across finger with fan end towards the worker. make two or three small stitches one over the other to bar the end, these to extend across width of buttonhole stitches. over these the blanket stitch is to be placed. this is very easy. look at the picture (fig. ) of it fig. . — the fan end and the bar end of the buttonhole. learning to sew on page . these stitches are to be taken close together and through the cloth, around the three barred stitches. this makes a firm finish. point the needle towards the worker and make a straight row of blanket stitches. sewing on a button. start with a double thread, and make two stitches one over the other on the right side of the garment. string a button on the needle, to cover starting stitches. place a pin on top of the button. fig. .— sew over it with stitches crossed back and prevent" forth through the holes of the button. the the but_ stitches should be taken so that the pull of being the button will come on the warp threads of sewed l?° near the near the garment. on the wrong side, the stitches cloth and should appear in parallel bars lying on the a ts woof or filling thread. on the top of the button- button, the stitches should cross. why is it garment. necessary to sew over the pin? remove the pin and wind thread around the stitches under the button. finish on wrong side with several finishing stitches. exercises and problems . practice overcasting. . practice blanket stitch. . practice making buttonhole. a. cutting. d. fan. b. overcasting. e. buttonholing. c. buttonholing. /. bar. clothing and health . practice sewing on one button at home and making one buttonhole. . bring to school garments which need buttons. sew the buttons on. lesson the use of the commercial pattern have you ever bought a real pattern and tried to use it? mar- jorie allen says she thinks sometimes it is quite like a puzzle. let us learn how to cut our petticoats from a real pattern. can you cut a pattern? perhaps you have cut pat- terns for sister's dolls' clothing (fig. ). this is prob- ably how you did it. you pinned the paper to the doll's body or held it in place while you cut around the armhole, across the shoulder, under the chin for the curved neck, and then you cut the other shoulder and armhole in the same way. under the arm you made a slanting cut towards the feet so fig. . —learning to cut a free-hand the dress or apron would mrn be wider at the bottom. try this if you have never done it. it is good fun. marjorie dressed a doll for little alice when she was sick, and cut the pattern in this way. this is a free clothing and health piece is left. it must be the front. is it large enough? many patterns are made, giving only half a front or half a belt. such pieces must be cut double when you wish to have the front or belt in one piece. the way to do this is to pin the pattern on a folded edge of the cloth. we will know if we consult the perforations on the pattern, and the printed di- rections. we must do this, then, in cutting the front. let us hold the pattern to the light. what do you see? why do you sup- pose the little holes or perfo- rations have been arranged in groups or straight rows? bar- bara said she could not under- stand why. it is all a secret which the description on the pattern will tell. to-day we shall "# learn two things: fig. --wing the pattern l jjow tq teli whjch portion on the cloth. which do you ■ i i i think is the fold edge, aof the pattern is to be placed on or b . the warp of the cloth. . when to place the half pattern on a folded edge, so as to cut the portion in one piece instead of in half a piece like the pattern. the pattern may say the long line of single perfora- tions is to be placed on the warp threads. can you learning to sew do that when we begin to cut? you will have to be careful to find the warp and to lay the pattern exactly. the pattern may say the group of three little perfora- tions or holes at the edge of the front pattern means that edge is to be placed on a straight fold of the cloth. it is wise always to study all the pieces of a pattern. the parts are usually numbered. can you see how? the description on the pattern tells the name of each piece. very often only half of a portion is given. you will always remember now what must be done when that occurs. it is a good thing always to know each portion and to hold it up to the person to see if it is too large or too small. then you will understand the parts, before you begin to cut. sometimes it is necessary to add to the length or to shorten the pattern. some patterns say allow for seams in cutting, and others say seams have been allowed. what difference will this make when you begin to cut? shall we learn to take a few measurements p then we can judge if our pattern is too large or too small. it will also help you in sending for patterns. the bust measure is easy to take. pass the tape measure under the arms, and over the fullest part of the bust, not too tight; bring it to the center of the back, sloping the tape slightly upward between the shoulder blades. the waist measure is a snug measure around the clothing and health smallest part of the waist. for girls this measure should not be too snug. the skirt measures are taken from the waist line to the floor at the front, at the sides over the hips, and at the back. for short skirts one must deduct from the full lengths the number of inches desired from the floor. exercises and problems . open a pattern and see if you can tell the different parts. which are to be cut on a folded edge? how are you to tell which way the pattern is to lie on the warp threads? . practice taking a skirt measure; then, a waist measure. lesson ii taking measurements and cutting out the petticoat we understand our skirt patterns. let us take our skirt measures, front and back, and, if it is necessary to change our pattern, we will decide how much to add or take off before cutting the garments. to change pattern. if you must add two or three inches to the length of your pattern, this must be done as you cut. or possibly you may wish to shorten the pattern. if you wish to shorten it, take a plait of one inch about in the middle of your pattern, crease, and pin it. by taking this plait rather than cutting off the amount from the bottom, the good flare of the skirt is saved. do you know what these pieces of the skirt are called which are wider at the bottom than learning to sew i at the top? why is a gore made such a shape? can you think of the advantages? in cutting from a pattern in which a plait has been laid, one must be careful to carry the outline of the pattern evenly at the place where the fold of the plait comes. to lengthen a pattern. make a straight cut across a gore about the middle from side to side. pin or paste a strip of paper the desired extra length be- tween the two pieces. this preserves the bottom flare. if length were added at the bottom, the flare would be too great. to cut the skirts. one must study carefully the economical use of ma- terial. it is like a puzzle to fit the pattern to the fig. . cloth, so that the perfo- rations are obeyed exactly and there is enough cloth for all the parts. the girls of pleasant valley have decided to make the petticoats for the children at the summer home. the ladies of the board furnished the materials. they have chosen gingham for some and outing flannel for others. the belts are to be made of muslin. the material is all one yard wide. by folding the outing flannel selvedge to selvedge, and placing the triple the petticoat for the children of the home. clothing and health perforations of the pattern of the front gore on this fold, the front can be cut all in one piece. it is rather a circular gore. not all gores are the same shape. see if you can find other shaped gores in dress skirts. the two back gores of the skirt can be cut from an- other width. be sure to obey the directions for placing the perforations on the warp. how many lengths of cloth are needed to cut such a skirt? how much will you allow for hems at the bottom? as the girls of pleasant valley had decided on two inches finished, they allowed ^\ inches extra in cutting. one must always think about this. all seams have been allowed on their patterns. be sure to lay all the pieces of the pattern on the cloth before cutting. find a flat surface. remember that the wide end of a gore is apt to cut to better advantage at the end of the piece of cloth. can the gores he fitted so as to cut more economically? (fig. .) pin the parts carefully, not using too many pins. mark all the notches with pencil, chalk, or basting thread. do not cut notches; one is liable to be careless and to make them too large. use long cuts, and make even edges in cutting. good shears help. exercises and problems . draw on the blackboard different shaped dress gores which you have noticed. . with the tiny patterns of the skirt which your teacher has cut, show how to lay them most economically on the red muslin which represents your material. learning to sew . what would you do if you were using a pattern which did not allow for seams? lesson making the petticoats let us begin to sew the petticoats. notice all the notches which were marked lightly with pencil, and follow all the steps carefully: . place the two back portions so that they join the front as the notches indicate. , . pin from the top of the gores. . baste the three gores together with |-inch seams, beginning at the bottom. can you tell why? . sew the seams on the wrong side, using the stitching stitch. the back seam is to be left open five inches at the top for the placket opening. . overcast all the seam edges, overcasting the two thicknesses of the seams together. . turn hems at the bottom of the skirt. first, turn j inch; second, turn two inches. baste carefully, laying little plaits neatly where neces- sary on account of extra fullness. always have the seams of the turned hem lie on seams of skirt. sew hem with hemming stitch or feather- stitch (see page ). . finish placket opening. on right side make £-inch hem, the first turn |- and second -j inch. turn hem to inside of skirt. baste clothing and health and hem. on left side of opening make hem \ inch finished. make first turn \ and second i inch. baste and hem neatly. to put the skirt on the band: a. cut band. take waist measure; add to it one inch for lapping and two inches for the turnings, one at each end of band. cut band lengthwise of the muslin, with the warp threads, and twice the desired width finished plus ^ inch for turnings. b. gather petticoat \ inch from edge, with two gathering threads one below the other. divide skirt in half; gather from center front to back at right side, and from center front to back at left side. c. turn in ends of band one inch. pin center of band to center front of petticoat, right side of band to right side of petticoat. pin so that the edge of band is even with the gathered edge of skirt. pin ends of band to the gathered back portions of skirt, with ends of bands to ends of gathers. turn gathers towards worker, and distribute in same manner as when attaching yoke of apron to the apron skirt. baste \ inch from edge of band, and between the two rows of gathering stitches. sew with stitch- ing stitch. turn band over to wrong side. turn in \ inch. baste and hem flat. over- learning to sew hand the turned-in ends of the band neatly. d. finish with buttonhole and button at back, or with two buttonholes, to button to waist. if the skirt is to be attached in this way, a buttonhole should be made in the center front of the band also. this should be up and down in the band. the girls of pleasant valley had a surprise party, when the aprons were finished, and went to the fresh air home. this was in june before school closed. some of the summer children had arrived. the girls made cookies at home and had a real party with the children. exercises and problems . tell how the putting on of the skirt band differs from putting on the apron yoke. . do you know of any other kind of placket finish besides the one which you have made in the skirt? tell where you have seen it. review problems i. can you make a useful bag on which the following stitches might be used: basting, running, hemming, stitching stitch, over- handing, buttonhole? ii. plan another article, using as many of these stitches as possible, and cutting the article from a pattern. try to make this at home for school credit. miss james of pleasant valley has a kind of score card which she uses in marking the girls. perhaps your teacher will give you credit for your home work. clothing and health score card girl's name i. article a. general appearance . general neatness of sewing % . cleanliness % . appropriateness of material % b. hand work . regularity of stitches % . suitability of stitches % % chapter ii the girls of pleasant valley school learn to make simple garments this year the girls of the sewing league of pleasant valley will receive credit for the garments they make. miss james will help the girls to start the garments at school and will give full credit if the work is completed neatly. a nightdress, a petticoat, corset cover, or under slip, and perhaps a white summer dress skirt will be made. the school board has just furnished a machine, so miss james is planning to teach the girls to use it. many of them can practice at home too. mrs. stark, who has two machines, told mollie she might bring the girls at any time for practice. can you plan to learn to stitch at your school? there are many things one does not wish to sew by hand, and does not have time to make in that way. not long ago miss travers, who came from the state agricultural college to speak to the mothers' club at pleasant valley, told them that often people do not use good common sense about this question. she said there are times when clothing and health one wishes to make garments and articles by hand, but it is foolish to do so when one has other duties in life to perform which are more important. handmade garments are very beautiful to look at, but when they mean the sacrifice of health, because one has remained indoors to make them, they appear less beautiful. miss travers and the mothers had a long discussion about the wages paid in large cities to women who do this fine work. miss travers said the wage paid is usually very low. lesson i some cotton materials suitable for underwear suppose you order the muslin for your nightdress and, while waiting for it to arrive, learn about the cotton materials which can be used for underwear. can you add a whole page of white materials to your textile books? suppose you open the surprise box on your teacher's desk. it is quite full. let us sort the samples and examine the white ones, especially, to-day; for your underwear is to be made of white cotton material. let us look also at the ones which are almost white. they are unbleached white; the others have been bleached with a chemical to make them look so snowy white. they have been dipped in a bath of chloride of lime, and then in another bath of water and sulphuric acid, until the material has become white. do you know how our grandmothers used to bleach sheets and other unbleached articles which they wished making simple garments to have white? grandmother allen used to bleach those she made on her hand loom. why did they place them on the grass in the sun? what bleached them? this unbleached sample is muslin; it is for sheets. here is some white which is of the same plain weave. the unbleached is cheaper. it comes one yard wide and can be bought for cents and, in better qualities, up to cents per yard. it wears very well — better than bleached muslin. can you tell why? it is used for sheets and pillowcases. we may later make a pair of pillowcases from this unbleached muslin. the white muslin can be bought in a cheap quality for cents a yard; and it may also be bought in finer qualities. here is a piece of alpine rose muslin from our sample box. isn't that a pretty name for it? it is soft and much finer, and costs cents a yard. bleached muslins come in width from to inches. the wide width is used for sheetings and is woven that width that no seam may be necessary through the center of the sheet. this soft, light cotton material is called nainsook. isn't that a queer name? it is from an old hindoo word for a material made and used in india. nainsook is used for underwear and clothing for baby. it comes in several grades. miss james has some coarser samples, too. it is soft and is nearly always finished, when woven, with very little dressing or starch to stiffen it. it comes inches in width and varies in price from to cents a yard. clothing and health this soft crinkly looking material is called cotton crepe. it is used a great deal for underwear and for shirt waists or dresses. it is considered very economi- cal. does any one know why? yes, because it is easily washed and, when hung out in the fresh air and sunshine, does not need to be ironed. think of all the time saved. the little crinkles dry in place and look well. it costs from to cents per yard, and comes about inches wide. this piece is a cambric. it is a firm plain weave and is good for underwear. this quality is fine, and its name is berkeley cambric. some grades of cambric are coarser and are called cambric muslin. they are glazed and smooth in finish, and are used for linings and for other purposes. that name is also foreign, from cambrai, france. cambric is woven a yard wide and costs from to cents per yard. it is very durable material for underwear, not quite so heavy as muslin, and strong. dimity is thin. look at this piece. mollie had a dress made of it last summer. it is sheer and light, and has little cords or ribs. it is always easy to recog- nize on that account. it is used for summer dresses, sometimes for dainty underwear; but it is not suitable for underwear which must have hard usage every day. it costs from to cents per yard and is woven about a yard wide. sometimes it comes in colors and also with pretty printed figures on it. see, here are some printed ones. what dainty patterns and colors! making simple garments would you like a dress of one of these? miss james has found two other thin, sheer, white ones. there are so many i wonder if we can remember all. this thin one is lawn and is a plain weave. it comes in inexpen- sive qualities at cents and in better qualities for cents. the width varies from to inches. do you know of anything at home or in school, made of lawn? yes, dresses, aprons, curtains. it comes in colors too; here is a pretty blue. it is smooth and starched and pressed when one buys it. this other is soft but not so starched. it is called mull. that is a hindoo word, too. do you remember that cotton was grown in india many years before we had it in america; that is why the cotton materials so often have indian names. mull is too fine for under- wear, but it is used for pretty white dresses. here are two heavy white samples; one is called indian head, and the other duck. such strange names! do you know their uses? perhaps your mother had a skirt last summer of duck or indian head. mrs. alden of pleasant valley had one. both these cotton materials wear well. the duck is used for men's trousers, also; and in very heavy qualities, it is used for sails or tents and awnings. john alden's first long trousers were made of duck. how important he felt! duck is sometimes colored blue or other colors. it varies in width from to inches and costs from cents up. the indian head is used for the same purposes as duck and comes in the same width for clothing and health about the same price,— cents a yard up, according to quality. we shall have time to study about only two more to- day. they are both heavy. this is galatea, and comes in white, like this sample, or in colors. it is firm like duck and indian head. can you tell for what it is used? have you ever seen any before? it is used for dress skirts, and very often for girls' middy blouses or children's clothes. it washes very well. it is inches wide and costs from to cents a yard. the last sample is cot- ton birdseye or huckaback. it is sold by the yard or by the piece. it costs less per yard to buy it by the piece of yards. it varies in cost, according to quality, and is woven from to inches wide. we also have huckaback towels made of cotton or linen or a mixture of cotton and linen. here is one which miss james uses at school (fig. ). i wonder who can go to the board and make a list of all the new white material we have found in the surprise box. shall we put them in our sample book? who will write the use of each, opposite the name? if you fig. . — a towel which miss james uses at school. making simple garments cannot remember the prices and widths, look on the samples; many are marked, especially those which have come from the town store. which do you think will be best for your nightgowns? yes, cambric, nainsook, or muslin. which will be softest and light- est? which is the heaviest of these three? shall we use the muslin? it is strong and will wear well. shall we choose this piece? it is cents a yard. how much shall we need? we shall talk about it next lesson. any one who wishes to use the unbleached muslin which costs cents, may do so; or the finer nainsook which is cents a yard. how can the unbleached be made white as it is used? exercises and problems . look up the story of how cloth is bleached in any of the library books on textiles, or in the encyclopedia. . add six cotton materials you have just studied about, to your textile sample books. . decide what kind of white material you wish to use for your nightdress. lesson selecting pattern and cloth for nightdress suppose you decide about the pattern for your nightdresses, and send for the cloth and pattern. a kimono nightdress. miss james has a book of patterns; perhaps your teacher has. let us look at them. here are the nightdresses. this picture clothing and health (fig. ) is a kimono nightdress; that means the sleeves are cut with the gown all in one, not made separately and sewed in. this name kimono is japanese and means a loose garment. the picture shows a pleasant valley girl in a kimono nightdress. miss james says there is only one piece to this pat- tern and the nightdress is easy to make. the way to measure for the amount of material for such a gown is to take the length from the shoulder at the side of the neck to the floor and add three inches for a hem. this gown can be cut without any shoulder seams, all in one piece. so you will need twice the length from shoulder to floor and hem. why? if the cloth is one yard or more wide, it will not be necessary to piece the gown; so be sure to choose material which is a yard wide. is there any one now who does not know how to measure for the material for the kimono nightdress? let all write an order for a kimono nightdress pattern and for the muslin. take each other's measures first and add together the amount of cloth needed. it will be easier to send one order for fig. .—a pleasant valley girl in a kimono nightdress. making simple garments all. the best letter will be chosen to send to the store. as some girls are large and some small for their ages, it will be wise to order one pattern -year size, and another -year size. exercises and problems i. how much cloth will be needed for a kimono nightdress if the measure of the girl from shoulder to floor is inches? how much do you suppose the pleasant valley girl in the picture needed? lesson how cotton cloth is woven not long ago we learned how the cotton plant furnishes us with cotton for clothing. there are many people who help in changing the cotton from fiber to cloth. while you are waiting forthe cotton material and the pattern, shall we study how cotton cloth is made? cotton is used for many things. we learned that cotton is shipped in bales of pounds each from the united states to all parts of the world. the manu- facturer receives it at the factory and changes it by many processes into what he wishes to sell. some manufacturers make only cotton threads of various kinds, for sewing, knitting, and crocheting. others make cotton cloth of one variety or of several varieties. we know there are many kinds manufactured. others make absorbent cotton, gauze, and such things for surgical use for the sick. some make hosiery, gloves, towels; and others make knitted underwear, or laces 'f clothing and health and embroideries. others use cotton for war purposes, for guncotton. john alden said he did not know that cotton is used for so many things. the loom for weaving cotton. we have learned that cloth is made of threads which run lengthwise, called the warp threads, and of crosswise threads, called the filling or woof. the machine for holding the threads and doing the work is called a loom. what is the firm edge which is woven called? look at miss james' little loom (fig. ). it shows the warp, and the filling yarn as it passes over and under and makes the firm edge as it turns each trip back and forth around the edge threads. if you have never woven a piece of material, suppose you take a box cover and make a fig. . — miss james' little loom. small loom. the picture (fig. ) shows one made at pleasant valley school. did you ever see your grandmother weave on a loom? look at the picture (fig. ) of a grandmother weaving on a cloth loom. it is not grandmother allen, although she knows how making simple garments to weave. the warp threads are rolled up on a big roller at the back of the loom and are extended to the cloth roller at the front near where she sits. she holds the filling thread in her hand. it is wound on a bobbin which fits in the shuttle. she throws the shuttle from side to side and works her feet to alternate the warp threads, in order that the filling thread may go over and under, and make the cloth. look at the shuttle in the picture (fig. ); it holds the bobbin of thread. there are many kinds of looms. to-day cloth is woven on looms run by machinery. it is much easier and quicker than working by hand, and so cotton cloth can be made more cheaply. frank allen says he saw a loom at the silk factory he visited. if it were not for machines, our clothes would cost much more than they do. think of all the people who help to give us our cotton clothes, from the planter who sows the seed to the manufacturer whose men pre- pare and weave it. have you ever visited a cloth fac- tory and seen the many machines and heard the great fig. . . a small loom made from a box cover. clothing and health buzzing noise which they make? it is a busy place. some factories make only warp, or filling, yarns. they courtesy of draper ct fig. . — "in days gone by." are called spinning factories or mills (fig. ). they send their product to the other manufacturers who have only weaving machines for making the yarns into cloth. it is about years ( ) since the first cotton mill was started in the united states, and only a few years longer since the first mill was started in england. before that time, people of different countries made their own looms according to the ways they thought out. as men felt the need of clothing to fig. . — the shuttle holding the bobbin of yarn. making simple garments wear, they tried to make cloth; and we find all kinds of primitive looms as their invention. can you look up the meaning of primitive? notice the two pictures (figs. and ) of primitive people weaving. the indian girl is holding the shuttle in her right hand; courtesy of draper co., hopedate, mans. fig. . — a weaving room in a modern factory. the loom is fastened to something and is also attached at her belt. in that way the warp threads are held securely while she passes the filling back and forth. on page you will find a picture (fig. ) of a japanese girl weaving silk. notice the loom; find the roller holding the warp yarn. find the shuttle which she uses to throw the filling yarn. can you tell where she rolls the cloth ° clothing and health as it is woven? under her elbows in the picture is a cloth roller on which she rolls up the woven cloth as she weaves and unrolls the warp from the warp roller. isn't this a wonderful story? we have not yet learned courtesy of smithsonian institute, bureau of american ethnology. fig. . — indian girl weaving a belt by hand. how the cotton is made into the warp and filling ready to be woven. we shall save that part of the story for to-morrow. the pleasant valley girls and boys en- joyed this part of the story about cotton and are anxious for miss james to tell some more. making simple garments fig. . — another primitive loom and a girl spinning. the distaff with the wool for spinning is held under the girl's arm. exercises and problems . try to make a simple loom. take a piece of cardboard x inches. make a row of holes about \ inch apart one inch from the top; another row \ inch apart one inch from bottom. string the warp back and forth from hole to hole so it looks like the picture (fig. ). weave a piece of cloth with the filling thread which goes over and under. . visit a weaving factory if you can. . see if you can spin a piece of carded wool. perhaps you can card some wool with the hand cards which your great grandmother used, as the pleasant valley girls did. . try to collect pictures of spinning. the primitive peoples did this in different ways. making simple garments leaves and dust and dirt. as the cotton leaves this machine, it looks like a big piece ( ft. wide) of cotton batting rolled in a large roll. it looks soft and clean. then the girls watched the men place this roll at the back of the next machine, called a carding machine courtesy of leonard & green, boston. fig. . — a cotton spinning room. (fig. ). here it was cleaned some more; and such a wonderful thing happened. as it left the machine instead of coming out as a lap of the roll of cotton like it went in, it came out in a long thick coil which looked like a rope, and there were tall round cans ready to receive this continuous line of cotton rope. how soft and beautiful it looked! what wonderful clothing and health machines the manufacturer had. some one must have made them. can you find out who made the first loom run by machinery? john alden looked it up in the encyclopedia. do you know who invented the first spinning machine? then the girls visited ever so many machines which wound this cotton rope on spools. each machine made the rope thinner and finer until it was drawn out as thin and round as the manufacturer wished (fig. ). barbara oakes noticed this: that these spin- ning machines not only drew out the cotton rope and made it thinner, but put in a twist which prevented it from break- ing so easily. do you re- member how the cotton fiber looked under the microscope? the twist in the fiber helps in the spinning. isn't it won- derful to think that such tiny fibers can be made into spinning yarns, and yarns woven into cloth? how cotton is spun. did you ever see any one spin by hand? one day the girls' league went to marjorie fig. . — grandmother allen's wheel used for spinning wool. making simple garments allen's grandmother's house. she took the girls to the attic and showed them her grandmother's spinning wheels (fig. ). there was a large one for spinning woolen yarn. this she called the great wheel. then there was a small one called the flax wheel (fig. ) for spinning flax, or linen, into yarn for weaving. grandmother sat down and showed them how to spin (fig. ). she pressed her foot on the treadle just like a sew- ing machine; and the wheels went round. the flax was on a little holder called a distaff. see the pictures (figs. and ) of the wheels. she held and drew the flax while the wheels of the machine courtesy of the metropolitan museun of art. put in the twist. that fig. .-the flax wheel. is just what the modern spinning machine does, but it can accomplish much more in an hour than grandmother did in a day. still it is a great satisfaction to possess some of the beauti- ful old textiles spun and woven by grandmother's hands. the girls had the pleasure of opening a great chest in the attic and looking at the hand-woven sheets and coverlets which grandmother allen prizes so highly. clothing and health barbara oakes and mollie stark fairly clapped their hands and said, " how beautiful the colors are." the coverlets were made of wool and cotton yarns. grand- mother showed the girls the hand cards which she used when a girl in helping her mother prepare wool into carded rolls for spinning. do you remember that courtesy of miss mary e. hoaa. fig. . — grandmother allen sat at her flax wheel and showed the girls how to spin. the cotton at the factory passed through a carding machine to be cleaned and made into a cotton rope? grandmother told the girls she used to do the same for wool. she used the little hand cards and drew the boards with the fine teeth back and forth to clean the fibers, and then made little rolls for the great wheel to spin. the picture (fig. ) shows how making simple garments the hand cards are used. wasn't that a long, tedious process? perhaps at your school you can have an exhibit of old industrial things once used in the home. maybe your grandmother has something in the attic — some cards, or wheels, or old hand-woven materials. if you courtesy of miss mary e. hoay. fig. . — grandmother allen carding wool by hand. have a girls' sewing league, the girls will, perhaps, send out invitations and invite the mothers and grand- mothers. the girls can prepare some coffee and cookies at school to serve the afternoon of the exhibit. the pleasant valley girls had such an afternoon en- tertainment and earned five dollars for their school fund. they will probably buy some dishes for the school lunch. clothing and health exercises and problems . try to find some pictures of very primitive spinning. can you make a spindle? . what does the process of carding do to the cotton or wool? . plan an exhibition of old coverlets and other old hand-woven textiles. invite your parents and friends. lesson cutting out a nightdress the patterns and muslin have probably arrived. suppose you cut out your nightdress. miss james kept a memorandum of the amounts of material needed by each girl for her gown, and she has divided the cloth. she has, also, cut with barbara's help several patterns from the commercial pattern, so that all may begin to work at once. miss james has had such nice boards arranged and fastened with hinges to the walls under the blackboards. they are so convenient for cutting and can be let down out of the way when not needed. placing the pattern and cutting the material. let us look at our patterns. some girl will, perhaps, read aloud what the pattern says in the description printed on the outside or on the envelope of this commercial pattern. who will hold up the nightdress pattern, showing how it is related to the figure? who can tell what the small group of dots on the edge means? who remembers how we can tell about laying the pattern making simple garments correctly on the warp of the material? those two things are important. it is also necessary to plan so as to waste as little as possible. some girls will find that their pat- terns are too long. measure from the shoulder at the neck of your nightdress pattern, and see if it is longer or shorter than your measure. if the pattern is too long, fold up the necessary portion. if too short, do not forget you must allow extra when pinning the pattern on the cloth. how much of the whole nightdress does this pattern give? if only one- half is given, the nightdress must be cut on a fold; back and front in one with a hole for the neck, as it slips over the head. how shall we fold the cloth so as to cut on a fold? which edge of the pattern shall be placed on the fold p have you placed it most economically on the cloth? not an inch should be wasted. the pattern may or may not allow for seams. what will you do if it does not? if you must add for your hem at the bottom, do not forget to mark, with a fine pencil mark, the allowance for hem beyond the pattern. so you see fig. . — laying the nightdress pattern on the cloth. clothing and health there are many things to remember. can you all cut out your nightdresses to-day and baste f-inch seams under the arms? pin your seams carefully before basting. instead of the sharp angle under the arm, which the kimono nightdress usually gives, cut a good curve. your teacher will help you. the curve makes a better line and is easier to finish. the pieces left must be rolled carefully, and your name must be written on the outside of the roll. we may need the pieces later. exercises and problems . cut a free-hand pattern of a kimono nightdress for your doll. . show, with a piece of newspaper to represent the cloth, how the pattern can be placed economically. lesson the parts of a sewing machine t shall we examine the new machine to-day and learn to run it? you must practice before sewing your seams. do you know that sewing machines were invented less than one hundred years ago? our great-grand- mothers had to do all their sewing by hand, and some of our grandmothers too. a man by the name of elias howe, of cambridge, massachusetts, first thought about the sewing machine; and since then many different kinds have been invented, to be run by foot and also by mechanical power, — electricity. we have two kinds of foot-power machines. one kind (fig. ) has only one making simple garments thread, which is placed on a spool on top; and the other (fig. ), the two-thread or double-thread, is like the one we have at school. the double-thread machine is called a lock-stitch machine, because one thread is on top on a spool and the other is on a little spool called a bobbin courtesy of witcox and gibbs sewing machine co. fig. . — single thread machine. in the shuttle under the plate. the two threads lock together as the machine works. you will learn how later. the machine with only one thread on top is called a chain-stitch machine. the stitching made by it rips very easily; and the ends must be fastened carefully when one stops. the double-thread machine does not rip easily; and one can stitch on either the g clothing and health right or wrong side of a garment. on the single- thread machine, one must stitch on the right side always. let us look at a machine before learning to operate it. what parts do you find below the table? what use is the connecting rod? what does it connect? watch how your teacher puts her feet on the treadle. what makes the wheel above the table turn around? you should practice running the machine first without any thread so as to learn to use the treadle well, and then with paper to see if you are holding it straight and making rows of pricks which are straight and even. if one cannot make rows of even pricks, it means the sew- ing will be crooked and must be ripped. some of the pleasant valley girls practiced in this way at home. what do you find besides the wheel above the table?the shaft has many parts. can you name some? yes, the spool holder, which holds the spool; the needle bar, which holds the needle and moves up and down; the foot, which is called the presser foot and can be raised or lowered by the little handle; the needle plate, through which the needle works; the feed, which is like courtesy of new home sewing machine co. fig. . — double-thread machine. making simple garments little rough teeth of a comb and helps to push the cloth along as one stitches. the little attachment near the wheel is for winding bobbins for the shuttle. the shuttle lies in the shuttle race underthe plate. suppose we move the plate and take it out. see, the bobbin is in the shuttle. this is the second thread. how do you regulate the machine? jane asked miss james about the screws. there are usually two large ones on the double-thread machines which are important. one screw is to make the stitch larger or smaller; we say, to regulate it. miss james showed the girls how to do this. the second screw is to regulate the tight- ness of the thread. it is called a tension. press your thumb and first finger tightly together and pass a thread between them. when you do not press very hard, the thread passes easily. when you press hard, it is difficult to draw the thread through, and the thread may break. have you tried? the tension is regulated by a screw which presses two little plates together. the thread passes between the plates. when they are loose like your fingers, the thread passes easily; when tight, it breaks. so, in threading a machine, we must learn where the tension plates are, in order to pass the thread between them, and how the screw is turned to make the plates tight or loose. your teacher will show you how to turn the screws. to-day, while some girls are finishing the basting, others may try to run the machine, in turn. this is what you are to do: clothing and health . find all the parts whose names have been put on the blackboard, above table and below table. . learn to treadle evenly. . learn to raise and lower the presser foot on a piece of brown paper, and to stitch without thread. keep the rows of pricks very even. exercises and problems . study your machine. find all the parts above the table; below the table. . what is the purpose of a tension? show how it operates. . learn to stitch, without a thread, even rows of pricks on brown paper. . see how much you can tell mother about the machine, when you go home. lesson practice in threading and running the machine let us learn to thread the double thread machine and practice stitching. this requires much care, but is not difficult. the pleasant valley girls enjoyed this lesson very much. as we learned, there are many different makes of sewing machines. all are based on the principles of the one invented by mr. howe. if we know the important points to remember in threading a machine, it will be very easy to follow the book of directions which comes with the machine. the names of some machines are the new home, domestic, singer, wilcox and gibbs. here are the things to think about in threading: . find the spool holder, and put the spool on it. making simple garments . find all the little eyes and holes through which the thread must pass. the book of directions will help. . find the tension. be sure the thread passes between the tension plates and pulls evenly. . find the needle, and thread it from left to right, towards the wheel. . find the shuttle. look at your book of direc- tions. miss james helped barbara to put the bobbin in its place, and to thread it into the shuttle. ask your teacher to help you if you do not know how. . put the shuttle back in the shuttle holder. . turn the wheel and hold the upper thread. this will bring the under thread up through the little hole in the needle plate. both threads should be on top before beginning to stitch. now you are ready to begin to practice stitching with a thread. try to remember these things, while stitching with a thread: . to treadle evenly. . to hold the material on the table at the left hand and to pass it on lightly. do not pull it or push it with your left hand. . to turn corners evenly. have the needle down in cloth. raise the presser foot and turn the work. put the foot down and continue. clothing and health . be sure to turn the wheel in the proper direction, or the thread will break. . practice stitching parallel rows. make good square corners. use some scraps of cloth for this sewing, and practice at home. those who have not practiced on the machine may do so during study periods, if there is time. we can move the machine into the coat room. exercises and problems . barbara oakes does not turn good square corners on her practice piece. why? . marjorie says her thread breaks every time she starts. why? . show some one how you can bring the under thread up through the needle plate, preparatory to stitching. . practice threading the machine, following book directions if you do not know how. . practice rows of good straight stitching. lesson the french seam and its use what kind of seams shall we make on our nightdresses? how shall we finish the bottom? the pleasant valley girls did most of this at school in one lesson, but finished at home. making french seams on the nightdress. we have learned that our dish towels had to be hemmed because of the raveling of material. anything which is to be washed a great deal must have its raw edges finished in such a way that they will not ravel. as nightdresses making simple garments are washed often, we must make our seams so that the edges will not pull out. who can name other garments which are washed often? who can tell what we can do to prevent edges from fraying? yes, we might make small stitches, called overcasting, on the edge of a plain seam. there is another way, which we shall learn to-day. it is called a french seam. the french seam is sewed twice. the seam is basted as you have done, fig. . — the french seam. first sewing near raw edges. on the right side of the garment; seams are usually basted on the wrong side. then, the seam is sewed close to the basting stitches. we shall sew ours by machine. the french seam is used on some garments made by hand. the first sewing (fig. ), then, is a tiny row of running stitches, close to the basting. after the first sewing, the basting should be removed and the edges trimmed to a £ inch seam. this must be done carefully. then, turn the garment to the wrong side. press and pinch the seams evenly so that the sewing of clothing and health the seam is exactly on top of the fold as you pinch it. next, baste again \ inch from edge, and sew the second time, by machine. this seam is often used on dainty handmade underwear. then, the second sewing is two runs and a back stitch, like that you used on your aprons, and is made by hand. what must we be careful about, then, in making the french seams on our night- dresses? fig. . —the french seam. second sewing. making the hem of the nightdress. how much was allowed for the hems at the bottom of the nightdresses? everybody knows how to turn a hem. the first turning is i inch; and the wide turning, inches. all use your gauges or tape measures; and turn and pin and baste carefully before stitching. who can tell why the tiny plaits are necessary at the hem turning? where shall we lay them? yes, at the seams and between, if necessary. now you will have plenty to do to finish seams and making simple garments hem. the pleasant valley girls, after this lesson, finished theirs at home. exercises and problems . show on a practice piece how a french seam is made: a. by hand. b. by machine. . name some garments or articles on which the french seam might be used. why? . what are the important things to remember in turning the hems at the bottom of the nightdresses? lesson protection for the body at night do you know that clothes help to keep us well? mollie stark wishes to know what kind of clothing should be worn at night. what should be done about clothing at night? we have learned that, in order to keep well, we must think about the right kind of clothing as well as food. grown people sometimes forget about this; and growing girls and boys, too. the body must be kept clean; and clothing worn next to it should also be kept clean at night as well as during the day. who can remember how many pints of water the normal body gives off each day? it loses about three pints in hours. can you recall what becomes of this waste? yes, some is evaporated, but some is collected by our clothes; that is why they are soiled as they collect the perspira- tion and excretions, although often they do not look clothing and health soiled. the day garments should be hung up at night in a place where they will air and dry out by morning. they should not be shut up in a closet. different clothing should be worn at night. a muslin night- dress, like those you are making, is usually suitable for six or seven months of the year; but some of us who live in the country or in houses not well heated require warmer clothing at night. old people and babies, as well as sick people, require more clothing be- cause they are not able to resist the cold as easily. do you recall why? what is the normal human body temperature? why is the human body called a machine? if our day clothing collects waste and should be aired at night, what fig. s .-the clothing sh°uld be done with the night cloth- worn during the daying during the day? yes, it should should be aired at i • j tt night be well aired. have you ever no- ticed how the air of a room is spoiled by the odor of night clothing and of bed coverings which have not been properly aired? some people roll up the nightdress and put it under the pillow. that night- dress will not smell sweet and clean at night. clean clothing is absolutely necessary in order to keep well. we shall some day learn how to cleanse clothing prop- erly, by washing. clothing worn next to the body should be changed once a week at least, and twice or making simple garments three times if possible. when one works very hard and the body sends off more waste, clothing should be changed more often. the body which is to wear the clean clothing should be washed every day. it may not be possible to take a tub bath or a swim in the river or lake, but one can bathe all over with a bucket of water and a cloth and soap. it pays, for one feels so fresh; and, then, the waste of the body is removed by the washing, and the pores of the skin are kept in good condition. when our skin is in good condition, we do not feel the cold as much as do those who do not bathe frequently. do you remember that we said our clothing must help to save some of the body heat? that is how clothing protects. why must some heat be saved? we also learned that when our body works very hard much heat is created. where does it go? it is not all saved. why? our clothing helps to prevent the heat of the body from escaping too rapidly. we should plan to wear light clothing in summer and heavier in winter, or to adapt our clothing to the weather. this is only good sense. in summer we have cool days, and in winter warm ones. people whose habits of living keep them indoors a great deal should be clothed lightly for a warm house and, when going out, should protect themselves with extra clothing. the boy or girl who walks to school rapidly does not re- quire as much clothing as one who rides. can you tell why? clothing and health have you heard that several layers of thin clothing are warmer than one thick layer? frank allen says he knows why. yes, because of the layers of air between the thicknesses of clothing. still air does not carry the heat away, so we feel warmer with several layers of still air. clothing helps to keep the layers of air from conducting the heat away too rapidly. porous clothing is always better because air can pass through and can be collected in the meshes. loose wool material is warm because it holds the air between the spaces made by the woolly fibers. some day we shall study the wool fiber as we have the cotton, and find out why it collects air and why woolen clothes shrink. do you think you understand why clothes should be changed at night? can you tell your big brother at home why? mollie stark and jane smith told about this part of the story when they went home from school. mrs. stark had invited some friends in for tea. all enjoyed hearing mollie's story. exercises and problems . why is it important to change one's clothing weekly? . what care should be taken of the clothing worn at night? why? . how do clothes help to keep us well? tell mother or father how. . look in your teacher's book on physiology. what does it say about body temperature; about cleanliness of the skin? . write the story of what you think mollie and jane told about this subject at mrs. stark's tea party. making simple garments . lesson io laces and their use we must finish the sleeves of our nightdresses, and also the neck. shall we use some lace? do you know that there are many kinds of lace? how shall we sew it to the gown? do you know that there are many kinds of lace? the day marjorie allen took the girls to visit her grandmother, they saw many things in the attic. grandmother allen also showed them some old lace and undergarments which were decorated with lovely embroidery. it was all done most evenly with lovely flowers and scalloped edges, and all in white cotton embroidery thread. there were some dainty old laces, too. the girls learned the names of some of them. the sewing league sent for several samples of modern laces of the same names. there were cluny laces like these in the sample box. cluny lace is often quite heavy and is used on heavy materials. the lighter cluny laces are more suitable for underwear. the cluny laces are hand or machine made. which do you think are more expensive? have you ever seen any one make lace by hand? it is sometimes done on a lace pillow with pins to outline the pattern. the little bobbins of thread are thrown around the pins. can you get from the picture (fig. ) an idea of how it is done? torchon lace is also used, but is not quite so heavy as cluny. it is either hand or machine made. both of these are linen laces, but sometimes are imitated in cotton. they are not so clothing and health i imitation cluny inser- tion $. imitation cluny edging. real cluny insertion. real cluny edging german " val" insertion german "val" edging french "val" insertion french "val" edging pig. . — the names and retail prices of a few good laces for underwear. making simple garments fig. . clothing and health pretty when made of cotton. it is better taste to buy of good lace the amount one can afford than to buy a cheap imitation. if one can only pay for a cotton lace, then choose a cotton kind, such as the laces called valenciennes. the girls sent for french valenciennes and also for "german val." lace edging and insertion. what is the difference between an edging and an inser- tion? the german valenciennes laces are somewhat coarser. there are also some samples of irish crochet lace. the real irish handmade crochet is done with a crochet hook, by hand. the imitations are made by machinery. marjorie's grandmother has some real irish crochet and some real old valen- ciennes lace. it is hand- made and must have cost a great deal of money. in grandmother's day machines had not been in- vented for making lace. let us look at the samples which miss james has. the pictures (figs. and ) show some of those used by the pleasant valley girls. which would you like on your gown? the german valenciennes wears well and is not expensive. the machine-made linen cluny or torchon lace is attractive, suitable, and it wears well. why do you think a a -lift. .fig. . — lace being made by hand on pillows with tiny bobbins of thread. making simple garments fine french valenciennes lace does not look well on thick muslin underwear? besides using lace, what are some other ways of finishing a garment? we shall send for our laces and also learn another way to finish neck and sleeves, which will cost less. we can use bias bands of lawn to finish the rough edges. cut them z\ inches wide (see page ), and they will be about one inch finished. the feather stitch added will make a pretty decoration. scallop- ing is easy. the gowns might be finished with the hand scallop around neck and sleeves, if one has the time. we shall learn how to sew on the lace insertion or edging. the girls who use lace may decide to have only the edging. if insertion or beading is used, too, it is sewed on first. while we are waiting for the lace to come, we can prepare the edges of the neck and sleeves. if we use a french fell, the sewing will not show on the right side at all when the lace is entirely in place; besides, only one sewing is necessary for the hem and lace. this is how it is done: . turn to the right side of the garment at both neck and sleeve edges, a hem of § inch. the first turning must, also, be § inch. baste very carefully with small stitches. . turn these hems backward to wrong side and crease so that the edge of the turned hem is exactly at the finished edge of the garment. this is where the lace is to be sewed. we shall learn how to sew on the lace next lesson. h clothing and health exercises and problems . bring to school all the samples of lace you can find at home. with your teacher's help compare and discuss their uses. mount the best samples for an exhibit. . ask your family and friends to show you any old pieces of lace they may have. . consult the encyclopedia or other books, and see if you can learn more about how lace is made. there are several good books all about lace. lesson ii trimming the nightdress a new way to sew on lace by hand, and an inexpensive way to trim the nightdress. did you find it very difficult to turn the narrow hem around the neck of your nightdress? jane smith almost cried; but miss james helped her a little. it is always more difficult to turn a hem on a curved edge than on a straight edge. if the turns have both been made the same width and if the basting stitches are small, there will be no difficulty. after the hems have been turned backwards and creased to the wrong side, we are ready to sew on the insertion. hold the insertion straight with the right side to the right side of the gown, and with the edge of the insertion to the edges of the creased hem. now great care must be taken. the overhanding stitch is to be used. you learned this stitch on the bean bags (page ). in taking the stitch be very careful to put the needle making simple garments through the edge of the hem, the creased edge, and the lace. the sewing will not be neat unless all these edges are caught by this sewing. this is important. if one wishes, it is possible to use only the lace edging without the insertion. sew it to the gown in the same way one would sew it to the insertion. towards the worker hold the lace just a little full. sometimes one can pull the thread at the edge of the lace and use it as a gathering thread ; but, as not much fullness is required, it is very satisfactory to hold the lace a little full with the thumb as one sews. small overhanding stitches will hold the fullness as it is distributed evenly. the right side of the lace is placed towards the right side of the inser- tion so that the two edges of lace and insertion are over- handed together. sometimes, if the neck of a gown is too big and one wishes to make it smaller, tucks can be put in groups at the center front or back, in number according to the amount to be taken up. in calculating for tucks, one must remember that the tuck takes up twice the amount of material as the width of tuck desired, and covers its own width in lying flat. if tucks are used to make the neck size smaller, it will be found more satisfactory to put a narrow facing around the neck before trimming. to seam the ends of lace, make a plain seam on the wrong side. lay it flat, turn under the two edges together, and hem in a narrow hem. a pretty way to finish the edges of neck and sleeves is with bias bands. cut strips as for the pot holder (see ioo clothing and health page ). white, pink, or blue lawn may be used for contrast. cut the bands z\ inches wide. they will look one inch wide finished. place on the right side, right of lawn to right of gown. make \ inch seam and stitch. turn to wrong side. turn under \ inch and hem to wrong side. another way to finish is to baste the band and decorate it with the feath- erstitch to hold the turning. this stitch is a pretty decoration (see page ). it is placed on the right side and at the bottom of the band. it should be made with white cotton em- broidery thread; # d.m.c. cotton is very good for such finishings. the neckband will need a tape or a ribbon to hold the fullness of the band close to the neck. the binding should be started and finished at the front, and the ends of binding should be turned in (fig. ). this will leave an opening where the ribbon can be run in. this is a satisfactory finish and is not expensive. the lawn is or cents a yard; and \ yard will cut enough bands for several girls' gowns. the d.m.c. cotton fig. . — nightdress with sleeves set in, and sleeves and neck finished with bias bands. io clothing and health or a ruffle of lawn decorated with a fancy stitch? which will take longer to prepare? the girls of pleasant valley school decide on a pattern with five gores. what does that mean? would you prefer some other? why is the five-gored pattern a good one for the petticoat? the girls choose cambric for their petticoats. some decide to buy the lawn and to make the ruffle with a simple decoration. in calculating for the ruffle, allow i| times the width of the skirt. this is full enough. the depth of the ruffle is according to de- fig. . — a simple petticoat. sire. it may be from to inches deep. cut it across the warp. can you tell why? others may decide to make a simple ruffle of the same material with a decorated hem; a few may use the hamburg ruffle. which ruffle will you decide to use for your skirt or the bottom of your slip? making simple garments exercises and problems . calculate how much material you will need for your petticoat without the ruffle. . calculate the amount for the ruffle. . how will the patterns help you to make these calculations? lesson learning to make the petticoat the girls of pleasant valley have had so much practice that the petticoat will not be a difficult task. do you think you will find it easy too? mollie stark is delighted to make the petticoat, for she needs one to wear under the new dotted swiss dress that mother made for her birthday. she saw in the "pleasant valley news" that there will be an unusual sale of hamburg edgings; and she thinks she will go to town and see if it is something she can use. miss james told the girls that hamburg edging which is full of holes and in which the pattern is poor and poorly embroidered, is not worth buying. the edge is usually very weak and pulls out after one or two washings. the hamburg edging called "blind embroidery" has no holes and is likely to be firmer. let us study briefly how the petticoats are to be made: . cutout. follow pattern, placing economically. allow extra for hem, if necessary, and one inch for receiving tuck under which the ruffle will be placed. fold pieces left over; they will be needed. clothing and health . pin and baste gores. be careful to match notches—front, then side gore at each side, then back gore at each side of side gore, five in all. pin from top down. baste from bottom up with bias edge towards worker. holding thus prevents stretching. . make french seams by machine. . make hem on bottom. baste a two or three inch hem as planned. stitch. sometimes dust ruffles of the same cloth or of lawn are placed on the bottom of the skirt instead of a hem. they are made about or inches wide and cut across warp of cloth. the skirt is then cut or inches shorter, and the ruffle makes the length by being added at bottom under a tuck f inch wide. this ruffle has inch hem on the bottom edge and is sewed to skirt with a seam on the right side. the tuck is made directly above it and is stitched flat to cover the raw edges. a hem at the bottom is enough, and is suitable for young girls, when a ruffle is to be added above for decoration and fullness. . prepare tuck on skirt for ruffle. measure from bottom of skirt depth of ruffle. at that point make a tuck f inch deep. baste and stitch. this must be same distance from the bottom of skirt all the way around, and on the right side of skirt. it is not always necessary to use a tuck. a bias band can be used instead or a beading to cover the raw edges of the ruffle. . prepare ruffle. this may be of lawn with edge hemmed and decorated with featherstitch, or it may be of hamburg edging or of same material with scalloped edge (see page ). a ruffle of the same material with a simple \ inch hem may also be used. the width of ruffle is half as full again as the width of skirt. the depth can be - inches as desired. divide ruffle in quarters, and gather. . to join ruffle to skirt. divide skirt in quarters. pin quar- tered ruffle in place. draw up gathering threads to fit skirt. wind thread around pins to hold. baste. if a receiving tuck has been made, turn it down over the raw edge of ruffle and baste and stitch on very edge of tuck. if a tuck has not been made, baste making simple garments over the raw edges of ruffle a band of finishing braid or beading or a bias strip of the same cloth as the skirt, f inch wide; stitch on both edges. . to make placket. use straight strip inches wide. start at waist line, right of strip to right of skirt. sew all around placket opening. stitch. turn to wrong side. hem down by hand. lap at bottom of opening so it lies flat. backstitch across the bottom with a slanting line of stitches. this makes a flat back with no fullness and is called a bound placket. . to finish top of skirt. cut bias strip of cloth about one inch wide; sew to right side. turn over to wrong side even with top; turn so as to be \ inch wide finished; stitch on edge, flat. lap skirt in back with three buttonholes, one at waist and two below in placket lap. exercises and problems . calculate how much ruffling of hamburg edging will be needed for a skirt z\ yards around. . get samples of embroidery and pin to the bulletin board, where all the girls may see them. . practice making a receiving tuck. . see if you can plan a section of a dust ruffle for a petticoat. make the skirt part of brown paper with tissue for the ruffle. lesson how to make a corset cover the new problem of corset cover is not difficult, if one has learned all the preceding lessons. let us study how to trim this garment or the waist of a slip. some of the girls of pleasant valley will make com- binations of corset cover and skirt, and others the corset cover (fig. ). they decide to use nainsook and to io clothing and health trim them with german valenciennes lace. about i£ yards of cloth are necessary. they have sent for a simple pattern and will make them partly by hand. miss james gave them the following directions: . to cut. place pattern economically. pin and cut. . baste. pin and baste under-arm seams and shoulders. sew french seams by machine. . make front laps. on left side make hem f inch wide turned to wrong side. on right front make hem turned to right side £ inch wide. stitch this i inch from each edge to form front lap. it could be run by hand if all handmade or featherstitched with tiny stitches. this lap is for the buttonholes, which are made vertically, three or four in the lap. if it is desired to conceal the buttons, make an extra strip for buttonholes and stitch under the right front lap with the stitching of hem. . finish bottom. even the bottom, and make as a finish a narrow hem \ inch wide. . gather at waist line. in center fronts and in middle of center fig. . — a simple corset cover. making simple garments back, gather at the waist line to fit figure. baste on inside of waist over these adjusted gathers a straight band j inch wide, with edges turned. baste and stitch this top and bottom to hold gathers. waist line can, also, be finished, if desired, on right side with beading or with a band. . to finish top of cover and sleeves. make the same finish as for kimono night dress. this is neat and attractive. the top of the corset cover can be gathered to fit the figure, or tiny hand or machine tucks of \ inch in width may be run about three inches deep each side of the front laps, five or six tiny ones being made on each side, according to the amount of fullness to be taken in. the top can be finished with a hamburg beading for ribbon, sewed on with a french seam; and then lace may be overhanded on the edge of it. the finish of the sleeves should correspond to the neck finish. exercises and problems calculate how much beading and lace or lace alone will be necessary to trim a corset cover. draw sketch of how it is to be decorated. review problems i. practice sewing on the machine at home. learn to turn good square corners and to stitch straight. ii. plan to make a slip or some extra garment at home, using the principles and knowledge gained at school, in sewing seams, trimming and making. iii. in what ways are you planning to protect your body at night? how do you ventilate your room? how air your clothes i chapter iii learning to make some attractive gifts for christmas or for a birthday present perhaps you would like to surprise mother or father at christmas time or to make a birthday gift for grand- mother or auntie. all the pleasant valley school girls have made plans for christmas. making gifts is not difficult, if one gives thought and time, and need not be a great expense, if one is careful to use scraps of cloth. look in the attic or in the piece bag to see if there are any scraps of silk. if you are making a gift for mother, i am sure grandmother will help you to find something. giving is much fun when one can make the gift a surprise. grandmother allen and grandmother stark are helping the pleasant valley girls with their surprises. it is not the cost of a gift which counts, but the loving thought which one puts into it. a surprise birthday pudding or cake, a sur- prise apron or work bag, are all things into which we can put loving thought. who said the "gift without the giver is bare "? what does that mean? have making gifts you ever given a gift or received one into which no loving thought had been put? see how much happier you will feel when you give thought, too. the girls of the pleasant valley sewing league think they will make something for their fair. miss james has a box full of samples of silk from a whole- sale house, which were given to her. she says the girls may have them. some of the pieces are very large and can be used for many things. next lesson you might do as they did, and all bring any pieces you may have and see what can be made from them. lesson i the story of how silk is produced do you know that a tiny little worm gives us our silk dresses, hair ribbons, neckties, gloves, stockings, and many other useful things? do you know how the worm makes the silk? it is a very wonderful story. let us study about silk to-day. in the picture (fig. ) you will see one of the silk- worms full-grown. the mother and father were beauti- ful moths. the mother moth lays the little eggs on the leaves of the mulberry tree because they are good food for her baby worms. the sunshine and warmth hatch the little eggs. the eggs are like pin- heads, and are smaller than tiny grains of chopped corn which you feed your chickens. your mother hen sets on the eggs until the warmth makes the chicks grow, but the sunshine starts the tiny moth eggs. making gifts in minor, too. do you think the united states pro- duces very much silk? why not? in the countries named, labor is not so expensive. silkworms require much care and labor. silk is the most beautiful and the strongest of the common fibers. it also costs the most. the silk fiber produced by these tiny worms is often four thousand feet in length. let us learn how the tiny worm does such a won- derful thing. he must work as hard as the busy bee. after the worm is full- grown he begins his busy work. this is like boys and girls ; they, too, begin to work when they are grown. if well fed and clean, the worm will work well. this is apt to be true of girls and boys, too. the worm begins by making a house for himself called a cocoon (fig. ). have you ever seen the cocoons of any moth? if you will look, you will find them on the trees. miss james has some cocoons of the lovely green luna moth. she put the green worm in the box, and it has spun a cocoon. we do not find the mulberry worm growing wild in courtesy of united states department of agriculture. fig. . — the houses or cocoons built by the worms in the branches. ii clothing and health the united states. in some countries it grows wild, just as our luna moth. when the worm is ready to spin, she throws out two tiny little threads one from each side of her head. this is a secretion and is a kind of jellylike fluid. as the air touches it, it hardens. she works her head back and forth, and the tiny filaments, or threads, as they are called, are joined together into one. she works and works until she has built a house of silk threads all glued together so that it seems like a mass of parchment paper. these houses are about inches in length, and are white or yellow in color. in china and japan these cocoons are grown and tended very carefully. the outside of the cocoon is cov- ered with the loose fluffy silk which the worm uses to attach his home to a leaf or twig. it takes the worm three weeks to make this long, continuous thread called a cocoon. during that time a wonderful thing happens. the worm inside the cocoon is changed to a moth like her mother and father and is ready to leave her home by eating her way out. what would happen to the long silk thread if she did that? yes, it would be broken into small pieces and not be one continuous piece. some moths are permitted to come out (see fig. ). they then find a mate and soon more tiny eggs are laid by the mother moth; and all the story begins again. a sad thing happens when cocoons are grown for the silk. the moths are not allowed to come out making gifts and break the thread; but are put in a very hot place so they die inside. the cocoons are then ready to be reeled or wound off. they are placed in basins of hot water because the gummy secretion of the worm must be softened. the ends from four or five cocoons are caught together and reeled, or wound, off together. this makes a strand of raw silk. john alden told the following story. he said his courtesy of corticelli silk co. copyright, , by nonotuck silk co. fig. . — corticelli cocoons from which the moths have emerged. father read it aloud the night before when the family gathered about the big open fire. once upon a time, long ago, people did not know how to use the beautiful fibers of the silkworm. we are told that a chinese empress discovered how to use it as long ago as years before the birth of christ. every year, in april, the chinese people have a celebration in her honor, because of her valuable discovery. think of all the riches she added to her country because of this secret. ii clothing and health it is said that for many years this secret was kept; but later some monks traveling east to india and constantinople told others how to reel the silk fiber. then the use of silk fiber spread to greece and italy and spain, and by the fourteenth century was common courtesy of united states department of agriculture. fig. . — silk reeling. the cocoons are in the basins before the women. in france. since then, silk manufacture has grown rapidly in importance. john traced the journey on the map. will you see if you can trace this journey of silk manufacture. where do you think the secret was carried from france? can you send for some cocoons and raw silk? your teacher will tell you where to write. raw silk, making gifts " as it is wound from cocoons, is made up into hanks like the worsted which you buy at the store. it is sold in hanks by the pound and costs from # . to # . a pound. it takes three thousand silkworms to spin a pound of raw silk. do you know that for grandmother's dress about two pounds of raw silk were necessary? can you tell how many worms were kept busy? in another lesson we shall learn how the manufacturer of silk ribbons or silk material takes the raw silk and makes it into beautiful fabrics. now we know about a useful little animal as well as about a plant which gives us clothing. silk, however, is more expensive than cotton. cotton is sometimes made to look like silk. the cotton fiber is mercerized, which means soaked in certain chemicals and stretched to make it look silky. lisle thread looks somewhat like silk. it is cotton twisted hard to give it a luster. another day we shall learn more about these. exercises and problems . do you know where silk is grown? write a story of words telling about it. . why is not more silk grown in the united states? . find on your map of the world the principal countries where silk is grown. . name some articles made of silk which you use every day; which you see used. . what are some of the other uses which we have for silk? n clothing and health lesson simple articles easily made from silk scraps there are so many things which can be made from silks. sup- pose you start with something easy. miss james had some good suggestions. the little pin-case or the sewing-case are both useful (figs. and ). you know the overhanding stitch; so you can make them quickly. several of the pleasant valley girls will make them for christmas gifts as well as for the fair. which will you make? here are the directions for making both the pin-case and the sewing-case. they are not difficult if the directions are followed carefully. for the pin-case. cut two circles of stiff cardboard from to inches in diameter, if your silk pieces will permit. the circles must be exact. cut two pieces of silk or inches in diameter, so the silk pieces will be \ inch larger all around than the card- board, j inch from the edge, with double thread, make a row of gathering stitches; slip cardboard within and draw up the silk around the card. now crisscross with your thread through the edges of material until all is held firmly (fig. ). cover both cards. then hold the two together, and very neatly overhand with silk thread of a color to match. tiny stitches should be taken. put in a row of pins around the edges close together. a pretty decoration can be made by working a design or an initial on the silk if it is a plain color. this can be done with chain stitch or featherstitch, before the cover is put over the cardboard. fig. . — this shows how to cover the circle, and draw the silk neatly at the edges. making gifts happy to think mollie is learning how to sew. these are the directions for making several pretty stitches: the chain stitch is easy to learn. begin with a knot. pass the thread from the under side up. throw the thread so as to make an o (see fig. ). put the needle into the hole where thread came through, and make a stitch about i inch long. hold the cloth over the fingers with the thumb on top. the needle should be pointed towards the worker, and the point of the needle should be brought up through the little round o. care must be taken in pulling the thread through to have the loop of thread lying flat on the cloth. the length of stitch should be uniform. what does uni- form mean? the outline of an ini- tial or any drawn design can be followed with this stitch. the featherstitch is very beautiful when made small and even (fig. ). it can be varied by making one or two stitches on each side of a center line. the length of the stitches and the slant always affect the appearance. in practicing the featherstitch draw a pencil line on your cloth as a guide. the stitches are slanting and are taken towards this line. this stitch is used for decoration in the same way as the chain stitch. the single featherstitch. hold the work over the finger with fig. . —the chain stitch. clothing and health thumb on top of cloth. work towards you. start with knot on under side of pencil line. draw thread through to right side. lay thread on the pencil line and hold with thumb. to right of a b fig. .— a, the single featherstitch; b, the double featherstitch. thread near beginning, take a small § inch slanting stitch towards the line of thread. draw needle through over the loop of thread. have it loose and lying flat. for the second stitch, hold thread again on the pencil mark. throw thread for next stitch on the making gifts f left of the line. take slanting stitch towards center line. draw needle up through the loop, which should lie flat. the next stitch is taken to the right of the center line directly under the stitch above it, and should be the same length and slant. the beauty of this stitch depends on its evenness. a striped material makes a good prac- tice piece. after the stitch is learned, it is easy to make it on plain cloth; but one must then keep constantly in mind an imaginary center line. this is a very useful stitch for finish- ing hems instead of using the hem- ming stitch. the lawn ruffles on our petticoats were finished with this stitch. the featherstitch is sometimes a straight stitch instead of slanting. it is taken each side of the imaginary center line as the slanting one, but the needle is held straight. the outline stitch. this is another easy stitch (fig. ) which every girl should learn. it can be used instead of the chain or featherstitch, as deco- ration. it outlines, or follows, the design, and so gets its name. the stitch is taken on the line and is worked from left to right. care must be taken to have the stitches all the same length and to throw the thread in one direction either away from or towards the worker. the pretty effect will be spoiled if there is a variation. away from the worker makes a neat effect. begin with knot. draw needle to right side on the line. throw ^ j fig. . — the outline stitch. clothing and health thread away from worker; take a small back stitch on the line, needle pointing towards the worker. this will make a long thread on the surface and the short stitch beneath. the effect is much prettier when the stitches are taken close together. exercises and problems . name some other articles on which the featherstitch or chain stitch can be used; some on which the outline stitch may be used. . draw a picture on the blackboard of the featherstitch, chain stitch, and outline stitch. can you show how the needle looks in position, without looking at your textbook? lesson the names and uses of several silks are discussed to-day we shall study again about silks. let us look at those in miss james' piece bag; and, also, see how many different kinds we have for our gifts. perhaps your teacher has some too. such a variety of kinds and colors! some are soft and light, and others are heavy and stiff. do they have names just as the cotton materials? can any one tell the names of any of these silks? yes, the plain one is a taffeta. it is plain in color; and the weave is plain, the same on both sides. some- times it comes with printed and woven figures. what is the difference between a woven and a printed design? here is a piece with a printed design. it is a foulard silk. how does this design differ from the taffeta with the design? foulard silk is used for dresses. i clothing and health per yard, if very beautiful, and are woven from to inches wide. satin is sometimes made of a combination of linen or cotton, with the silk. it is then less ex- pensive. the woof, or filling thread, which gives the smooth finish is silk; and it is that which shows in the fin- ished cloth. this piece of silk, which looks figured like table linen, only it is made of silk, is called a brocaded satin. this satin is used for dresses and trimmings, and often for furniture covering and for hangings in beauti- ful rooms. it is made on a loom called a jacquard. table damask is made on the same kind of loom. this wonderful loom (fig. ) is able to produce very beau- tiful patterns, because of the management of the courtesy of crompton and knowles. fig. . — the jacquard loom. notice the cards with punched holes above it. they affect the pattern. can you find the cloth which is being woven? making gifts perforated cards above the loom which affect the pattern. the soft white piece is china silk. little alice allen had a dress made of it last summer. it is a plain weave, and many of such silks are still woven by hand in china. it is very durable and is used for dresses, waists, and underwear. it costs $i for a fairly good quality, and is woven inches wide this piece of silk, also, originated in china. it is called pongee. mary jones had a coat of this last year. it is ecru in color and is soft. the real chinese pongee is hand-woven and is made from the silk of wild silk- worms. it is woven inches wide and costs # per yard up. this piece was # . per yard. this is a queer-looking piece. it is marked in a watery pattern. the silk has been pressed between hot rollers which are stamped with a pattern to give that effect. it is called moire silk, and is used for trimmings and dresses. it is quite expensive. a good piece will cost at least $ per yard and is inches in width. we shall learn about two more of the most common silk materials. one is thick, and the other is thin. the thin piece is called chiffon. who has ever seen it used? yes, for veils. it is used for dresses, too, and for hats and trimmings. isn't it light and thin and gauzy? it is made in plain colors generally; sometimes figured. it is inches wide and costs from #. to $ per yard. yes, every one knows this one! it is called velvet. this piece is all silk, and was a part of marjorie's clothing and health great-grandmother's dress. some velvets are made of linen and silk, or of cotton and silk. all silk velvet is very expensive. it often costs # a yard and more. some silk velvet can be bought for # or # a yard. it is woven from to inches wide. isn't it thick? do you notice the tiny ends standing up? it is woven just like some carpet, and the thickness is called the pile. in weaving, little loops of the filling thread are made, and after weaving, these are cut to form the pile. such weaving looks very difficult. the warp is some- times linen or cotton. this other thick piece with a pile is called plush. it has a longer pile than velvet. there are also cotton plushes. did your mother ever have a winter coat of plush? mrs. alden had one which lasted for years. let us mount our silk samples. another day we shall study how they are woven from the raw silk. isn't it interesting to feel acquainted with this new family of materials? notice before next lesson how many things you see which are made of silk. have you any in your schoolroom? exercises and problems . bring to school all the samples of different kinds of silks which you can collect. can you tell their names? . name an expensive silk suitable for a dress, and give its approximate cost. name an inexpensive silk suitable for a sum- mer dress; give its approximate cost. . what is plush used for? what is chiffon made of? . start a book of silk samples. making gifts lesson more useful gifts and how to make them two more useful gifts: a workbag of silk, and a sewing apron. which will you chose to make? the workbag. barbara oakes has a very com- plete little workbag (fig. ) which grandmother made for her last christmas. the girls think they would like to copy it. fig. . — a, a very useful bag. b, the sewing apron. it is made of a piece of yellow flowered ribbon which was inches wide; \ a yard is enough. if you have scraps of silk, use a strip inches wide x inches long. with the other inches, if ribbon is used, the cir- cular disks for the bottom are to be covered. to make: . cut two circles of cardboard inches in diameter. cut the silk for covering four inches in diameter. cover in the same way as you covered the pin disk. this is the bottom of the bag. . seam the two ends of the inch strip together with two runs and backstitch (see page ). open seams flat. turn along one long edge, \ inch if selvedge of ribbon; if silk, make two turns: first § inch, second \ inch. baste and hold with feather- stitch (see page ), or cross-stitch (see page ) at seam of bag making gifts . turn f inch hem to right side of apron at the lengthwise edges of cloth; baste carefully. . at one cross wise end turn, hem ij inches wide to right side. baste and hem with featherstitching on the reverse or wrong side. fig. . — four useful aprons. . turn up at bottom inches to form pocket, so featherstitch- ing will be on the upper or right side. baste and overhand edges the depth of pocket. . featherstitch side hems, catching the pocket to hold securely. . divide large pocket in three by making two rows of feather- stitching like picture. clothing and health . put on band. divide gathered top of apron. divide band. allow band to extend each side of gathers. a space of inches in center of band is enough to contain the gathers. put on as you put on the band of petticoat, but overhand edges of the band extending beyond gathers. . a buttonhole and button can be used to finish, or ribbon may be sewed to ends of band. this makes a very useful gift. a fig. . — two cases on which the featherstitch can be used. a, needle case and bag. b, linen traveling case for overshoes. look at the sketches (fig. ) of other aprons: a is made from a square of figured lawn; \ yard is enough. it is shaped at one corner for a bib. a hem is turned at the edge and featherstitched. a few small tucks make it fit the waist, and ribbon trims it. making gifts b is made from f of a yard of lawn, as shown in the diagram. place pattern economically. c is made of a width of lawn or silk with a hem at the bottom and casing at the top. d is made of glass toweling trimmed with finishing braid and featherstitching. figure shows some useful cases with decorations of featherstitch. exercises and problems . plan a gift and surprise mother at her birthday anniversary. your teacher will help you. . see if you can plan an original gift. draw a sketch of it. . bring all the suggestions for gifts you can find in clippings from old magazines. lesson cousin ann tells how silk is made into cloth last summer marjorie allen's cousin ann visited her. she lives at paterson, new jersey, where there are many silk mills. she told the girls of the sewing league about the way silk is made into cloth. shall we too learn how? where is silk manufactured? we know that very little silk is grown in the united states; but we also know that our country leads in the manufacture of silks and uses more raw silk than any other country in the world. france is next and produces very beauti- ful materials. most of our silk factories are in the east: in new jersey, connecticut, new york, and pennsylvania. people have tried to raise silkworms clothing and health here. in some frenchmen living in virginia tried, but were not very successful. such experiments have usually failed because it costs so much for labor. in the governor of connecticut wore a coat and stockings made of silk produced on his place. we use about per cent of the silk manufactured here. what per cent is, then, exported? in , at the great centennial exhibition in philadelphia, marjorie's grandmother saw wonder- ful exhibits of silk woven in many colors, and even beautiful woven pictures of silk. has any one ever seen a woven picture of silk? have you ever seen one tiny fiber of silk as it looks under the micro- scope? what do you notice? this is what marjorie's cousin from paterson told the girls. they went to one room at the mill where there were great bales of silk, weighing about or pounds, but not quite so heavy or large as a bale of cotton. when opened there were many hanks in each bale; tied up, five or ten in a bundle. these hanks were taken first to a man called a throwster. silk throwing means soaking the skeins to remove more of the gum, and winding the silk from the skein to a fig. . — silk fibers magnified. making gifts spool. this is done by soaking in warm water, drying, and then placing the silk on swifts, or reels. have you ever seen a reel for winding? (see fig. .) it holds the skein of silk. the ends are taken, and the machine unwinds from the skein and winds the silk on spools. in one skein there are from , to , yards of silk. the spools are then placed in a machine which cleans and twists two of these spool threads to- gether to form one, and then winds it off on new spools. this twisted silk is called "organzine." isn't that a queer name? it means the thread used in a loom for the warp or strong threads. why are twisted threads stronger? try, and see if they are. silk is a most perfect fiber; and does not have to be prepared as much as cotton or wool. sometimes it is twisted a very little for the warp. the filling thread has a queer name, too. it is called the " tram," and need not be of so good a quality of silk as the strong warp, nor so tightly twisted. cotton spinning is dif- ferent from silk throwing; but both mean getting the fibers ready for weaving. there are many beautiful colored silks. silk is usually dyed (fig. ) in the yarn in hanks. the poor fig. courtesy of cheney bros. . — silk winding. making gifts he makes up for the weight of gum boiled out, by using tin. the silk is dipped in bichloride of tin or other substances; and it takes up, or absorbs, until sometimes it weighs twice or even four times as much as the boiled-off silks. this tin is bought for silk. women who do not know think they are buying heavy silk and are getting a good quality because it is so heavy. this solution of tin rots the silk, and, when the silk comes in contact with light and air, it crumbles away. perhaps you have at home a sam- ple of silk which has done this. marjorie's cousin ann saw some petticoats of silk which went to pieces just hanging in a closet. sometimes that happens when store keep- ers keep the petticoats for some time. one can see the holes by holding the silk up to the light. in order to know what one is buying one must study about materials and about how they are made. have you ever seen a picture of silk being dyed in the skein? marjorie's cousin says it is done by ma- chinery. see how many skeins are on the big wheel, or drum as it is called. as it turns, the skeins are dipped in the vat of dye. ' m; « ,courtesy of cheney bros. fig. . — warping or preparing silk for the loom. clothing and health after the warp threads are twisted and wound on spools, the workman places the spools in racks (see fig. ). they are then unwound again on to a very large roller, as you can see in the picture. the large courtesy of cheney bros.fig. . — silk weaving on a hand loom in japan. roller is then put into the back of the loom, and the warp threads are drawn through and prepared so they are attached to the roller where the cloth is to be rolled after it is woven. do you remember how we found the cloth and the warp rollers when we were studying clothing and health . if there is a silk mill in your neighborhood, plan to visit it with your teacher. . look up the story of jacquard, the inventor of the loom devices for making beautiful patterns. lesson the blanket stitch can be used in many ways did you ever hear of a stitch called the blanket stitch? it is very useful for decoration. we can make some attractive gifts if we know how to make it. would you like to try to-day? did you ever notice how pretty some verandas look in summer time? mrs stark of pleasant valley fig. . — the blanket stitch. has a very attractive, cosy porch. yours can look pretty, too, if you will give thought and a little time to it. you can plant some pretty vines as the girls did at the ellen h. richards house. the cucumber making gifts grows wild and can be transplanted. perhaps in the attic you can find an old table, which will do to hold your sewing things. can you make a cover for it? perhaps you can make a porch cushion, too. the blanket stitch (fig. ) will be useful for both. did you ever see a material called russian crash? it is made in russia, of coarse linen, and is often woven in the fields. it is not very wide, or inches only. it is light brown in color. if you cannot get the crash, perhaps you have some grain or feed bags which will do. you can dip them in coffee to stain them light brown, as marjorie allen did when she made a cover for the porch table. a piece ^ yards long and from to inches wide will make a good-sized table runner to throw over the old table on the porch. if you use the old bags and the edges are not selvedges, turn them with one turning ^ inch wide all around the edges, and baste. how can you finish the edge of a table runner? you can make the blanket stitch close together around the edge. a heavy mercerized cotton thread can be used for the stitch, and will look well if it is brown in color to harmonize with the linen or bag. the blanket stitch is used generally for blanket edges which are not hemmed. it is a stitch to prevent material from fraying, and is taken on the edge of material. when the cloth is not very heavy, one turning can be made to give firmness to the edge. this is not necessary on blankets or on heavy materials. the stitch is worked making gifts fully. this makes a kind of envelope and it can be filled later with a cushion of bran or excelsior or feathers. fold so that the overlapping of hems comes about inches from one end of the cushion. after folding and pinning, baste carefully through the two thicknesses of material. work the blanket stitch all around four sides with the heavy brown linen or cotton thread. use the same block pat- tern as for the table cover. the cushion is kept closed with three or four snaps sewed on the hems. these cushions can be made any size for hammock or for porch use. mrs. stark liked mollie's so well that she made a whole set for her porch, and used old bags for this purpose. can you think of any pretty articles to make for the fair or for surprise gifts on which the blanket stitch can be used? have you ever scalloped the edges of doilies with plain scallop? the white linen can be cut in circles to fit the size of the plates and the edge marked in scallops by using a spool. the stitch is exactly the same, but the stitches are taken very close together and cover the two lines of the marked scallop which indicate the depth. doilies are very useful instead of a tablecloth. they are easily laundered fig. . — the porch cushion, showing the blanket stitch in block pattern, and the opening near one end. clothing and health and save the heavy washing. a bare wooden table which is kept clean and oiled is very attractive when set with doilies. (see food and health, page ). can you make a set sometime as a surprise for mother's christmas gift? fig. . — blanket stitch made close together for a scalloped edge. pincushion tops, bureau covers, table covers, tray covers, centerpieces, can all be made with this useful stitch. exercises and problems . draw a picture on the blackboard of the blanket stitch. . bring to school some article on which the blanket stitch is used in some way. have an exhibit of all the articles brought. lesson learning to make the cross-stitch did your grandmother ever tell you how she learned to sew when she was a girl? have you seen her sewing sampler? shall we learn the stitch she used on her sampler? clothing and health the samplers was usually the cross-stitch (fig. ). would you like to learn to make it, too? it is a decorative stitch and is often used for marking linen. grandmother and great-grandmother used to mark their sheets, pillowcases, and other household linens with tiny initials of cross-stitch. it is possible, also, to make quaint designs of the same stitch. perhaps you would like to learn to make such a pattern. it is a b fig. . — cross-stitch designs can be easily made on squared paper. a, initials for towel; b, design for repetition on table cover or scarf. necessary to have squared paper and to make the crosses conform to the figures or initials wished. the picture (fig. ) shows how to make the crosses fit the squares. will you try to make a design for the cross-stitch? as the design is made on the squares, it is necessary to use squared canvas called penelope canvas in work- ing this cross-stitch. the canvas is basted in place and the stitches made over the squares of the canvas, following the design of the pattern. there are some making gifts coarse materials which can be followed without using canvas. the canvas is woven so loosely that after the cross-stitch design is finished, the threads are drawn out. how to make the stitch: baste the canvas carefully so that the warp of the canvas lies on the warp of the cloth. the canvas comes in several sizes, some finer than others, and this makes a difference in the size of the design when finished. the stitch consists of two slanting lines crossed. on the wrong side all the stitches may | | | | | | | |be either vertical or hori- zontal, but should beone or the other. do you know the difference? the canvas is so woven , , , fig. .—the cross-stitch. that one makes the cross over two threads high and two wide. bring needle up to right side at lower left corner of the square that the stitch would form if inclosed (fig. ). pass thread slanting across warp threads, and take stitch on line with warp, pointing needle towards the worker. when thread is drawn through, a slanting line of half the cross is made. this can be repeated across a whole row according to design, and the cross finished by returning from right to left with the same vertical stitches. it is necessary to have all the stitches of the design crossing one way: the ground stitches, or first half, one way; the other half, or upper stitches, all the other. clothing and health what pretty gifts can be made from the cross- stitch? towels hemstitched across the ends and marked with cross-stitch make attractive gifts for mother or grandmother. a pretty set for a baby is made by marking bath towel, face towel, and wash cloths with a pretty wreath design with baby's initial. bureau covers, table scarfs, pincushions can be made. here is a picture (fig. ) of a simple hand towel with cross-stitch initials. the towel is made of huckaback, all linen. you remember it can be bought in all cot- ton, too, or a combina- tion. which is more expensive? the width varies. the picture shows a small guest towel inches wide. it is easy to learn to hemstitch linen. shall we try next lesson? the picture (fig. ) shows fancy hemstitching and drawn work. we shall learn the plain hemstitching. fig. - a guest towel marked with cross-stitch. exercises and problems . if any one in your town has an old sampler, try to get it for a loan exhibit, while the girls are making their cross-stitching. clothing and health hem just exactly as plain hemming is started (fig. ). throw thread away from the worker; take up a bundle of the threads by passing the needle under them and pointing it towards the worker along the edge of the hem. again pass the needle under the same bundle of threads, but this time pass the needle through the under cloth and also through the edge of the turned hem, just beyond the bundle. this stitch should come between two bundlesof thread. make the next stitch by taking up a second bundle of threads. at first, one should count the num- ber of threads so as to have the bundles uni- form; but with practice this is not necessary. as a rule, the coarser the material, the fewer the number of threads taken up. this is a simple way of hemstitching. thereareother ways. double hemstitching means to hemstitch the other side opposite the hem, by taking up the same bundles. marjorie allen made grandmother allen a lovely hem- stitched towel for christmas. she was very much fig. . — the hemstitch. making gifts surprised and delighted to have some of marjorie's own work. marjorie tied it up very daintily in white tissue paper and used some christmas seals to hold it fast. exercises and problems i. now that you know the hemstitch, you can use it in many places. can you tell how it differs from the hemming stitch? . think of some useful things on which this stitch can be made besides those mentioned below: — collars cuffs bags covers handkerchiefs doilies lesson another useful gift and a new stitch have you ever noticed how convenient it is to have a place for the clothespins, on wash day? would you like to learn to make a clothespin bag? how to make another gift. a very useful clothes- pin bag (fig. ) for mother can be easily made with a hammock hook and some ticking. mrs. allen says she cannot keep house without hers. did you learn about ticking when you studied cotton materials? pillow covers and mattresses are made of it, as it is heavy and strong and wears very well. put a piece in your cotton sample book. it is woven inches wide and costs from i § cents up. notice the weave. it is twilled or striped or herringbone weave. iso clothing and health denim or any heavy material can be used. a square piece is necessary, x inches. hem. first turning, j inch; second turning, one inch. stitch on machine. miter the corners. the corners are to be sewed securely with heavy linen thread to the four corners of the hammock hook (fig. ). the hook is hung on the clothesline, and it is very easy and handy to push along as the clothes are hung up. ifonewishes, the bag can be decorated with a catch stitch. how to make the catch stitch or herringbonestitch. this stitch can be used for decoration or for catching the edges of a seam or hem. grandmother allen used to use it on her own flannel petticoats and on baby alice's flannel skirts. after fig. . - the clothespin bag. the plain seam is made, it is opened flat and the edges are caught with the loose catch stitch. it is really a flannel stitch, because, as the flannel may shrink a little, the stitch allows for this, and holds the hem flat. flannel hems do not have the first turning as it is so thick. the catch stitch is then used to hold the hem. can you bring one of baby's petticoats to show the class how it looks? making gifts the same stitch is used for decoration too. we shall use it for that purpose on the clothespin bag, before we sew the corners to the hook. the stitch is made from left to right. we can use the machine stitching for a guide. we shall use the stitch on the right side. it resembles cross-stitch. it is really a series of back stitches placed alternately above and below the guide line. the spaces between stitches yww^^ fig. . — the catch stitch. should be the same and the stitches below the guide line opposite the spaces above (fig. ). this causes the thread to slant and makes the cross, as it is worked from left to right. to start, draw needle to right side about ^ inch below the line of machine stitch. the first back stitch is taken £ inch above the machine stitching. this will make the slanting line, as the stitch is \ inch beyond the starting place. the second stitch is taken below the line; and the direc- tions as above are followed so that stitches come making gifts is ing stitch will be used as a background to make the initials stand out. it is a fine running stitch. any design can be made to stand out by arranging the darning back of the out- lined design. the note- books will be covered so that the covers may slip off. this is done by over- handing the edges and slipping the cover of the book into the pocket formed by the overhand- ing. the cover is all in one : a straight piece folded back inside the cover of book and overhanded at the folds, to hold the book. the picture (fig. ) of baby's bib also shows the use of the darning stitch to make a design stand out. this is a bib used by little alice allen. marjorie made it for her, when she was two years old and had a birthday party. exercises and problems . make a design for your notebook cover. . calculate size of piece of material needed, if both covers are x . allow inch turnings all around. . try to plan a design with a background of darning stitches. perhaps you can use it on a christmas gift for brother. fig. .—the darning stitch makes the design of the rabbits stand out. chapter iv the pleasant valley girls learn to care for their clothes and to help repair the household linen. have you ever noticed that some houses where you visit are always neat and look well cared for, and that the towels and table linen are carefully darned or patched? have you seen what a difference there is in the appearance of the people who do not care for their houses and clothing, and those who do? the latter are apt to wear neat-looking shirt waists, to patch the worn places and darn the holes before they are too large, and to sew on the buttons before they are lost. the little word c-a-r-e is reponsible for the difference. have you learned to help at home to repair and care for the clothing and household linens ?" a stitch in time saves nine." it often saves money and time, too. do you know why? learn how. the pleasant valley girls learned to darn and patch and occasionally miss james had a "repair day," when all were permitted to bring their mending. can you do this at your school? clothing and health lesson i care of clothes what are some of the things to learn in order to care for one's clothes? marjorie allen's cousin ann, who lives at paterson, new jersey, spends her summer vacation with marjorie at pleasant valley. marjorie knows that she earns ten dollars a week at the office and pays all her own ex- penses. she always looks very neat and well dressed. what is the secret? she has learned how to spend wisely and how to care for her clothing. she learned much of this at school, and experience has taught her how to manage. suppose we learn, too, so as to be able to care for our clothes. here are some of the things marjorie's cousin learned: if well brushed, lookfig. . — ethel allen re- members about the les- son on neatness. she is removing a spot. . that clothes, better. . a well-pressed suit or skirt lasts longer and looks neater. . stains or spots spoil one's neat appearance and look careless. . a patch or a darn is no disgrace. they make one feel more self-respecting than holes or tears. they help to increase the life of a garment, too, if taken in time. . that being careful each day saves much time; a little care is worth while. clothing and health and press dry. woolen goods will mark or shine if pressed on the right side without a cloth. this press- ing will add to the life of a suit. good press boards, tailors' cushions, and sleeve boards help very much if one has them. it is always wise to examine clothes before pressing and to remove any spots which have accumulated. grease, milk, oil, sugar are common spots which girls are apt to get on their woolen clothing. the pleasant valley girls studied how to remove these. removing stains and spots. woolen goods which are soiled and badly spotted can be cleaned by washing in warm water with soap solution or soap bark. here are some recipes for making soap solution or soap bark: soap solution. simmer (do not boil) one cake of white soap in two or three quarts of water. soap bark. i cup of soap bark or powder in three or four quarts of water. let it stand two hours. strain and pour into the lukewarm water in which the material is to be washed. why is lukewarm water used? wash and rinse carefully. always use water of same temperature for rinsing. what would the shock of cold water do? bath temperature is about right. all woolen garments should be washed and rinsed carefully in lukewarm water only. some day we shall try at school. good pure white soap is best for woolens. why do woolens shrink in hot water? why are they difficult to cleanse? let us examine the school coats to see if we can find caring for clothes grease. as a rule grease spots can be removed by washing with soap solution and lukewarm water. wagon grease can be removed with lard; then wash in warm water. grease may also be removed by dry cleaning, or chemical cleaning as it is called. the clean- ing liquid may be benzine or ether. this is a warning: d-a-n-g-e-r. these must not be used near fire or an explosion will occur. a bad accident occurred at pleasant valley in just this way when mrs. leroy was cleaning her white gloves. rub the spot on the wool garment with a cloth or sponge wet with benzine. the grease or fat spreads when dissolved; a piece of blotting paper under will help to absorb some of the grease. care must be taken to use fresh benzine as each rub removes some of the fat, which will spread if rubbed in again. it is usually wise to use as a sponge a piece of the same material. rub towards the center so as to avoid a ring. the spot cleaned will usually be lighter than the rest of the garment, which is apt to be soiled. sometimes by rubbing the surface near the spot all over, the ring will not be noticeable. another way to remove grease is to try a warm iron and a blotting paper. place paper on right side, iron on the wrong side of the cloth. this will remove some grease spots, as the blotter absorbs it. marjorie allen discovered that sugar spots can be removed with warm water. dip cloth in water and wash thoroughly and rinse before pressing. what does the warm water do to the sugar? caring for clothes protecting clothes. marjorie's cousin takes good care of her clothing while it is in use. when she works about the house she always wears an apron. do you? this saves a great deal. you know how to make some attrac- tive ones. when she removes her clothing it is not thrown in a heap, but is hung up on skirt or coat hangers. they are very cheap or one can make them. barrel staves or even rolls of newspaper, rolled securely and covered may be used as coat hangers, a cord or ribbon may be tied at the center. nails between two points in a closet will keep the bands of skirts ex- tended, when loops are sewed to the bands. marjorie's cousin al- ways airs her clothes at night (fig. ), and when necessary washes her shields and hangs them up to dry. many girls do not realize how necessary this is. the odor of perspiration is not neat and is offensive to others. if one washes one's self carefully with warm water in which borax has been dissolved this odor will not be noticeable. marjorie noticed that her cousin has covers over her good clothes (fig. ). this saves a great deal. also she is particular about sewing buttons on her fig. .— a useful cover to protect your best dress. clothing and health shoes, and braid on her skirt when it is torn. she also washes the yokes of her dresses and sometimes her own shirt waists. she is going to teach marjorie to do this. some day we shall learn at school. do you know that marjorie discovered that the people at the summer boarding houses near have difficulty in having their dainty shirt waists carefully laundered. she is going to practice during the winter and next summer she will earn some money in that way. it is a good idea. perhaps some day she may have a laundry of her own, if she is a good manager and can have help to work with her. cousin ann told marjorie that each winter she is par- ticular about buying a pair of rubbers. she finds they save her shoes because they prevent the dampness and wet from rotting the thread of the shoes. she is particular about having her heels straight. cousin ann believes that many girls lose good positions because they are not clean and neat about their personal appearance. run over heels are not neat. ann is careful about having her shoes resoled when necessary, and so lengthens their life. she wears an old fig. . — cousin ann thinks about these things. caring for clothes pair of shoes on rainy days with her rubbers. ann knows that wet feet are dangerous. one may not feel the results at once, but sometime the effect on health will be felt. next lesson let us learn how to keep our clothing darned. you may bring any garment or towel or other piece of household linen which has a tear, and we shall learn to darn it. exercises and problems . carry some of your clothes to the back yard. brush them, and hang them in the sunshine. . try at home to press your wool skirt. steam it; it is not difficult to do. . do you know of any other way besides those cousin ann tried, of keeping your clothes clean so as to prevent them from getting spotted? . do you not think that knowing how to launder shirt waists carefully would be a good way to earn money when the summer boarders come to your town? lesson learning to darn straight tears what threads of the cloth are torn, in a square tear ? in a straight tear? how can we replace these threads and prevent the article from tearing further? there is always a collection of garments needing repairs in any home where there are boys and girls. clothing and health what a help it will be to mother to have some one who can darn some of the tears. mrs. alden was very v^tvj^vluu' c~r cz- rr: t::z err, cvj c.-j c.zi izzt llzt fig. . — these tears run in different directions. which kind of a tear will you have to darn in your dress? glad that florence was learning to darn, for she has so many things to patch and darn for her family. how many different kinds of tears have been brought to-day? clothing and health t stretching and pulling in washing. in passing over the threads at the torn place, try to make the stitches hold down the threads. in finishing extend the rows beyond the tear as at the beginning. either a warp or woof straight tear is mended in this way. a square tear is a combination of the two. at the corner there will then be both warp and filling threads and a double darn like a weave. can you see from the picture how this will look? the thread should match as nearly as possible. sometimes horsehair or human hair makes a good darning thread when one does not wish the darn to show, or split silk thread or no. cotton. ravelings of the same cloth are sometimes used. the size of the needle will depend on the fineness of the cloth to be darned. no. is right for ordinary darning. where can you use this darn? is it the same as stocking darn? next lesson every one is to bring from home a stocking, white, brown, or black. can you mend one at school to surprise mother or father or brother? the pleasant valley girls did. mr. allen said marjorie darned his socks so well that he couldn't even feel the darn when he walked! exercises and problems . show mother how you can mend a straight tear by mending one for her at home. perhaps there is a straight tear in her dress, or in a towel or napkin. . why is it worth while to mend it? caring for clothes lesson darning stockings we all have stockings to darn each week as they come from the laundry. do you mend the small holes at once, or let them grow larger? it is always a saving of time and energy to take care of the small holes; small ones grow to be larger ones if one is not careful. it pays to mend at once. we will learn how to mend stockings. stocking darning differs from darning the straight or the square tear, because, as a rule, there is a hole in the stock- ing. the stocking material is worn away, and it is necessary to replace it with a small piece of weaving over and under of warp and filling. a patch or extra piece of material might be placed under the hole, but that would be uncomfortable; so a woven piece is put in. the stocking is made of knitted mate- rial called stockinet, not of woven cloth. how do they differ? can you think of other articles of cloth- ing made of knitted material? yes, mittens, sweaters, caps, under- wear. have you ever seen a knit- ting machine? here is a picture (fig. ) of one show- ing how the stocking is knitted in the factory to-day courtesy of h. brinton co. fig. . — the knitting ma- chine. caps, stockings, and underwear are made on similar machines. clothing and health on the knitting machines. in weaving there are two threads. what are they? in knitting there is only one thread; just like grandmother's knitting of the stocking round and round as the tiny loops are formed. have you ever torn your stocking in a loop and had it run right down the whole leg of the stocking? bar- bara oakes had this experience. that shows how the tiny loops are made. if one catches the loop, the raveling is prevented. this is how we shall darn our stockings. use single or double darning thread, according to the fine- ness of the stocking, and a darning needle. can you thread the big eye by doubling the end of the thread? begin on the wrong side without a knot, about \ of an inch to the right of the hole. the stitches are the same fine running as for other darning, and the rows made close together. look at the pic- ture (fig. ). the darn is about diamond shape when finished. why? this prevents the strain from coming on any one row of loops. a tiny loop is left at each row in turning, as stockinet is a stretchy material. this darning should run the same way as the loops, up and down the material. care must be taken at the hole. if possible, pass the needle through the loop at the edge of the hole and extend the thread across the hole to the loop opposite, and continue with the darning stitch. when the warp is all in, there will be rows of threads close together extending across the hole. in fine darning or when clothing and health below the hole, and the last row extends a little above. why? at the hole one must go over and under the warp, alternately, as one does in weaving. this is all done with one thread which is carried in fine running stitches to the hole, then passes over and under the warp threads, and continues with running stitches at the other side of darn; turns with a tiny loop, con- tinues with running, and again passes over and under the warp alternately. this is continued until the darn is completed. sometimes there are tiny rips in the seams of stock- ings. they can be overhanded carefully on the wrong side, taking up only the very edges of the seam so as not to make a ridge. if the long ladders which sometimes come in stockings are not too wide, they can be over- handed together on the wrong side; or, if one has time, they can be darned as a hole. as a rule this is a waste of time. a worn place near a hole should be included in a darn, or where several small holes are close together, darn in one large darn. what kind of stockings do you buy? marjorie's cousin ann says it does not pay her to buy very cheap stockings, at cents a pair, or very thin ones either. she has discovered that if she pays cents a pair or a dollar for three pairs of a good make, and cares for them, watching when the tiny holes appear, that she can make six pairs last a whole year. ann says that the girls who buy the very thin transparent stockings are buying stockings all the time; and then, too, they clothing and health edges of the patch are turned under and hemmed flat. this kind of patch is used on garments or household articles which are to be laundered. it is a good one for towels, napkins, or tablecloths, and for underwear. perhaps you have some tablecloths, napkins, and towels which have been brought to patch to-day. miss fig. ioi.— the patch as it should look on the wrong side in process of hemming. james brought some for her class. for patches some girls brought pieces as nearly like the towels and napkins which they brought as possible. it is better to patch with material which has been used, than with new material. why? the hemmed patch is always put on the wrong side. cut a square or oblong piece which will cover the hole, and extend beyond the worn part. repairing linen allow \ inch extra all around for turnings. crease this patch diagonally. find the center of the hole of the worn article. crease it in diagonal lines for a square or oblong, according to shape of place to be patched. pin patch on wrong side so that diagonal creases of patch fall on diagonal creases of the article. turn to f" "-> fig. . — hemming the patch in place, on the right side. right side. cut the hole, removing all frayed edges until it is a true square or oblong, measuring from the center where diagonal creases cross. after cutting, make a tiny slanting cut from £ to \ inch at each corner on the diagonal creases of the article, and turn under these cut edges. pin and baste carefully. turn to wrong side. hold to light to see if the patch is the clothing and health same width on all sides of the hole. trim if necessary. remove pins, flatten, turn edges of the patch by opposites, and baste. the hemming stitch is then used on both the right and wrong sides of the patch to hold the edges. this patch is laundered flat and neat. for next lesson we shall study about the table linen and towels. we know that some of them are linen. where does linen come from? do you know whether it is a plant or an animal? there are several reference books on the shelf. see how much you can discover about this secret. exercises and problems . practice making a hemmed patch at home. mother will surely have a tablecloth or an undergarment or an apron which needs a patch. try to keep the patch very flat. . see how much you can learn about linen before next lesson. lesson the story of how linen is grown what is the story of our linen materials? where do they come from? would you like to know? mollie's stark's uncle john has just come to pleasant valley. he is her father's brother and has been in the linen business in ireland. he told the girls' league the other evening about flax and about how it is made into cloth. this is the story he told. it has also been printed in the "pleasant valley news." have you read it? clothing and health up straight like the wheat and does not branch. when it is planted for its seed, it is not planted so thickly be- cause it must have more room to branch and bear seed. flaxseed is used for many purposes. flaxseed, or lin- seed, oil is used for paints and varnishes, and even for food, in some countries. like cotton seed, the dry cake, or meal, left is a valuable food for cattle. has mother ever used the oil or the meal for anything at home? the flax plant as it grows is from to inches in height. it has lovely little blue flowers on the stems which branch at the top. uncle john knew a little girl at pleasant valley who thought the flax came from the little brown seed pods on top, just as the cotton comes from the seed pod, or boll. it does not; for the flax fiber is the part of the long stem which grows just inside of the outside woody portion. so, you see flax fibers can be from to inches long, according to the height of the plant. the wonderful part of the story is how the fibers are removed from the long stems. how is flax grown? flax requires much hand labor in its care while growing. the women and children in europe weed it and care for it, on their hands and knees. when it is full grown and the flowers have come and gone, the tiny seed pods grow where the flowers have fallen, just like the seed pods your peonies or poppies grow. before the seeds are quite ripe, and while the stalks are brownish yellow, the flax is ready to be pulled. it is not cut like wheat with the reaper and gathered into bundles, but must be pulled up by clothing and health the seeds. then the flax is bound in bundles for the next process, which is retting. this is really the most important part of all, for it means rotting the outside woody portion of the stem so as to get the flax fiber. this woody portion is of no value. fig. .—this little girl is rippling flax the flax is sometimes by hand at school. can you see the retted by dew j just left on the ground at night. you know how wet the grass can be early in the morn- ing. so the dew, rain, air, and sunshine decompose co-/rtesy of woolman & mcgowan, textiles. fig. . — flax retting at courtrai, belgium. the outside woody bark. this is a very slow process. more often flax is retted in water. the bundles are repairing linen placed in crates or boxes, and left for about two weeks under water. if you grow some flax, you can ret it also and remove the fiber. do you know what takes place when the woody part decomposes? it is called fermentation. what have you learned about fermen- tation? (see food and health.) after retting, the flax is spread to dry in the fields and is then ready for the next pro- cess, called breaking. just think of how many things have been done to the fibers of our linen towels and napkins and dresses, which we use every day. jane smith said she never realized before how many hands prepare our cloth- ing and other materials. what is meant by break- ing flax? breaking means removing the dry wood portion which has been decomposed by the retting. this is sometimes done by means of a hand break. in the picture (fig. ) you will see a little girl of pleasant valley breaking flax by hand. sometimes the woody part is broken away by passing the flax between rollers of a machine which is run by power. these power mills are called scutching mills; scutching means cleaning and courtesy of speyer schoot, new york. fig. . — flax breaking done by hand. i o clothing and health breaking. after this process the flax lies in long bundles of parallel fibers, something like a girl's hair as it is ready to be braided. the flax varies in color; some- times it is gray or of a greenish tint, and some- times pale yellow. if you have a microscope or a glass at school, ex- amine the flax fiber. see how it looks, rough and woody. it also looks some- thing like the silk fibers, straight. it has tiny mark- ings or spots called nodes. fig. .-flax fibers magnified. yx is principally cellu- lose. do you know what cellulose means? look it up in the dictionary. so you see that the long fibers are freed from the stem of the flax plant and are ready for the manu- facturer to spin into yarn to be woven into cloth, or to make it into cord, rope, twine, lace, or thread for many useful purposes. isn't this an interest- ing story? flax cultivation is one of the most ancient indus- tries. think how very useful it is, both for fiber and for seed. it has been grown for at least years in egypt and in assyria. do you re- member reading about the ancient mummies which have fig. . — the mummies of egypt are found wrapped in linen cloth made from flax long ago. repairing linen been found wrapped in linen in the tombs of egypt? in the bible, chapter xlii of the book of genesis, we are told that pharaoh arrayed joseph in vestures of fine linen. do you know of any other bible references which tell of the use of linen in ancient times? have you ever heard of the swiss lake dwellers? perhaps your teacher will tell you about them, or you can look it up in the encyclopedia. they too used linen long ago, for pieces have been found and are in the museums in switzerland. next lesson we shall make a large chart for the school- room, which will tell the story of flax. you may bring anything which you think will help to illustrate that story. we shall also mount on the chart the most common linen materials which we use in our homes. exercises and problems . examine a flax fiber with a microscope or a magnifying glass. what do you see? . look up references which prove the age of flax culture. . perhaps some one near your school has been in the linen business in ireland. perhaps he will come to the school and tell the boys and girls about it. try to find some one. lesson common linen materials are identified can we learn to identify at least eight of the common linen materials? to-day we shall study about the different linen ma- terials, and then see what we have to mount on our clothing and health school chart. if you prefer, you may make a book of linen materials like the cotton and silk. let us divide the pieces which have been brought to school into two piles: the thin, and the thicker ones. we have more of the thick ones. yes, we all know the heavy coarse linen is called russian crash. we used it for our porch cushions or covers. it comes from to inches in width and costs from cents a yard up to cents sometimes. we know it is used for dresses, and sometimes for toweling and upholstery uses. it is unbleached in color. this wide sample is linen sheeting. our great-grand- mothers always had linen sheets of flax which they grew, spun, and wove, because long ago cotton was not grown. some of the pleasant valley girls saw these sheets which grandmother allen made. sheeting comes in several widths, and costs about # per yard up. cotton sheeting is cheaper. the one thin one is handkerchief linen. it costs from cents to # . per yard. what kind of a weave is it? what is it used for? the other thin piece is called batiste. it, too, is used for waists and dress linens, and it is fine and sheer. it can be used for handkerchiefs too. it costs about # . per yard up, according to the fineness, and is yard or more wide. batiste is made of cotton, also, and is then cheaper. the weave of this piece is different. you have a cotton sample of the same weave. yes, it is called clothing and health middle of the inches side and run a cord through for hanging. at one edge down one side place the common linen materials with their names and uses, etc. let us see what the girls have brought. here is a bottle of linseed oil. yes, and some flax seeds. jane has brought a linen collar. here is a small china doll wrapped as a mummy. marjorie's grandmother has sent some flax which she grew and prepared herself, and a piece of an old hand-woven towel which she made when a girl. and here is some hand-spun flax! notice how rough it looks. we have, also, some cord and twine and some linen thread. do you know that paterson, new jersey, where marjorie's cousin ann works in the silk mill, is also a great center for linen thread manufacture? thread is made by twisting fine yarns together. the twisting makes them strong. they are then dyed or bleached white. much of our linen thread is unbleached in color. why? suppose we draw a picture of the flax stalk and flower on our chart and fasten some of the school- grown flax to it. all the other things can be arranged and fastened too, by punching holes in the cardboard and tying them on with cord. , what an interesting story it makes. perhaps the children of the lower classes would like to hear the story told by one of the seventh grade girls some morning. next lesson you may bring any table linen or towels which are stained; and we shall learn how to remove the stains. clothing and health to school to-day. your teacher will show you how to follow the directions. coffee and tea stains are the most common on table linen. to remove, wash in lukewarm water, and then dip in a solution of washing soda, and rinse very care- fully until all soda is removed. (washing soda solu- tion is made of one pound of washing soda to one gallon of water. this can be kept in glass jars and used when occasion demands.) tea stains are easily re- moved by brushing the spot with glycerine and then washing carefully in warm water to remove the grease. rubbing the spot with the bowl of a spoon is a good way to put on the glycerine. fruit stains are also common. an easy way to remove them is to stretch the fabric, if it is white, over a bowl and pour boiling water from a height, through the spot. on white wool or silk, lukewarm water is sometimes all that is necessary; or lukewarm water and a little borax. if the fruit stains are on colored garments, they are difficult to remove on account of removing the color also. if the article is of much value, consult a professional dyer if possible. it is wise to experiment on the material on another part of the garment, as the inside of a hem or facing. make a similar spot and try to remove with different methods. often one can discover a way, through experimenting. rust stains often appear on table linen or white clothing. to remove, wet the spot and apply a few drops of oxalic acid or salts of lemon or cream of tartar repairing linen solution, and wash thoroughly. on colored or wool goods of good quality, one must decide whether one prefers the stain or the color removed. water and lemon juice will generally remove the spot, but may take the color too. care is necessary for colors. grass stains are also common. if the stains are fresh, cold water will usually remove them. when on white goods or material which cannot be washed, alcohol may be used. when color will stand it, dyed fabrics which are grass-stained can be washed with water and a little ammonia, followed by warm soap solution and careful rinsing. here is a garment which has both ink and blood stains on it. majorie must have cut her finger. blood stains when fresh are easily removed with lukewarm, not hot water, and a little ammonia. when on colored silk, wash carefully with lukewarm water only. the ink stains are more difficult, because the composition of inks varies. wash at once in cold water; this often removes some spots. sour milk or several rinsings in sweet milk may cause the spot to disappear. then wash in warm water and soap to remove the grease. if this does not remove it, try a paste made of starch, salt, and lemon juice except for colors. if this will not, try javelle water. this can be obtained at a drug store. wash the spot in the javelle water, but rinse very quickly and carefully. repeat until the spot disappears. these directions are for white ma- terials only. repairing linen as we have learned. for the usual grease spots on the family tablecloths, soak the cloth in soda water to remove grease (one cup of soda — the dissolved solu- tion — to a pail of water, see page ). the processes for washing and ironing. if the stains have been removed from the table linen, it can then be soaked. soak- ing helps to loosen the dirt when soap is added before the soaking. it is then unnecessary to rub them as much, and so materials are saved from wear. these are the processes forwashing fig. no. — mrs. stark washing out of doors on a warm day. this is the old way. she has just bought a washing machine. and ironing: soaking, washing, rinsing, boiling, rinsing, bluing, starching, hanging, drying, sprinkling, pulling, folding, ironing. clothing and health . soaking. soak the table or bed linens about if hours in cold or lukewarm water. soap is really not necessary as the linen is not very dirty. all stains should have been previously removed. . washing. wash with soap on both sides, rubbing on clothes board or in washing machine. use hot water. . rinsing. rinse and soap again to be placed in the boiler. the dirt is carried away by this rinsing. . boiling. put the soaped articles in clear cold water. boil briskly for five minutes. add enough soap to keep a suds while boiling; save small pieces for this purpose. stir clothes and press with a stick. remove from boiler, after boiling actively for five minutes. put in clean hot water, then in cold. rinse once or twice again thoroughly before bluing. . bluing. make the blue water from some good blue. do not make it too deep. test on a small doily. stir the blue before each article is dipped, so it may not appear streaked on the clothes. if articles are very yellow it may be necessary to let them stand in the blue for a little while. if not yellow, dip two or three times. the next process is starching; but it is not as a rule necessary to starch napkins, tablecloths, or bed linens. . hanging. hang very straight after stretching. do not pin at corners. hang £ of the napkin or tablecloth over the line. . sprinkling. table linen must be sprinkled evenly. some- times it can be taken from the line when half dry, and the process of sprinkling omitted. . ironing. linen should be ironed damp and until dry. this makes the pattern stand out and gives a shine and gloss to the linen. this takes the place of starch. . folding. iron napkins partly dry on wrong side; then turn to right side, and iron dry. fold edges evenly. in the lengthwise fold do not fold quite to end, as in the final fold the napkin, hand- kerchief, tablecloth, or sheets will appear uneven at the edges. fold the tablecloth, or napkins with selvedges together. table- cloths may be folded with three, or four, long creases. clothing and health turns the wheel and the flax in her fingers is fed to the spindle, it is twisted. spinning of flax is a very old invention. it was once done with just a spindle like the woman has in the picture on page (fig. ). this is the secret of how flax spinning is done to-day. the flax is opened at the mill and graded according to color and quality. it is then combed. this process is called hack- ling (fig. ). it is sometimes done by hand, and the worker draws the flax over the iron teeth of a comb. the straight- ened fibers are left and are called line; and the combed-out fibers are called tow. this first combing fig. in.-the flax wheel. process is sometimes called roughing in- stead of hackling. the line is then combed again in a big machine which removes any loose tow. tow is often put in a carding machine and made into yarn for coarser purposes; but the long straight line is used for the better materials. the line, after it is hackled, is placed on a spread board; and the process is called spreading. you can see in the picture (fig. ) that repairing linen the bundles of flax yarn are spread and overlapped as they enter the machine. now you know how the yarn begins to be made of continuous length. the flax comes from this machine in a rope and is something like the cotton rope or roving as it leaves the carding machine; but flax is brown and stiff, not so soft as courtesy of york st. milts, betfast. fig. .— flax hackling done by machine. cotton. can you find in the picture (fig. ) the cans ready to receive the flax rovings as they come from the spreading machine? they are at the back of the machine. the rovings are then ready to be wound on spools and to be twisted to make them strong. this is done in the same way as the cotton. the spools are put in at the top of the machine; they hold the repairing linen put in the big spool holder or skarn in order to prepare the roll of warp threads for the loom. do you remem- ber how the cotton warp was prepared and how the weaving was done? uncle john says that in scotland to-day much of the very fine linen is woven by hand; but we know that linen weaving by machinery has been perfected there and that very beautiful materials are produced on the modern looms with the jacquard harness as it is called, to produce the wonderful designs. fine table damask is as beautiful as fine silk. the french, perhaps, make the most beautiful designs for table linen, and the scotch and irish come next. (see page for jacquard loom.) bleaching linen cloth. uncle john says there are many things to be done to the linen cloth after it is woven. if we were to go to ireland, we might ride for miles and see the woven linen cloth spread on the grass in great lengths. this is called crofting or grass bleach- ing. do you remember how we said grandmother used to bleach her linen? did she use a chemical? what did the sour milk which she used do to her linen? what did the oxygen do? chemicals are sometimes used to-day in the early stages before the linen is spread on the grass. uncle john says that from - per cent, or about \, of the weight of the linen is lost in bleaching. linen is sometimes bleached in the thread, but more often after it is woven. finishing linen cloth for shipping. after linen cloth has been bleached, uncle john says it is ready to be clothing and health finished for shipping to the merchants. it is washed by passing the cloth through a machine called a rub- board. then it is dried and passed through a beetling machine. this makes the fibers stand out. then it is pressed between rollers to give it a smooth surface. cotton is sometimes finished by means of these processes to look like linen and be sold for linen. when this cotton material is washed, the finishing wears off and it does not look like linen. is such material cheaper or more expensive? is it honest to sell cotton for linen, and to cheat the buyer? it is all right if the goods are labeled. next lesson we shall talk about the buying of household linens. one must know many things in order to purchase wisely. do you see how a knowledge of how things are made will help you, too? exercises and problems . write a story of two hundred words telling how flax is made into cloth. . have an exhibit of articles brought from home, showing different patterns of linen cloth. . perhaps there may be a cord factory near for you to visit. tow is sometimes used in making twine. study how cord is made. lesson a talk about buying linens have you ever gone shopping with mother? there are some important things to remember when buying table linen or other household materials. what are they? repairing linen marjorie goes with her mother once a year to buy household linens. this is usually in january, when the big shop in town has a sale. last january, when marjorie's mother was ill, they had to order by mail. the catalogue from the shop described fully, and mrs. allen knew exactly what to ask for; so they managed without going to town. this can be done if one knows how and if the store is a reliable one. these are some of the things mrs. allen is teaching marjorie. some day she will wish to buy for her own home; or, if her mother is ill again, she can go alone. it is always more satisfactory to see what one is buying. here are some of the points to be noticed in buying: . the first important thing to remember is to buy only what one needs. know the shops one patronizes, if possible, and go or send to only reliable firms. the reliable places are the cheapest in the end. one learns, too, that some things are better at one shop and some at another. reliable stores often have sales, but as a rule bargains are not cheap. remember nothing is ever given away. . it is wise and cheaper to purchase some new household linen once each year than to wait and have it all wear out at once. . cost is a good guide. linen is expensive. if too cheap, beware. . linen is sometimes cheapened or adulterated with cotton. if the store keeper sells it for union, it clothing and health is honest; if he calls it linen, and you pay linen price, it is dishonest. ravel and untwist the ends of the warp and filling thread. cotton will be fuzzy, linen should be long and lustrous. round threads of linen are best. the linen threads appear pointed at the ends when separated. the all linens made from the tow (you have learned what that is) are cheaper than those made from the line. why? they will not last quite so well. wet the linen. water spreads more rapidly on linen than on cotton. an old-fashioned test was to moisten with the finger. if you have a sample of linen at home for testing, use a drop of olive oil. the oil makes the linen fibers more translucent than the cotton. why? . another way to know. linen feels colder than cotton; also it feels heavier when crushed in the hand. . notice the finish. is it full of starch which can be picked off? if so, after the washing you will have a loosely woven material without starch. it is better to buy a softer linen than one filled stiff with starch which will crack. . damask by the yard is slightly cheaper than by the cloth. one dollar a yard is a fair price. table cloths from ^\ to yards are a good size for a family of six. a cloth wears about as long as \ or dozen nap- kins. the price of one dozen napkins about equals the cost of a cloth. napkins come in three sizes: i, - inches; \, - inches; \, - inches. making other garments pageant? it is a pleasant way to learn history and to celebrate an interesting local event. pageants have been held in many parts of the eastern and western states; and in england there have been many pageants. perhaps you can plan a pageant for your town. while the girls are practicing their dancing and gymnastics, bloomers will be very useful, and the girls have decided to learn to make them. would you like to learn how? the bloomers will be useful for school gymnastics, too. you can also make a middy blouse and a skirt to wear with them, so as to have the whole outfit. lesson i the pattern of the bloomers let us study the pattern which your teacher has brought to school. you have learned to read patterns. you must also calculate how much material to order, and what kind. let us open the pattern and study its parts. yes, the long narrow strips are for the belt; some are for the placket facings. notice if the dots indicate where these are to be placed: on a fold of material or length- wise of the cloth. there is one other piece. it is the leg; so two must be cut. is it possible to cut two at the same time? how, then, should the material be folded? notice the perforations. they will help us to know which part of the pattern is to be placed on the warp of the cloth. how wide is the width of the pattern at the widest part? if it is inches, then it will be easy clothing and health to calculate how many lengths to buy of cloth inches wide. measure the length of the pattern and see if it is long enough for you to allow for fullness at the knee so that there is some to blouse over. if not, how will you add to the pattern? this extra length must be allowed in ordering the material. can you tell how much cloth to order? see if you can calculate. what kind of material will you use? some of the pleasant valley girls wish wool material because it will be warmer for winter wear. dark blue or black serge is very durable, is washable also, and will shed the dust. here are some samples. sateen is also a durable cotton material, but it is not so warm. it is easier for girls to handle in making than wool. bloomers can also be made from gingham, percale, galatea, or other cotton cloth. which will you choose? shall we not write for some samples of these dif- ferent materials? the pleasant valley girls wrote and received them in a few days. perhaps you too are learning how to order by mail when you are too far away from town to go shopping. try to make all the calculations to-day and to learn all about the pattern. pin the pieces of the pattern together; also try to hold them up to your figure or the girl next to you. it helps one to learn where the parts lie fig. . — the bloomers and middy blouse. making other garments fig. . — wool fibers magnified. like those in the picture (fig. ); but where there are many sheep, the ma- chine clippers must be used. these clipping ma- chines can be run by hand or other power. they shear close and save wool. notice the machine which the man in the picture (fig. ) is using; it is just like the one mr. allen uses. frank or john sometimes helps. the coating of wool from one sheep is called a fleece. on the large sheep ranches of the west the fleeces are tied into bundles, and these bundles are put in sacks holding about pounds to be shipped to certain wool-purchasing centers where the buyers examine the wool and buy in quantities. what do you know about the sheep indus- try? our sheep industry is very important. the western states, montana, idaho, wyom- ing, and oregon, support about million sheep. that is a large family to shear and feed. other countries grow sheep for clothing wools, too. australia, england, south africa, south america, spain, and germany all give much attention to sheep raising. fig. . the hand shears. o clothing and health this industry is very old. we read in the bible that wool was used long ago and that king david of israel wrote psalms as he tended his sheep on the hill- courtesy oj chicaio ftexible shalt co. fig. . .— sheep shearing by machinery. side. abel, the brother of cain, was a keeper of sheep. can you find these stories in the bible? writers of many ages tell about wool — pliny, homer, and virgil. alexander too, when he journeyed to india in early days, saw beautiful woolen shawls being made. clothing and health porous, and this enables the fiber to take up dye easily. the wool from some sheep farms varies on account of the differences in climate, soil, and breed of sheep. the sheep of southern england produce short and fine wool; while in the north, where it is colder, the wool is stronger and coarser. wools from saxony and silesia are very fine. the english and australian wools are of several qualities. the long wools come from lincoln and leicestershire, and the shorter from suffolk and shropshire. can you find these places on your map of england? the long coarse wools are used for carpets and for knitting, because they are so strong. the short wools used for clothing are about to inches in length. the long wools, about inches in length, are called combing wools and are used for materials which are loosely woven like serges, homespuns, and others. next lesson we shall study our samples of woolen materials. bring all the scraps of different kinds which you can contribute. put them in the surprise box. we shall learn the names of the most common ones. will you make a sample book for these too? exercises and problems . find on the map the principal countries producing wool. . if your teacher has a microscope, compare wool and hair. how do they differ? . why do woolen garments shrink when washed in hot water? . why is wool the most important fiber of commerce? . tell some of the uses of long coarse wools; of the finer wools. *m making other garments lesson some of the most common materials made from wool there are many materials made from wool. let us learn to-day about those which are used most commonly. perhaps some one in the class will sort the pieces in the surprise box. mollie stark sorted those at pleasant valley school. do not sort according to color, but place them in three piles. we have the thick, close materials, which are heavy and firm. then we have the thin, sheer ones. in the third pile, place the medium weight ones which look strong and are wiry but not so closely woven and firm as those in the first pile. shall we learn about some of each kind? let us see what we have in the third pile of wiry, more loosely woven materials. first we have the serges. here are several pieces. some are fine with the twilled weave, and others are twilled but the weave is coarser. they are very serviceable and are suitable for bloomers, or for dress fabrics. here is a sample of a plaid serge. marjorie allen had such a dress last winter. it is pos- sible to buy plain colors too. serges are woven quite wide, from to inches, and cost from cents to # per yard. cheviots are very similar to serges in price and width, but are somewhat heavier in appear- ance. the surface of some is rather rougher than serge, although there are smooth cheviots too. have some samples of serges been sent from the store? you clothing and health must examine these, too, to see if you will select one for your bloomers. this coarse one in the same pile is a homespun, and this is a tweed. they are both rough, wiry, loosely woven, and made of rather coarse yarn. they are rather open in texture and were both in olden times spun and woven by hand, but are now made by machinery. tweed gets its name from a place in scotland. these materials are very serviceable, especially for rough wear for suitings, coats, or dress goods. the color or pattern is not always clearly defined, because the yarn of which it is woven is mixed in color. home- spuns are somewhat cheaper than tweeds. they cost from $ to # per yard, and are woven from to inches wide. tweeds are a little wider, to inches, and cost from $ to # per yard. there are four samples in this pile, not quite so heavy. they are cashmere, challie, albatross, and henrietta. have you ever heard these names before? they are all common wool materials. they are often used for girls' school dresses, for wrappers, and for baby wear. they are all softer than serges. cashmere and hen- rietta resemble each other. they both have a twilled weave. henrietta was originally woven with a silk warp. one can buy silk warp henrietta to-day. grandmother stark has one. is there a sample in your box? cashmere is also soft, and the finer qualities are made from hair of the cashmere goat. cashmere is woven to inches in width and can be bought making other garments for from cents to # . per yard. henrietta is about the same width and price, except when it has silk warp. then it is more expensive. challie and albatross are about the same weight. i am sure you have all had a pretty challie dress sometime. challies are figured; sometimes the pattern is woven in and sometimes printed. it is made sometimes of a mixture of cotton and wool, or silk and wool; but now challies can be bought in all cotton too as well as in all wool. they come about inches wide and cost from to cents per yard. albatross is also soft and a fancy weave. it too is used for dress goods and costs about the same as challie, cents to # per yard. it is woven from to inches in width. let us now examine some of the heavy ones in the first pile. yes, every one knows the name of the heavy fine piece. it is broadcloth and is used for coats and dress goods. there are also some lighter weights of broadcloth with a smooth satiny finish. they are called lady's cloth. a very good broadcloth is expen- sive, and costs about # per yard. one can buy it for # . , but as a rule it is not very satisfactory under $ per yard. broadcloth is closely woven, smooth, and soft in finish. it is from to inches in width. has any one at your house a dress or coat made from this? examine it and ask how durable it has been. father's winter overcoat was perhaps made of melton, or covert cloth. mr. allen had such a coat last year. examine clothing and health the samples. they are both heavy. melton is about the same width as broadcloth, inches, and costs also from $ to # per yard for a good quality. it is used for suits, overcoats, and heavy garments. this is a standard material and is usually dark blue or black. uniforms are often made from it. covert cloth is, also, used for overcoats and suits. it is heavy, but differs from the smooth surface of broadcloth. it is a heavy twilled cloth. felt and flannel are both in this heavy pile, although there are some lightweight flannels. felt is not woven, but is compressed, so that the wool fibers are matted together in a flat mass. it is made to inches in width and costs from cents to # . per yard. i am sure you all know its use. school pennants are made from it, and so are some table covers. flannel is woven. it is finished with a soft surface which is slightly napped. what does that mean? it is a rather loosely woven fabric, and is used for many purposes. can you tell some? yes, petticoats, baby garments, waists, dressing sacques, shirts for men. it costs from cents to $ per yard. sometimes it is made of a combination of cotton and wool, instead of all wool. it varies in width from to inches. let us examine some of the thin samples. here is one which it is almost possible to see through. it is called voile and is thin and gauzy, like veiling. this sample near is called nun veiling. it, also, has an open mesh weave, and is a common wool material. clothing and health there are still some common wool materials we have not mentioned. yes, blankets. they are made of cotton as well as of wool, or of a mixture of the two. they cost from $j to # per pair if all wool. the combination of cotton and wool can be had for less. carpets are also made from wool yarn. they are woven so that the yarn stands up in loops, and then these loops are cut as in velvet carpet. in brussels and ingrain carpets the loops are not cut. suppose you plan to arrange your sample books with three columns of materials made from wool. you may have four or five columns if you prefer to put the mohairs, alpacas, and brilliantines by themselves, and the blankets and carpets in a separate column. that is the way the pleasant valley girls arranged theirs. the first will be the heavy materials; then the medium weight, and then the thin ones. it is easy to sort and label them now that you know their names, uses, and widths. before very long we shall learn the story of how the wool fiber is made into so many different kinds of cloth. it is treated by different processes in manufacture in order to get a smooth close finish or a loose wiry finish. we shall learn how. i exercises and problems . tell the difference between felt and flannel. . name some heavy wool materials; some of lighter weight. tell where you have seen them used. making other garments . look up the story of how carpets are made. perhaps you would like to study about rugs, too. . how do serges and broadcloths differ in appearance? . plan to collect materials for the five columns of the chart. mount with prices and widths. lesson making a pair of bloomers let us begin to make the bloomers to-day. first, we shall lay the pattern. some girls have probably chosen serge for their bloomers, and some have ordered galatea or sateen. the black or the blue are serviceable. suppose you cut them out to-day. you have studied the pattern which your teacher had. perhaps some girls will find it necessary to add in length or width. your teacher ordered the pattern by size, according to age. -year size was chosen. perhaps you must make yours smaller or larger. one pattern can be adapted to the whole class. this you allowed for, in ordering the amount of cloth. let us place the pattern carefully. be sure that the perfora- tions which indicate lengthwise of the material are placed on the warp. can you cut out both legs at the same time? can you tell where to place the two strips for the bands, and for the placket facings? which way of the material will the length of band and facings be cut? pin carefully in place and cut with an even motion. it will perhaps be safer to mark the notches clothing and health with a pencil or with a white thread. girls some- times forget — cut the notches too large and spoil the cloth. then we shall learn to make a flat felled seam. the two legs are to be sewed up on the right side. be very careful not to make both legs for the same leg. that is the mistake marjorie allen made. baste the seam \ inch wide. then stitch close to the basting. i i abc fig. . — the flat fell, showing the three steps in making: a, the seam stitched; b, one edge cut; c, the turning of the other edge flat, to be basted and stitched. cut off one edge of this seam to within ^ inch of the stitching, and lay the other edge of seam flat on the cloth for the fell. turn in the raw edge, baste, and stitch flat. this must be done very carefully, for it is very easy to make a fell which is wrinkled and full instead of flat (see fig. ). join the two legs together at the center with the same flat fell. be sure to have the two leg seams come together. this is important. making other garments to break or injure the wool. perhaps you can bring some dirty wool from your farm to school and wash it. soft soap is the most harmless. use a soft water at a low temperature ( f.). can you tell why it must be low? the washing is done in a series of tanks. you can see them in the picture (fig. ). the wet wool is swished back and forth by means of wooden forks which carry the wool forward and beat it out. there are rollers for passing the wool from one tank to another. then the wool must be dried. this is done in a kind of wringing machine called a "hydro extractor." then it is beaten into a fluffy mass. then a strange thing happens. oil in wool is neces- sary in order to help in the spinning and to keep it soft and elastic, so the manufacturer must return some oil to the wool, after having washed it all out. olive oil is used. if there is any dirt or any burrs left in the wool, they must be removed. a machine called a burr picker is used to beat out the dirt. then the wool is blended. do you know that the wool skirt which you are wearing may not be made of all new wool? wool can be used over and over again. old wool rags are pulled apart and mixed with new wool. if this did not happen, the manufacturer would have to charge much more than you pay for serge or some woolen materials, as he would have to use all new wool. that is why some wool materials are so ex- clothing and health the wide guazy mass is pulled together as it is drawn through a hole at the front of the carder and is de- livered or wound up in the can, just as we learned the cotton was delivered. this wool roving is then wound on spools and is ready for spinning. do you remember the story of how cotton is drawn out and twisted and wound on spools? wool too must be spun and made into yarn, before yarn can be woven into cloth. the manufacturer makes woolen yarn and also worsted yarn. do you know the difference? we shall study in our next lesson about them. exercises and problems . ask your grandmother to tell you about sheep raising on the farm, when she was a girl. . tell why the manufacturer must blend old and new wool. what are the names of some old rags of wool used for this purpose? . tell how carding was done in olden times. how is wool carding done to-day? why is carding an important process in the manufacture of cloth made from wool? lesson some facts to remember in purchasing wool clothing why does the manufacturer use woolen yarn in weaving some materials and worsted yarn for others? if one knows this, it will be a guide in purchasing wool materials. the pleasant valley girls know. the difference between woolen and worsted yarns. before you can answer the question for this lesson, you clothing and health fibers arranged so that they will interlock, when put in water of high temperature, and the gelatinous scales are opened up. woolen yarn is woven into broadcloths and meltons. after the weaving the cloth is put into vats where the temperature opens up the serrations and the scales interlock, and make a close, smooth piece of cloth. this is called fulling. isn't this in- teresting? do you see why the manufacturer uses worsted in- stead of woolen yarn for making underwear? if worsted yarn were used for making broad- cloth, there would not be the same close finish. the worsted yarn is combed and the fibers are not in position to interlock as in the woolen yarn (fig. ). can you answer the question now why worsted yarn is used some- times and woolen at others? after the yarn has been spun, it is woven into cloth just as cotton is prepared and woven. woolen yarn is fuzzy; cloth made from it is woven loosely and then it is put into vats and shrunken or fulled until the cloth is compact, as broadcloth. worsted yarn when made into cloth is shrunken very little or not at all. it is woven as it will appear. a bfig. . — this shows the dif- ference in the slivers of wool and worsted yarn. a is the woolen yarn, well mixed; b is the worsted yarn, well combed. clothing and health whether he is to adulterate his wool cloth with cotton or reduce the cost of production by using mungo, shoddy, or flocks. flocks is put in when the cloth is shrunken or fulled in the vats. the short pieces and dust, or flocks as it is called, are drawn in as the serrations open and the cloth is shrunken. this is all useful to know, for it helps one in pur- chasing materials. most of us cannot afford to buy cloth made of all new wool, but we should be able to tell whether cloth is made of cotton and wool mixed, or all wool. we will know by price fig. . .-this is the teasel whether the a woo\ is new which is used to brush the wool or not. no shopkeeper nap of the cloth in finishing. j these small thistles are ar- should sell a cotton and wool ranged in rows in the machine for ah wool. when we have rollers through which the .. r cloth passes. our textiles labeled as roods are now labeled, we shall be able to tell. what have you learned to-day which will help you in purchasing wool materials? woolen and worsted yarns are used also in the manu- facture of carpets, rugs, hosiery, blankets, underwear, and also for knitting purposes. do you know how to knit? does any one know at your home? it is a useful and pleasant accomplishment. shawls, afghans, caps, and sweaters can all be knitted. miss james taught the pleasant valley girls to knit bright scarfs which they wore for tobogganing the next winter. some girls made them for sale. making other garments points about buying woolen garments. here are a few things to think about which miss travers from the state college told the mothers' club of pleasant valley to remember in buying wool garments or materials. . wool mixed with cotton should not be sold for all wool. it is a cheaper fabric. it wears fairly well, but is not so warm. pull the fabric apart, untwist the fibers to see if cotton is present. . garments bought ready-made of cotton and wool do not keep their shape as well as all wool garments. . burning a piece of the fabric will help you to identify the fiber. wool burns slowly, chars, and gives off an odor of burned feathers. cotton burns quickly with a flame. . a good wool material can always be used over again. the inexpensive is not cheap unless you wish something which does not look well or wear well but is cheap. . remember that a close twill weave is more durable than a basket weave. think about this in buying; for the weave of material affects the wearing quality. exercises and problems . how is yarn which is to be used for underwear treated in manufacture? why? . how does this treatment differ from yarn used in the manu- facture of broadcloth? . what are some of the things your mother thinks about when she buys a garment made from wool, in order to get good value for her money? clothing and health lesson the clothing budget have you ever thought how much your clothing costs father and mother every year? marjorie allen and barbara oakes tried to figure the cost one day. girls must begin to learn how to spend wisely, for they will very soon have the responsibility of being spenders. if you can make some of your clothing, you will help to reduce the cost. would you like to learn to make a budget as well as a simple dress skirt to wear over the bloomers? suppose we study to-day about the clothing budget. have you ever tried to calculate how much is spent each year for your clothing? if not, suppose you try. girls who know how to make some articles of clothing can have more for the same amount of money. sup- pose you send for the material for your dress skirts. it is wise to learn to make a very simple skirt first. choose a simple pattern. your teacher will help you. what material will you use? perhaps you would like a middy blouse later to wear with the skirt. can you name some suitable cotton materials to use for this purpose? yes, indian head, galatea, duck. you have studied about all of these and should have them in your sample books. such a dress will be suitable for school wear. talk with your teacher and calculate how much cloth you must buy for your skirt and middy. while you are waiting for the cloth you have ordered, let us study how marjorie's cousin ann, who works at paterson, manages to plan each year for her clothing. making other garments clothing she has such good plans. do you know that such a plan is called a budget? would you like to learn to make your clothing budget? ann earns $ per week and her room and board cost her # per week, so she has # for other ex- penses. she puts aside # . each week for clothing, and so has # per month or about # per year. she lives near her work so does not have daily carfare, and she goes home at the noon hour for a little rest and for lunch. the rest of her money she divides in this way: each week she tries to save cents or # per month. the rest she uses for church and club ex- penses, for gifts, news- papers, or occasionally she buys a new necktie or an extra waist; but usually the # supply all her clothing needs. this is how she manages. she plans for more than one year, usually trying to keep three years in mind. ann also goes to the girls' club and has learned to make her waists and some simple dresses. the following is what she bought the first year. remember she had some clothes to begin with before she started to keep her clothing budget. your budget will of course be different from this, but this will show how ann manages with # . some things which she fig. . money. - cousin ann's division of her how much was for clothing? clothing and health needs you may have no use for in your section of the country. try to plan what you would substitute. this will at least be a working basis for you, and will give you some suggestions for making yours. marjorie allen and barbara oakes have made their clothing budgets. they have # per year for clothing. what do you think they omitted from this list? the things marked * are made at home. ann's mother helps her; but ann learned to make clothes at her sewing club. first year union suits (winter) @ # . # . union suits (summer) @ . . flannelette nightdress @ . . flannelette nightdress left over night dresses @ . . * corset covers @ . . pairs of corsets @ . . pairs of stockings @ . . pairs of garters @ . ° shoes: high lace @ . pairs low shoes @ . . pair rubbers black sateen petticoat . long white petticoat . short white petticoats @ . . retrimming last year's best winter hat . summer hat (new) . straw hat, common wear i umbrella . *i wool dress skirt . ^ - making other garments . * shirt waists: tailored @ . *i fancy @ . $ . winter coat . spring coat (left from last year) pair kid gloves. . . pair wool gloves wool dress (winter, bought close of season) . sweater . *i summer dress . *i white duck dress skirt . party dress (left over from last year) gloves, handkerchiefs, neckties, collars received for christmas. total # - o notice that in the second year some articles are left over from the year before. this is because ann has foresight. she is a good manager, and takes care of her clothes too, and plans ahead. do you? second year union suits (left from last year, winter) union suits (left from last year, summer) new union suit summer $ . flannelette nightgowns (left over) summer nightdresses (left over) new summer nightdress * corset covers @ . . pairs of corsets @ . . pairs of stockings @ . . pairs of garters @ . ° shoes: high laced © . pair low shoes @ . pair low left over, half soled @ . pair high laced, half soled @ . . clothing and health i pair rubbers $ . black sateen petticoat . long white petticoat (left over) short white petticoats (left over) new short white petticoat i winter hat . winter hat (left over) common wear i summer hat (retrimmed) i-so new summer hat (second) . umbrella (left over) *i wool skirt (refreshened) . * shirt waists (plain) @ . . *i extra white waist @ . . shirt waists (left over) winter coat (left over) spring coat (new) . pair kid gloves . pair wool gloves (left over) wool dress (left over) sweater (left over) *i summer dress (left over, remodeled) . white duck skirt (left over) *i new white duck skirt . *i party dress . coat suit, bought end of winter season . gingham aprons . gingham house dress (ready-made) . summer dress . total # - try to find below, in the list for third year, the articles left over. also new articles which will be of service the fourth year. do you not think it is wise to plan in this way? marjorie and barbara have enjoyed making their budgets. ^ making other garments third'year union suits, winter @ . $ . union suits, summer @ . . union suit, summer (left over) flannelette nightgowns @ . . new summer nightgown @ . summer nightgown (left over) * corset covers @ . . pairs corsets @ . . pairs of stockings @ . . pairs garters @ . shoes: pair high laced © . pair high laced repaired, left over, @ . pair low shoes (new) @ . pair party slippers (new) @ . . pair rubbers black sateen petticoat . long white petticoat . new short white petticoat short white petticoat (left over) retrimming last year's winter hat . winter hat (common wear) . summer hat (new) . summer hat (remodeled, common wear) . umbrella . *i wool sl^irt . * shirt waists (plain) @ . . *i extra white waist @ . . shirt waists (left over) winter coat (left over years) spring coat (left over one year) pair kid gloves . pair wool gloves clothing and health *i wool dress (remodeled after winters' wear) $ . white duck skirts (left over) party dress left over (refreshened) . coat suit (left over) gingham aprons (left over) gingham house dress (new) . gingham house dress (left over) summer dress remodeled . new summer dress . raincoat . wool dress (bought towards close of season) . pair winter arctics . total # - exercises and problems plan a clothing budget with mother's help, and see how yours will differ from the above. perhaps mother spends less for your clothes or more. mrs. allen says that marjorie is learning to pur- chase so wisely that next year she may buy all of her own clothes. of course, mrs. allen will always be willing to help when marjorie needs her. lesson planning to make a dress skirt of cotton material let us begin to make our dress skirts. open the pattern carefully and examine it. how did you order it, by age or by waist measure? the pattern books usually say order by age for a girl unless she is large or small for her age ; then order by waist measure. notice how many pieces you have. notice whether some are to be cut on a lengthwise fold: perhaps, the clothing and health study your pattern. notice all the notches; also just where the pattern is to be placed on the warp threads. this is very necessary. take your tape- line and measure the skirt length; compare with your own measures. your teacher will show you how to take your skirt measure, at front, hips, and back, from the waist line to the desired length (see page ). you have learned how. pin the tapeline about the waist and measure from it. if your pattern is too long, it will be wise to double it over at the center to reduce the length. if too short, add a few inches at the bottom in cutting your cloth. remember you must allow for the hem according to desired width (see page for changing patterns). now lay the pieces economically. remember the wide end of the gore usually cuts to best advantage at the end of the cloth. pin and cut out after your teacher has approved. the pattern usually allows from f to inch for seams. notice how much. match the notches, pin, baste, and then try on. if too loose or too tight, it is possible to stitch inside or outside of the bastings and so to alter. the seams can be finished by overcasting the rough edges (see fig. ). if your pattern calls for an opening or placket at one side of the front, it will be appropriate to make a hem running lengthwise of the skirt as a finish at the placket, and the skirt will not be seamed with a simple seam at that place. turn to the wrong side one inch clothing and health lesson clothing in relation to health do you know that clothes help to keep us well? the pleasant valley girls learned how, and we are to study, too. well people are usually happy people and they can do many more things for themselves and for others than sick people. have you ever thought about this? all people wish to be well, but many are not because they forget that it is absolutely necessary to think each day about keeping well. there are many things which help to accomplish this. one cannot wait until the end of the month or year to think about keeping well, but must do so every day, as you have learned. exer- cise and good habits, sleep, proper food, recreation, and proper clothing all have a share. clothes are more important than people think. ill health is often the result of lack of thought in the protection of the body. let us study how clothes affect health. you know clothing helps to keep us warm or cool, if we dress properly. you have learned how necessary it is to preserve an even body temperature. growing girls must think about this, for no girl is well dressed who does not think about the relation of clothes to health. is a dress really beautiful if it is unhygienic? miss travers told the mothers' club that clothing should serve our use in the best way, should be pleasing and artistic, but also comfortable enough to permit freedom. did you ever feel sorry for the poor chinese women making other garments who squeeze their feet? many american women squeeze their waists as well as their feet. this pre- vents proper circulation of the blood and causes many complaints, loss of hair, and serious troubles, because the circulatory system cannot carry nourishment to the many parts of the body. perhaps you have noticed some girls wear very thin stockings, low shoes, and low-necked dresses; really very scant clothing in cold weather. is this a good practice, do you think? why not? heat and energy are generated by the body. we have learned that it is a machine. food, water, exercise, rest, keep it going. heat and energy are the result and are needed if the machine is to run well. if the heat is all carried away quickly because the surfaces of the body are exposed to the cold, then there is a waste of the energy which should go to provide for the necessary workings of the body. why do we wear clothing? the principal reason is that the body may be protected from the cold and that the temperature of the body may be kept constant. it protects also from sharp, hard objects and briers and stones which might injure the feet. many people think only of the decoration. this does affect our choice of clothes too, but should not be the prime con- sideration. miss travers told the girls of pleasant fig. . — shoes are important. why? clothing and health valley to keep these things in mind in choosing clothes: some things to remember in choosing wearing apparel. . adapt your clothing to your work. one cannot do garden and house work in stiff collars and unsuitable clothing. . the condition of health will affect choice. strong, well people do not need the same kind of clothing as sick or delicate people. . age makes a difference; young people are more vigorous than old people. babies feel the heat or cold more than adults. . clothing should be chosen in relation to climate and tem- perature; in winter, one should prevent an undue loss of heat, in summer, clothing should not interfere with loss of heat. some important things about wearing clothing. . wet clothing is very dangerous and should be removed at once. if this is not possible, exercise, keep moving, until there is opportunity for a rubdown and change. john alden always runs when he gets his clothes very wet. . the clothing worn next to the skin should be changed twice a week. the body gives off impurities which are absorbed by the clothing. this change is necessary if one wishes to keep well. . clothing worn at night should be aired during the day, not shut up in a closet or folded and placed under a pillow. . clothing worn during the day should be aired at night. this is necessary for health. the same underwear should never be worn day and night both. how do you air your clothes? (fig. .) many mothers do not change baby's shirt at night and wonder why he cannot sleep and is so cross. sometimes this irritability is due to this very cause. making other garments . outer garments should be rather closely woven, so that the wind cannot penetrate and carry the heat away too rapidly. . heavy garments are a great burden. one wearing them is not free to act or work. next lesson we will study about selecting our clothes, shoes, underwear, and other garments with reference to health. exercises and problems . write on the blackboard some important things to remem- ber in choosing wearing apparel. . tell some important things to remember in wearing clothing. lesson more health problems in choosing clothes clothes help to keep us well. let us study about the wise selection and use of them. buying shoes. when barbara oakes goes to buy a pair of shoes what do you suppose she thinks about besides the fact that they are pretty and that she likes or dislikes them? she remembers that they should fit her feet. she thinks about these things: . they should suit her purpose, be adapted to her use. . they should fit the instep and heel snugly. . they should be straight on the inside line. . the heel should be broad enough to balance the body well. clothing and health . the soles should be strong enough to walk, and thick enough so dampness cannot strike through. . there should be plenty of room for the toes to move. (see fig. ). . they should be long and wide enough for com- fort. tight shoes are a strain on the body. many girls have "fallen arch." this affects the whole nervous system and makes them ill. many are suffering and do not know the cause. barbara oakes was ill for a long time before her mother or the doctor knew why. it is not necessary to wear an arch sup- porter or an orthopedic shoe, if one has normal feet; and one can have normal feet if the above things are remembered. some girls choose foolish footwear, and later have much discomfort and are unable to walk. very great care must be taken to keep the feet dry. it is cheaper to buy a pair of rubbers than to pay a doctor; and rubbers save shoes and keep the wet from rotting the thread of the shoes. many women forget that it is dangerous for a woman to get her feet wet. selecting clothing that is healthful. stockings should be chosen in relation to climate. it is unwise to wear thin, transparent stockings on a cold day. if possible have two weights and select according to weather. corsets are important. they may seriously affect health if not worn correctly. they should fit snugly over the hips but allow freedom at the waist line. for young girls corset waists are very satisfactory. great care should be taken, however, when the first corset is making other garments selected. jane smith says her mother tried several for her before getting exactly the right one. the corset should leave no marks on the body. the danger is that, unless well fitted, a corset interferes with circu- lation. lacing causes all kinds of troubles. it deforms the body and makes it hour glass in shape, in- stead of free and beautiful like miss james' picture of the venus de milo (fig. ). when tight bands or corsets interfere with circulation, the blood supply for the brain and the other organs is shut off, and consequently these organs are not nourished. most girls wish to pre- serve the graceful waist line with which nature has endowed them. do you? fat easily accumulates around the waist, but plenty of ex- ercise, gardening, sweeping, walking, climbing, will prevent this. buy a corset which supports your organs, one which does not press down- wards; and arrange the garters so that they will not be too tight and interfere with the circulation. underwear affects health. do you remember that we discovered the reason why one should be particular about the kind of underwear worn? we learned that ill health and fatigue are often caused by weight of fig. . — notice the beautiful lines on the figure of venus de milo. clothing and health clothing or by tight clothing causing lack of circulation or by clothing which prevents the skin from being venti- lated. textile materials and temperature of the body are closely related. we should learn to know which materials to select. each person feels the need differ- ently. old people and little babies feel the heat or cold more than other people. grandmother stark usually feels cold and wears a shawl about her shoulders. underwear must be chosen in relation to climatic con- ditions and also for conditions under which one wears them, for indoor or outdoor work. each must study her health, the climate, her age, and occupation, and plan accordingly for the best kind. underwear should be chosen which can be easily cleansed, also that which will permit plenty of air next to the skin. these properties of materials, as we call them, must be studied. the body, as we know, loses heat and water every day. some materials conduct heat more rapidly than others; and some absorb and retain, while others elim- inate, moisture more readily. absorption and elim- ination differ with different fabrics. linen is quicker than other fabrics to eliminate moisture. wool on a dry body of a person who does not exercise freely feels warm and continues so as long as the skin does not give off more moisture than the wool can take up. if the body continues then to give off moisture, the heat of the body cannot escape and one does not feel comfortable. if a current of air or a draught occurs, making other garments the heat will be conducted quickly and the bodily tem- perature reduced too quickly. so underwear must not only prevent too great loss of heat by conduction, but must be so constructed as to conserve heat when it is needed. heat is eliminated when materials conduct it. porosity of materials prevents too great elimination. the air in the meshes or pores prevents this, as a still layer of air does not conduct heat readily. a loosely woven or knitted shawl is warmer under certain con- ditions than one which is firmer. two lightweight garments are better than one heavy one because of the air space between. wool is warm, but irritating to many people. it is not as cleanly as some fabrics, for it absorbs the body excretions and is not easily laundered. as it shrinks with use, it has fewer air spaces between the meshes. any loosely woven or knitted underwear with air spaces is more hygienic than the closely woven. cotton garments are often woven loosely and so treated in manufacture that they absorb easily. silk is very pleasing but costly. silk and wool combined are also excellent, but expensive. the great argument for wool or for wool and cotton is that evaporation is slow unless moisture and draught are present, and so the bodily temperature is not apt to be reduced so unduly as through cotton or linen; in other words, one is not so apt to take cold. union suits form an even layer over the whole body clothing and health and are considered more hygienic than the double layer of vest and drawers at the abdomen. exercises and problems . what underwear do you think is the best kind for you to wear considering your age, work, climate, health? . write a composition of two hundred words about the best kind of corsets to wear, and why. . what important things will you consider the next time you buy a pair of shoes? review problems i. begin to keep your clothing budget. ask mother to permit you to plan it. do not stop at the end of the year; keep on for at least four years. ii. in what ways are you definitely planning each day to keep well? how do clothes help? iii. what facts learned at school can you give mother about wool, which will help in buying your new winter coat. iv. plan a school exhibit of all the work done during the year. your teacher will make suggestions about the refreshments and invitations as well as plans for mounting the work. clothing and health thought, too, as well as time; but ann knows that it pays. have you, too, thought about these things? one must also know what is suitable and appropriate for various occasions, and how to choose becoming colors in materials or hats and gowns if one buys them ready-made. this is really a study in buying, too, and of knowing how materials are made and can be tested. all these things were discussed by miss james and the pleasant valley girls. they were always very glad when miss travers came to help too. lesson i what it means to be well dressed the pleasant valley girls have decided that it is worth while learning about suitable and attractive dress. they are anxious to begin this study. suppose we learn some of the things one must think about and study in order to be properly and attractively dressed. one does not have to be expensively dressed in order to be attractively and well dressed. much de- pends on appropriateness. it is not appropriate for a girl to wear jewelry, thin stockings, low fancy slippers, lace waists, feather hats, to work or to school. how much more attractive and appropriate is a plain, neat shirt waist and cloth skirt, a plain necktie and a simple hat, and plain boots or ties. one should not dress as if one were going to a party when one goes to work or to school. do you understand what appropriateness choosing and wearing clothes means? it means wearing the suitable kind of clothing for every occasion. it is our duty to be as well dressed as possible, for our friends' sakes as well as for our own; but a well-dressed girl is never conspicuous. clothes which would be appropriate in a large city for a recep- tion might be very inappropriate in a small town. our daily clothes should be adapted to our uses, whether in country or city. would you wear your party dress for gardening or for tennis or skating?criticize your own gar- ments. try to have them neat and clean, for this makes one more self-re- specting. try to have your clothes convenient, neat, graceful, beautiful, allowing for free move- ments of the body. choose flg- -which of these girls looks . ready to do her work r something which is not overdecorated but which will emphasize your charm and personality. young girls do not need jewelry or much decoration on clothes, for youth is always charm- ing in itself. some girls try to copy every "latest style." do you? one should not unless it is a style which will suit one. cousin ann heard a talk at the young choosing and wearing clothes sidered in choosing color. stooped or narrow shoulders, if they cannot be corrected, can be made to look less nar- row by the plan of the gown. stout figures can be made to look less stout. so by choosing the right colors and correct decoration and right lines, one can often improve one's appearance. miss willing says to understand about this is to have what the speaker at the young women's christian association called "artistic apprecia- tion." one should cultivate artistic appreciation for good furnishings as well as for appropriate dress. miss willing told the girls another evening about color and good lines, for they are all so anxious to learn. they never even imagined before that any one ever thought about such things. marjorie allen and the other girls at pleasant valley school are very glad cousin ann told them too. the costume should be the background as it were. miss willing says to remember always that a really artistic costume is one which makes us say "what a lovely girl!" rather than "what a lovely gown she is wearing." a costume should not be so strong in color or design that one thinks only of that. do you re- member how in some rooms we feel the pattern of the wall paper or of the carpet. when one does, the design is poor; the wall is the background. our clothes should make the wearers' good qualities stand out. they should be subordinate, miss willing says. do you understand that word? miss willing says the outline of our clothed figures clothing and health should be pleasing. have you ever walked to town and seen girls with large hats which were not balanced on their heads, and short skirts and perhaps large muffs? if you watch them as they come towards you down the street, you will see that the whole outline or silhouette against the sky or house is poor; they look top-heavy or, we say, unbalanced. such a costume is not good. a smaller hat with the short skirt is what is needed in order to have a balanced figure. the out- line of the natural human figure is most beautiful. look at the lovely figure of the grecian woman (fig. ); see how the lines follow her figure. costumes which make ugly lumps, as bustles and large muffs, and other ugly shapes are not well balanced. an artistic dress shows good taste. do you remember your talks in your art class about the spaces in a design, and the relation of one to the other. this is true in dresses too. tucks, buttons, seams, bands of trimming all mark off spaces on our bodies (fig. ). in order to have a really artistic dress, there must be a plan about the arrangement of spaces. a short, stout girl with bands of trimming running around her skirt and with lines of trimming running up and down the fig. . — notice the lovely folds of the grecian costume. clothing and health have lost half or more than half of their strength, are more interesting and becoming for large figures for a whole dress. yellow is nearest light, and in combination with red gives the oranges from which we get browns of all kinds and degrees, rich and warm in effect. try mix- ing these colors in your paint box. green combines yellow and blue. it is a light, cheerful, and calm color, always restful and soothing. the yellow-greens are perhaps more cheerful; that is, when more yellow than blue is used. when more blue is introduced, the greens are more soothing and cool. violet is red and blue mixed; a cool and exciting color, which can be very intense or very subdued. choosing color for a dress. do you think the pleas- ant valley girls will think before choosing their new gowns whether it is for school, or for a best dress, for a party or for the house? even apron material can be chosen which will make the wearer look unattractive. why not look pretty and clean when one is at work too? miss willing says that quiet color in dress is an evi- dence of good taste. in combining colors in dress one must aim to obtain the right balance in color. miss willing says, in planning the color scheme for a costume, think about the dominant or most prominent color and endeavor to bring the others into harmony with it. harmony is the result of colors being brought together. touches of black help to bring colors together and so harmonize them. miss willing gave several other " choosing and wearing clothes suggestions for harmony. cousin ann put them down in her notebook and sent them to marjorie. . when one wishes to use contrasting colors, as yellow and violet, one can get pleasing harmony by using a large quantity of one color and a small amount of the other. this subordinate relationship of one color to the other gives harmony; the more grayed the tone of the large mass of color, the greater the intensity of color in contrast that can be used. . in combining colors of weak intensity for harmony, a harmony of costume of one mode, that is one color used in different values, is safe but is not always so interesting as the contrasting colors. . to emphasize a color, a touch of the same may be added to some part of the costume. blue eyes seem even more blue with a blue necktie around the shirt waist collar. . another way to make a good harmony is to use complemen- tary colors. red and blue; green, violet, and yellow; green and plum; blue and orange; purple and yellow-green. one should be used intense, and the other in a gray tone. for example, in com- bining color with hair, greens, particularly gray greens, are very pleasing with auburn hair. barbara oakes discovered that fact with her auburn hair. violet tends to make yellow hair look more golden, so care must be taken to have a gray violet so the gold color in the hair will not be overpowered. "red" hair is made to look brighter when a blue costume is worn. so you see one can avoid unfortunate combinations if one studies the strength of the color of the hair in relation to the colors to be used. learning to combine colors. miss james had many samples of gauzy chiffons which the girls learned to handle and to combine so as to get artistic results, for combinations of complementary and contrasting colors choosing and wearing clothes studying lines of a costume. miss james says the best way to get an effect of height is to place the longest possible vertical lines through the center of the figure with no points of emphasis as trimming on the outer parts (fig. ). for a slim figure, when one wishes to appear stout, the outline of the figure should be empha- sized at the outer sides of sleeves or shoulders or skirts, by such arrange- ment of trimming that the eye is carried across the figure (fig. ). miss willing and the girls had a good laugh about the use of large plaids and broad stripes for stout people. plaids or squares certainly tend to em- phasize stoutness, as do bold designs or conspicuous color combinations. so many things to remember — line, value, color; all-important, if one is to be attractively dressed. miss james has decided to permit the girls to work out the color combinations at school for their new spring dresses. the subject of the costume makes coior jn choosing hats is equally impor- the figure appear t . . . . larger. tant. let us study next lesson about it. fig. . — vertical lines through the center of the costume make the figure ap- pear thinner. fig. .— notice how the emphasis on the outside of choosing and wearing clothes about their hair and hats. she said that so many wo- men and girls forget to take care of their hair. it should be washed once a month in hot water with cas- tile soap and perhaps with the white of an egg, and then thoroughly rinsed. the comb and brush should be washed once a week. marjorie allen's mother has beautiful hair, and she says she does as miss travers told the girls; and also she brushes her hair carefully to remove dust, every night before going to bed, and braids her hair in two braids for the night. this is a very good way to care for one's hair. have you ever noticed how some girls nearly lose all their hair because they burn it or dry it up with the curling irons? one should be very careful always to test the irons on a paper. burned hair is not beautiful. so often girls forget that the becomingness of a hat will depend on the way the hair is taken care of or dressed. large bows, out of proportion to the size of the head, are very poor taste. a bow as well as a hat should suit the face in line as well as color, and a bow which stands way out in conspicuous angles is not good in line, as it is not apt to conform to the lines of the face and of the head wearing it. have you noticed this? fig. . — which arrangement of hair and bow do you think most appropriate for school wear? clothing and health perhaps you can try to rearrange some of the bows the girls are wearing to school so they will be in better taste. cleanliness of the head and hair, and a clean, clear complexion, which comes from proper food and good digestion as well as from cleanliness, are the best back- grounds for a hat. any girl who has this charm of cleanliness can with thought choose a hat which will be becoming. hats, also, emphasize the defects as well as the good points of the wearer; so neatness and a becoming way of arranging the hair will help very much. perhaps some of the girls would like to learn to make hats, too. the hat is the most difficult article of the whole wardrobe to select. most girls and women wear hats that are too small and that stand on the top of the head instead of fitting it. good taste, miss james says, in choosing hats means the very thing we have studied about: artistic appreciation, a knowledge of line and color and form as well as appropriateness. think about the shape and the lines of a hat. hats should be chosen or planned, if one is making them, in relation to the whole figure. do you stand up or sit down before the mirror in selecting a hat? try standing up so you can see your whole figure and the relation of the hat to the whole. you can tell then if the hat is too large or too small, whether it overbal- ances the figure, or if the silhouette will be pleasing. marjorie allen says since she has learned about these things she is surprised to notice how few people have thought of this question of the silhouette. sometimes, choosing and wearing clothes the milliners are to blame too, for they do not always know this secret. marjorie says her new winter hat does not please her because of the silhouette. miss travers told the girls to think especially about lines. the round-faced girl whose nose turns up a little will look best in a hat that is slightly tilted in front or with a rolling brim at the side or front. barbara oakes says she discovered that for herself. she had two hats which rolled in that way; and she liked them better and was more comfortable in them than in others. she also learned through experience that she did not look well in narrow hats that bend over the face. miss travers says it is true when one's face is full and the nose retrousse, that such a shape is not apt to be becoming. miss james says she noticed that long, thin faces look longer and thinner in high pointed trimmings. fig. .—one can select a hat which will make a good silhouette when one sees the whole figure before a mirror. what kind of trimming, then, would you recommend for a long, thin face? for long faces, a brim worn slightly forward will cast a shadow and so tend to shorten the length of the face; and brims that are rolling and wide, coun- teract the effect of the long, thin face. do you see choosing and wearing clothes cause they are not worn properly. sometimes the wearer forgets and pushes the hat back or to one side; and then its lines do not conform to the outline of hair and head and face. study how to wear your hats. large hats are often difficult to wear because of correct balance. which way looks better? if you would like to try to make a simple summer hat, perhaps you can buy a frame, and with your teacher's help learn to change and adapt it to your face. it is easy to learn to sew straw on a frame and to trim with a bow or flowers. simple trimming for young girls is always the most pleasing; flowers, wings, quills, and simple bows are the most suitable. clothing and health . baste seams of sleeve and underarm all in one long seam on right side. match at armhole. make flat fell, turning the fell towards the front (see page ). . hem the bottom of the middy with one inch hem. . finish the neck next. prepare the collar with its facing according to the notches of the pattern and directions. sew; turn to right side. if the collar is to be decorated with finishing braid, this decorating should be done before the collar and facing are sewed together. attach collar to middy, right of center collar to right of the center back of middy. the seam will then fall on the inside towards the neck and will be concealed by the facing which should be turned in and sewed over the seam. patterns for middies vary, and other methods of attaching collar may be suggested. a loose ribbon or scarf of silk can be tied under the collar to form a sailor's knot. . then finish the sleeve. the sleeve may be finished with a half inch hem and rolled as many are worn, or a cuff can be attached which will be of the same width as the sleeve or just to fit the wrist. in the latter case, the fullness of the sleeve must be gathered to fit. the girls of pleasant valley school made sleeves of three quarter length, and attached a turned-up cuff of same width as sleeve. this cuff was made double: the two pieces sewed together, turned, and attached to the sleeve with the seam, on the outside of sleeve. the facing, then, concealed the seam and, when the cuff was fig. . —eyelets were turned up, was entirely concealed, made by some girls in thjs makes a very neat finish inside the tront their middy waists. the sleeve. clothing and health what a help the pleasant valley girls will be when the dressmaker comes to their homes. they are not old enough to take full responsibility, but they will surely be able to assist after the dressmaker has planned. this will help their mothers, too. mrs. allen, mrs. stark, and mrs. oakes have already discovered how many good suggestions their daughters have to give. it is sometimes wise to buy things ready-made. in our grandmothers' day this was impossible. grand- mother stark used to stitch all grandfather stark's shirts by hand and make his overalls. to-day one can buy good serviceable garments like overalls, rompers, shirts, etc., at moderate prices, ready-made. just what should be made at home should be determined by the mother, and will depend on her time and duties at home. some mothers can so organize their house- hold work that they have time for some sewing too, and they enjoy the change of work. it pays to make certain garments because the workmanship is often better and one can choose one's own materials. this means that the life of the garment is apt to be longer. this is economy if one has the time and strength; but it never pays if one sacrifices other things like fresh air, exercise, some relaxation, for the sake of saving a little money. what should you consider in buying ready-made garments? miss travers says it never pays to buy flimsy materials, cheap lace edging, or insertions which are poorly put together and will tear. one can instead clothing and health reduction, if one can wait. winter garments are reduced in january or february, and summer goods in july or august. it often pays to wait. in planning one's wardrobe, one can think about this. january is often a good time to buy household linens or other furnish- ings at a reduction. . the use of garments should guide one in making a selection. it is necessary to study one's whole ward- robe and to know what is needed. a girl engaged in business will need an entirely different wardrobe from one who spends most of her time at home helping mother. the first step, then, in economy is to know one's needs and to purchase accordingly. is the gar- ment needed and suitable for the occasion? remember about appropriateness, and buy garments which will render the service needed. one does not wear silk dresses for housework. . sometimes undergarments are made in sweat- shops under very undesirable conditions for health. the garments are cheap because made by poorly paid workers under very unsanitary conditions. do you wish to wear such garments? as long as women buy the cheap kind made at the sacrifice of human life, this sweatshop system will continue. one can buy inex- pensive underwear made under sanitary conditions. it is labeled with a tag of the consumers' league. this is an organization which is trying to better the condi- tions in workrooms and shops in which clothing is made and to improve wages and working hours. this league clothing and health time, until they are worn out. if materials are good, one can often have one's clothes remade, by combina- tion with a little new material of a contrasting kind. a knowledge of textile materials and values will always help in selecting either ready-made clothing or materials. . remember you must know about the things you wish to purchase. clerks as a rule know very little fig. . — it takes much thought to learn to buy intelligently. about the goods they sell. if you know, you can make the dollars earned buy more than if you were ignorant. what should you think about in buying materials? here are some of the hints for purchasing wool and silk materials or garments which miss travers gave the pleasant valley girls. talk them over with your teacher. see if you agree. . garments made of wool and cotton mixed do not keep their shape as well as all wool. if one can afford choosing and wearing clothes only wool and cotton, the salesman should tell one in purchasing about their composition. the mixture should be cheaper. it is often sold for all wool at a higher price. if one untwists the fibers of the material, it is possible to detect cotton. try at school on some ravelings of garment seams or other materials. the burning test will help one to decide. we shall learn some tests in our next lesson. . remember wool is an expensive fiber. do not expect to get all wool for little money. . remember the weave affects wearing quality. a close twill weave is often more durable than a basket weave. do you remember your lessons about silk; how it is grown and made by the little worm, and how it is manufactured or spun into thread or woven into silk cloth? in buying silk one must remember about its manufacture. . silk is seldom pure. it is apt to be weighted. if the silk feels heavy in the hand, it does not always mean that it is a good piece of material and will wear; it may be weighted with tin; up to per cent of tin is not harmful. a softer, pliable silk is not apt to be so weighted, and will wear better. soft silks so woven as to pull at the seams are not economical. close weaves are better than loosely woven ones for wearing. . fray some of the threads of the cloth you wish to buy. is it possible to break either the warp or woof choosing and wearing clothes to buy intelligently that they decided to learn to judge materials and to study about adulterations. how are clothing materials adulterated? miss james told the girls that there are a number of ways of adulterating materials, and that most women shoppers are so indifferent that manufacturers have been able to adulterate the materials of everyday use. this increases the cost of living, for materials do not wear so long. miss james says that textiles should be labeled so we may know what we are buying. some kind of adulterations are honest if the goods are so marked; but, when sold for something they are not, the buyers are fooled. the tests help one to know whether materi- als are adulterated or not. let us learn first some of the methods generally used in adulterating, and then some of the simple tests. weighting is one method of adulterating. this means that something else has been used beside the material. in cotton and linen material, sizing or starch is pressed in with the rolling in finishing. after washing, this material will be found to be very open in mesh instead of smooth. notice some of the smooth linen table cloths before they are laundered. afterwards you will notice they look quite coarse and have lost their smooth- ness. sometimes glue or clay or gums are used instead of starch. silk is often weighted in the finishing process with sugar and some with dyes and metals. this is because silk has a property which enables it to absorb a great o clothing and health deal of moisture without changing its quality. the manufacturer can buy salts and dyes for less than silk, and so he often uses a large per cent of dye or metal in place of the gum washed out of the silk in manufacture. one can seldom find to-day silks like our grandmothers used to use. this is because people wish cheap silks; the manufacturer can- not produce silks for little money, as the raw fiber is so high; and so he uses other things with silk to weight it. materials are also adulterated by combination with other materials. did you ever buy a handkerchief marked "pure linen" and discover it was a mixture of cotton and linen? cotton is also used to adulterate woolen mate- rials, and sometimes silk materials; "pure silk" so called, is often artificial silk. adulteration is also practiced when made-over materials or waste is used to cheapen the cost. we learned about this in studying about wool. wool materials should be labeled so that the purchaser will know. it is not fair to pay the price for an all-new wool material if shoddy and mungo and flocks, which are all old wool and waste, have been used. the per cent of new wool should be told and the price made accordingly. fig. . — one can sometimes test ma- terials by burning. choosing and wearing clothes silk is sometimes sold as reeled silk when waste from cocoons which is called spun silk has been used for the woof or filling thread. in finishing of materials, adulteration is sometimes practiced. in press- ing cotton or linen, a luster is given to the surface. cotton can be made to appear like silk or like linen, and is often sold for those fibers. cotton can be napped in fin- ishing and made to look woolly as in blankets or outing flannel, but it is still only cotton. how can clothing material be tested? these are the sim- ple tests which the pleasant valley girls learned: for sizing. this is easy to identify. pick at the surface with your nail, and the starch or sizing will easily come off. hang a wet piece in the air and see how the gloss looks then. this sizing often conceals defects in the cloth. fig. . — the microscope reveals many things. clothing and health jwk, the test for fading more slowly. when heavily weighted, the flame does not burn readily and the form of the silk will remain. the vegetable fibers, cotton and linen, burn quickly and with a flame. tests with microscope. you have all seen the ap- pearance of the fibers under the microscope. this re- veals many things, and the these can be seen if the mate- rial is thin, by holding it against the light. burning tests. the girls unraveled the fibers which miss james gave them and tested wool, silk, cotton, and linen. they tried both warp and filling threads. they burned them with a taper. the animal threads (which are they ?) burned slowly, charred, and smelled like burned feathers. silk burns to an ash, except when weighted. then it burns very = ' hi - l li h iii fig. . — the test for shrinkage. choosing and wearing clothes unraveled fibers are easily identified. the microscope is the only sure test for telling cotton and linen fibers. one can sometimes discover shoddy mixed with the all- wool fiber because of the color. shoddy is sometimes made of old colored woolen rags. tests for fading. pin a piece of cloth on a board with thumb tacks. cover half with cardboard or heavy paper. expose to the rays of sun for several days. remove paper and notice difference. a piece can also be exposed near bright light, but not in sun's rays, to see the effect under ordinary wear. marjorie allen tested a piece of cashmere she was considering for a dress and decided not to buy it, for it faded quickly near the bright i:~u». fig. . — the test for strength. tests for strength. try to break either warp or woof threads. place the two thumbs together and press down on the cloth which should be held firmly in the hands. try both sets of threads. sometimes a weak warp or woof can be discovered. tests for shrinkage. barbara oakes had a white cot- ton dress last year which never seemed to stop shrinking. sometimes we can test materials for shrinkage. measure width and length of sample to be tested. wash it in hot water and soap. dry and measure again. is it nar- rower and shorter? in planning for cotton or woolen garments allowance should be made for shrinkage. choosing and wearing clothes of caustic potash. the animal fibers will dissolve, the cotton will remain. of what use would this test be? . moisten samples of cotton and of wool with millon's reagent. place in porcelain dishes and heat gently. the animal fibers will become red; the vegetable are unchanged. . material made of cotton and linen and sold for all linen can be tested. place fringed sample in a porcelain dish. heat gently in per cent solution of caustic potash for two minutes. remove with glass rod and dry between blotting papers. the linen will be dark yellow in color and the cotton white or light yellow. so we have learned a few tests of different kinds. there are many more. when you go to high school you can learn about others. the pleasant valley girls enjoyed making these tests with miss james' help. perhaps you may be able to try them with your teacher. exercises and problems . try the above chemical tests with your teacher's help. . try some of the other tests for adulterations. . tell four ways in which materials are adulterated. lesson how pattern is made in cloth barbara said she never could quite see how pattern is made in cloth. there seem to be so many different kinds of patterns. miss james explained about this. she said there are several ways of making patterns. some are printed; others woven; some embroidered. have you discovered this? patterns are often woven. do you remember, when you studied about linen, you learned that the jacquard clothing and health loom has a series of cards above it which are able to control the pattern? wonderful silks and beautiful velvets and brocades as well as damask table linen are made in this way by weaving. patterns of stripes and plaids are also made by the loom in weaving. sometimes the warp or the filling threads are colored; and this color forms patterns in stripes or squares. see if you have any pieces in your surprise box in which pattern is made by colored threads of warp or woof. try to find some woven patterns made by the jac- quard loom in silk or linen. think of all the beautiful ribbons, silks, tablecloth damasks, towels, and nap- kins; all such patterns are woven by the loom. plain patterns like basket weave, twill, diagonal, satin weave, are also made by weaving. see if you can work out some of these patterns on your school loom. some patterns are printed. on the plain woven material, patterns are printed by means of rollers on which the pattern has been stamped. the colors are put on by this roller. the picture shows the machine. did you ever have a calico apron or dress of percale or cambric on which the pattern showed on one side only? many ribbons are printed with a pattern, but sometimes patterns are put on both sides of the cloth. again, printing is sometimes done on the warp threads before the filling thread is woven in. this makes a dull effect in pattern. miss james had a piece of ribbon which was so printed. when it was ravelled out a little, the printed warp could be seen. choosing and wearing clothes did you ever see a foulard silk dress with white spots? do you know how they are made? there are two courtesy of cheney bros. printing cloth by machinery. fig. . methods. one is called " resist," and the other " dis- charge." the first method, " resist," is easy to under- clothing and health stand. the material is printed before it is dyed. the spots are printed with a chemical which resists the dye when it is put in the dye bath. so the cloth comes out of the dye with white spots where the chemical was stamped. the "discharge" method is just the opposite. the cloth is dyed blue or black or whatever the color is to be, and then it is passed between rollers something like your wringing machine and the color is taken out in spots by chemicals. sometimes, when the chemicals are too strong or cheap, they eat the cloth. jane al- den's cousin had a dress from which the white spots fell out, leaving holes. patterns are sometimes printed on cloth by means of wood blocks or stencils. perhaps you can do some printing on plain cloth. you can make a stencil pat- tern. cut out the design in it and paint through the holes, or cut a design from a piece of wood, dip it in color, and print the cloth. lovely materials are made by hand in this way. miss james has a beautiful english piece of morris block printing which she values highly. many patterns are embroidered. look in the piece box. sometimes embroidered designs are worked on cloth by hand, but many are made by machine. miss james has a scarf which came from india. it is em- broidered in gold with little bits of glass sewed on the right side, and held by the embroidery. this is all hand work. miss james has a waist with little spots of white embroidered in silk. this is done by machine choosing and wearing clothes on a loom. find some piece of material embroidered by machine. so barbara oakes now understands about the pat- terns. miss james had some books to show the girls, too. they looked up in the encyclopedia about print- ing of materials and about the other things they wished to know about patterns. barbara says to her the most wonderful thing is the way in which the warp threads of the loom can be controlled by the jacquard pattern cards and other devices. the shed of the warp as it is raised for each filling thread is governed by the de- vices, and a different set of threads bobs up for each shuttle throw. exercises and problems . mount on strips of cardboard, samples of material made: a. by weaving, plain, stripes, diagonal, etc. b. by printing, resist, discharge, machine, block, stencil; c. by embroidery. . look up in the encyclopedia or other books the subject of cotton printing. . try to find pictures of modern looms and more primitive ones in which pattern is controlled by the harness which raises the warp threads and makes the so-called shed. review problems i. look over the fashion pages of your magazines at home and find: . a young woman suitably dressed for business. . a girl dressed for outdoor sports. . a girl in a party gown. tell why you think each is "well dressed." if not, why? u clothing and health ii. what textile tests would you suggest when buying a silk dress. mrs. stark expects to have one next summer. how will she be able to judge if it will wear? iii. can you make another middy at home. perhaps you are so expert you can take an order for one. the ellen h. richards house and sunset. if our own town is ugly and unhealthy, it is not nature's fault; for the beauty and home- likeness and the healthfulness of any place depend upon its inhabitants. even the simplest and plainest village or countryside has one kind of beauty if it is kept per- fectly clean, and it costs but little money in many places to plant trees and shrubs and keep the grass green. you must see, however, that it is something more than beauty in the things about us that we have been studying together. you boys and girls in your school are to be the men and women who will make the homes and the town the best possible places for successful and happy living. do you realize what it means to be citizens of a great commonwealth like this of our united states? do you understand the meaning of the word "commonwealth "? it is a good old word that means a land where all the people share everything alike and work together for the good of all. we cannot succeed in doing this unless we begin in our home and in our home town. more and more must our country stand for democracy for ourselves and for the whole world, and you must bring to the problems of the future, bodies strong and clean, and strong hearts and minds. index adulteration: by combination, . by weighting, . in finishing, . albatross, . alpaca, . ammonium phosphate for outing flannel, - aniline dyes, . apparel: choosing, . apron: attaching the yoke, - . basting skirt part, . cutting skirt part, . cutting yoke part, . gathering top of, . hemming sides and bottom, . material for, . planning pattern for yoke, . planning to make, - . sewing seams of, - . the sewing, , . useful, . "artistic appreciation " in dress, - . attaching an apron yoke, . basting: corset cover, . gores of petticoat, . hemmed patch, . skirt of apron, . stitch, . bathing, . bean bags, making, . bean bag board, . bean bag game, , . bias bands, to finish, . bias strip, cutting and placing, - . birdseye, , . blankets, . blanket stitch: how to make, . uses of, , , . bleaching linen cloth, . bloomers: bands for, . making, - . material to use for, . pattern for, . bluing, . bobbin, , . boiling linen, . brilliantine, . broadcloth, . brocaded satin, . brushing clothes, . bunting, , butchers' linen, . button, sewing on, . buttonhole: fan and bar ends, . finishing, . overcasting, , . placing, . practice in making, . stitch, , . turning corner, . buying:garments, - . materials, - . points about, - . index calico, . cambric, . canton flannel, . carding: by hand, - . cotton, , . wool, - . caring for clothes, - . carpets, . cashmere, . catch stitch, how to make, - . chain stitch, . challis, . chambray, . cheesecloth, use of, . cheviot, . chiffon, . china silk, . chintz, use of, . cleanliness of body, - . cloth: how made, - , - , - , - . how pattern is made in, . clothes: appropriate, . brushing, . care of, - . choosing and wearing, , . removing stains and spots from, . things to learn about caring for, . why important, . clothespin bag, - . clothing: budget, - . color for, - . expense of for a year, . for body at night, - . helps save body heat, . important things about wearing, . night, aired during day, . points about buying, . ready-made, - . relation to health, - . selecting healthful, . clothing (continued) several layers of, warmer than one thick layer, . things to think about in choosing, . what to do with, at night, . what to remember, in purchasing wool, - . why air at night, . why changed at night, - . why we wear, . clothing budget, - . cluny lace, . cocoons, grown for silk, - . colored silks, . colors: choice of, - . for clothing, . for a hat, . "grayed," - . intensity of, . learning to combine, - . to bring out one's characteristics, - . commercial pattern, how to use, - . consumer's league, . corsets, . corset cover: how to make, . material for, . nainsook for, . corticelli cocoons, . costume: a background, . a work of art, . artistic, - . studying lines of, . cotton: baled and shipped, . carding, , . fibers, , . how grown, . how spun, , . loom for weaving, . picking, . seeds taken from fiber, i index flax: (continued) rippling and retting, - . rippling by hand, . rovings, . seeds, . what is the, plant, . wheel, , . where grown, . flocks, . folding table linen, . foulard silk, . free-hand pattern, . french seam: how to make, - . use of, - . galatea, . garments: buying, , . criticize your own, . points to consider in buying ready- made, - . gauge, for hem, . "german val," - . gifts: aprons, . bag, . clothespin bag, - . darning-case, . guest towel, . needle book, . pin-case, , . sewing apron, . sewing-case, . spool-case, . useful cases, . gingham, , . grenadine, . guest towel, . hair, care of, - . hamburg edging, , . handkerchief, linen, . handmade garments, - . hanging table linen, . hat becoming, - . color, . how to wear, . selecting, . shape and lines of, - . trimming for, . health: clothing in relation to, - . underwear effects, - . heels, . hem: gauge for, . making on nightdress, . turning around neck of nightdress, . hemmed patch, how to make, , . hemming stitch: for hemmed patch, . how made, - . why useful, . hemstitch: different from hemming stitch, . how to make, - . henrietta, . herringbone stitch, . herringbone weave, . holder: finishing, . planning, cutting, and basting, . homespun, . huckaback, , . indian head, . ironing, , . jacquard loom, . javelle water, . kimono night dress, . knitting machine, . lace:cluny, . german val, , . kinds of, , . index lace (continued) made by hand, . names and retail prices of, - . other ways to finish instead of using, . sewing on, - . torchon, , . valenciennes, , . lady's cloth, . "latest style," . lawn, . linen: bleaching, cloth, . finishing, cloth for shipping, . kinds of, - . manufacture of, - . weaving, . where grown, . (see flax.) linen canvas, . linen laces, , . linen materials: .adulteration in, . how identified, - . kinds of, - . linen sheeting, . linens: how to wash and iron, - . points to be noticed in buying, - . linseed oil, . loom: for weaving cotton, - . hand, , , . "in days gone by," . in factory, . jacquard, . primitive, , . luna moth, m. materials: adulterated, , . buying, - . for apron, . for bloomers, . for underwear, , . from cotton, - . materials (continued) from wool, - . linen, - . silk, - . weighted, . measurements: how to take, - . melton, . middy blouse, how to make, - . mohair, . moire silk, . mull, . muslin, . nainsook, . nightdress: cutting, . french-seam, - . making hem of, . material for, . placing pattern, . trimming, . nun's veiling, . organzine, . outing flannel, . outline stitch, . overcasting buttonhole, , . overhanding stitch, - . pageant, . parts of sewing machine, - . patch (see hemmed patch). pattern: embroidered, . for bloomers, . for petticoat, . how made in cloth, . how woven, . laying for bloomers, . laying nightdress, . opening and reading, - . opening and studying, . printed, . sending for, . spinning (continued) primitive, . spinning: cotton, - . flax, - . silk (see silk throwing). wool, - . spinning wheel: for flax, . for wool, . sprinkling linen, . stains: blood, . coffee, . fruit, . grass, . how removed, . ink, . tea, . when to be removed, . stitches for decorating, - . (see embroidery stitches.) stitching stitch: making, - . other uses of, . use of, . stockinet, . stockings: darning, - . how made, . kind to buy, . sewing rips in, . studying lines, . studying values, , , . suits, pressing, . table runner, . taffeta, . tears, learning to darn, - . textiles: for apron, , . weighted, . textile sample books, . textile surprise book, . textile surprise box, opening, . index textile test: burning, . chemical, . for combination, . for fading, . for finishing, . for shrinkage, . for sizing, . for strength, . with microscope, . threading and running a machine, - . ticking, , . torchon lace, , . toweling, material for, . towels, material for, - . "tram", . tweed, . underwear: cotton material for, . relation to health, - . uses of lace, - . valenciennes lace, , . velvet, . voile, . warp thread, - . washing and ironing, the process for, - . weaving: by hand, with simple loom, . cotton, . in modern factory, . japanese girl, - , . linen, . patterns in cloth, . silk, , - . wool, - . well-dressed, what it means to be, - . white petticoat, - . wool: blended, . < ?v harvard college library library of the graduate school of education collection of text-books contributed by the publishers sewing and textiles s. harvard univecit graduate school cf education gift of the publishers apr k copyright, , by little, brown, and company. all rights reserved norwood press set up and electrotyped by j. s. cushing co. norwood, mass., u.s.a. to the student have you thought about what you will do when you finish school? perhaps you have decided to be a teacher, a librarian, a stenographer, a doctor, a nurse. perhaps you are making plans to take a course in high school or college that will fit you for one of these callings; you would not consider yourself capable of entering any of them without training. very probably you will be at some time the manager of a home. have you thought about the importance of being trained for home-making? it is only within the past twenty-five years that it has been considered proper for the public schools to train girls for the work which most of them will do for the longest period in their fives, the work of home-making. mrs. ellen h. richards was the first to say that the schools ought to teach "right living;" and, largely through her efforts and her inspiration, plans have been worked out whereby girls while in school can be taught many things about right living. right living begins with the home. who makes the home? the man may furnish the money to build and maintain the house, but it is the woman who plans and manages the home. it is her busi- ness to see that the family lives in a sanitary and an attractive house; that every member of the family to the student has clean, properly selected and well cooked food; that every one is suitably clothed; that the family income is wisely spent, and that all in the home are helped to lead a happy and useful life. no girl should consider the making and managing of a home an easy piece of work, for in fact nothing is harder to do and to do well. when the girl takes work in school and college that covers all phases of home-making, we say that she is taking a course in home economics. x suggestions illustrations and exhibit material that can be se- cured will help to make the work more interesting. the following firms furnish "school exhibits" that will be found useful: j. wiss & sons company, - littleton ave., newark, n. j., scissors; w. h. compton shear company, - bergen st., newark, n. j., scissors; s. b. & b. w. fleisher, th & reed sts., philadelphia, pa., "wool processes" ($ . ); cheney brothers, fourth ave. & th st., new york city, silk exhibit and booklets, "the story of silk" and "glossary of silk terms"; pacific mills, lawrence, mass., cotton exhibit and wool exhibit; belding brothers & company, belding, mich., booklet, "silk culture and manu- facture, shown progressively" ( cents plus post- age), and silk exhibit ($ . plus postage); corti- celli silk mills, florence, mass., book, "silk, its origin, culture and manufacture" ( cents), wall card, "how silk is made" ( cents), box contain- ing silk cocoons ( cents), silk-culture cabinet ($ . ). in addition to the reference-books that should be found in the school library there are bulletins which are very valuable as reference material. write to the following addresses and ask that publications be sent to you and that your name be put on their permanent mailing-list: division of home econom- ics, bureau of education, washington, d. c.; children's bureau, department of labor, wash- ington, d. c.; department of agriculture, wash- ington, d. c.; united states public health service, treasury department, washington, d. c.; federal board for vocational education, washington, d. c.; all state universities and agricultural colleges; suggestions xi american home economics association, cathedral street, baltimore, md., "the journal of home economics" ($ per year). in writing to the department of agriculture ask also for a list of farmers' bulletins and for publications issued by the office of home economics. contents page . · . · · · · . . · · · · · · · · · · preface . . . . . . . . . to the student . . suggestions . . . list of illustrations. . preliminary lessons the sewing-basket implements for the sewing-basket . . project i- the sewing-apron materials for the sewing-apron. . stitches to use in making the apron a piece of cloth ginghams . . . . . . . . cotton how cotton cloth is made project ii — the nightgown cotton materials commonly used for underwear the sewing-machine . . . . . . other cotton materials . . . . . facts about lace . . dyeing . . . . . . how cotton materials are adulterated ribbons to use in underwear . . how silk materials are made . . project iii — the gift towel towels . . . . . . . . how flax is grown . . . . . . the making of linen cloth some linen fabrics . . . . . . · .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . · . · . . . . xiv contents project iv —the underslip paqe wool: where it comes from how cloth is made from wool wool materials commonly used .... embroidery to use on underwear knitted underwear and stockings .... the cost of clothing the care of clothing removing stains healthful clothing project v—the wash dress selecting a wash dress the becoming dress appropriate clothing some points for the consumer some textile tests project vi — christmas gifts index list of illustrations measuring to find the amount of material needed for the nightgown frontispiece page good types of shears and scissors pages from the booklet on "the sewing-basket" . . three types of basting method of making running-stitch method of placing needle in hemming . . . . gathers ready for pulling into place .... method of overhanding the cover of the textile book a page in the textile book cotton bolls position of the needle in feather-stitching ... method of sewing on button the weaving-card the finished sewing-apron steps in making a plain seam machine-made french seam lace edgings of good design good types of beading ribbon loom weaving silk for neckties .... method of folding cloth when cutting a true bias . method of joining two bias strips finished casing which might be used around the neck of a nightgown silkworm silk cocoons silk moth sewing and textiles sewing and textiles the sewing-basket a sewing-basket in which to place the imple- ments used for sewing is needed by every seam- stress if she is to do her sewing easily and well. a basket or box can be kept in better order than a bag, and sewing-materials when kept in a box or basket are less rumpled than when put in a bag. the implements needed in the box are scissors or shears, tape-line, needles, emery bag, pin-cushion, pins, thread and thimble. in order to do good work the implements must be of the right kind and in good condition. scissors are six inches or less in length, while shears are over six inches in length. it is always best to buy shears when both cannot be purchased, because shears are always needed for cutting out garments. shears may be bent or straight in shape; the bent ones are easier to use because they do not raise the cloth far from the table in cutting. select shears or scissors that are made of forged steel and that are not so tightly joined that they work hard. scissors or shears must be sharp if they are to do sewing and textiles needles, while very small, require a great deal of care in manufacture, and pass through the hands of a great many workmen before they are finished. ordinary sewing-needles are sold in packages with twenty-five needles in each package. there are three kinds of needles used for plain sewing: ( ) sharps, the longest needles; ( ) ground- downs, the next in length; and ( ) betweens, which are the shortest needles. needles are of twelve sizes, the sizes being num- bered from to , the no. being the finest. a package of needles may contain needles of different sizes or may contain needles all of one size. sizes , and will be used most in our class work, as these are the sizes used for most ordinary sewing. if needles and thread are too coarse for the sew- ing that is being done, the stitches will never look well. select the thread that is near the size of the thread in the cloth on which the sewing is to be done, and select a needle just large enough to carry the thread. good sewing cannot be done with a bent or rusty needle. needles, when not being used, should be placed in the pin-cushion or in a needle- book and not left in the sewing. laboratory exercises directions for laboratory work personal appearance: the hands should be washed be- fore beginning any sewing. with a wool dress or skirt some kind of sewing-apron should be worn, so that the work will not become soiled from rubbing over the dress. position: sit erect with back against chair and with feet on the floor. hold the work so that there is no need g sewing and textiles for stooping over. never pin work to your knee when sewing. sitting with a table in front of you, when sewing, is the best plan. care of work: needles should never be left in the material when one has finished sewing, because dampness may cause the needle to rust and this injures the material. thread-ends on all spools should be slipped through the groove made for that purpose. the tape-line should be neatly folded, and all other equipment in the sewing-box placed in order. all materials used should be neatly folded before they are placed in the box, basket, or bag. implements for the sewing- basket the emery bag is used for keeping the needle bright and free from rust. the tape-line is always needed in doing accurate work. select one made of cloth, double, and stitched on both edges, and finished with brass tips on the ends. it should be sixty inches in length and every inch should be divided into eighths. pins used in sewing should have a sharp point and should not be coarse. english pins are the best to buy because they are fine and sharp-pointed. pins are made from brass wire and require a great deal of work in making. a "paper" contains pins. often pins to be used for sewing are sold by the box. never use bent or rusty pins in sewing. the best pin-cushion is stuffed with wool rather than cotton because needles and pins run through the wool much more easily than through the cotton. the pin-cushion may be used only for the pins and a needle-book used for the needles. sewing and textiles sewing-thread is made from cotton, linen and silk. fine, smooth, even thread was not made until the sewing-machine was invented. a great deal of thread is now made in scotland, but there are large factories in america. cotton and linen threads are made in different sizes and are sold by number, the higher the number the finer the thread. the numbers do not run consecutively. silk thread is numbered by letters, a, b, c and d being the usual sizes. besides the ordinary sewing-threads there are many kinds made for special purposes, such as buttonhole twist and darning cotton. when removing thread from the spool, measure a strand the length of the arm, cut it from the spool, and fasten the cut end on the spool through the little groove made for this purpose on the edge of the spool. laboratory exercises learning to use equipment scissors: learn to hold scissors correctly. practice cutting a straight edge. if bent shears are used, lay a piece of paper on the table and cut across it with the shears. how should they be held to keep the paper as nearly as possible flat on the table? when would it be convenient to use bent shears? tape-line: make the following measurements with the tape-line, and indicate length on piece of paper: f inch; f in.; ^ in.; ^ in.; £ in.; in. thread: measure length of thread to be used in needle; cut from spool with scissors, never bite nor break the thread. fasten thread-end on spool. thread needle. practice making knot in end of thread; a knot should not be too large and should never have a "tail." sewing and textiles running a heavy thread through the material when it is being woven. the cord may run lengthwise only, or may run both lengthwise and crosswise, in which case it is called cross-barred dimity. the material usually breaks or splits along the cords when it wears out. lawn is a thin starched material, - inches in width, and is made in white, in plain colors, or in figures. both lawns and dimities fade badly when washed, especially those made in figures. they also rumple easily. these materials, however, make dainty aprons and are often trimmed with lace or finished with fancy stitches, such as feather-stitching. lawns and dimities are used also for summer dresses. when selecting them for either aprons or dresses, choose a piece that is firmly woven of fine threads. this will require buying the medium or high-priced materials, but it is more economical to buy good material for such garments than to buy cheap cloth that will shrink and fade badly the first time it is washed. it is not economical to use time or spend money for making garments from cheap materials. ginghams are used probably more than any other fabric. they are of several types and vary in width and price. they are made in stripes, checks and plaids. gingham of a good grade holds its color when washed and does not rumple like dimity and lawn. home problems and questions see if you can find pieces of dimity, lawn and gingham in the scrap-bag at home. bring these to sewing and textiles folding. baste the hem. in making the apron the hems will be finished with the hemming-stitch down the side and the feather-stitch across the pocket. in hemming, hold the material over the first finger of the left hand with the thumb on top of the hem. hide the knot in the thread under the folded edge of the hem. take a tiny stitch in the material close to the fold, but before pulling the needle through, take up a tiny bit of the fold, holding gathers ready for pulling into place the needle in a slanting position with its' point toward the left shoulder. pull needle through. repeat, taking the next stitch a little beyond where the needle came out. fasten the hemming by taking stitches one over the other. a hem is used as a finish for the raw edge of cloth. gathering: gathering consists of small, running-stitches with the thread so drawn as to full the material. gathers must be "laid" if they are to go into a band easily. to do this, fill the needle as full of stitches as possible, then draw the material together. wrap the thread around the needle in such a way that the material is held firmly, then pull down on the material, holding sewing and textiles the needle firmly between the thumb and first finger of left hand, doing the pulling with the right. when the cloth is creased so that the gathers stay in place, unwind the thread and pull the needle through the ma- terial. repeat with each needleful. gather on a single thread, being sure that there is a good knot in the end of the thread. when the gathering is finished, cut the thread without fastening, leaving it longer than the space in which the gathers are to fit. make a knot in the end of the thread. overhanding: this stitch will be used in making the pocket on the apron. overhanding is used in sewing together two selvedge edges or two creased folds of cloth. it consists of tiny, slanting stitches taken over the two edges, beginning at the right and sewing toward the left. practice making these stitches on pieces of cloth, learn- ing how to hold the cloth correctly. review questions . why is a sewing-apron useful? . describe lawn. for what purposes is it used? method of overhanding sewing and textiles spinning is the twisting together of fiber to form yarns. weaving is the process of interlacing two sets of yarns together so that they form cloth. perhaps you have made paper mats by weaving. the machine on which the weaving of cloth is done is called the loom. spinning and weaving were done in the home by our grandmothers, who made the cloth used by the family, but now fabrics used for clothing and household textiles are made in the factory. very fine machinery is used, and every piece of cloth that we buy has gone through numer- ous processes in the factory before it is sold in the store. laboratory exercises making the apron textile study: examine samples of cotton cloth. pull out both warp and woof threads. is there a difference in the size? which is the more difficult to break? pull the yarn in pieces. what is left? examine the selvedge. tear a piece of gingham. what happens to the edge? would it be best to tear or cut the edge that is to be hemmed or gathered? material: use white cross-barred dimity. the amount of material needed is the desired length of the apron plus j inches. thread suitable for material. needles suitable for thread. button. heavy cotton floss. making the apron: take your waist measure, being sure that you do not pull the tape-line too tight. add two inches to this measure and you will then have the necessary length of the band for the apron. measure along the selvedge of the cloth to see if the length is as long as, or longer than, the required band length. cut off the selvedges, making the edges even. straighten both ends of the material. this is done by pulling out a woof thread and cutting on the open line left after sewing and textiles drawing out the thread. always pull out a woof thread which extends clear across the cloth. for the band, cut off a piece \ inches wide down the lengthwise side of the material. draw a thread to follow in cutting. turn a hem, \ inch wide, towards the right side of the material, down each lengthwise edge of the apron. baste and hem by hand. across the bottom of the apron make a half-inch hem, turning it toward the right side. baste. this hem is to be feather-stitched later. gather the top of the apron, running the gathering thread \ inch from the edge of material. take your band material and, if it is too long, cut it off until it is the required length. if it is too short, perhaps some one using the same material as you are using will have a piece of band material left, and you can sew this on the end of your band, using fine running-stitches. be sure when you put the band on the apron that this seam is inside the belt. find the middle of the top of the apron and the middle of the band. pin these two points together, placing the right side of the band against the right side of the apron. measure seven inches from the middle of the band toward each end of the band. mark with pins. the gathers are to be made to fit into this space. pin the sides of the apron to the band at these points. pull up the gathering thread until the gathers lie evenly in the space. wrap thread around the pin holding the band and apron together, so that the thread is tight and will not allow the gathers to slip. distribute the gathers evenly across the space and pin to the band in several places. baste apron to band, across gathers, with \ inch basting-stitches. sew together with running- stitches, or stitch by machine. begin at the gathers on one side and fold the band in about \ inch all the way around to the gathers on sewing and textiles that is very beautiful, and the cloth is soft when crushed in the hand. it is much more expensive than either apron or domestic ginghams. zephyr ginghams are made of very fine yarns and are thinner than other ginghams. they always have heavy threads running through them, making cords or ribs. they are usually made in stripes or plaids. they are used for dresses. madras gingham is a rather heavy cloth used for men's shirts and women's tailored shirtwaists. kindergarten ging- ham or cloth is a firmly woven, rather heavy material, used for children's romp- ers. it wears well and is a kind of ging- ham that has be- come very popular. scotch ginghams are very fine quality ginghams usually made in plaid designs — the designs being copies of the scotch highlanders' plaids, thereby giving the cloth its name. it is an expensive gingham, used for dresses. chambray is a gingham that is always woven with a colored warp and a white woof. it is never woven in designs but has the appearance of a plain color. it is used for dresses and aprons. the cover of the textile book light green paper, with dark green design in water color; tied with a green cord. sewing and textiles home problems and questions how many kinds of gingham scraps can you find at home? keep them for the textile book. what is the price per yard of the following ginghams: domestic, apron, chambray and madras? do your local stores carry french ginghams? if so, what is the price? do ginghams cost more than they did two years ago? bring samples to school. laboratory exercises making the apron (continued) textile study: make a textile book by using white sheets of paper for the leaves and a colored or brown-paper cover. decorate the cover as desired. cut the lawn, dimity and gingham samples equal in size. paste each in the book by one edge, so that the samples can be examined on both sides. under each sample place the name of the material. as other materials are studied they can be added to the book. continue work on apron. review questions . name the kinds of gingham mentioned in the lesson. describe each. . which of them are used for dresses? for aprons? for children's clothes? . why does gingham hold its color well? . in what designs is gingham made? . what kind of weave is used in making gingham? . what is the price of the cheaper ginghams? of the more expensive? . is all gingham of the same width? . how will a knowledge of ginghams be of value to us? sewing and textiles cotton more clothing is made from cotton than from any other fiber. besides the many kinds of cloth used for dresses, waists, aprons and underclothing, there are stockings, gloves, knitted underwear, laces and embroideries which are made from cotton. thread for sewing, crocheting and embroidering is made from cotton. absorbent cotton is used by doctors, and gun cotton is used for explosives. cotton bolls cotton is grown in the southern states. texas produces more cotton than any other state. the principal countries growing cotton besides the united states are brazil, india and egypt. there are a great many different varieties of cotton. the cotton seeds are planted in the early spring. the crop begins to ripen in july and continues to do so until november or sometimes december. cotton fiber is obtained from the cotton bolls, or seed pods, of the cotton plant. the outside of the cotton boll is brown, but when it is fully ripe the brown covering breaks and a white fluffy mass appears; this is the cotton fiber, and it clings to the sewing and textiles you will need to run a basting thread to mark the "middle line." buttons and buttonholes: the apron band should have a button and buttonhole so that the apron may be put on easily. sew on the button, using one not more than | inch in diameter. the button is sewed on in the following manner. use a double thread in the needle. find the middle of the width of the belt, one half inch from the end; at this point begin with the knot in the end of the thread on the right side of the belt; run the needle through a hole in the button, place a pin over the top of the button and sew over it; bring the needle down through the opposite hole in the button and through the cloth to the wrong side, then up through the first hole, and repeat the process three or four times. remove the pin and wind the thread around the stitches under the button, run the needle through to the wrong side, and fasten with two or three stitches, one over the other. measure exactly where the buttonhole should be placed, and mark with a pin. the buttonhole should method of sewing on button sewing and textiles stitch around the end, letting the purls all come to- gether at one point. it takes about five stitches to do this, and when it is finished the needle should be in a position to continue the buttonhole-stitch down the second side. this is called a "fan" end. turn the buttonhole so that the unfinished side is in the right position for making the button- hole-stitch. continue the buttonhole-stitch until the other end is reached. this end is to be finished with a " bar." this is made by taking two or three stitches across the end and ex- tending them the width of the buttonhole-stitches. the bar is finished by making the blanket-stitch over these threads and through the cloth. this stitch is done from left to right, the needle and thread being placed in the position shown in the picture on page . make the stitches close together. run the needle through to the wrong side and fasten with two or three little stitches, one over the other, being sure that they do not show on the right side. the result should be a perfect button- hole. tv method of making buttonhole sewing and textiles practice making the overcast-stitch, the blanket-stitch and the making of buttonholes. one eighth inch checked gingham is good to use for practice work until the work can be done evenly. do not make the buttonhole on the apron until you have learned to make a good one. this will require practice. review questions . in what ways is cotton fiber used? . where is cotton grown? . describe the structure of the cotton boll. . how is cotton picked? . what is ginning? . who invented the first cotton gin? when? . how is cotton fiber prepared for market? . name four new stitches that you have learned. . name some other uses for each stitch besides the use on the apron. . how does overhanding differ from overcasting? how cotton cloth is made the cotton bales are shipped to many parts of the world where factories use the cotton in different ways. some factories make only thread, others make only certain kinds of cotton cloth, such as gingham, while still others may make only under- wear and hosiery. when the bales reach the factory they are opened and the cotton is removed from its wrappings. it is then placed in a machine which blows out the dust and dirt. this machine is called a picker. the cotton as it leaves this machine looks like a roll of cotton batting about six feet wide, such as we see used for making bed comforters. this roll is then placed in another machine in which the cotton sewing and textiles is cleaned more thoroughly and the fibers are straightened. when it comes from this machine it is in the form of a long, soft rope. this process is called carding. the cotton rope is then passed through a series of machines, each one making the rope smaller in size and twisting it to make it stronger. this is called spinning. the thread which is thus spun from the rope, and is to be used in making cloth, is called yarn. the yarn may be bleached before it is ready for the loom. perhaps it is dyed, as in making gingham, or it may be prepared for making mercerized cotton cloth. the yarn is then sized. this is a process in which starch or some other material is put into the yarn to make it smoother, so that it will stand the strain of weaving. have you ever seen any one use beeswax on sewing-thread? it has the same effect as the sizing on the yarn. the yarn is now ready for the loom. cloth is now made on looms run by machinery. our great- grandmothers made the cloth on hand-looms, which was a very slow process. the first loom run by machinery was invented in by edmund cart- wright of england. in preparing the loom for weaving, the warp yarns are wound on a roller at the back of the loom and are threaded through the frame of the loom and fastened to the cloth beam in front. the woof yarns, or filling yarns, are wound on bobbins or spools which are fastened into the shuttle. in weaving, the shuttle passes back and forth across the warp yarns, weaving under and over them as the design of the cloth requires. in all looms there are devices for separat- sewing and textiles ing the warp threads so that the shuttle passes through easily, and other devices for pushing the woof threads tightly together. as the cloth is woven, it is rolled on the beam at the front of the loom. the cloth, as it comes from the loom, is inspected to see if there are any defects, and the thread-ends are cut off. the cloth may then be bleached, as in making white materials; or perhaps it is dyed, if the yarns were not dyed before weaving. usually the cloth is starched, and at the last it is stretched and pressed between heavy rollers to give it the smooth finish we like on cotton cloth. it is then wound into bolts and is ready for the market. laboratory exercises making the apron (continued) textile study: examine the threads pulled from a piece of cotton cloth. can you see the twist in the thread? if there is a small hand-loom at the school, practice weaving on it. examine the loom. look at pictures of power- looms. perhaps there is in the neighborhood a factory doing weaving which the class can visit. make a weaving-card by taking a piece of stiff card- board and using a large darning-needle; make a row of holes one inch from each end, having the holes one fourth inch apart. take heavy, firmly twisted, white cotton floss, and thread it into a large darning-needle. make the warp threads by bringing the needle up through a hole at one corner, taking the thread across and down through the opposite hole. bring the needle up through the next hole, running the thread across the card to the opposite hole, and so on until the card is finished. fasten the threads well. use colored yarn for the woof sewing and textiles threads. thread the yarn into the darning-needle, and do one inch of plain weaving on the card. the needle takes the place of what part of the loom? save this weaving-card to use later. finishing the apron: make feather-stitching with the cotton floss across the half-inch hem of the apron, doing it on the right side of the hem. this makes the finish for the top of the pocket. turn up the bottom of the apron eight inches on the wrong side. baste the hemmed edges evenly to- gether at each side. overhand these edges together, using very small, even stitches. take out the basting and turn the pocket over to the right side of the apron. pin it down evenly to the apron. measure the width of the pocket and divide it into thirds. mark each third with a pin. make a straight line of basting from the top of the pocket to the bottom at each pin, thus marking the thirds. feather-stitch down these lines, stitching through both thicknesses of ma- terial. sew on the button and make the buttonhole. review questions . for what is the picker machine used in making cotton yarn? . what is the next process through which the fiber goes? explain the process. the weaving-card sewing and textiles cambric is a cloth with a smooth glossy finish. it is like muslin or long cloth, but can be distin- guished by its gloss. it is inches in width. berkeley cambric is one grade that is very good for underwear. lonsdale cambric is another grade often used. nainsook is a very soft light-weight material which comes in different qualities, varying in price. it varies in width from to inches. the finer grades are beautifully finished and are used for infants' clothes. nainsook does not wear so well as muslin or long cloth when made into underwear, but is much used for finer garments. cotton crepe is a soft, crinkled material that does not need to be ironed after washing. it is often used for underwear for this reason. it is to inches in width and comes in different grades. in selecting cotton crepe for underwear, buy the kinds that are the softest and that do not feel harsh when crushed in the hand. cross-barred and other dimities are used for under- clothing. they do not wear so well as any of the other materials mentioned in this lesson. when buying muslin, long cloth, cambric, or nain- sook, it is more economical to purchase them by the bolt than by the yard. for making the underwear in class we shall use long cloth, because it is soft and easy to handle and yet wears well and launders well. home problems and questions collect samples of muslins, long cloth, cambric, nainsook and cotton crepe. perhaps you cannot find all of them, but some will find what others sewing and textiles there are two types of sewing-machines that may be purchased: — the double thread, or lock-stitch machine, on which two threads are used. one can stitch on either the right or wrong side of the material with this machine, as the stitching should be alike on both sides. this is the most common type of machine. — the single thread, or chain-stitch machine, on which only one thread is used. one must always stitch on the right side with this machine, as the wrong side of the stitching is in the form of a chain- stitch. when finishing the stitching, the thread must be fastened carefully, as the stitching pulls out very easily. one type of chain-stitch machine is used for sewing together the tops of sugar, flour and salt sacks, but this is a machine with a very different kind of stitch from the one made by the chain-stitch machine used for making garments. sewing-machines run by electricity are now used in some homes. these are very helpful when there is a great deal of sewing to be done. machines in garment factories are usually run by electricity. a sewing-machine must be studied carefully, so that one may understand how the parts are used and how they should be cleaned and oiled. a sewing-machine will not do good work unless it is in good order. home problems and questions make a list of the names of different kinds of sewing-machines which you have seen or heard about. what is the price of a good sewing-machine? sewing and textiles laboratory exercises practice stitching on the machine: examine the machine to be used and find the following parts on a double-thread machine: . bobbin on which the lower thread is wound. . shuttle which carries the bobbin. . plate upon which the cloth rests in sewing. . feed which pushes the cloth along when stitching. . presser-foot which helps to hold the cloth in place. how is it raised and lowered? . needle-bar which holds the needle. how is the needle fastened into the bar? . spool-holder for holding the upper thread. . bobbin-filler to use in winding the bobbin. . tension, used for regulating the tightness of the stitch. . screw, to regulate the length of the stitch. . treadle, upon which the feet rest. . connecting-rod which attaches the treadle to the machine or "head" on top of the table of the machine. . places for oiling. the book of directions com- ing with the machine will help you find these places. . the method of covering the "head " when it is not in use. practice running the machine without threading it until you can work the treadle easily, and until you can hold the cloth under the needle correctly. when you can make a straight row of needle-holes across the cloth you may begin making practice seams. be careful to have the needle-bar raised as high as possible before removing the cloth from under the presser-foot, so that you will not bend the needle-point. what are the directions for removing the cloth from the machine, as given in the book of directions? seams: a seam is the joining line formed by sewing together two or more pieces of cloth. sewing and textiles practice making a plain seam and a french seam, both by hand and on the machine. continue your practice on the sewing-machine at home if possible. review questions . when and by whom was the first sewing-machine made? . name some other men who helped to improve the early sewing-machines. . what two types of sewing-machines are there? which is used in the sewing-room? which kind do you have at home? . name the principal parts of the "head" of a sewing- machine. for what is each part used? . what is the treadle? how is it connected with the other parts of the machine? . how is the stitch regulated on the machine? . when the sewing is finished how should the machine be cared for? . name four makes of double-thread sewing-machines; name one make of chain-stitch machine. . why is it important to learn to sew well by hand? other cotton materials there are many other kinds of cotton cloth which may be purchased besides the ones that have been studied. it is well to know the names of some of the most common of these materials, and also for what purpose each is used. materials that can be purchased at all times in the store are called "standard materials." the ones we are to study are standard materials. calico is a cheap grade of cotton cloth which is used for making inexpensive dresses, wrappers and aprons. it is made in figured designs, either on a white or colored background, and is to inches wide. it usually shrinks and fades when washed. sewing and textiles cheesecloth is a very thin, light-weight, loosely woven cotton cloth, usually inches wide. it is used, like bunting, for decoration, for dust-cloths and for many other purposes. gauze used in surgery is one kind of cheesecloth. canton flannel is a cotton material with a smooth surface on one side and a long soft nap on the other. it was first made to sell in canton, china, whence came its name. it is to inches wide and is not dyed. it is used for interlinings in coats, and sometimes for underwear. cretonne is a rather heavy cotton cloth made in stripes and colored floral designs. it is to inches wide. it is used for draperies, chair covers and cushions, and for bags and other fancy articles. it often fades in the sun and when laundered. chintz is a fabric much like cretonne, and is used for the same purposes. denim is a heavy, strong cloth used for covering furniture, for pillows and for men's overalls. it is inches wide and comes in various colors. flannelette is a cotton cloth with a soft fine nap on both sides. it is often made in stripes or checks, which are printed on a white or colored surface. it is used in making kimonos, wrappers, or winter nightgowns. organdie is a sheer, very fine, light-weight material that is given a stiff finish. it is used for dresses and waists. it is made in plain colors, or in figures on a white or colored background. it is to inches wide, and different widths and grades are sold at very different prices. percale is a closely woven, firm material used for dresses or aprons. it comes in white or plain colors, sewing and textiles or in figures on a white or colored background. it is usually inches wide. pique is a heavy white material used for dresses, vests, neckties and bedspreads. cords or figures are woven in the cloth when it is made. it is to inches in width. sateen is a cotton cloth, woven like satin, and the right side has a smooth, glossy surface. it is used for linings, for petticoats, for covering furniture, for bags and in other ways. it is white, or made in plain colors, or in figures on a white or colored background. it is to inches wide. home problems and questions find samples of as many cotton materials as possible. ask the price per yard of the following: calico, percale, organdie, cretonne and sateen. laboratory exercises making the nightgown textile study: examine samples of each of the ma- terials mentioned in the lesson. which are plain-weave materials? use a hand microscope to study the ma- terials. compare calico and percale; canton flannel and flannelette; organdie and lawn; cretonne and chintz. how can you tell one from the other? cutting out the nightgown: read the description of the pattern given on the envelope. open the pattern. study all the groups and rows of different dots, notches, etc., and find what each one means. does the pattern allow for the seams? measure from the shoulder at the neck of your pattern to the bottom of the pattern. is the pattern the right length according to the measure- sewing and textiles monts you made when planning the amount of long cloth needed? if it is too long, turn up the extra length at the bottom; if too short, allow the extra length when cutting the gown. follow directions for laying the pattern on the ma- terial given on the direction-sheet. pin securely to cloth. make an allowance for extra length if needed. how will you do this? cut out carefully, making all notches in the cloth that are indicated in the pattern. eemove the pattern from the cloth, fold it carefully and put it back in the envelope. where should the pins be put? fold together the pieces of cloth that are left and place them in your sewing-box. make french seams in the gown, sewing them on the machine. review questions . name several cotton materials studied in the lesson. . name the cotton materials that can be used in making dresses; aprons; underwear. . what cotton materials are used for draperies? . for what kind of dresses should organdie be used? gingham? . for what is cheesecloth used? . name any other cotton materials that you know about which have not been studied. . why is it necessary to read the directions with the pattern before cutting a garment? . name different makes of patterns that can be purchased at the stores. facts about lace lace is often used for decorating underwear. when the right kind is selected it makes a very dainty finish. the lace used with muslin, long cloth, or cambric should be heavier than that used with sewing and textiles better grades are very pretty. the kinds of machine- made lace commonly used for underwear are: — valenciennes of two kinds: german, which has a round mesh, and french, which has a diamond- shaped mesh. valenciennes laces are suitable to use on nainsook or dimity underwear, on long cloth, or on crepe. valenciennes lace is made from cotton thread. — torchon lace is made from linen thread and sometimes from cotton. the cotton torchon is cheap in appearance and does not look so well as the linen after it is laundered. torchon laces are heavier than valenciennes laces and are suitable to use on muslin, long cloth, or cambric underwear. — cluny lace is a heavier lace than torchon. some kinds are very heavy and not suitable for underwear, but are used as a finish on such articles as doilies, curtains, or dresser-covers. cluny laces of the finer kinds may be used on muslin or cambric. — irish lace is a heavy lace, suitable only for long cloth, cambric, or muslin underwear. it is sometimes used with thin materials in making waists or dresses. perhaps you have seen some one crocheting irish lace. when fine thread is used, and the work is well done, it is a very pretty lace to use. — filet is another lace sometimes used on under- wear. it is a square-mesh lace, which means that the openings between the framework of the lace are square. it comes in both heavy and light-weight varieties, and makes a dainty finish on long cloth, nainsook, or dimity. filet is another lace often crocheted by women to-day, but most of the lace thus made is too coarse to look well on underwear. sewing and textiles home problems and questions bring to school any samples of lace you can find at home. look at the picture of the laces and see how many you can recognize. laboratory exercises making the nightgown (continued) to make the hems on the gown: the bottom of the gown is to be finished with a three-inch hem. make a guide, or gauge, to use in turning the hem; baste and stitch on the machine. on the bottom of the sleeves make a | inch hem. baste and hem by hand. try on the gown to see if the neck is the size you wish. if not, trim it around the edges. turn a j inch hem around the neck; baste and hem by hand. this hem is harder to make because the neck is curved, and in order to do it well the hem must be basted very care- fully with | inch basting-stitches. remove all bastings. review questions . how was lace first made? . name the machine-made laces that may be used for underwear. . what kinds of lace are suitable to use on muslin, long cloth, or cambric underwear? . what kinds are suitable to use on nainsook underwear? . why is torchon lace not suitable to use with nainsook? valenciennes with muslin? facts about lace (continued) lace edging is made with one straight edge and one scalloped edge. lace insertion is made with two straight edges, and is used between two edges of cloth, between sewing and textiles two strips of lace edging or insertion, or with beading. there are many combinations in which it is used, and different ways in which it may be joined in sewing to other material. insertion and lace of the same kind come in like patterns, and when both are to be used on a gar- ment, the patterns should be the same. beading is made with two straight edges and with open- ings large enough for ribbon of different sizes to be run through. the open- ings for the ribbon are of different shapes, — square, round, rectangular, or oval. beading is made from either linen or cotton thread. lace edging, in- sertion and beading are usually purchased by the yard, unless many yards are to be used, when it is bought by the bolt. it is usually cheaper when bought by the bolt. the straight side on edging, insertion, or beading should be finished with a strong thread which is not broken at any point. we sew over this thread when overhanding the lace to cloth or other lace, and in order to make a good joining the edge of the lace must be firm. good types of beading sewing and textiles edge of the lace. the joining of the lace ends should be done after the lace is sewed on the garment. in putting the lace on the sleeve, begin at the seam. hold the lace and cloth over the first finger of the left hand between the thumb and second finger, with the lace on top. overhand. by holding the edging in this way, it is slightly fulled on the edge of the sleeve. review questions . name three methods of dyeing materials; explain each. . how is printing done? name some printed cotton materials. . how can you tell a "dyed-in-the-yarn" material? . which type of dyeing is best to use for materials that are to be laundered a great deal? . why does white-polka-dotted blue calico wear out? how cotton materials are adul- terated cotton is the cheapest fiber commonly used in making materials for clothing. it is not so hard to select a good cotton material as it is to select a good wool, silk, or linen material, because cotton is not so apt to be adulterated. when we say a cloth is adulterated we mean that the fiber has had some cheaper material combined with it, thus making the cloth less expensive and not so good in quality. the material added is called an adulteration. for example, a piece of woolen cloth, sold as an "all- wool" material, in which some cotton is used, would be adulterated, and the adulteration would be the cotton. since cotton is the cheapest fiber, cotton cloth is not adulterated, but sometimes cotton textiles are sewing and textiles made of very poor, weak fiber, and the cloth does not wear well. sometimes the bleaching and dyeing processes used in manufacturing the cloth will be done carelessly, and the chemicals will weaken the fiber so that the cloth does not wear well. in order to test the strength of a cotton material try tearing it lengthwise. if it tears very easily it is of poor grade and not suitable for making into garments. thin materials, such as lawn, will tear more easily than muslin, and in making such a test this point should be remembered. another adulteration used in cotton cloth is weighting. weighting is used to make the cloth seem heavier and firmer than it really is. many kinds of gums, glues, clays and starches are used for this weighting. after a weighted material has been laundered the true quality of the material can be seen, as the weighting is largely washed out of the cloth. by weaving a material loosely, and adding weighting, a cloth of good appearance can be made, and unless one knows about this method of adulteration, the cloth may seem worth buying. by holding a thin cloth up to the light it is often possible to see the weighting between the threads. in a heavier material the weighting makes the cloth feel harsh, and when it is rubbed between the fingers a fine powder will rise from it. if a heavily weighted material is torn, the weighting can easily be seen as it flies from the cloth. many cotton materials have small amounts of starch used in the finishing, but when a large quantity is added it becomes an adulteration. dotted swiss is a cotton material in which there are dots embroidered with thread. a good quality sewing and textiles of dotted swiss is expensive. sometimes dotted swiss is made with dots of paste stuck on the material. when the material is laundered, the dots either disappear or turn a different color from the heat of the iron. if one looks carefully, it is always easy to discover whether the dots are of paste. mercerized cotton materials are made from cotton fiber that has been treated with chemicals in such a way that a silky appearance is given to the fiber and to the cloth made from this fiber. cotton poplin is a mercerized material. mercerized cotton is stronger than ordinary cotton. the silky gloss does not wash off when the cloth is laundered. sometimes cotton cloth is starched and pressed until it has a silky appearance, and when so finished is often sold as "mercerized" cotton cloth. this finish comes off in the first laundering. real mercerized cotton materials are expensive; the imitations may often be found by studying the prices. laboratory exercises making the nightgown (continued) textile study: have a sample of dotted swiss to ex- amine. if possible, have one sample finished with paste dots. test muslin samples for weighting; for strength of material. have one mercerized cotton material to study. continue work on the nightgown. review questions . which of the commonly used fibers is cheapest? . what is an adulteration in cloth? give an example. . what is the adulteration commonly used in cotton materials? sewing and textiles . give ways of testing cloth for this adulteration. . in what other ways may cotton cloth be made less valuable to use? . what is mercerized cotton? how is it imitated? . explain how dotted swiss is adulterated. ribbons to use in underwear ribbons of many widths and kinds are to be found in the stores. they are made of silk, silk and cotton, or of artificial silk. ribbons are woven on looms. a number of widths of ribbon will be woven, side by side, on the same loom, to save time in manufacture. ribbons are made in all kinds of designs, and in all colors, and one has a gay assort- ment to choose from when buying. when finished at the factory, ribbons are wound into round bolts with a strip of paper between the layers of ribbon. baby ribbon is sometimes wound on wooden spools. ribbons may be purchased by the yard or by the bolt. the number of yards in a bolt varies. ribbon usually costs less when purchased by the bolt, and when buying a great deal of ribbon to use in under- wear it is more economical to buy it in this way. ribbon for underwear should always be white, or of a very delicate color, such as light pink, or blue. bright pink, green, yellow, or rose are examples of poor colors to choose. baby ribbon is the kind commonly used for underwear. it comes in many qualities. some kinds are sold as "wash" ribbons, which can be laundered. not all "wash" ribbons launder well, however, and it is always better to remove the ribbon from the beading before launder- ing a garment. the very cheap baby ribbons are not firmly woven, and when used pull out of shape; sewing and textiles if there is any strain on the ribbon, it may break. select a ribbon which has a firm edge and holds its shape when pulled lengthwise. cotton and linen tapes may be used in underwear in place of ribbon. if these are used, they will not copyright by keystone view company. ribbon loom weaving silk for neckties have to be removed when the garment is laundered, but they do not give so dainty a finish to the under- wear as does the ribbon. they are good to use sewing and textiles when one has little time to spend on the care of clothing. sometimes crocheted cords are made to use in underwear. these are made from cotton crochet-thread. a tape-needle is used in running ribbon or tape through the beading. the eye of the tape-needle is made either lengthwise or crosswise of the needle, and is wide enough to hold narrow widths of ribbon without crushing them. sometimes, in elaborate underwear, wider ribbons than baby ribbons are used. if the garment is finished with casings, ribbon may be selected which is the width of the casing. wide headings, which will hold ribbons of different widths, can be pur- chased. the ribbon should be the width that will pass through the openings in the beading without being crushed. laboratory exercises making the nightgown (continued) measure the amount of ribbon needed for the night- gown. continue work on the nightgown. feather-stitching in patterns: this may be used on the fronts of nightgowns, corset-covers, or combination suits. make some designs on paper that you think would be pretty to use for feather-stitching the front of a nightgown. try making one of these on a square of long cloth. what kind of floss should you use? bias casings: these are used in place of lace and beading on underwear. use colored dimity and a square of long cloth for making the practice piece. use the dimity for making the bias strips. to cut a true bias, fold over the corner of the cloth so that the woof threads sewing and textiles dreds of years ago in china, when an empress dis- covered how silk cloth could be made from the cocoon of the silkworm. most of our silk fiber comes at the present time from china, japan, italy and france. little silk is produced in the united states, because labor is much more expensive than in the other countries, and this makes the silk cost more. the silkworms come from eggs that are laid by a moth. the little worm feeds on mulberry leaves and grows very rapidly. when the worm is full grown, it is three inches long. it then begins to silkworm spin its cocoon, which it fastens to twigs. as it moves its head back and forth, it throws out two tiny streams of thick, sticky fluid, one from each side of its head. as the fluid comes into the air it hardens and cements the silk fiber of the cocoon. it takes three days for the worm to complete the cocoon. after the first day the worm cannot be seen, but it can be heard working within. in order to produce all the raw silk needed, silk- worms are grown in nurseries which are specially built for this purpose. some silk is made from the fiber obtained from the cocoon of the wild silk- worm and is called "wild silk." sewing and textiles during the fifteen to twenty days after the silk- worm has made its cocoon, it changes from a worm to a moth. this moth then moistens the end of the cocoon and breaks its way out. in order to keep the moth from coming through the end of the cocoon and thus breaking the silk fiber, the cocoons silk cocoons are heated so hot that the moths are killed. a certain number are allowed to come out, however, so that they can lay the eggs to produce a new lot of silkworms. after this heating process the silk is ready for reeling. this is the process of winding the fiber from the cocoon. the cocoons are placed in basins sewing and textiles are in new jersey, connecticut, new york and pennsylvania. when the bales reach the factory in this country the bundles, or hanks of yarn which make up the bale, weighing raw silk, japan are first sent to the throwster. the throwster puts the hanks of silk to soak in order to remove more of the gummy substance from the fiber; then the skeins are placed on reels, and the silk is wound sewing and textiles from the reel on to spools. the spools are then placed in a machine which winds and twists together two or more strands from the spools so that they form one yarn. this yarn is to be used for warp threads on the loom and is called "organzine." the yarn to be used for woof is not so good a quality of silk and is only loosely twisted. it is called "tram." silk is dyed in the yarn or in the piece. the best grades of silk cloth are dyed in the yarn. in order to dye the silk, the gum must be removed from the fiber. this is done by boiling the silk yarn, after which it is known as boiled-off silk. this gum makes up one fourth of the weight of the silk. some manufacturers, in order to make up this loss in weight, dip the silk in some material, such as chloride of tin, which the yarn absorbs until it often weighs twice or four times as much as the boiled-off silk. this material added to silk is called weighting. this weighting causes silk fiber to crack on creases when worn, or to rot and crumble, which often happens to silk garments when they are hung away in closets for long periods. black silks are weighted more often than the light-colored silks. in weaving silks many beautiful patterns are made by the use of the jacquard harness. this is a de- vice on the loom which controls and regulates the warp threads in the weaving so that the pattern is woven into the cloth. this wonderful machine was invented in by joseph marie jacquard, a frenchman. sometimes in silks the patterns are made by printing, stenciling, or embroidery. moirs, or watered effects, are produced on silk cloth or ribbons sewing and textiles by running them through engraved rollers that stamp the cloth. there are a great many processes that may be used in finishing silk materials. sometimes fifty or more will be used before the material is ready to be sold as finished cloth. home problems and questions collect as many silk samples as you can to bring to class. can you find a piece of ribbon or cloth finished in a moire pattern? can you find a printed silk material? can you find one that has been woven with the jacquard harness on the loom? laboratory exercises making the nightgown (continued) textile study: learn to distinguish the following kinds of silk cloth, — chiffon, crepe de chine, china silk, pongee, satin, taffeta, velvet. use samples. put into your textile book samples of as many of these as possible. what is the price per yard of each? finish the nightgown: what is the total cost of the night- gown? make a list showing what each article cost and put this list in your notebook. review questions . where are most of the silk factories in the united states? . what does the throwster do with the silk fiber? . what are the warp yarns called? the woof yarns? . how do the two differ? . how may silk be dyed? . what is weighting? what kinds of silk are apt to contain the most weighting? sewing and textiles . for what is the jacquard harness used? . how is moire ribbon made? . does silk require much finishing? . which of the silk materials studied would be good to for dresses? waists? petticoats? . when are silk dresses suitably worn? the finished nightgown sewing and textiles designs woven in the material are often very beauti- ful. it is sometimes made without a design. turkish or bath towels are woven in such a way that there are loops over the surface of the cloth, and this gives them a very rough surface. towels may be bought ready-made, or the toweling may be purchased by the yard and the towels made at home. some of the more expensive huckaback and damask towels are woven with finished designs across the ends. guest towels are narrow, short towels, often finished with hemstitched ends, cross- stitching, embroidery or lace. laboratory exercises making a towel textile study: examine samples of glass toweling and crash toweling. examine samples of linen huckaback and of cotton huckaback. which do you think best to use for making a hemstitched towel? materials needed for making the towel: f yard huckaback guest toweling. no. white cotton thread. needles. cotton floss for cross-stitch. canvas for cross-stitching. hemstitching practice: use a piece of heavy, coarsely woven material upon which to practice hemstitching. straighten the end of the material; measure in \ inches from the end on the selvedge; mark with a pin. pull out four or five of the woof threads, beginning at the point marked by the pin; be careful to pull the same thread all the way across the cloth. turn under the raw edge one fourth inch toward the wrong side; turn again to make a hem, bringing the first fold even with the edge of the open space made by the drawn sewing and textiles threads; baste the hem very carefully, using one fourth inch basting-stitches. knot the thread. hold the cloth so that the hem is held as for hemming. hide the knot under the fold of the hem, beginning as you would for plain hemming. throw the thread up and toward the right, away from the hem. pass the needle under four of the threads, pointing the needle down and toward the hem; pull the needle through. again pass the needle under the same group of threads in the same way, but this time, before drawing it through, take up a little of the under \ method of hemstitching cloth and also a little of the fold of the hem, making the needle come out between two groups of threads. this ties the group of threads together and also fastens the hem. continue across practice piece. fasten the end with two stitches, one over the other. double hemstitching is made by hemstitching along the other side opposite the hem. practice hemstitch- ing until you can do it easily. review questions . what qualities are necessary for a good towel? . which fiber makes the best toweling? . what is glass toweling? . what other kinds of toweling are often used in the kitchen? . name two kinds of toweling used for face towels. which is better to use? sewing and textiles growth. in europe this work is done by women and children who weed the tiny plants, going through the fields on their hands and knees. when the flax is ready to harvest, instead of cutting it with a machine as we do wheat or oats, they pull the plants up by hand. the stalks are laid with the roots together and are bound into bundles. these bundles are stacked or hung up to dry. harvesting flax bt hand when the flax is dried, the next process through which it passes is rippling. this is a process in which the seeds and dried leaves are removed from the end of the stalk. when it is done by hand, two men sit, one on each end of a long bench, in the middle of which is a large comb which has teeth about eighteen inches long, placed a short distance apart. the flax is drawn through this comb, and the leaves and seeds drop on a sheet be- neath the bench. machines with revolving cylinders are now used for this work. the flax stalks are sewing and textiles then tied in bundles and are ready for storage or for the next process. laboratory exercises making the towel (continued) straighten the ends of the toweling. make a hem an inch wide at each end. how far from the end must the threads be drawn for hemstitching in making a hem this width? baste hems; hemstitch both ends of towel. review questions . from what plant is linen fiber obtained? . where is flax grown? . which countries produce the best flax fiber? the greatest amount? . did russia and belgium produce as much flax as usual in - ? why? . describe the flax plant; its care during growth. . how is flax harvested? . what is the first process through which it goes after drying? . for what is flaxseed used? the making of linen cloth the next process through which the flax goes is called retting. this is a very important one and it must be carefully done. retting is the process by which the outside woody portions of the stem are decomposed or rotted so that they can be removed from the inner part, or flax fiber, which is to be used in making cloth. retting is sometimes done by placing the flax fiber on the ground and allowing the dew, the sun and the rain to rot the outer layers of the stalk; sewing and textiles or steam and chemicals are used; or the flax fiber may be placed in running water or in pools, where it is left until the outer layers are rotted. the last process produces the best flax fiber. the water in the river lys in belgium seems especially good for this purpose, and some of the best colored, finest and strongest fiber is produced in this region. the flax bundles are packed into a retting flax flax ponds being filled. large wooden crate, lined with burlap to keep the dirt out, and the fiber is covered over the top with fresh straw. the crate is then sunk to a certain depth in the water and weighted down with stones and sod. it takes fourteen or fifteen days for the retting when done in this way, and during this time the odor from the flax is very disagreeable and the water is often poisonous to fish and cattle. the flax fiber is now put through the processes of breaking and scutching, during which the outer sewing and textiles in many qualities, varying very much in price. it is a beautiful material when made of fine linen fiber and woven in good designs. table damask of good quality is expensive, but it wears well and is worth buying. sometimes tablecloths are woven with a border design on each of the four sides of the cloth, and the tablecloth is then called a pattern cloth. table-linen sold by the yard has the border design running only along the sides. napkins are always woven so that each has a finished border design around the four sides, but they are sold, six to twelve, in one long strip and must be cut apart before hemming. linen damask is imitated in cotton, and table- cloths sold as cotton damask can be purchased at a much cheaper price than the linen damask. cotton damask does not have the glossy, smooth finish that linen damask has, after it is washed, and stains are much harder to remove than from the linen. sheeting, the material from which sheets are made, is sometimes made of linen. linen sheets are ex- pensive; cotton sheeting is generally used. the term "household linen" means the sheets, pillow-cases, tablecloths, napkins, doilies and towels used in the household. many of the articles, how- ever, may be made from cotton rather than linen. handkerchief linen is a fine sheer linen used for handkerchiefs, dresses and waists. linen lawn and linen cambric are other very thin, fine linen materials used for handkerchiefs, dresses and waists. a great many handkerchiefs are now made from cotton, but the cloth looks so much like linen that it is difficult to tell them apart when selecting them in the store. sewing and textiles dress linens are heavy materials used for dresses and suits. when they are dyed, they are usually in plain colors. sometimes linen sheeting is used for making white dresses. when we buy an all-linen material, it is expensive. many of our cotton materials are finished like linen, but do not wear so well nor retain their finish. it is difficult to tell some cotton materials from linen materials, and the purchaser often buys cloth she thinks is "all linen", only to find later that it is all cotton, or part cotton and part linen. there is no certain way to judge an all-linen material in the store. home problems and questions examine the tablecloths used in the school dining room, or at home. how wide are they? how is the design arranged? what patterns are used? examine the napkins. examine a piece of cotton damask and of linen damask used for tablecloths. from among the samples found at home choose the ones for the textile book. what is the price by the yard, and the width of each? laboratory exercises making the towel (continued) cross-stitching initials or a design on the towel: do you remember the sampler about which we talked in one of the earlier lessons? this sampler was made with cross-stitch. cross-stitching is made over canvas which has been basted to the cloth upon which the design is to be produced. patterns for cross-stitch can be pur- sewing and textiles chased. these patterns show the number and arrange- ment of crosses necessary to use in making the design, and are often printed in the color to be used. the patterns can be purchased in dry-goods stores, at the pattern departments, or at stores handling art needle- work supplies. usually the canvas can be purchased at choss-stitching canvas basted to towel used as guide for stitches. the latter place. perhaps you can make a design in the drawing class. find the middle of the towel end and baste a piece of canvas, large enough for the design, on the right side of the towel at this middle point, as far from the hem- stitching as desired — probably about one inch — so sewing and textiles if the ruffle is to be made of the same material as the slip, more material will be needed. ruffles for under- wear are made from crosswise strips of material. in order to know the amount needed, one must know: ( ) how wide the ruffle is to be, ( ) how wide the hem on the ruffle is to be, ( ) how wide the seam is to be, ( ) whether any tucks are to be used, and if so ( ) what size they are to be, and ( ) how wide the slip is around the bottom. the ^^^^^p^^^^^^^^bmh length of the ruffle should be about one and one half times the width around the bottom of the slip. work out the following prob- lem, using a piece of paper upon which to practice. a ruffle is to be put on a slip that is two yards around the bot- tom; the hem on the ruffle is to be one inch wide; there are to be three tucks, each one half inch wide, finished; one fourth inch is to be the width of the seam where the ruffle is gathered; the ruffle, when finished, is to be six inches wide. materials to be brought to class next time: two-piece pattern for underslip. long cloth — amount required without ruffle. thread — nos. and . needles. method of making a french hem sewing and textiles to make a french hem: napkins, tablecloths and some- times towels, are finished with a french hem. this is made in the following way. fold a plain hem one fourth inch or less in width; baste; turn the right side of the hem back against the right side of the material above the hem; make a crease in the cloth that comes just even with the fold of the hem; overhand along this crease, running the needle through the creased cloth and the fold of the hem, making small stitches close together. when the overhanding is finished, press out the crease, making the hem lie in the same position as a plain hem. practice making the french hem at school. at home, hem a napkin or towel, which should be brought to school for inspection when finished. review questions . where is wool fiber obtained? . where is the greatest wool-producing section in the united states? . what is the "fleece"? . what is meant by the "felting property" of wool? . in what ways is wool used? . in what way is wool adulterated? . what is shoddy? how and why is it used? how cloth is made from wool when the wool reaches the woolen mill, it is unpacked and sorted. the wool is dirty and greasy, and one fleece contains fiber of several lengths. the oil in the fiber is known as the yolk. if you have ever put your hand on the back of a sheep, you know how oily the wool feels. this oil protects the fiber and keeps it soft and elastic. the wool from the head, sides and back of the sheep is finer in quality than that from the belly or shins. the sewing and textiles fleece is usually separated into six or seven grades for spinning yarns of different qualities. the wool is now ready to be washed, or scoured, and this must be done very carefully with soft, warm — not hot — water and soft soap. the wool passes through a series of tanks during this process, and in each tank is pushed back and forth by means of wooden forks which carry it forward. the wool fiber is next dried in a machine called a "hydro-extractor", and is then beaten into a fluffy mass. all of the oil has been re- moved during the scouring, but in order to make the wool soft and elastic and better for spinning, olive oil is added to the fiber. the wool may be cleaned still further by the use of a machine called a burr- picker, which takes out any burrs, leaves, or other dirt which the sheep have picked up in the pasture and which did not come out in -the scouring. there are two kinds of yarn made from wool fiber: ( ) worsted and ( ) woolen. worsted yarn is made from wool that has been combed until all the fibers lie parallel before they are twisted into yarn. worsted yarns are stronger than woolen construction of woolen yarns construction of worsted yarns sewing and textiles with the narrow side under the wider side. baste to the cloth. this seam may either be hemmed by hand along the fold, or it may be stitched by machine. in making the underslip, hem it down by hand, as it will look daintier and show less. felled seams are used in making corset-covers, drawers, some kinds of petti- coats, and men's shirts. review questions . what is the first process through which the wool goes after it reaches the woolen mill? . of what value is the "yolk" in wool? . explain the process of "scouring." . through what other processes may wool fiber go before it is spun? . what kinds of yarn are used in making wool materials? . give the process for making each kind. . for what types of material are the different kinds of yarn used? . how is wool material dyed? . explain the process of "napping." . what is the "fuzz" often found in hems and along seams of wool dresses and coats? wool materials commonly used there are so many kinds of wool cloth that it would be impossible for us to learn the names and to know all of them in one lesson. wool materials of the best grades are expensive, and the price will indicate something in regard to the quality. there are always a large number of standard wool materials on the market, and in addition many novelty ma- terials appear each year. a novelty material is one that is made for only one or two seasons, and while the design or weave is unusual, the price is high and often the quality is poor. it is not a wise plan sewing and textiles to buy novelty materials if one is trying to select a material that will wear well for a long period without going out of style. serge is one of the commonly used wool materials. there are many types of serge on the market. serge is made of worsted yarn in a twilled weave. it comes in plain colors, dark blue being one of the favorite colors. it is used for making suits, skirts and dresses. it is forty-two to fifty-four inches wide, and varies much in price. cheviot is somewhat like serge. it is heavier and sometimes rougher in finish. it is used for suits and coats. some cheviots are called "diagonals." tweed and homespun are two materials used for suits and coats. both were originally made by hand, but now are made by machinery. in some sections of the southern states homespun cloth is still made by the mountain people. homespun is a loose, rough material made of coarse yarn. tweed was first made in tweed, scotland. it is a rough, loosely woven cloth that is usually woven of several shades of yarn, giving a mixed effect with no distinct pattern. broadcloth is made from woolen yarns. it is a beautifully finished material, soft and smooth, with a glossy finish on one side. it is used for suits and dresses. broadcloth of a good quality is very expensive. ladies' cloth is much like broadcloth, but is not so heavy. it is used for suits and dresses. alpaca, mohair and brilliantine are three fabrics somewhat alike. they are all very smooth, and are finished with a glossy surface that sheds dust well. fiber from the llama is used in making alpaca. mohair and brilliantine are made of fiber from the sewing and textiles angora goat. all three of these materials are used for dresses and dust coats, and sometimes for men's suits. all three of the materials are mixtures of cotton and wool. albatross, cashmere, chauie and henrietta are light-weight materials used for dresses, wrappers and babies' clothes. chauie is often used for girls' dresses. it is made in flowered or figured design, the design being printed or woven into the cloth. henrietta and cashmere are made in twilled weave and are much alike. flannel is a soft, napped material used for babies' clothes, petticoats, dressing-jackets, shirts, and for many other purposes. it is a material every girl should be able to distinguish. melton and covert cloth are used in making over- coats. they are heavy, firmly woven materials. home problems and questions find the price by the yard of the following: serge, broadcloth, cheviot, flannel, and of any of the other materials mentioned in the lesson. how are blankets purchased? what do they cost? examine the rugs at home to see whether the face of the carpet is like the back in any of them. can you find out the names of some carpets used at home? how is rag carpet made? laboratory exercises making the undbbslip (continued) textile study: examine samples of materials studied in lesson. mount samples in textile book. make one sewing and textiles inch of twill weaving on your textile weaving-card. this is done in the following way. first row, under three threads and over three threads, under three and over three, across the row. the second row is begun by bringing up the needle one thread farther to the right than in the group over which the needle passed in the first row; then con- tinue over three and under three, etc. third row: the needle should be brought up one thread farther to the right than in the group over which the needle passed in the second row, then continue over three and under three, etc. this weaving forms a diagonal line of stitches that go over the warp threads. can you find the diagonal in cheviot or serge? continue work on the slip. review questions . name three materials for men's suits. . name four light-weight materials used for dresses. . name two materials suitable for dust coats. . name two materials used for men's overcoats. . what is the difference between cheviot and serge? between broadcloth and ladies' cloth? . how is flannel used? . what is a standard material? a novelty material? . is it wise to buy novelty materials? why? embroidery to use on underwear all embroidery on cloth was originally done by hand. now only a small part of the embroidery used is hand-made, as we have machines that can imitate hand embroidery on cloth. perhaps you know some one who has a piece of old hand-made embroidery that you can examine. the stitches are beautifully made, and some of them are very sewing and textiles pattern are held together with fine thread are not best to select when one wishes the embroidery to wear well. embroidery made in simple designs, instead of very elaborate or poorly constructed designs is always the better selection. cheap em- broidery spoils the appearance of a garment and lessens its value because it will very soon become shabby in appearance. if one cannot afford to buy good embroidery, it is better to use none at all, and to finish the garment in some other way. insertion is usually sold with a strip of the cloth left on each side of the insertion. sometimes the edges are both finished with a scallop such as is used on the edging. beadings are sold with a strip of the cloth down each side of the beading. they come in various widths. embroidered material used in making waists and yokes comes in widths like cloth, and is called all- over. embroidery flouncings are wide embroidery edgings, often wide enough to make the length of a petticoat or dress skirt. home problems and questions find any samples of embroidery that you can to bring to school. get prices of as many as possible. laboratory exercises making the underslip {continued) textile study: examine samples of embroidery. which kinds are good to use with long cloth? which are of the best design? why? examine the scalloped edge. mount samples in textile book. look in the encyclo- sewing and textiles pedia and see what you can find about hand-made em- broidery. write a story on this subject to read at school. to make the placket in the underslip: there are several kinds of plackets that may be used for the slip and on petticoats. one of them is the hemmed placket. down back-stitching one side of the placket make a one fourth inch hem, running the hem to a point at the bottom of the placket. down the other side make a hem three fourths inch wide, running it down straight. lap the wide hem over the narrow hem and make two rows of back- stitching across the bottom on the right side and through placket method of making the continuous placket — bound and faced- sewing and textiles both hems. a hemmed placket cannot be used if the slip is exactly the right width across the back. why not? back-stitching is made by taking one running-stitch over and one under the cloth; then bring the needle back and put it in the hole made by the end of the first stitch, and bring it out the distance of one stitch beyond the end of the second stitch. pull the thread through. bring the needle back and put it in the hole made by the end of the second stitch; then bring it out the distance of one stitch beyond the end of the third stitch and pull the thread through. repeat until the work is completed. always work on the right side of the ma- terial. why? back- stitching on the right side looks like machine- stitching. another placket which may be used is the con- tinuous placket, bound and faced. cut a length- wise strip of material twice the length of the placket and twice the desired width, allowing for seams. place right side of facing to right side of garment. baste in a very narrow seam, about one fourth inch down and up the sides of the placket. at the bottom of the placket run the seam to a point, making it as narrow as it will hold. stitch seam, remove bastings. turn under the other edge of facing one fourth inch. on the side of the placket to be used for the buttons baste this folded edge along the finished placket sewing and textiles the ends of sleeves and the legs of drawers in underwear are often finished in this way. knitted goods ravel out badly when a stitch in the garment is broken, and for this reason stockings and underwear should be mended as soon as the break appears and before it has raveled and become a large hole. stockings are made in different ways. the cheap- est stockings are made by knitting one long tube and cutting it into desired lengths, after which the heel and toe are sewed and the stocking is shrunk into shape. the best stockings are knitted in a flat piece, shaped exactly as desired for the stocking, and the shaped piece is sewed together on sewing- machines made for the purpose. this seam runs down the leg of the stocking and along the bottom of the foot to the toe. this stocking is called "full- fashioned." stockings are made of cotton, wool, silk, or lisle, which is an especially prepared cotton thread. cotton and lisle stockings are most com- monly worn; silk are the most expensive and not suitable for hard usage. wool stockings are some- times worn in winter. some stockings are made from artificial silk which is a manufactured product made in several ways and is used to imitate true silk. the best grades of artificial silk stockings wear better than the poor or medium grades made of true silk, and cost much less. artificial silk is also used in making dress materials, sweaters, neckties, ribbons and dress trimmings. it can usually be distinguished by its high luster. the usual kinds of underwear are made of cotton, wool and silk, or of combinations of cotton and wool, or of silk and wool. knitted underwear, to be warm, sewing and textiles in order to know just how much money is actually spent each month, and during the entire year, a record of expenditures is kept, and this record is called a household account. at the end of the year, by checking up this household account, one can find whether more or less money has been spent for each division than the amount planned in the budget. many persons spend more money for clothing than is necessary because they do not buy wisely; they select materials and garments that do not wear well, that fade, that are not suitable for the purpose, or that do not launder well. persons who are careless about the care of their clothing spend more money than those who keep their clothing repaired, pressed and clean. every girl should remember that her clothing is expensive, and should consider it her duty to take as good care of it as possible. in order to realize the cost of clothing, it would be well for each girl to keep an account of the money spent for her clothing each year, even though she does not buy it herself. such an account will be begun in the "clothing book." perhaps each member of the class will continue keeping it, so that when she begins buying her own clothing she will know the usual price of each article. the buying of "fads", exaggerated styles, or novelty materials is not wise when clothing must be worn for very long periods. fads in clothing go out of fashion quickly and must be discarded. the better plan is to select standard materials of good quality and then have the garments made in such a way that they may be worn two or even three years without being out of fashion. sewing and textiles ready-made garments often cost more and wear a shorter period than do garments made at home. sometimes, however, it is a wise plan to buy ready- made clothing, especially when one is busy and when energy and strength must be saved for the daily work. home problems and questions make a list of all the articles of clothing you have. ask your mother to tell you the price paid for each article, if possible. which garments, if any, are to be worn more than one year? what is the total amount spent for your clothing? laboratory exercises making the underslip (continued) textile study: make a booklet consisting of several sheets of plain white paper with a cover of brown or other colored paper. decorate this cover in any way you wish, making the title " the clothing book." when you have completed your list of clothing with the costs, put the items in the book in this manner: shoes pr. high shoes for school pr. best shoes .... pr. pumps pr. rubbers .... $ . . . . hats school hat . . best winter hat best summer hat sun hat . . . . . . . sewing and textiles dresses gingham dress (made at home) percale dress (made at home) serge dress (ready-made) . . continue until the list is complete. i . . . to finish the bottom of the slip: try on the slip and straighten the lower edge by marking an even distance from the floor around the bottom of the slip, using a yard- stick to measure up from the floor. after taking off the slip, trim off around the bottom by following the marks. make a hem two inches wide. in basting down the hem on the curve, it may be necessary to lay some tiny pleats; do this by straightening out the folded edge, mak- ing the pleat, and then folding down the edge across this pleat. stitch the hem by machine, thus finishing the bottom of the slip. to put on the ruffle: the ruffle is to be put on with a tuck. measure up from the bottom of the hem on the slip the width of the ruffle; mark with a pin; three eighths inch above this pin make a second marking. measure from this second mark to the bottom of the straightening the bottom of the underslip sewing and textiles skirt at the band. the loops should be hung over hooks arranged at such a distance apart that the band hangs straight. waists should be folded straight and laid in drawers or boxes. do not pack too many waists in one drawer, as this is apt to crush and wrinkle them. cover-bags may be used over dresses or coats that are not often worn. these bags will protect the garments from dust and dirt of various kinds. a cover-bag is described in the section on christmas gifts. wool clothing should be brushed often, and spots should be removed as soon as possible after they are discovered. cotton and linen clothing must be washed care- fully. the color should be "set" in a material before it is laundered the first time. salt, vinegar and sugar of lead are materials used for setting colors. perhaps you can find the method of doing this in some of the bulletins or books in the library. colored materials should not be hung in the sun to dry. wool skirts, coats and suits should be pressed often enough to keep them fresh in appearance. a wrinkled skirt, with the pleats out of shape, can never look well, and the person wearing such a garment is not well dressed. in pressing wool, if the material is pressed on the right side, a cloth is always used between the material and the iron. the cloth is usually dampened and placed over the material, and the cloth is pressed until it is dry. the pressing may be continued on the wrong side. much practice is necessary before pressing can be done well. garments may be sent to pressing and cleansing establishments to be pressed, but this is los sewing and textiles expensive, and many garments can be pressed at home and look well if the work is carefully done. hooks and eyes, snap fasteners and buttons should always be sewed on as soon as they come off the garment. a skirt or waist that is pinned together looks very untidy, and an untidy person is never a well dressed person. stockings should be mended neatly and never worn with holes in them. garments that need patching should be mended carefully, and before they are laundered, if possible. hats should be brushed with a soft brush to remove the dust, and when worn only occasionally should be kept in a box or drawer away from dust. shoes that are kept clean and polished wear longer and look neater. when heels become worn and uneven the shoes should be taken to the repair shop to have the heels straightened, for "run-down" heels look very untidy. shoe laces should not be used after they are broken. knots in the laces spoil the appearance of the shoes. shoe buttons should always be replaced as soon as they come off. rubbers that are muddy should be washed before being worn again. every girl wishes to look well dressed, and to effect this every garment must be neat as well as becoming. no garment looks neat unless it is well cared for. every girl should form the habit of keeping her clothes in good condition, and should learn to do the work herself. home problems and questions ask some one to show you how to press your wool skirt or dress. perhaps you can do this at school, sewing and textiles some stains can be removed by using something that will absorb them and which is called an absorb- ent. absorbents are used principally for removing grease stains. those commonly used are blotting- paper, talcum powder, starch, french chalk and fuller's earth. some stains can be removed by using a material that will dissolve them. these materials are called solvents. the most common solvent is water. other solvents often used are gasoline, ether and chloroform. gasoline, ether and chloroform should be used out-of-doors, or by an open window, and always where there is no fire. the following methods may be used in removing some of the common stains: fruit stains in white wash material. pour boiling water through them; use a bleaching agent when necessary. coffee and tea stains on white wash material. when cream has been used in the tea or coffee, rinse with cold water; then pour boiling water through the stain; bleach if necessary. stains made by clear coffee or tea should have boiling water poured through them without rinsing in the cold water; bleach if necessary. grass stains on white or colored material. use cold water; if the stain is fresh, use soap and cold water. when on white wash materials, a bleaching agent may be used. ink stains. on white wash material use a bleach- ing agent. grease and oil stains. use an absorbent; or warm water and soap; or a solvent. paint stains. use chloroform or turpentine. an sewing and textiles old paint stain on white material may be removed with a bleaching agent. when removing a stain from colored materials, always test a sample of the cloth before using the stain-remover on the cloth. sometimes the stain will show less than the spot that is left after removing the stain. wool materials, when stained very badly, should be sent to the "dry-cleaners." grease spots can usually be removed successfully at home. laboratory exercises making the underslip (continued) textile study: remove an ink stain from a white cotton fabric. stretch the material across the top of a small bowl, with the stain over the middle of the bowl; dampen the stain with water, using a medicine-dropper; apply the bleaching agent with the medicine-dropper; use a second dropper and apply clean warm water to the stain; use the bleaching agent again; rinse; repeat until the stain is removed; rinse with a little ammonia in the water; rinse very thoroughly with clear water. dry before pressing. remove a grease spot from a wool material. place a layer of clean, white blotting-paper underneath the spot and one on top of the spot; press with a hot iron. per- haps it will be necessary to try warm soap and water. apply this with a piece of cloth or sponge; rinse with warm water. when using any other solvent than water, place the stain over a piece of blotting-paper on a flat surface and rub with a cloth or sponge dipped in the solvent; rub towards the center of the spot, as this helps to avoid the " ring " often formed around the spot. some- times rubbing the surface near the spot with the solvent, sewing and textiles spreading it out over the surface, helps to remove the "ring." continue work on the underslip. review questions . what three groups of stain-removers are commonly used? . give examples of each group. . should a bleaching agent be used on colored materials? why? . how may grease spots be removed from wool materials? . how should the following stains be removed from white wash materials: clear coffee, grass, paint, and ink? healthful clothing every girl, at the present time, wishes to be healthy and strong. she wishes to be strong enough to enjoy tramping, playing tennis, riding horseback, sweeping, or hoeing in a garden, without being "worn out." no one can do any of these things easily unless the clothing she wears permits perfect freedom of the body and is comfortable in every way. a healthy body is kept so by frequent bathing, by changing underclothing often and by wearing suitable clothing. it is necessary to bathe the body oftener than once a week. many people take a bath every day, and when one forms the habit of doing this one feels uncomfortable unless the bath is taken regularly. underclothing worn next to the skin should be changed two or three times a week if it is to readily and thoroughly absorb the moisture from the body. underclothing should fit in such a way that it does not draw or pull at any point. union suits are very uncomfortable if they are too small and should not then be worn. wool underwear that is carelessly sewing and textiles a shoe should have a sole thick enough to keep out dampness and to make walking easy. in stormy weather rubbers keep the feet dry and also prevent the rotting of the thread used in making the shoe. tight corsets or waistbands are not only very uncomfortable but often cause ill health. corset waists and corsets should fit well and be loose enough to allow perfect freedom of the body. skirt and waist bands should be tight enough to stay in place, but not tight enough to stop a free circulation of blood through the body. no one looks well in tight clothing. a fleshy person who wears tight corsets and bands pushes the body into such a position that the flesh shows more than it would if the waist were left the normal size. wearing too much clothing is as unhealthful as wearing too little. select the amount and kind that will suit the climate, the age, the work one is doing and the state of health. sick people and old people require more clothing than young people who are strong and well. a person working out of doors in winter requires more clothing than a person who works in the house all day. every one requires less clothing in warm weather than in winter. remem- ber that clothing has a great deal to do with the state of health, and that it should be selected very carefully if the body is to be kept in a healthy condition. laboratory exercises making the underslip (continued) to finish the neck and armholes of the slip: the neck is to be finished with narrow embroidery edging, about one inch in width. select a pattern that matches or sewing and textiles looks well with the pattern in the embroidery used in the ruffle. enough embroidery edging should be pur- chased to go one and one third times around the neck and each armhole. how will you measure for this amount? divide the embroidery into three pieces — one for the neck and one for each armhole. how will you do this? make a one-eighth-inch hem on each end of the piece for the neck. gather ruffle one fourth inch from the edge. join the ends of each piece for the armholes, using the same joining as used in the ruffle. gather each one fourth inch from the edge. trim around the neck and armholes. find the middle of the length of the embroidery for the neck, and pin this to the neck of the slip at the middle of the front so that the right side of the embroidery is against the right side of the slip, and the raw edges are together. pin the ends of the strip to the ends of the neck in the same way. pull the gathers into position; fasten the gathering thread; divide the gathers evenly around method of basting bias strips around armhole sewing and textiles the neck, and pin into place at several points. baste ruffle to slip along line of gathering. cut a bias strip of the long cloth one inch wide, as you did for the bias casing. begin at the back of the neck, place the edge of the bias strip even with the raw the finished underslip sewing and textiles must be often worn. bright colors may be used appropriately as touches here and there on a dress. party dresses are often made of brighter colored materials than should be used for the school or street dress. dark blues, greens and browns, although good colors to select for wool suits and coats, wool or silk dresses, are not best to select in wash materials, because they are hard to launder. lighter blues, greens, lavenders, pinks, buffs and tans are colors very much used in wash dresses. pinks should not be too vivid, as paler shades are more becoming. to decide on the color for a dress requires thought and study of one's self. trying on a dress while standing before a mirror may lead one to change one's mind about the color. observe other people to learn how certain colors affect their appearance. perhaps you have studied color in connection with your art work. the knowledge so gained can be ap- plied in selecting the color for your clothing. color is the first thing that attracts or repels in a costume, and should be considered first when selecting a dress. laboratory exercises planning the wash dress textile study: test samples of pink, lavender, light blue and buff chambray to find out how they will launder, and also whether they will fade in the sun. if possible, test colors on girls of different types before the class. half-yard lengths of silk, wool, or cotton ma- terials may be used to drape around the shoulders of the girl. select colors suitable for wash dresses to wear to school; select colors suitable for a coat; colors suitable for a sewing and textiles party dress. select the most becoming colors for the chambray dresses to be made in class. study the pattern book and select a pattern for a one- piece dress of any simple design, which would be suitable four steps in making a hemmed patch to use for a chambray dress. how much chambray will be needed? to make a hemmed patch: a hemmed patch is used where there will be a good deal of strain on the material and where it is not objectionable to let the stitches show. it would be used when patching such articles as a boy's trousers, or under the arm of a corset-cover or slip. the piece of cloth rsed for making the patch sewing and textiles should be like the garment to be patched. cut a square or rectangular piece of cloth for the patch, large enough to cover the hole and extend beyond the worn part, allowing one fourth inch extra all around the piece for turning. turn down on to the wrong side one fourth inch on all four sides of this piece. find the middle of the patch and place this over the middle of the hole on the wrong side of the garment; pin into place, hav- ing the warp threads in the garment and in the patch four steps in making an overhand patch parallel. if there are stripes, checks, or figures, the patch must be pinned so that they match. baste along folded edge of patch; hem by hand. turn garment to right side and cut around the edges of the hole until it is square or rectangular in shape, making the edges of the hole at an equal distance from the folded edge of the patch. at each corner of the hole make a one fourth inch cut on the diagonal of the cloth. turn the edge of the hole down one fourth inch on to the patch, making the corners square. baste along fold; hem by hand. remove all bastings. sewing and textiles to make an overhand patch: this patch is used where there will be little strain on the material, and where it would be objectionable to have the stitches show. a hole in the skirt of a wash dress or in a waist may be mended with this patch. cut the hole square or rectangular in shape; make a slanting cut at each corner, as you did in the hemmed patch. turn under this edge all around the hole one fourth inch. measure the length of the sides of the hole. cut the patch one half inch longer each way than the size of the hole, making the design in the material match before cutting. turn the edge of this patch down one fourth inch all around toward the wrong side. lay the folded edge of one side of the patch to the folded edge of one side of the hole, with the right sides together. match the design carefully, or in plain material be sure that the warp threads of the patch and garment are parallel. baste the folded edges together so that they can be overhanded. overhand along the folded edges. re- move bastings. repeat the process on each edge of the square. when it is finished, cut off a tiny triangle of cloth at each corner of the piece used for the patch, so that the fullness is removed. overcast each edge of the patch and each edge of the hole separately. this patch, when well done, scarcely shows on the right side. review questions . what four points should be considered when selecting a wash-dress material? . how may wash materials be tested? . when is it wise to purchase "bargains"? . what are the advantages and disadvantages of linen material for dresses? . how should colors for a dress be selected? . what colors are good for suits or coats? . how should very bright colors be used? . is color in dress important? why? sewing and textiles face. hair-ribbons often make a girl look ridiculous because the bow is too large for the size of the head and face. the only way to learn how to select the well designed costume is to study one's self carefully, remembering that the selection of the right color is very important, and that structural lines may do much to improve one's appearance. home problems and questions find in the fashion books designs for dresses: ( ) emphasizing vertical lines, and ( ) emphasizing horizontal lines. bring the designs to class for discussion. cut out and mount them in "the clothing book"; state under each design what lines are emphasized and how it is done. laboratory exercises making the wash dress study the pattern to be used for the dress. how should it be laid on the material to be most economical of cloth? does the length of the pattern need changing? how will you do this? if tight-fitting sleeves are too long, take a tuck across the pattern two inches above and two inches below the elbow, to make the right length. when the sleeve is too short, cut the pattern across two inches above the elbow and two inches below the elbow, and pin between the pieces of the sleeve strips of paper wide enough to give the needed additional length; shape the edges of the sleeve. lay the pattern on the material after it is adjusted. pin all the pieces of the pattern to the material. cut out the dress. follow the directions for making which sewing and textiles for her commencement dress one that is much more elaborate than that of any other girl in the class does not look appropriately dressed. many schools now adopt the plan of having the entire class wear the same type of clothing in order to avoid just such ill feeling as may be caused by the girl who is not kind enough to consider her companions. girls graduating from the eighth grade should wear for commencement simply made white wash dresses with black or white low-heeled pumps or shoes; never satin or silk dresses, with french-heeled slippers, gloves and hats! simple wash dresses, or simply made wool dresses, are appropriate selections for school. the dress worn by the business girl should be plain and designed to give perfect freedom for doing her work. the wash dress is most appropriate for kitchen wear. a housekeeper looks very badly dressed when she wears soiled, partly worn, wool or silk dresses in the kitchen, or when she goes about her work with her hair uncombed. waists, dresses, or other clothing made from cheap materials or trimmed with coarse, cheap lace and embroidery make one appear poorly dressed. no well dressed person selects such clothing. when she cannot afford to buy the elaborate clothing made from good materials, she selects the simpler clothing of good quality and with less trimming. when a good quality of cloth is selected for a dress, use trimmings that are of as good quality, or else go without trimming. cheap pearl buttons often spoil an otherwise attractive garment. fre- quently, by removing the cheap buttons when they are used as trimming, or by replacing them with sewing and textiles good pearl buttons, a garment will be greatly improved in appearance. no matter how carefully the dress has been chosen and designed, unless the hair is properly arranged, the hair-ribbon of the right color and size, the shoes and stockings of the right style, and the proper amount and kind of jewelry worn, the girl does not look appropriately or well dressed. no young girl needs to curl her hair; she should never use the curling-iron on it, as this breaks and injures the hair. the hair should be arranged in a simple way, and when a ribbon is worn, the color of the ribbon must suit the girl's complexion and must harmonize in color with the rest of her clothing. a girl should never use powder or paint if she wishes to look properly dressed. shoes must be polished and stockings in good order, to look well with any dress. a girl should wear little jewelry. nothing spoils a girl's appearance more than wearing cheap jewelry. every girl wishes to be well dressed, and to achieve this the clothing must be neat, made of good ma- terials, of the proper color and design, with the right structural lines, and appropriate to the time, the place and the circumstances. it is every woman's duty, and usually her desire, to look well dressed; therefore it is worth while for the girl in school to begin to study clothing with the thought in mind of selecting that which is appropriate for herself and which will make her unconscious of her appearance. home problems and questions from the fashion book select pictures of garments which you consider proper to wear: , two dresses sewing and textiles for school; , a coat; , two wash petticoats; , a combination suit or slip; , a party dress. find a picture of the proper kind of shoes to wear to school; of a suitable hat for school; of a suitable hat for "dress-up" occasions. bring them to school for discussion. cut out and mount in'' the clothing book." laboratory exercises making the wash dress (continued) continue work on the dress. review questions . when is clothing appropriate? . discuss "commencement" clothing. . what kind of dress is appropriate to wear to school? . how can a dress be spoiled with trimming? . discuss the selection of hair-ribbons. . under what conditions may a beautiful dress look badly? . what points must a well dressed gill consider when selecting her clothing? some points for the consumer it is estimated that the women of the united states spend a billion of dollars a year for textile materials. many women know very little about buying textiles, which explains why there are many cheap and adulterated materials put on the market. the cheap and adulterated materials make it difficult for the woman who is a careful buyer to select good materials. we have no pure textile law in this country to protect us from adulterated fabrics, as the pure food law protects us from adulterated food. in order to buy intelligently and wisely, one sewing and textiles labeled with the consumers' league label. this is a printed tag, fastened to the garment, and can be used only by factories where the working condi- tions meet the standards of the league. perhaps you have seen garments with this label. . is the material of good quality and suitable for the garment? . is the garment well made, so that the seams will hold and the trimmings not pull apart? coarse or crooked stitching spoils the appearance of a garment. ready-made garments, such as dresses, coats, or suits, may often be bought at a lower price when purchased "out of season." winter garments are sold for less in january and february, and summer clothes in july and august. if one selects a garment of a style that will look well the following season, it is economy to buy "out of season." when planning the wardrobe for any season, first look over all garments left from the previous year to see which can be mended or made over; then decide what new garments will be needed. it requires careful thought and planning to buy wisely, and whoever wishes to make the best use of her money must know many things about textiles before she can make the best selections. home problems and questions write a composition on "the selection of cloth- ing" to read in class. put this in "the clothing book." sewing and textiles as somewhat flattened and composed of two fila- ments. burning tests. by burning threads pulled from materials one may often judge somewhat of their quality. light the end of the thread and observe the odor given off and the manner in which it burns. cotton and linen threads burn quickly, with a flame, and little odor is apparent. silk and wool threads burn slowly, char, and smell like burned feathers. weighted silk burns very slowly and, if very heavily weighted, the form of the silk remains after burning. testing the strength of fabrics. a fabric wool flber maqnifibd is not strong and does not wear well when it is made of a poor fiber; of weak threads in the warp and strong threads in the woof, or vice versa; or if woven poorly. pull apart the material and test both warp and woof threads by pulling. try tearing ma- terials, such as muslin, long cloth and gingham. if they tear with little effort the cloth is not so good as it should be. by holding a piece of cloth firmly with both hands and pressing down on the surface with both thumbs one may deter- mine whether the material is firmly woven. if the threads push apart easily the material will be sewing and textiles silk materials are weighted by adding chemicals, and the tests above do not apply. a weighted silk may be burned, a square sample being used instead of a thread. if the silk is weighted it retains its shape after burning. chemical tests. chemical tests are the most dependable in determining the quality of cloth, but many of them require a considerable equipment and a knowledge of chemistry; therefore, in testing materials at home, only a few tests can be used. the following are some very simple tests: to determine the amount of cotton in a wool sample. place the sample in a porcelain dish, cover with a per cent solution of caustic potash (this can be purchased of the druggist), boil gently for fifteen minutes, remove what remains with a glass rod, rinse in clear water and dry. the part of the sample left is the cotton in the material, as the wool is destroyed by the caustic potash. if nothing is left of the sample after it has been boiled, it is all- wool. to determine the amount of cotton in a silk material. follow directions given in the first test. the silk will be destroyed and the cotton will remain. to determine the amount of cotton in a linen material. pull out the warp and woof threads on two sides of the sample, so that a deep fringe is formed. place the fringed sample in a porcelain dish; cover with a per cent solution of caustic potash (ob- tained from the druggist), and heat for two minutes; remove sample with glass rod, dry between blotting- papers. the linen will be dark yellow or orange in color, and the cotton white or light yellow. this test is easily used on white flannel. sewing and textiles to determine whether silk is "true" or artificial. place the sample in nitric acid, remove and observe color; true silk turns yellow, artificial silk is not affected. laboratory exercises making the wash dress (continued) textile study: make as many of the tests described above as possible. continue work on the dress. review questions . in what ways are fabrics adulterated? . describe the different fibers as they appear under the microscope. . name some types of materials in which weighting is some- times found. . why do we wish to avoid buying materials that are weighted? . what effect does weighting have on silk? . in what two ways may a linen cloth be tested to find whether it is all-linen? . name some materials likely to be adulterated with cotton. . in what ways should a gingham be tested before it is purchased for a dress? . in what ways should long cloth and cambric be tested? . how should a silk material be tested before purchasing? a wool material? . does the price of a material fully indicate its value? . why is it worth while, whenever possible, to test mate- rials before purchasing? christmas gifts gifts that can be used, or that really give pleasure to the person receiving them, are the proper ones to select. gifts that cannot be used or enjoyed by sewing and textiles those receiving them show either bad taste or else a lack of thought on the part of the donor. a beautiful christmas card may give more pleasure to some persons than any other gift that could be selected. it is not the cost, but its fitness, that makes the worth-while gift. hand-made gifts are especially desirable, because they represent time and thought spent for the pur- pose of giving pleasure to those receiving the gifts. the following are simple gifts that can be made at school or at home by the members of the sewing- class. cover-bag: materials — three and one half yards wash material, to inches wide; lawn, dimity, or similar materials are suitable. thread to suit materials. cotton embroidery floss. straighten the ends of the material. fold together so that the ends are even and the right side of the ma- terial is inside. make a plain seam one fourth inch wide down each lengthwise edge. turn the bag with right side out. across each end make a hem one inch wide, and feather-stitch with the embroidery floss. find the center point on the fold at the top of the bag. cut out a round piece of the cloth at this center point, making the hole about the size of a dollar. make a very narrow bias facing around the hole, following directions given for facing armhole of underslip. feather-stitch the facing down to the material, using embroidery floss. this hole slips over the hook on the coat-hanger. linen money-bag: this is a suitable gift for any one who travels. materials — a piece of white linen, § inches long and | inches wide. thread to suit material. a piece of chamois five inches long and four inches wide. one index absorbent cotton, absorbents for grease stains, adulteration, in fabrics, tests for, - of cotton goods, - of wool, albatross, "all-linen" toweling, alpaca, , alpine rose, muslin, angora goat, apron gingham, apron, sewing-, , , - , , - artificial silk, baby ribbon, back-stitching, band, for sewing-apron, "bargains ", delusions in, basting, basting-stitches, bathing, bath towel, batiste, embroidery on, beadings, , berkeley cambric, bias casings, - blanket-stitch, on collar, - bleaching, agent, - cotton, linen, bobbin, bolt, of cotton cloth, breaking flax, , brilliantine, broadcloth, budget, the, burr-picker wool cleaner, buttonhole scissors, buttonholes, making, - buttons, sewing on, calico, cambric, embroidery on, camel, canton flannel, carding, care, of clothing, - cartwright, edmund, inventor of cotton loom, cashmere, casings, chain-stitch, on collar, challie, chambray, cheesecloth, cheviot, chiffon, china silk, chintz, chloroform, christmas gifts, making, - cloth, - dyeing, - examination of, making cotton, - woolen, - cloth beam, clothing, appropriate, - care of, - cost of, index pocket, for sewing-apron, pongee, pressing garments, - pure food law, quilt, patchwork, ready-made garments, selection of, - reeling silk, - retting flax, ribbon, - rippling flax, rubbers, care of, ruffle, on underslip, , running-stitches, - russian crash, "sampler", sateen, satin, scallops, in embroidery, on edge of collar, school, dress appropriate for, scissors, , buttonhole, how to hold, scotch gingham, scouring wool, scutching flax, , seam, - selvedge, serge, sewing, care of work, implements for, - position when, use of coarse thread for, sewing-apron, - , - , making the, - , , - materials for, - , sewing-basket, implements for, - preferable to bag or box, sewing-machine, - shearing, shears, - sheep, sheeting, shoddy, in wool, shoe laces, shoes, care of, shuttle, silk, cloth, chiffon, china, crepe de chine, pongee, satin, taffeta, velvet, fabric, test for cotton in, test for "true" or artificial, - fibers, - looms, making of, - raising, - stockings, silkworms, - singer, isaac m., improves sew- ing-machine, single-thread sewing-machine, sizing, cotton, too much not desirable, slender figure, pattern suitable for, snap fasteners, solvents for stains, spinning, stains in clothing, to remove, - starch, stitches, back, basting, blanket, , - chain, cross, index weighting, cotton cloth, silk, teste for, - whitney, eli, inventor of cotton gin, wilson, allan b., improves sew- ing-machine, woof, wool, , - fiber, , stockings, teste for cotton in, woolen cloth, woolen material, albatross, alpaca, brilliantine, broadcloth, cashmere, challie, cheviot, woolen material — continued covert cloth, flannel, henrietta, homespun, ladies' cloth, melton, mohair, * serge, tweed, woolen underwear, washing, woolen yarn, , worsted yarn, , yarn, cotton, woolen, , worsted, , yolk, oil from wool fiber, zephyr gingham, e o inmers. schlesinger library radcliffe college from a fund established by marjorie kent coe class of in memory of her mother letitia mae kent bl . f copyrigat, , by f. m. lupton, publisher copyright, , by the butterick publishing co. schlesinger library copyright, , by duffield & company kent preface it is an easy matter to interest a little girl in sewing if one approach the subject in the right way. the average mother pays scant attention to her child's play with dolls, not realizing that it is possible to turn the making of the doll's outfit into the most practical of lessons. while a garment for herself might at first only weary and dishearten the little seamstress, the miniature pieces have a peculiar appeal of their own that will cause her to execute the most per- fect kind of work with delight. the wise woman, therefore, will assist with sug- gestions about the suitability of the materials to be used, and aid in the laying on of the patterns, the cutting and the fitting, as well as instruct about the actual sewing. indeed, with the doll's clothes it is possible to make each article teach some special lesson under the guise of the most fascinating play, while hav- ing mother for a friend and helper will be another incentive to neatness. preface as the making of the small clothes shows how the larger ones are put together, the child that has made a complete outfit for a doll will have, when she awakens to the delight of sewing for herself, definite ideas about how she wants her own. and after all, few things give a woman more satisfaction than the ability to sew. . h. f. sewing for little girls chapter i preparing dolly's bed o bed! o bed! delicious bed! that heaven upon earth to the weary head! -hood. do you really want to learn to sew? well, al- though you are a twentieth century little girl, your mother must have some good old-fashioned ideas about things a child should be taught, and if you tell her you are ready to begin, i am sure she will help you. of course the very first thing you will need is a needle and thread. now, if some well-inten- tioned dear old grandma has not already given you a “ready-made” work-box, filled with heavy red and blue cotton, and scissors that never were intended to cut, here's a chance to start a nice little sensible work-box such as your mother may be glad to run to in a hurry. first, coax one of your devoted uncles to buy you a pair of small, sharp, round-pointed scissors. you will notice that i said to ask your uncle. i sewing for little girls that's because he is less likely to think of your hurting yourself and therefore will get a good pair. but do not use them to cut wire! ask mother to please give you a whole paper of nee- dles for yourself ( 's to 's will be best assort- ment) so you can have any size you need, and then take care of them. the work-box now that you have two things, you will want to keep them together, so suppose you take a pretty candy box and use that for a work-box. mother probably will not think it necessary to give you a number of spools of thread to start with, but she may not object to your winding off some of both the fine and coarse of her black and white, as well as a little colored silk also; and if you cannot find empty spools enough for the pur- pose, wind on to rolled-up pieces of writing- paper. if you will first fold this paper into strips about two inches wide, your rolls will be all the same size. a thimble, of course, is necessary, for all fine needlewomen use a thimble, but do not let it roll away and get stepped on. it spoils the shape. and just as soon as you begin to sew, you will feel the need of a needle book to hold your loose nee- preparing dolly's bed would come in very handy for this purpose, but if you can't get enough, then see if you have plenty of woolen scraps such as flannel, broadcloth, serge, cashmere, etc. it is better to have them all about the same weight, although the more colors the better. but if you can get only cotton, re- member that that was what the nice old-fashioned quilts were made of, and see how many pretty pieces you can find, left from wash-dresses, aprons, shirt waists and such things. if you decide to cut out these sixteen pieces like your pattern all at once, then it would be a good idea to fit them together on a piece of paper the size of the quilt, so you can select and put the right shades together. running the patches when the squares are all arranged, choose a needle that is suitable for the material, because a fine needle might break on some stiff, heavy goods, while a big, coarse needle would be difficult to push through fine close cotton weaves. select a thread, not too long, of a color as near as pos- sible like the goods, and put on your thimble. lay the right sides of two squares together, and, holding the edges even (or pinning them to keep sewing for little girls them straight, if you prefer), run along one side of the blocks with your thread and needle. to do this nicely take a very small stitch on the nee- dle, leave an equal space, and push in for the sec- ond stitch, which you must try to get the same length as the first. you ought to get four or five stitches on your needle at a time, and a little prac- tice (holding pieces with the left hand), will enable you to get them quite perfect. be sure to have a knot in the end of your thread, and when you have sewed across the block and finished the seam, fasten your thread by taking three or four small stitches one on top of the other. next take two other blocks and stitch them neatly together in the same way, fastening the end of the thread securely when you have gotten through. this done, lay the first set, smoothed out nice and straight, on top of the second, and sew across two blocks before you fasten your thread. then, when you open out your work, you will find you have one-quarter of the patchwork done. this may be as much as you feel like doing in one day, and if so, pick up all your things, put them carefully away, and go off to play. but be sure not to lose any of the pieces. when you are ready to sew again, do not get preparing dolly's bed careless, but take the same care as at first; and when you have finished another set of four, put that away, too. when you have made them all -the four sets of four small blocks-put them together exactly as you did the little one, thus making the whole quilt. pressing i came near forgetting to tell you to take your little flatiron and press the seams open on each set of blocks as soon as finished, for if not pressed, your work will be “humpy," and not at all like what a neat seamstress would do. and when the sets of blocks are all sewed together, you must press these last seams, too, nice and flat. then lay your patchwork on the piece of goods you are going to use for the lining or back, right sides together. pin or baste to hold perfectly even, and cut it out the right size. stitch around three sides, every inch or two setting your needle back a stitch to make the sewing firmer. when you have finished the three sides, turn your work right side out, smooth it into shape, and crease on both the front and back edge left open, as much of a seam as you have been taking, and pin these two edges exactly even. sew very carefully together, taking the tiniest stitches you can, so they will preparing dolly's bed for even basting, the stitches should be the same length; but for the more common, uneven basting, take up a stitch as in “running,” skip a space twice as long, take up another short stitch, skip a long space, and so on to the end. hemming then prepare yourself with a fine needle and a fine thread. starting at the left-hand end of the hem, holding it over your left forefinger, with the folded hem on the upper side so you can see plainly, take a “teenty-weenty" stitch through the sheet, and catch the very edge of the hem as you push the needle out. pull the thread clear up to the knot, and putting your needle in the sheet again close to the first stitch, take another one of the same length and catch that in the folded hem before you pull it out. there—that's all there is to hemming! and if you do not quite see it in your mind's eye, the little picture will make it plain. the real beauty of hemming is in having the little stitches so fine and even that they scarcely show on the right side; but you will learn that with practice. if your first attempt at it re- sults in work a bit clumsy-looking, do not be dis- couraged, for your second attempt will look bet- sewing for little girls ter, and before long you will be able to hem al- most as well as mother. f- basting and hemming the basting stitches are the long. the hemming stitches are the short. and if you get in a hurry for your sheets, as housekeepers often do, and do not feel like tak- ing the time to hem them all the way around, you • preparing dolly's bed. can run the sides and bottom, using the same stitch you put the blocks together with. this is much faster sewing, and if you take pains, will look very nice, too. chapter ii the sewing outfit there is always work and tools to work withal, for those who will. -lowell. as you have already tried running and hem- ming, i am going to suggest that you do a little more practicing on these two stitches by making what the children call a "polybag.” this is a pretty silk bag for carrying your thread, needles, scissors and thimble when you go visiting and take your work. one presented to a child i know was made of a piece of fancy ribbon six inches wide and twenty-seven inches long, al- though any pretty piece of goods cut that shape would do just as well. first fold under each end one-eighth of an inch (basting if necessary to keep in place), and then lap over four inches, like a great wide hem, and baste that. next, taking a thread the same color, hem each of these ends across, taking the nicest kind of little stitches, so the thread will scarcely show on the right side. fasten securely when you come to the end, or it sewing for little girls will pull apart when you begin to use it. then run a line of stitches half an inch inside each row of hemming, which will leave a little narrow open- ing or casing, for holding the ribbon when you are ready to draw your bag together. over-handing when you have each end finished nicely this way, fold the strip together in the middle, and begin right at the fold to over-hand the two edges, by putting the needle through both pieces at once as they are held side by side, pulling it out, and putting in again in very much the same way as when hemming. only, if you will look carefully at the illustration you will see that the goods must be held differently. over-hand up each side until you come to the two hems, which should just ex- actly meet, then fasten very tightly, and sew over and over again to prevent coming apart. when both sides are done, and you turn your work right side out, you will see that you have made a pocket or bag about six inches square, that has a pretty three-inch doubled ruffle on each side. now thread one yard of quarter-inch ribbon in your bodkin, run it through the opening you left for the purpose clear around the bag, and tie the ends in a little bow. taking another yard of the the sewing outfit, same kind, start that from the opening on the other side of the bag, and carry around in the same way; tie in a like bow. does this sound ukiwanitial over-handing strange? well, it is not, for if you do exactly as i have directed, you will find that when you take a bow in each hand and pull, your bag will begin to close up! and if people ask you why this is called a "polybag,” you can tell them prob- ably because it can be used for so many different things, as every one that has studied the meanings of words knows that “poly" stands for “many." another pretty and very simple bag is made by gathering one edge of a strip of fancy silk twenty-seven inches long by nine inches wide and sewing for little girls then over-handing it firmly to a circle of cardboard that measures four inches across, and that is cov- ered with silk. this forms the bottom. sew the ends together and run double drawstrings of baby ribbon through a casing made at the other edge, to close the bag at the top. such a bag could be made, though, of any kind a "polybag" of ribbon or even pretty wash goods. plain cot- ton duck, with your initial or monogram on one side and with a tape for a drawstring, would make sewing for little girls are exactly in the middle, and tack right through the center from top to bottom, making a book when folded over that is four inches long by two inches wide. then, if not too thick, punch a small hole clear through as it is folded, at the top, middle and bottom, and tie in short lengths of baby ribbon to make pretty bows. slip in an eight-inch length of this ribbon clear across the middle of the broadcloth, on the inside, and tack in several places as well as at the edge, to make places to hold the paper of needles, bodkin, darn- ers, etc. the ends left flying, of course you know, are to tie the book shut when you are through. sewing apron did you ever notice, by the way, that when mother sits down to sew she usually puts on a fresh, white apron? this is to keep the threads and lint from her dress, as well as to keep her sewing nice and clean. so, if you are going to be a thorough little seamstress, you better make yourself a sewing apron right away. use any kind of thin white goods, or a short length left from one of your summer dresses, if you like colors. taking a full width of goods that is thirty inches long, crease a one-inch hem along one end, sewing for little girls long creases you made at the start, from the bottom to the very edge of the hem, you will find you have four neat little pockets to hold your pencils. attach a loop of cord or tiny tape to the end of the flap, and sew a button on the center line of the backstitching, in the exact spot to catch the loop. then you can keep it securely closed. chapter iv dolly's drawers by the work one knows the workman. -la fontaine. making dolly's drawers so they would allow her to sit, puzzled me greatly when i was a little girl. her jointed kid body allowed the legs to bend so much that there was never room enough in the seat, and it took me some time to figure it out for myself, but i finally did it this way: i measured first the length i wanted the gar- ment from the waist-line in front to the knee, and then the inside of the leg from body to knee, and wrote the numbers down; next from the waist in the back to the knee when dolly was bent in a sit- ting posture. this proved considerably longer than the first. then i measured from a line taken straight down the middle of the front to a similar straight line down the back, around the hips when she was bent, and i found she was much broader from her side line to the back line than from the side line to the front line. folding a strip of paper that was deeper than sewing for little girls the length of the drawers, i placed the fold at her side line, and creased where the top and bot- tom should come; then opening out, i corrected this roughly indicated mark according to the measurements first set down, and— —there was a pattern cut to fit. and the following is the queer-shaped piece i had cut! gather in to belt тоpen back o front seam fold, gather side fold here for bottom hem. pattern for one leg of drawers but it looked so different from most drawer- patterns i had seen, i was not sure i was right until i sewed the seams and tried the garment on. to make the drawers in this way, after they are cut from the pattern, first fold the hems at bot- dolly's drawers tom, and where they are to be open down the mid- dle of the back, and baste. a french seam sewing for little girls french seam lay the two short, front edges together, with the hems on the inside, and sew with a running stitch very close to the edge. trim the edges even, near to the sewing, then fold over the other way, exactly on the stitching and sew up once more, now using the combination backstitch. you will then have what is called a french seam, and it not only makes your sewing stronger, but it folds in and covers the raw edges. fold and crease one leg at the dotted side line, and then with the hems inside, stitch the two rounded edges together, from the hem at the bot- tom to the notch, and fasten securely. gather along the edge of the back piece separately as far as the back hem, draw it up to fit the front, and stitch the two pieces together back to the notch. after doing the other leg the same way, trim off close to the sewing, turn the garment inside out, crease on the stitching for another french seam, and stitch this time straight around from one bottom hem to the other. now you will see you have left no raw edges. but you need a belt, so cut a strip one inch wide, and one inch longer than the waist measure, and fold under each end one-quarter of an inch to strengthen for the button and button-hole. dolly's drawers after gathering the top of the drawers from the notch near the side, to the back hem, and pinning the center of the belt to the center of the drawers (at the front), on the outside, draw up to fit the jer to belt gather front seam hem a single leg belt, and sew all the way around. stitch care- fully, then crease a tiny fold along the other side, turn the belt exactly in the middle and hem down on the wrong side. then after hemming the hems, and adding the buttons and button-holes, miss dolly will have a garment that will allow her to sit down. chapter v some simple trimmigns be plain in dress, and sober in your diet; in short, my deary, kiss me and be quiet. -lady montagu. in making nice underwear for dolly (or your- self), you will want some simple, pretty trimming, so first i am going to show you how to make ruffling. take a straight, narrow piece of paper one third longer than the edge where the ruffle is to go, fold over one side the width you want for a hem, and then cut the strip the width that you want the ruffle. with a pattern of this kind you will be pretty sure to make no mistake when you cut out the goods. fold the hem and baste it to keep it straight, then either hem or run. gathering next take a long thread, put through your nee- dle and knot the two ends together. a double thread always holds gathers much better than a single, and also is stronger. take running stitches twice as long on the underside as they are sewing for little girls on top, along the raw edge of your strip, and when you have come to the end, tie a knot in the thread. then put in a second row exactly the same way, one-quarter of an inch from the first, and you will find that with the two gathering threads your “puckers" can easily be evenly distri- buted. they will not slip like they would on a single thread, either. when your ruffle is all ready to be applied, pin it in place on the garment, draw up the two strings so as to make it the exact length, and put in some more pins to hold it until you can get it basted. cover the raw edge with finishing braid or a tiny folded bias band, and hem down. shirring shirring is easy, too, and is done like ruffling, only you put in as many rows of gathering threads as you want, and then draw them all up to fit, and adjust the fullness the way you like. for in- stance, in making a nice white dress for dolly, the waist could be cut fuller than usual, and shirred around the neck, with three or four threads, while the full skirt could have five or six rows around the hips. just try this some time and see how pretty it looks. shirring, however, is not so suitable for underwear. some simple trimmings -- 中国民间中的可行 ​putting on a ruffle chapter vi dolly's skirt her feet beneath her petticoat like little mice stole in and out, as if they feared the light. -sir john suckling. now that you girls have had several different kinds of plain sewing, i am sure you will be ready to try some of the fancy stitches; and as doll chil- dren, like real, are always needing new under- wear, suppose this time you try making a skirt. i want you to learn to cut your own patterns, too, which is another reason why i choose this simple garment. then you can make it as dainty as you please with handwork. cutting the skirt pattern first cut a strip of paper as wide as from the belt to the bottom of dolly's dress, with a folded hem as deep as you desire. if the skirt is to be of flannel, cut the pattern strip just wide enough to set well, which ought to be about three times her sewing for little girls waist measure. a thin, white skirt, however, will have to be fuller. when you have the right width and length, cut out the garment after laying the paper pattern straight on the goods, sew the seam from half way down the back to the bottom, half an inch in from the edge, and trim off close to the sewing. then overcast the raw edges along this seam. overcasting overcasting is done like over-handing, except that the stitches are longer and taken farther apart. it is done along the raw edges, to keep the goods from fraying. finish separately the two edges left to form atport dolly's skirt dolly's skirt the placket by hemming very neatly up to the top, and then press all the sewing with a warm iron. featherstitching : if you want to featherstitch the bottom hem, fold it carefully, and run it with a fine basting thread to hold firmly in place. take a needleful of some pretty embroidery silk, and start your featherstitching at the center back seam, holding the skirt right side out, with the hem to the left. bringing your needle to the upper or outside, where the edge of the hem is marked by the bast- ing thread, throw the silk to the left, set your nee- dles as shown in the picture, and pull through. draw the thread just tight enough to lie smoothly, then throw the silk to the right, set your needle in the same way again, only at the opposite angle, for the point must always be toward the middle as marked by the basting; take the same length stitch as before, and pull through smoothly again. now, this is very easy if you will pay close atten- tion to the directions and to the little picture; and you will find it very easy, rapid, and fascinating work, too. continue around the hem, throwing the thread each time in the opposite direction from the last, left-right-left-right, etc., and you will soon find that you are getting beautifully even stitches. sewing for little girls after you have mastered this perfectly, try tak- ing two stitches on each side, and the result will be even prettier. next run a double row of gathers around the featherstitching remaining raw edge, at the top of the skirt, draw up to fit dolly's waist, and fasten securely. if your child happens to be rather large around her waist (for some children are quite chubby), you may not want so many gathers over her little stomach, so push all the fullness you can to the dolly's skirt back, and lay the rest in two flat little plaits each side of the front. cut a strip of fine muslin long and wide enough for a band, and put on the same way as i told you for the pretty apron. sew a tiny button from an old glove on one end, and make a neat buttonhole in the other. and to make particularly nice, overcast on a piece of narrow lace at the bottom of the hem. blanket stitch for a plain flannel underskirt, however, turn a half inch fold at the bottom, and baste. take a needleful of fine worsted or embroidery silk, and, starting from the left, hold the thread down with your thumb while you set the needle in one-quarter of an inch back from the edge, and bring it out from under the edge (and over the thread held down), so as to form a loop a little like the but- tonhole stitch. the next time set the needle not quite so far in, and continue to alternate with long and short stitches. you may want to make a fine white skirt, how- ever, so get a piece left over from your own or mother's summer dress, and that you can trim differently. after cutting the fine, thin goods, and folding sewing for little girls the hem, before your fasten it pull a thread where the very top of the hem comes, which will prob- ably be in one to two inches from the edge. it may be a little hard to get out this first thread, but a needle will help, and, never minding how often it breaks, just start again. then after blanket stitch you have drawn one thread all the way around, so as to get the line straight, take out enough more-eight, ten or twelve, to make the width space you want for hemstitching, and baste the folded hem along this line of drawnwork. hemstitching now, however, you sew with fine white cotton, and for very sheer material take a fine needle and sewing for little girls though it takes practice, of course, to do it nicely. but the advantage of mastering hemstitching is that after you once learn to do it well, you can use it for all sorts of pretty things for yourself, such as dainty handkerchiefs, collars, etc. the reason i suggest making these little ar- ticles is that you may have easy things to start with, and yet something worth while when nicely finished. but always take pains. get your stitches straight and even, and do each piece of work as well as if you knew that every one that saw it was going to judge you by your handiwork. then the first thing you know, you will find your- self a good, capable little seamstress. chapter vii the fine white dress she loves me when she cuts an’ sews my little cloak an' sund'y clothes. -james whitcomb riley. dolly probably needs a nice, white dress, so prepare to take her measurements for the pat- tern. you can most likely get a piece of fine ma- terial from mother's scrap-bag, though you may have to press it out smooth before going to work. cutting to measure first lay dolly flat on the table, with her arms out straight, and measure from one elbow to the other, across her body, and write the figures down. measure next from her neck under the ear to be- low her knees, with allowance for hem extra, and write that down. measure across her knees as far each side as you wish the skirt to extend, - and you will probably find that this measurement is the same as the space between the elbows. now take a piece of paper twice as long as the length from neck to hem, and the same width as sewing for little girls between the elbows. fold in half crossways, and then again lengthways, trim out the small open- ing for the neck at the corner coming in the center ope ning down oack cather hem pattern for embroidered dress of the paper, and shape out, on the long side show- ing the four edges, to fit under the arms, as shown in the picture. (i think you usually cut paper- doll dresses this way, don't you?) then round off the fine white dress the bottom as indicated, or your dress will sag at the sides. next lay this pattern against dolly, and see if you have cut it right. if not, take another piece of paper and try it again; and keep on trying until you are satisfied that it is the way it ought to be. thus you will prevent any mistake in cut- ting your goods. making the dress when the pattern is all ready, lay it very care- fully on the material, getting the crease down the front of the paper on the straight of the cloth. you will see by looking at the illustration that we are to have a dainty low - necked, short - sleeved dress, so when the goods is cut, first sew the under-arm seams. put a fly-fastening down the back, or, if you find dolly is narrower across the back than she is across the front, you will be able to turn narrow hems that will allow for tiny buttons and button- dolly in her holes. take a half-inch strip new dress .: sewing for little girls of the material cut on the bias, lay it on the right side of the dress and stitch around the neck-open- ing, being very careful not to stretch either the neck or the band. then when you have creased a tiny fold along the other side of the strip, turn exactly on the line of sewing and hem down on the wrong side just like an ordinary hem. backstitching sometimes when you are working on such a -bet backstitching thing as the seams of a waist you will find that your sewing ought to be particularly strong and firm, so then instead of the simple running stitch like you used in the patchwork, you must try; backstitching. to backstitch means to take one stitch under- neath, and then set the needle back on top nearly to the previous stitch. it is slower sewing, of course, but much better for any place that is sub- the fine white dress ject to a strain. when finished, it looks like the running stitch on the top side, but has a line of close double stitches on the under side. hem the bottom of the dress and the edges of the loose, open sleeves. run two rows of gather- ing threads about one-third the way up from the bottom of the dress and draw it in slightly, to fit the body around the hips (or below, as you prefer), and cover with a belt, a sash, or embroid- ery "beading" run with a narrow ribbon. chapter viii different kinds of fastenings cut and come again. -crabbe. hooks and eyes are put on in places where we do not want any fastenings to show, and like everything else there is a right way to sew them on. if you prefer hooks to buttons down the back of dolly's dress, for instance, crease the hems after folding them wide enough to cover your hooks. then mark the places, at regular intervals, where the hooks are to go, make a tiny hole in this hem with the point of your scissors and push the point of the hook through from the under- side. holding carefully in place with your thumb and forefinger, so it will not slip crooked, sew the hook, over and over, to the loose hem (for that is not to be stitched down until the hooks are all on), through the two little round eyes, and take a couple of extra stitches at the other end to hold the hook steady. then when every one is tightly sewing for little girls sewed in place, lay the hem nice and smooth, and hem that down, and you will find that none of the sewing on hooks stitches fastening the hooks and eyes show at all on the right side. measure and mark the places on the hem on sewing for little girls they will scarcely show, and leave only the metal bar exposed. the picture will show you exactly what i mean, however. if you want a nice finishing,—the kind that does not show,—down the back of dolly's dress (or on your own blouse waist in case you are am- bitious enough to try that) suppose you put on a fly-fastening. fly-fastening cut two strips the length of the opening, and a little more than double the width necessary for the buttonholes. lay one along one edge of the garment on the upper or outside, stitch with a running stitch, turn a tiny fold along the other edge of the strip, and then crease it exactly in the center, so that the “fiy," pressed flat, covers the raw edge, on the under side. hem neatly, catching the stitches so they do not show through and put the buttons on this strip. fold a tiny hem on the other side of the gar- ment, fold the other strip exactly through the center, and after turning its two raw edges to- gether, inside, so they do not show, lay the strip with the other edge along the edge of the hem, and stitch the two edges as one, to the dress. in this attached strip work the buttonholes. different kinds of fastenings fly-fastening, right side fly-fastening, left side studying out a pattern embroidery stitches will take, fill in the scallops with a few lengthwise stitches, for padding, so the edge will be firm and strong, and then take short buttonhole stitches, at right angle to the others, beginning at the right hand end. you will find this very quick work, and pretty, too. making eyelets for the little eyelets, pierce a hole as large as you want with a stiletto,—or a common crochet- needle, if you can find nothing else. run a row of fine stitches around this opening, and then overhand it, holding the edge of the hole away from you all the time as you work around. take small, close stitches, and draw the thread each time as tight as possible without puckering the goods. when you have been all the way around, fasten your thread on the underside, and clip off. french knots when mothers, big and little, get to putting nice handwork on their children's clothes, they nearly always want to use pretty french knots. these look rather hard to make, but really they are as easy as any other fancy stitches; and they fit in where nothing else does as well, along the edges of hems and between tucks and insertion. sewing for little girls so, when you are ready to make dolly some- thing new, take a double thread of heavy silk or embroidery cotton, knot the end, and start the needle through from the underside exactly at the point where you want the first french knot to come. then, after pulling the thread straight towards you, place your thumb directly over the spot of the knot, wrap the thread once around your thumb to make a loop, then slip it off and after laying flat, stick your needle back right where the thread first came out and push the needle point through and out again where you want the next knot to come. but before drawing the needle out again, catch hold of the thread within an inch of the loop and pull the thread up close around the needle, to make a small knot. then pull the needle until the thread is drawn up nice and smooth, and you will find yourself ready to make another. this carries the thread along on the underside, from one knot to an- other, so you do not have to fasten or cut off each time. there are several different ways of making french knots, but this seems to me to be the simplest. sewing for little girls arms out straight from her body, and see what she measures from one wrist to the other, add- ing one inch at each hand to be turned back for the facing, and two inches more which will be needed for the box plait in the back of the coat and the hems down the front opening. these extra four inches are about right for a doll six- teen inches long, but more would be needed for a larger, and less for a smaller one. but add this extra length to the exact distance between her wrists, and write it down on your paper. measure next from her neck (under her little ear) down as long as you want her coat to come when it is finished, add one inch for a hem at the bottom, and write that number down, too. then, if you want a fashionably large hat, see how wide she is across the shoulders, and put that figure down as the diameter of the hat brim, and make the circle for the crown the same size. a third circle nearly as big, cut out, afterwards, like the picture, will form the collar. cutting the pattern after getting these figures, take a good sized piece of newspaper, fold it first lengthwise and then crosswise. then measure from the folded corner lengthwise as many inches as you have the coat and hat creasing the hems, pinning the plait, and turn- ing back the hand facings, and see if you have the right proportions. if not, cut another pat- tern with the needed changes. this will take a little experimenting, to get exactly as it should be. but it will prevent mistakes later. cut out, then, the other pieces like the pictures, but accord- to your own measurements. next lay your patterns, just like the map, on your goods, being sure to get them the proper way of the material, up and down. if you have one whole length that mother or auntie has been able to spare you so much the better, but you can use scraps if you have to. should it happen that you cannot find about the house a single thing suitable, take the ten cents that you would otherwise spend for candy, and buy as much as you need of pretty striped tennis flannel. a blue and white would make a dainty coat, and one that would wash, too. making the coat when your pieces are all cut out, sew with a running stitch up the sleeve (under the arm), and down the body. stitch along the dotted lines where you pinned the plait for the back, open out flat and press as a box-plait. turn the coat and hat to mark for the crown, then sew the two brims together around the outside edge, turn and press. cut the circle for the crown, run a double thread around the outside edge after marking the exact center line through the middle (to meet the nicks in the brim), and draw up small enough to just fit the head opening of the brim when you slip both brims and crown holes over your fingers. place the marks on the brim to the line through the crown, so you can divide the gathers evenly on each side, and u *** ....... then holding the brim against the gathered crown, with your fingers through the opening in dolly's new coat each, sew together, taking and hat a backstitch now and then. fasten securely, then pat down the crown, tam o'shanter style, nice and flat, trim around with a pretty piece of ribbon, and see if you cannot find some nice chicken quills for a finishing touch. then you will have a stylish little outfit; and you can do the work well, if you try. chapter xi a dainty mending outfit if there's a hole in a your coats, i rede ye tent it; a chiel's amang ye takin' notes, and, faith, he'll prent it. -burns. are you supplied, by the way, with a mending outfit? every seamstress needs a work-bag, well fitted with the things she is likely to use. just the other day i saw a tiny sewing kit, which was the cutest thing imaginable! it was made of pink silk belting, held in shape by satin- covered cardboard sides. it was three inches long by two inches wide, just the dimensions of its little embroidery scissors, and less than one inch high, exactly the height, in fact, of its small aluminum thimble. but the finest thing about it was that it contained a complete mending outfit. there was a double fold of fine white flannel, an inch by an inch and a half, on one side of which were as- sorted needles, and on the other side a dozen small safety-pins. a tiny silk button-bag, an inch and 's ewing for little girls a half square, held a few pearl buttons of differ- ent sizes and a dozen assorted hooks and eyes, both black and white. attached to one corner with a few strong stitches was a tiny emery. loose in the bottom were six tiny cards, half an inch square, each wrapped with a few yards of thread (coarse and fine black and white cotton, black silk and black darning cotton). there was also a bodkin, a darning-needle, a roll of, perhaps, half a yard of narrow tape, and a ball of wax. several large safety-pins completed the equipment. this little sewing kit was carried by one of my friends on all her travels, because it could be slipped into even the smallest hand-bag. it pro- vided always for the button suddenly missing from glove or underwear, the rip or rent in a gar- ment, the mysterious hole in a stocking. if you should care to make one for yourself, i will tell you how to do it, but it would make a lovely pres- ent for you to give to mother or sister or your dearest friend. a dainty mending outfit first lay your small embroidery scissors on a piece of paper and mark off their length. then cut an oblong from the paper half an inch longer a dainty mending outfit sewing for little girls the thread close, without puckering, and come back the same way. do not get those stitches too close together the first time you go around, as you might un- consciously “full” one side more than the other, but when you have reached the other end, turn and come back the same way, now putting your stitches in between the first set. also take them a little deeper, so they will catch more of the material and make the sewing hold better. the second time around, if you will notice, you will see you have left a little hole at the sharp corner (in the middle), so put in a few extra stitches there, spread out fan shape to strengthen that particular place. after you have learned to do well all the dif- ferent things we have talked about, do you not think it will be lovely to surprise mother by tell- ing her you are going to begin to darn your own stockings? that would be such a help, and she would know then you had obtained real, practical good out of your sewing lessons. but let me tell you first that if you want to make this work very light, never put on a stocking with a hole in it. no matter if you have worn it but a day, mend it before wearing again, and then you will find that the holes are never large. sewing for little girls be sure to go into the firm goods and make the darned place strong. stockings mended in this way will be smooth and flat, not hurting the feet, and they will last much longer than if loosely “basket-stitched.” and if you repair each tiny hole as soon as it comes, your work will not take much time, either. patching patching means putting on a piece to cover a hole or a worn place. this piece ought always to be of the same kind of goods, and laid on exactly the same way of the material. first cut a square a little larger than the part you want covered, crease an eighth of an inch fold all around, place exactly in the right spot on the wrong side of the goods, and pin carefully at each corner until you can get properly basted. then hem with the tiniest kind of stitches, using a fine thread of the right color. patch, on underside next turn to the right side, cut away the rough or worn edges, leaving a hole either round or square, as you prefer. if round, you will have to make little, even snips all around the circle in order to allow you to turn under the edge, and a chat on mending then hem down with stitches that can scarcely be seen. usually, however, a square hole shows less, so if you decide on that, cut from the center toward each corner of the patch but to within not less . square patch waong side. than a quarter of an inch, snip off the worn part up nearly but not quite to these points, turn under the raw edges evenly in a perfect line with the first hemming of the patch, and hem down. patch, right side when it is all nicely done, press with a hot iron, to make the work smooth and flat. achat on mending girl who thinks it too much trouble to take “a stitch in time,” and who makes anything do for ordinary occasions; but keep yourself attractive by always being dainty and neat. the end schlesinger library rs lzal d v when mother lets us sew mrs. ralston the arthur and elizabeth schlesinger library on the history of women in america gift of mrs. jefferson patterson when mother lets us sew poemas arabella in all her finery when mother lets us sew by virginia ralston illustrated non-in ferior aseov entes new york moffat, yard and company copyright, , by moffat, yard and company new york all rights reserved published, february, reprinted, april, reprinted, april, reprinted, january, reprinted, july, reprinted, august, preservation master at harvard - " lovingly dedicated to my mother who thinks i do not know how to sew! contents page . . . · · . . . . · · · . · • · · · · · . · · · . · · · · · · . · · · · · · . · · · . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · introduction . . . . . . . . . . materials for the first lesson . . . . running stitch . . . . . . . . basting stitch . . . . . . . stitching stitch . . . back stitching . . making the bean-bag . . over-handing · · · · · · catch-stitch . . . . . . . scissors and tape measure . . hemming stitch . . making a dusting cloth . . . . . . making a bib . . . a petticoat for arabella . . making a placket . . . . . . the gathering stitch . . . stroking gathers . . . putting on the band . . . underbody. . . . . . . drawers . . . . . casing for drawing string . . . . . . everyday frock for arabella . . . . . fly-fastening . . . . . . . . . band trimming . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .. . . . · · · . contents · · · . · page making the mantle . . . . . . . . . . fancy flannel sacque . . . . . . . . . blanket stitch . . . . . . . . . . . sewing on buttons . . . darning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . making buttonholes . . . . . . . . . . . patching . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · . · . · · · . · illustrations . · · page frontispiece . . . ... . . . . . . · . · · · · · · . . · . · . · · . · · · · · . · . · arabella in all her finery . . . . . the proper sitting position . . . . threading the needle . . . . . . running stitch . . . . . . . uneven basting stitch no. . . . . uneven basting stitch no. . . . . stitching stitch no. (right side). . stitching stitch no. (wrong side). . illustration of knot . . . . . . illustrations to “over-handing". . . catch-stitching (right side) . . . . catch-stitching (wrong side) . . . . catch-stitching (turning a corner). . illustration of “hemming stitches" . illustration of bib . . . . . . . arabella has a petticoat . . . different sewings for petticoat . . . making a placket . . . . . . . gathering on canvas . . . . . . gathering on muslin . . . illustrations to "band". . underbody . . . . . . a true bias . . . . . . . . . sewing on bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · . · · · · . · . · . . · . · · · · . · . · . . . · · . . · · · · · · . · · . . . . illustrations . . page panties for arabella . . . . . . . . . arabella needs a nightgown . . . . . . nightgown . . . . . . . . . . . . casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . arabella is measured for her new frock . .. every day frock . . . . . . . . . . fly-fastening . . . . . . . . . . .. arabella's frock . . . . . . . . . .. making the mantle . . . . . . . . arabella likes her warm mantle . . fancy flannel sacque . . . . arabella wears her new sacque . . blanket stitch . . . . . . . . . . . blanket stitch on canvas . . . using a pin to keep the thread loose . . darning stitch on canvas . . . . . . . . buttonhole stitch . . . . . . . . . . buttonhole . . . . . . . . . . . . patching . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . when mother lets us sew when mother lets us sew. “when we're big enough to sew, why, then we're growing up, you know!" .when mother lets us sew. introductory think how nice it would be, when mother is busy with her sewing and mending, to sit beside her on a little low chair and help her with that big sewing basket over-flowing with work! one could learn how to sew a button on brother tom's shirt, mend a tear neatly in little sister's apron, thread mother's needles, put a new band on an outgrown petticoat and even make dainty little frills for big sister's shirtwaists. but the very best, i've kept 'til the last, for wouldn't you like to learn how to cut out, sew and make all your own doll baby's clothes? to make real underclothes with real buttons and buttonholes that will button and unbutton? just to think of being able to dress and undress your little doll baby family as often as you like! one could even make little night gowns for them to sleep in and best of all, everything they wore would be made by your own busy little hands. first, we will have to find a little sewing room. this we would make in any sunny corner of the nursery or mother's sewing room, and if you will promise to keep it tidy, i'm sure she will say “yes.” then we must find a little old chair and ask brother to get his tool box and when mother lets us sew saw off several inches from the legs to make it the right height. for when you sit on your little chair to sew your feet should rest easily on the floor and not swing. the chair must be placed so that the light will fall from the side or over your shoulders from the back, and not directly in your eyes. sit up straight and well back on your chair, for if you are able to take long, deep breaths your head will not ache and you will not tire so easily. there should be plenty of space to use your arms freely. this is important, children, and makes as much difference in your work as playing hide-and-go- seek in the country or in a city yard. then you should have a little low table to stand in front or on one side for your workbasket. then see if your hands are nice and clean, if not, run off and wash them, as dirty little fingers rust and soil the needle and makes it hard to push it in and out of the material. now we are ready to learn how to sew. the proper sitting position when mother lets us sew “the thread is in the needle, the thimble in its place, mamma is busy teaching me to run, to hem and baste." when mÔthÊr lets us sew do not bend your head over your work as this tires the shoulders and strains the eyes, but lift the work up so you can see it clearly and easily. here is a list of the stitches we want to learn and try and remember by name: no. .-running stitch. no. .-basting stitch. no. .—gathering stitch. no. .-stitching stitch. no. .—back-stitch. no. .--hemming stitch. no. .-over-handing. no. .-catch-stitch. no. .-blanket-stitch. when mother lets us sew "running stitch:' we are now ready to take the first stitch. the running stitch is made in a straight line from right to left. hold the work with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, putting in the needle with the right hand. take up two threads on the canvas. draw out the needle, leaving a half-inch thread at the end and take another stitch over the first to hold the thread. now pass over two threads and take up two more threads, and continue running and spacing the stitches evenly, drawing the thread upwards towards the right shoulder. do not draw the thread tight, but let it lie easily on the canvas. the running stitch is used for light seams where there is little strain and for tucking. rudding • stitch when mother lets us sew basting stitch basting is a long stitch used to hold the material or seam in place until it is more securely sewn. it is exactly the same as the running stitch, except that it is longer, so it will be easier to learn these two stitches together. make the basting stitch an inch below the run- ning stitch, using the running stitches as a guide to keep them straight. let us use blue zephyr this time. hold the needle in your hand easily, for when making a long stitch in sewing unevem • basting • no. i • • you will do better work with a "free" hand, in- stead of a hard, tight hand. the length of stitch in even basting depends upon the mate- rial. for our first lesson, let us make it twice the length of the running stitch. so take up four threads on the needle and pass over four, making them the same length on each side. to make uneven basting, take up two threads and pass over four. when mother lets us sew even.basting. • • no. • gathering stitches are made the same as run- ning, except that the thread is drawn up on the material. we will learn this stitch when we be- gin to make real doll babies' clothes. we must take these simpler stitches first and learn how to use them. in the beginning it will seem very hard to make your stitches even and in a straight line, but really it isn't a bit harder than learning jackstraws. when mother lets us sew, "when i'm a grown-up woman, with my hair up on my head, i'll sit and sew 'til very late and never go to bed!” when mother lets us sew “oh! dear! a knot's a puzzle how to make! it looks just like a creepy little snake! but what's the use of sewing tight if one hasn't started the seam just right?” when mother lets us sew. making the bean bag to make the bean bag or iron holder we must have a piece of unbleached muslin, a spool of no. cotton and a no. needle. have mother cut a piece of material six inches wide by twelve inches long. fold, and baste the edge of two sides together carefully a half inch from the raw edges. and now we must stop a moment be- fore beginning our stitching and learn how to make a “knot." a knot is made by twisting the end of the thread and prevents the thread from slipping out of the material. it would never do to have the seem rip out in the bean bag because we hadn't fastened the thread, would it? to make the knot, hold the thread in the left hand and twist the thread around the forefinger of the right hand, holding it with the llustration thumb and rolling it off with the middle finger, pressing the end of the thread through the loop around the finger. it sounds harder than it really is, as you will see when you try to make one two or three times. after you have made the knot we will begin to sew the bean bag. just under the basting make a line of stitching. at one end of the bag is the fold of the material, so there are .or. knot when mother lets us sew "over-handing" nnnnnnn moonnnnnn practice first on canvas sampler, using a brown zephyr thread. this stitch is used to join the two edges closely together on the right side of the material. first baste the two ends together to within a couple of inches of the end if you are making a bean bag, as we must leave a little opening to pour in the beans before closing up the entire seam. if you are making an iron holder, get mother to give you several pieces of flannel cut in squares to fit, to put inside before begin- ning to baste. to make the overhand- ing stitch sew from right to left, holding the ma- terial straight before you with the two edges to be overhanded between the thumb and forefinger. put the material into the material between the two thicknesses, pointing it straight toward you. take up enough to make a (d firm stitch, and make an- when. mother lets us sew, “next comes the catch-stitch, children, isn't that a funny name to give to something serious as if it were a game?" when mother lets us sew "catch-stitch' catch-stitching is a loose, fancy stitch used to hold down edges that have no wear or tear on them such as the seams on flannel petticoats or uudio catch stitching right side . . . tttttttt in the trimming of hem or bands. it is pretty used as a trimming on dolls' wrappers and sacques. as in making the overhanding stitch, the needle must point directly toward you. this stitch is made from the left to the right catch stitching wrong side ... . and is a slanting cross stitch which on the wrong side looks like a running stitch. each stitch should be alike in depth and width. in trim- ming bands or hems, keep the lower edge of the when mother lets us sew stitch on a line with the straight edge to be trimmed. take the stitch straight through the double fold of the material. catch stitching turning a corner • • when mother lets us sew. “hemming, mother tells me, must be neat and very fine, the stitches small and even, all in a nice, straight line." when mother lets us sew 'hemming stitch the hemming stitch is a slanting stitch taken from right to left first through the material under the folded over hem and then upward, in a slanting line toward the left shoulder into the me hek right side of hem hemming stitch showing fold and needle in position edge of the hem. do not begin with a knot, but sew under the end of the thread with your first stitches as in overhanding. the stitches must be as small and regular as you can make them. take each stitch in advance of the last one. hermittig stitch canvas • • douchi when mother lets us sew making a dusting cloth suppose you look in the scrap bag for a piece of checked gingham left over from one of your little, aprons. this would be excellent on which to practice catch-stitching as the lines and squares of the plaid will make a guide for the stitching. cut in a large square and baste a hem half an inch wide on all four sides and be- gin to catch-stitch. put the needle in the mate- rial and take a short stitch toward you, holding the cloth over the forefinger of the left hand and making the stitch in the same line as you wish to make the stitching run. now take another stitch to the right and a little below the first stitch in the same manner with the thread over the needle. try to turn the corner nicely. take a stitch to the right and instead of point- ing the needle towards you, point it to the left or following the line of the hem. now take an- other stitch from this one in the usual way to form a square with extended corners. now we will try the hemming stitch, first on our sampler of canvas and then on a little piece of muslin. after we have learned this, we have only one more stitch, a pretty fancy one, and then we will begin to make real dolly clothes. the edge of the material, after it has been cut when mother lets us sew or torn, is called the raw edge. to cover this edge before hemming the edge must be turned over twice, once to enclose the raw edges and once to turn the hem. this is called, “turning the hem.” in a narrow hem the second turn just covers the first turn. wide hems must be carefully measured. to do this use a card notched at the depth the hem is to be made, run- ning it along as you turn over the edge as a guide to keep it straight. practice turning hems of different width on a piece of paper. the hem must first be basted and then hemmed. when mother lets us sew making a bib piece of linen. no. needle. no. cotton. 'as a first trial with the scissors in real cutting out, we will make a bib for baby brother. you know that a bib is oblong shape, longer than it is wide, so ask mother to show you the length of the material so you will know in which direction oct _ ' 'n. ji fold illustration of bib to measure it off. use linen or crash toweling. take your tape measure and measure off for the length sixteen inches and twelve for the width. fold lengthwise and mark off three and a half inches from the top on the fold and three inches across the edge and mark with notches. cut a curved line for the neck from one notch to an- other. finish each side with a narrow hem as well as the ends each side of the curved neckline. when mother lets us sew make the second turn of the hem just wide enough to cover the raw edges of the first turn. make a hem at the lower edge twice the width of the side hems, measuring with the marker to get the right depth. bind the edge of the neck with half-inch wide tape. first baste it on one side, using half the width of the tape, then fold over on the other side and baste. finish with running stitches. sew straight through the double thickness of the tape. arabella has a petticoat when mother lets us sew, “a placket hole! what can that be? mother is busy showing me, to make a slit, bind, stitch and turn, and keep on trying, 'til i learn!” when mother lets us sew making a placket 'a' placket is an opening in clothes to give space so they can be slipped on easily. we must make a placket in miss dolly arabella's wide hem. hemon. left side: wrong •side. right side.of. }. . petticoat. •petticoat: right side: of.petticoat: lacket: when finished ..*: holding: plait in:place, petticoat so it can be put on over her head and shoulders. the placket is made at the top of the back seam which we left open for this pur- pose. first make a narrow hem on the left side of the opening, turning it on the wrong side, and taking up just as much of the material as you when mother lets us sew used in the flat fell. now snip into the material on the right side at the end of the seam to turn the hem on this side, which should be twice the width of the one on the left side. after you have finished the hem, fold over the entire width of the hem over on the left side of the placket. this will make a plait in the petticoat just below the end of the placket. sew over the narrow hem with a row of stitches. when mother lets us sew the gathering stitch the top edge of the petticoat must now be made ready to put on the band: first it must be gathered. the "gathering" stitch is very much the same as the running stitch, except that gathering on canvas • . in gathering, the spaces between the stitches are twice the length of the stitch. this is called "uneven gathering," and is the kind used in a petticoat. gathering is used to give fullness and to draw the fullness into a smaller spaces. use a strong thread for the gathering and sew in a straight line on the right side of the mate- rial to the placket at the end. first dividing · the length of the material to be gathered into two parts and using a separate thread for each part, as a long gathering on muslin . when mother lets us sew thread would be likely to break. sew about a quarter of an inch from the raw edge, and it would help to keep the gathers in a straight line if you would first crease the material as in turn- ing the fold for a hem. when mother lets us sew “when i can measure, cut and sew, won't that be a lot to know? but i'm only a little girl, you see, so don't expect too much of me." artheid when mother lets us sew der as for the first turn of a hem, turning under at the same time the ends of the band. baste directly over the other row of stitching and hem. after you have finished overhand the ends to- gether. when mother lets us sew underbody to cut out an underwaist, fold the material lengthwise and lay the center front of the waist pattern on the fold, which will bring the lower edge, front and back, straight with the raw edge of the material. pin the pattern and material together at the corners and near the edges to keep in flat and straight while cutting out. after you have finished, open the material and cut from the neck line to lower edge in center back. piece of soft muslin. no. needle. no. white thread. as this underbody is in one piece, back and front, it is only necessary to join the under-arm seams. sew these with a flat fell, as we used in seaming the petticoat. fold narrow hems on each side of the back opening, and turn a wider hem at the lower edge, to which the buttons will be sewn, first basting and then hemming. to finish the neck and armholes neatly we must learn how to put on a bias binding. to cut bias bands we must first get a true bias on the material. a square of material must be cut in a slanting line from one corner to another. this gives you a bias line from which you can when mother lets us sew •fold · of material center:front ........ hem........ • under: waist: •front back underbody when mother lets us sew cut narrow bias strips for binding. measure with a piece of paper all along the bias edge to keep the band the exact width as you cut. then pin the band which you have cut to the bias edge and use as a guide to cut the next band. to sew this bias band around the neck or armhole, hold the garment toward a true bias you, and sew on the right side, basting the band just below the edge. sew with a running stitch. after you have finished, pull out the basting thread. now turn the bias band over the raw edge to the wrong side of the body. crease the edge flat on the right side. turn under the raw edge as if for a hem, the same depth as on the right side, baste sewing on bias binding with and finish with running stitch hemming stitches. turn under the ends and overhand. in bind- ing the sleeves, turn one side of the binding when mother lets us sew over the other with a turned edge. this makes a firm, flat finish. after you have bound both the neck and armholes, we will use the bodkin to run a draw string into the binding at the back. thread the bodkin with a very narrow tape long enough to reach all around the neck, allowing a couple of inches on each end, to tie up in a bow. pass the bodkin under the bias fold on the right side at one end, and bring out at the other end. when you put the underbody on arabella, you can draw up the string and ad- just the fullness at the front. in a little while, when the other undergarments are cut and finished, we will learn how to sew on buttons and make buttonholes, so this part of the work can all be done at one time. panties for arabella when mother lets us sew “underwear scalloped and trimmed with lace, each seam and stitch, neatly in place- nighties of muslin with ribbons blue, petticoats ruffled and finely tucked, too, panties and bodies all ready to wear, now, hasn't my dolly more than her share.” when mother lets us sew of an inch from the edge, and sew with fine run- ning stitches. then open the two edges flat with the tip of your finger. trim off with the scissors smooth and close to the sewing. turn the seam, bring- ing the finished starting a french seam side on the wrong side of the garment, then make a new seam over the other, hiding or enclosing the raw edges. sew with a back stitch. join the two leg sec- tions together at the center seam, with the curved seams directly opposite to each other, second sewing of french beginning at the top of seam the front and extending this seam half way up the back, leaving the top open for the placket as in making the petticoat. sew with a flat fell or french seam. turn a wide hem at the lower edge of each leg. make a hem on each side of the open seam in back for the placket as you did in the petticoat. we are now ready to put on the band. this, too, can be put on as the petticoat band, except that the full- ness from the gathers should be spread across the front and center back, keeping the sides plain. arabella needs a nightgown when mother lets us sew. “lingerie dainty, hand-sewing fine, ruffles and ribbons, just like mine, stitches all even, one at a time, buttons and buttonholes, worked in a line." when mother lets us sew night gown here is the night gown pattern laid on the material with the center front and back on the • night. gown- • straight. of. material: it centre fonti plackt :. w gathers straight fold of the material. after you have cut out the material, make a slit down the center front fold for the placket opening, half way be- tween the neck and waist line. · open out the material and join the under-arm and side seams, placing the notches carefully together as marked on the diagram of the pat- tern. baste and sew, using a flat or french seam. turn up a wide hem at the lower edge, basting first and then hemming. finish the neck the night gown you are making with a narrow bias binding when mother lets us sew as you did on the underbody. hem the edges of the placket, making the narrow hem on the left side of the front and the wider hem on the right. the right hand -hem folds over the left side and must be wide enough to hold the button- holes. when mother lets us sew -casing for drawing string turn a narrow hem around the edges of the sleeves. one-half inch above the hem set a nar- row bias fold, to make a casing for the drawing string to gather in the fullness. turn under the raw edges of bias fold, baste and sew with fine · running stitches. • casing .start to put. on•casinghere begin sewing the casing at the under-arm seam, turning under the raw edges at each end, but leaving them open for the casing. thread your bodkin with blue baby ribbon and pass through casings on each sleeve and around neck. when mother lets us sew. “miss dolly needs a mantle and a frock for every day, and for every stitch of clothes she wears real money must i pay! to say nothing of the making, and sewing, neat and fine, but that's not too much trouble for a little child of mine!” e : arabella is measured for her new frock when mother lets us sew every-day frock for arabella red polka dotted lawn. no. needle. no. cotton. and now we have come to making a dress! we will make a simple one-piece dress just like the ones mother makes for you little mothers of dolls to wear, with box plaits and plain color band trimmings. • straight fold. of material: x-bat: - x-plait: --placket: • box plait.. e- box: plat. - lhem: · selvage every day frock for Árabella first take your tape measure and measure arabella down the front from the shoulder to just below the knees. this will give you the length of her dress when finished. then allow for ahem. fold the material lengthwise; as the back and front of this dress is in one piece, the length of the material must be twice the length of measurement from shoulder to end of hem. after cutting the length of the material, when mother lets us sew measure off the box plaits, and baste and sew with a running stitch. there are three box plaits, one at the direct center and one on each side. a box plait is measured off and made like a tuck, except that in this case the edge of the tuck is opened out flat over the line of sewing, and basted until the dress is finished when they i. detail of box can be pulled out. make these plait box plaits to the waist line front and back. now lay the pattern on the material with the center box plait folded directly in the center. pin carefully and cut. join the sides at notches for the under seam and baste. sew with a french seam. turn a wide hem around the lower edge of the skirt, baste and sew. slit the material down the back . open under the center box plait, from the neck to waist line, for the placket open- ing. to finish this opening we must make a “fly- fastening." when mother lets us sew, fly-fastening in this kind of a placket the buttons and buttonholes are hidden. cut two straight strips -fly-fastening : noi showing: how to make: band-for-buttons. no . show ing.one band. over •lapping • the other of material the length of the placket. the strips must be doubled and wide enough to hold the buttons on one and to make buttonholes on the other. when finished, one band lies di- rectly over the other. baste and sew one strip to the under left side of the slit. turn out the strip and fold it over the raw edges, turn under an edge and sew with running stitches. at the end, turn under the raw edges and overhand, slipping under the right side of the slit. this is the band on which we will sew the buttons. now make a narrow hem on the other side of the placket. then turn the raw edges of the other band, double it and baste the edges to- when mother lets us sew. gether. baste it to the under side of the box plait, keeping the edge of plait and band even. sew with hemming stitches. this is the band for the buttonholes. "band trimming use plain color material to make the bands which finish and trim the neck and edges of the sleeves. cut these bands on the bias, and begin with the neck, sewing on as a binding, first on the wrong side. begin to sew at the right side of the fly-fastening in back. baste and then finish with running stitches. drew the basting threads, turn the band over to the right side, enclosing the raw edges, baste, and sew flat with a running or back stitch. hold the binding easily around the curve of the neck in the first sewing, to keep the lower edge easy fitting. to finish neatly in the back, cut the ends straight, turn under and sew. arabella's frock when. mother lets us sew. "making the mantle" red cashmere. red silk lining. red sewing silk no. a. no. needle. fold the material double and place the center front of pattern on the selvage edge. the back making the mantle: centre back . •contre back. rows. running stitches . salvacs hem centro wh line of pattern should be straight on the fold of material. pin to material. after cutting, open out material, turn and baste a hem at each side of the center front and around the lower edge. place the hood pattern on double fold of the material, with the center back line at the fold. cut the silk for the hood lining exactly the same when mother lets us sew as the material. now open out both the cash- mere and silk and baste and sew together with running stitches, half an inch inside the raw edges. do not baste around the line of neck, as the hood must be gathered and attached to the cape. turn the lining over the material, or "inside out,” which will hide the raw edges and make it look like a big bag with a hole at the top. baste the seamed edges all around to keep the material and silk lining smooth and flat while sewing and finishing the neck of the hood and cape. make a casing to draw up the hood. sew two rows of running stitches one-half inch apart, sewing in the first row the depth of a hem from the edge, as you can see in the detail illustration of the hood. run a narrow red ribbon through this casing, with a bodkin. do not draw up the ribbon until the neck of the hood is gathered and attached to the cape at the neck. now sew a row of gathering stitches between the ends of casing stitches at the neck of the hood and draw up to the same size as the neck of the cape. pin the center back of the hood to the center back of the cape. baste the two raw edges evenly together and sew with back stitches, just below the basting thread. finish the raw edges with a narrow bias binding or fold when mother lets us sew of red silk. sew first on the right side with run- ning stitches, turn over the raw edges, and hem down on the wrong side. turn under the ends neatly and overhand. at each side of the neck sew a piece of nar- row red ribbon, which may be tied in a bow to fasten the cape to keep arabella warm. arabella likes her warm mantle when mother lets us sew. "now i'm making a flannel sacque, for my dolly shall nothing lack ! for i've learned to sew so well, that i can cut, baste and fell. and that's not all the sewing i know, just wait and to you i'll show. the buttonholes i've neatly worked, for not one lesson have i shirked!” when mother lets us sew. fancy flannel sacque piece of white flannel. skein of embroidery silk in pink or blue. embroidery needle with large eye. don't you think arabella should have a little sacque to wear in the garden on cool mornings ? • fancyflannel: sacque. fold.of.material: front: back. sleeve: we will make one like the pattern in one piece. place the pattern on the straight fold of the material and cut around the edges and make the two slits for the sleeve. cut through the center front fold from the neck to lower edge. when you unpin the pattern from the flannel and open out the material you will have a perfect circle. to finish the raw edge of the flannel sacque, we must learn another stitch, called the 'arabella wears her new sacque when mother lets us sew turning a corner take several stitches in the same hole, spreading them around the edge in fan shape. to fasten the thread take the needle through to the wrong side and make a running stitch back of the last blanket stitch. in beginning with a new thread, make a running stitch on the wrong side and bring the needle through the loop of the last stitch, always keep- ing the needle in front of the thread. continue this stitch around all the raw edges of the sacque, ex- cept at the neck. blanket stitch on canvas finish the neck with a narrow binding of ribbon, leaving long enough ends to tie a bow in front. sew narrow ribbons under the sleeves to the front and back pieces, half way between the opening, to hold the back and fronts together. the opening of the sleeves are joined with ribbons in the same way. : the next step is to learn how to sew on buttons and make buttonholes, for arabella's under- clothes and dress are ready to be finished. when mother lets us sew sewing on buttons four-holed buttons. no. or needle. no. cotton. use a double thread to make it stronger. buttons are always sewn to the double fold of the material so they will not pull out. begin by making a stitch on the right side of the material, to be covered by the button. put the needle up through one hole and then down through using a pin to keep the thread loose the hole directly opposite, carrying the thread across, then bring the needle up in the hole between the two through which the thread has already been passed and take it down through the opposite hole, making a cross. put a pin across the top side of the button under the first stitches, and take a few more stitches over the pin. this is to keep the stitches a little loose, as buttons sewn on too tightly soon tear out, and are hard to button. when enough stitches have been taken through the holes of the button to fasten it securely, pull the pin away from under the when mother lets us sew making buttonholes we are now ready to make the buttonholes. it is always better to make the buttonholes and sew on the buttons as each garment is finished, and this is how mother would work, but as you are only learning, i have left this until the last, so you would know how to sew very well indeed before beginning the buttonholes, which are not so easy for little inexperienced fingers. buttonholes are little slits used to slip over the button to fasten the different parts of garments together. the edge is finished with a “button- hole-stitch” to make it strong and durable. practice the stitch on the canvas with zephyr, and do not cut the slit as for a real buttonhole. take a piece of zephyr half again as long as the usual thread, so that you will not have to use a new thread, as it would be hard to join it neatly in making a buttonhole. as we are working on canvas, mark the line for the slit in white cotton, with running stitches, an inch in length. put the needle in at the lower right hand side of the guide thread, point- ing it toward you and work from the right to left. bring it out four or five threads below, or just far enough to prevent the edge from ravel- ing. before drawing the needle out take the when mother lets us sew walia inou thread from the right side of the needle and pass it under the point and around to the left side, draw the needle out with the thread straight before you, so that the thread will purl at the edge. make the next stitch close to the first, exactly the same depth and in the same way. when you reach the end of the buttonhole stitch thread, spread the stitches around in fan shape and work down the other side. when this is finished make the stitches straight across the right end as in the illustra- tion. in making the buttonholes unimin stue in the doll's clothes, cut a i witt slit a tiny bit longer than the width of the button. first nimi fold the hem or placket over buttonhole at its center, and cut care- fully through the exact length. hold the mate- rial slanting across the forefinger of the left hand with the inside lower edge of the button- hole toward you. first outline the slit with long stitches, slipping the needle in at each end from one side to the other. this makes a heavy edge and strengthens the buttonhole. then make long overcasting stitches around the edge, ssblus when mother lets us sew to hold the threads, taking care not to pull the thread too tightly. then proceed with the but- tonhole stitches as on the canvas. when mother lets us sew "patching” a patch is a piece of material sewn to clothes to mend holes and worn places. the patch should be of the same ma- terial as the garment to be mended, and so that it will be very neat when fin- ished, it should be put on with the weave running in the same direction as the part of the material to be patched, matching . wrong side as closely as possible. a patch is usually square, whether the hole is square or round. cut the patch at least half an inch larger all around than the hole. baste it on the wrong side, making the stitches halfway a between the edges of the patch and the edges of the hole. if the hole is ragged, trim the edges neatly in a square or cir- cle. first hem the garment to the patch, then hem the patch to the garment. . right side turn under a narrow “when mother lets us” series "when mother lets us cut pictures."--by ida e. boyd, teacher of art in the brooklyn 'i raining school for teachers. a book that will be a boon to mothers and children on rainy afternoons. a joy to the convalescent or sick child. full of clever ideas. “when mother lets us keep pets."-by constance johnson, all children love animals. this little book teaches the child how to care for the various kinds of pets. it is a guide for dog-loving boys and kitten-loving girls alike. "when mother lets us garden."-by frances duncan, editor garden department of the ladies' home journal. a popular and altogether admirable handbook of simple gardening for beginners of all ages. "when mother lets us sew."_by virginia ralston (mrs. ralston), edi. tor of the dressmaking department of the ladies' home journal. a wonderfully practical book full of ideas that ehildren can easily carry out. “when mother lets us play."-by angela m. keyes, head of the de. partment of english in the brooklyn training school for teachers. deals with pantomimes, puppet shows, plays, spinning tales, rhyming, shadow pic- tures, “what to bay" games and many other fascinating plays. "when mother lets us help."-by constance johnson. here are hints for bed-making, cleaning house, sweeping, picking-up, care of cut flowers and house plante, notes on the ice box, the wood box, the pot and pan closet, the piazza, the sick room and the sink. “when mother lets us give a party.”_by elsie duncan yale. a useful book for birthday, christmas-in fact, for any and every kind of party. “when mother lets us cook."-by constance johnson. an admirable scientific cook book for very young cooks. principal cooking rules in rhyme. “when mother lets us act."_by stella george stern perry. a contribution of great value in amateur dramatics. this is not a book for work, it is a book for play. there is nothing to learn by heart in it. "when mother lets us make paper-box furniture.".--by g. ellingwood rico, brooklyn training school for teachers. this book shows exactly how to make fascinating doll's furniture out of paper boxes and materials which cost nothing. the ideas are new and unique and the illustrations are excellent. “when mother lets us make gifts."-by mary b. grubb. just the guide for children who wish to make their own christmas presents. there is an idea for every one's present-and many extra ones, too. “when mother lets us make toys."-by g. ellingwood rich, brook. lyn training school for teachers. this book is for boys as well as girls. it teaches the youngsters to make good use of their time, fingers and the cast-off materials of any household. "when mother lets us make candy."-by elizabeth & louise bache. tells the best and safest way to make all sorts of candy. the little readers are taught how to manipulate a thermometer, how to use candy hooks and bars, and are given many valuable hints that will help them in all kinds of cooking. price cents net each volame. (postage cents additional) moffat, yard & company new york schlesinger library rs matc% gewing the needle and thinible, are industry's symbol. illus tated fourteenth thousand. the arthur and elizabeth schlesinger library on the history of women in america radcliffe institute from the library of elizabeth h. wright gift of conrad wright illustrated. sewing primer, with songs and music. for schools and families. arranged by louise j. kirkwood, new york. fourteenth thousand. new york : cincinnati : chicago: american book company. braunworth, munn & barber, printers and binders, brooklyn, n. y. table of contents. page ... .... .. .... .... . .. .. .. ... .. .. .. preface.......... hints to teachers .... preparation for sewing. the workbasket cutting. .. needles and thread. basting ......... overhanding. ..... hlemming. runping ............ felling. stitching and backstitching. gathering . overcasting. buttonholes. ... herringbone and feather stitch.... patching and darning .. putting away work .......... solomon's industrious woman about dresses ...... woven fabrics. shopping song.............. songs. . the patchwork quilt..... . katy did .... . little jenny ............ try, try..... preface. have been placed within the reach of the poorer children, those of the middle and higher classes suffer neglect. this want has been recognized in the public schools of some of our large cities, and, as a result, sewing introduced as a regular exercise. . if girls of but one grade—say from nine to twelve years—could be afforded the opportunity of be- coming familiar with the use of the needle, it would be a telling step in the right direction, putting them in possession of a most valuable art, which would prove an armor of defense against temptation to idleness, which leads to want and so often to crime. that this little book may give an impulse in the direction of this industrial pursuit is the desire of a practical worker. l. j. k. hints to teachers. with the aid of one or two good monitresses, to give out the cotton and to carry back and forth the work from teacher to scholar, and with a good supply of basted work on hand, one teacher can manage successfully a class of from twenty-five to thirty girls; more than this it is not wise to try to teach, else the scholars will be neglected and the teacher overburdened. label the work. each child should have her work rolled up by itself and marked distinctly. !! it is a good plan to have for each one a little thimble-bag two inches square, made of white muslin and marked in ink with her name in full. when the time for sewing is over, let each one roll up her work neatly, put her thimble in her bag and pin it to her work with the name uppermost. arranged in this way it will take but a very few minutes to give out work to a large class, and make a very simple operation of what, with less system, be- comes a confused one. short hours. experience has taught that, for little children, from one-half to three-quarters of an hour daily is quite long enough to secure the best results. they will hardly grow weary in this time, and in most cases they will lay down their work reluctantly. hints to teachers. writing. then, too, you may write the child's name and age in a fair clear hand; you may add a motto, or some short line. get her to hem in a neat patch in a piece of cloth; she will be proud to stitch her initials on it. anything of such personal interest she will work at very gladly, and will all the while be growing more and more skillful with her needle and captivated with its possibilities; thus traveling, if not a royal road to knowledge, at least a very pleasant one. needles and thread. . how should you cut linen? first draw a thread and then cut along the line of it . is it necessary to cut off the lengths for sheets and pillow- slips ? not if the goods are of cotton. cut across the selvedge, and tear it the rest of the way. needles and thread. . how should a sewer choose her needle and thread ? according to the work she has to do. a coarse needle and thread for coarse work, and a finer needle and thread for finer work. a no. needle with no. cotton is suitable for nice sewing on ordinary, under-clothing. the writer, in school work, has always chosen “clark's mile-end” white thread, on black spools, and found it very superior. . what kinds of needles are used in sewing ? betweens, blunts and sharps. betweens are best for little girls to use, because they are not so easily bent or broken. . how long a piece of thread should be used ? a piece about as long as the arm of the sewer. . what is good to rub the fingers with when they are damp? a piece of soft chalk. . what should one do when the thread kinks ? · break it off and begin at the other end. in using spool cotton, thread the needle with the end that comes off first, not where it is broken, as this causes it to kink. overhanding. | - - - - - - - - --lh-hg- - - - - showing the seam opened and on the right side. overhanding.* . how must an overhand seam be held ? between the first finger and thumb of the left hand. . should the sewer put a knot in her thread ? no; she should leave a little end of the thread and sew it down with the first stitches. . in what direction should she sew ? from the right hand towards the left hand. . how should the seam be finished ? by sewing back two or three stitches. this will fasten the thread securely. . when the seam is finished, what should she do ? pull out the basting, open the seam, and rub it down with the nail. * see orerhanding, page , which is a complete le son in rhyme for the overhanding seam. the scholar should not take the stitches in the cuts as models for size. they are represented as considerably enlargod, so that the line of the thread and the direction of the stitches may be clearly seen. stİtching and backstitching. sewed, when possible, with the grain of the muslin ; thus, a chemise from the bottom up, and drawers from the top down. . how should the seam be sewed ? alternately, with one backstitch and two running stitches and then hemmed down neatly. . when is a fell seam well done ? when it is narrow, very evenly turned under and carefully sewed. stitching and backstitching. ooooooooo stitching. all backstitching, showing the needle in position. . what is the difference between stitching and backstitch- ; ing? in stitching the stitches meet ; in backstitching there is a space between. the manner of taking the stitches is the same in each. overcasting. . what is the rule for gathering ? take up two threads and skip four threads. . what should be done after the work is gathered ? the gathers should be placed. . how ? draw up the gathering thread tightly and fasten it by twisting it around a pin, and place every gather straight with the point of a coarse needle. . how may the gathers be sewed to a band ? each gather should be either hemmed, back- stitched, or overhanded to the band or part, as the case requires. overcasting. showing overcasting stitches, with the needle in position. . what are overcasting stitches ? loose over-and-over stitches taken over the raw guges of a seam. . how should seams be made ready for overcasting ? they should be evenly trimmed with the scissors. . how should overcasting stitches be made ? they should be easy, slanting, even, and not too close or too deep. buttons—herringbone and feather stitch. . give rules for making buttonholes in under and outside garments. make six stitches in each end of the buttonhole for undergarments, that it may be sírong and even. for outside garments make the head of the button. hole round by cutting out a small piece, that the button may fit nicely. the foot of the buttonhole should be finished with a small buttonhole bar. buttons. . how should buttons be placed on a garment ? they should be securely sewed on, exactly oppo- site the buttonholes and on a line straight with the edge of the button side of the garment. . how can one mark the place for the buttons ? lay together evenly the edges of the buttonhole and the button side of the garment, then mark the place through each buttonhole either with lead-pen- cil dots, basting stitches, or pins. if there are to be but one or two buttons to be sewed on, put the threaded needle directly through the buttonhole, slip the button on the needle and sew through and through the holes securely, then wind the thread three times around under the button and fasten it off on the under side of the garment. iierringbone and feather stitcii. herringbone stitches. feather stitches. the patchwork quilt. words by a. w. k. music, "old noah." . o ma - ry made a patch-work quilt, o - ho, o. v ho, o ma · ry made a patch-work quilt, o - ho, he- ho, of prettiest col - ors it is made, and in the prettiest si pat-tern laid, and oh how gay is mary's patch-work quilt. := cËfirl=ffa the patcu work quilt. the patchwork quilt. o mary made a patchwork quilt, oho, oho, o mary made a patchwork quilt, oho, oho, of prettiest colors it is made, and in the prettiest pattern laid, and oh how gay is mary's patchwork quilt! . o mary's quilt is soft and warm, oho, oho, o mary's quilt is soft and warm, oho, oho, all lined with cotton fleecy white, to keep the cold out well at night, · and oh how gay is mary's patchwork quilt! . the girls who learn to knit and sew, oho, oho, the girls who learn to knit and sew, oho, oho, will make the household warm and bright, and fill the home with cheer and light, and oh how gay is mary's patchwork quilt! :) katy did. katy did. poor unhappy little katie, sitting all alone, tears upon her face, and sadly sounds her troubled moan. katie tore it, tore her dotted dress of snowy lawn; katie tore it, tore her dotted dress of snowy lawn; chorus.—yes, she did, katy did, katy did'nt, katy didn't, katy did, katy didn't, katy did—she did. zephyrs, hush, and hush, you rover, never tell the tale of the race that kittie led you, over hill and dale. katie tore it, tore her dotted dress of snowy lawn; katie tore it, tore her dotted dress of snowy lawn; chorus.-yes, she did, etc. cheer up, cheer up, little maiden, cease your tears to spend; see, this shining little needle soon the rent will mend. katie sewed it, wove the stitches close with needle fine ; katie sewed it, wove the stitches close with needle fine; chorus.—yes, she did, etc. never, never mind them, katie, you so well can sew; when the tear is neatly mended, none will ever know. katie sewed it, wove the stitches close with needle tue, katie sewed it, wove the stitches close with needle fine; chorus.—yes, she did, etc. little jenny. music by permission of wm. a. ponii & co., owners of the copyright. words by a. w. k. . o bu - sy lit - tle jen - ny, sit - tiny ver - y still, holding fast her nee - dle, working with a will, how pink her lit - tle fin - gers, nails a rim of nut - tor pearl, hold your nee-dle stea - dy to thread my lit-tle girl. join swift flying needle. swift flying needle. o swift flying needle, stitching to song, through muslin and linen, speed you along. so much is to do, quick you must be, work shall be well done by you and by me. fingers so snowy white, daintily clean; stitches so small and light, scarcely are seen. over and under the thread we will take, running and felling the garments we make. one little rule must ne'er be forgot: hide like a secret each little knot. thus active and lively at work and at play, we must grow wiser and better each day. sti.ching firm and fast. stitching firm and fast. selected. stitching now so firm and fast; for what we make you know must last, but if it's wrong we take it out; for we must mind what we're about. all kinds of sewing we must do, and keep our garments tidy too, our needles straight, and sharp, and bright, and cotton clean, and fresh, and white. we put all idle thoughts away, it's time for work and not for play; so we stitch, and hem, and run, and finish what is once begun. only see our needles fly, for we're taught to always try not to waste our precious time, for that we know would be a crime. overhanding. air—"coming through the rye." words by l. j. k. - ver-handing, - ver-hand-ing, see me, see me a sew, stitch - ing e - ven, neat and deft - ly n as i go, i go. | thread grows shorter, shorter, shorter, make a knot, then, shall i ? shall i ? (tott voitt this you know, you know, no, no, no, no, no, take leave a new the end one, and fine new sew one, new one, it. - ver, more to so, so, sew, so, to , sew. . overzÁndİng. overhanding. overhanding, overhanding, see me, see me sew, stitching even, neat, and deftly as i go, i go. thread grows shorter, shorter, shorter, this you know, you know; take a new one, new one, new one, more to sew, to sew. make a knot then shall i ? shall i ! no, no, no, no, no; leave the end and sew it over, so, so, so, so, so. ah, ha, ha, the end i'm reaching, tell me, tell me, say, shall i break the thread i'm holding nay, nay, nay, nay, nay, not until i fasten tightly, make it stay, stay, stay. take three stitches going backwards, that's the way, the way. now i'll snap my thread so closely, none can say, can say have work unneat or careless done to-day, to-day. ah, ha, ha, my patch is finished, oh, ho, ho, ho, ho, pull the thread that bastes it even, so, so, so, so, so; open now and smooth it nicely, lay it low, low, low; stretch it out and see the stitches, if they show, they show. look, they stand like tiny soldiers in a row, a row. strong and neat, so close and even, thus i sew, i sew. the stİtches În time. * words by l. j. k. from yale college songs, by permission of taintor brothers, merrill & co. oh hemming. run-ning, stitching, felling. o - ver-hand - ing, but - ton - hol - ing, darning, gathering, chainstitch, too, we can m uuti li do them all, you know. oh, darn - ing, gather-iny, chain-stitch, too, oh darn-ing, gathering, chainstitch, too, oh, darn-ing, gath-er - ing, chainstitch, too, we can do them all, you know. * this makes a pretty exercise song, the motions of which are suggested by 'the words of each verse. stitching a robe for baby. stitching a robe for baby stitching a robe for baby, so soft and white and fine, never were stitches smaller than shall be these of mine. stitching a shirt for papa, gusset and seam and band, oh, i will do it nicely, hem, fell, and overhand. la, la la, etc. stitching a dress for dolly, with overskirt and basque, and the prettiest little ruffles, what more could dolly ask? stitching the soft, red flannel, for the children cold and poor, to keep the nipping fingers of jack frost from the door. la, la, la, etc. finger lesson. finger lesson. air-the whip-poor-will, p. . now, fingers, stand up for your lessons ; the short one, the thick one, the tall, the long one must put on the thimble ; the others should wear none at all. but don't think you may ever be idle, or guess you'll have nothing to do; you each must learn to be nimble and do the work fitted for you. now, thumb and forefinger, attention ! the needle i put in your care. short finger, both you and your neighbor to manage the thread you're the pair left fingers, pay all close attention : no needle or thread i've for you, but what's just as needful in sewing is what you must every one do. it is very, yes, very important to hold the work even and true, and so you must try to be careful, for this work depends upon you. ten fingers, you've all had your lessons, i pray you, remember them well; let none of you e'er be found napping- how naughty that would be to tell. fasten the thread. fasten the thread. air– buy a broom, without the chorus, p. . good morning, dear nellie ! how clean and how neat all over you look, from your head to your feet! pray tell me, is this the dress which you made ? and this the neat hem, which you yourself laid ? the stitches are tiny and even, i see, and set in quite closely, just as they should be. the gathers seem all to be even and straight; but are they sewed firmly ? a minute pray wait. a slight little pull reveals quite a hole; the threads all begin to twist and to roll. now, what do you think the matter can be ? that something is wrong is quite plain to see. of sewing like this one cannot speak well; just look at it closely, i think you can tell. fitting from the figure. lesson ii. fitting from the figure. . what is the first thing to be done towards fitting a waist ? having the lady stand in an easy position, pin the lining, lap allowed to the dress hem; pin very closely, . what is the second step ? pin the lining smoothly to the shoulder, cut out the neck, and proceed to fit the darts. . what next? pin the lining under the arm, cut out the armhole, and cut off the shoulder. . how do you fit the back ? pin the center fold of the lining to the center of the back, shaping in the seam at the waist, so that the lining will be straight across the back from arm to arm. . how do you fit the other parts ? pin the shoulders together, cut out the neck, then the armhole, and pin together under the arm. the kirkwood sewing system includes the llustrated sewing primer, which, by years of use in industrial schools throughout this and other countries, has become a standard in this line. its popularity and usefulness as a text-book, as well as a song-book, in such schools, is attested by constant commendation, as may be seen by reference to the circulars of the same. the school sewing system box, which exhibits the practical part of teaching sewing, in harmony with the instructions of the primer. it is arranged for holding a large supply of prepared or basted work, in eight graded lessons. when fully furnished it is a complete outfit for school sewing. the school sewing practice cloth in the sheet form, a later development of the plan of both primer and box, consists of white cotton, size, x inches, on which are printed the outline graded lessons of the stitches used in plain sewing, with directions for its use-the practice being basting, over-handing, hemming, running, stitching, over-casting, fell seams, gathering, buttonholes, patching, and darning. * the practice-cloth and specimen book is an improved form of the same lessons. the pages of the specimen books are for mounting the finished lessons of the cloth. * the school maid's sewing folio consists of patterns of miniature garments with the cloth to make them of, and full directions. for information, address miss louise j. kirkwood, yonkers, n. y. * used in the circles of the order of the thread and needle. short extracts from private letters, taken from hundreds of others of similar import. davenport, iowa. i can give the primer unstinted praise. harper's ferry, w. va. the sewing primer is indeed a help. annapolis, md. the primer has been the greatest help and comfort to us. - minneapolis, minn. we are the happy possessors of your sewing box and primer, and find them the greatest helps. baltimore, md. have been using your sewing box, and realize how much trouble it cost to have saved me so much. chicago, ill. the sewing box is admirably gotten up. ogdensburg, n. y. i cannot say too much in praise of your system. it it so complete and so ingenious. norwich, conn. we have been using your practice cloth this season with pleasure and profit, and with increasing interest. savannah, ga. the sewing box with practice cloth arrived some time ago, but i have been too busy to write and tell you how much i enjoy it. buffalo, n. y. the school sewing practice cloth has been a great help to us this season, has relieved us of all the anxiety of preparing work. le moyne institute, memphis, tenn. we have found the system most admirable in its workings, and have not let pass an opportunity to commend the same to other schools. eese delaletten when daylight is flitting, we take up our knitting. - - | - - - | - | --- | - - - - - | | - - | -| || -|- - | - state university of iowa libraries tt / nn . | | (a | o and tt .w ||||| date due ma' vj - # * > *- - - * * * * * * * -> * • * * * * -) • • * * * * * £ • * , ~ * * * * * * * * * • ** * * , * * • ~ * * * • home economi : - - - • • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ~ * • a complete home-study course on the new profession of home-making and art of right liv- ing: the practical application of the most recent ad- vances in the arts and sciences to home and health • ; ~ * ~ * predared by tea ("liers of recognized authority for home-makers, mothers, teachers, physicians, nurses dietitians, professional house managers, and all inter. ested in home, health, economy and children twelve volumes nearly three thousand pages, one thousand illustrations tested by use in correspondence instruction revised and supplemented chicago american school of home economics - - - * * • ~ * q- * * * • • • * ~ * - - * * * ~ * * , ~ * * * * * * * * ~ * * ; neauesex shuāla iiv topuo'i ii*h slauopb s pala'ug - nollvioossv soiwonoog hwopi ag i ' i ‘i i & i ‘, . i ‘ u u d o j. -/ • * * * * > * > * > • * • ~ * * * * a - j. > * -> -, * * • - * : : ; authors j *- ; * . : isabel bevier, ph. m. professor of household science, university of illinois. author u.s. government bulletins, "selection and preparation of food,” etc. alice peloubet norton, m. a. assistant professor of home economics, school of education. university of chicago; director of the chautauqua school of domestic science. - s. maria elliott assistant professor of home economics, simmons college; formerly instructor school of housekeeping, boston. anna barrows director chautauqua school of cookery; instructor teachers' col- lege columbia university; formerly editor “american kitchen magazine;” author "home science cook book.” alfred cleveland cotton, a. m., m. d. professor diseases of children, rush medical college, university of chicago; visiting physician presbyterian hospital, chicago; author of "diseases of children.” bertham. terrill, m. a. professor of home economics in hartford school of pedagogy; author of u.s. government bulletins. kate heintz watson formerly instructor in domestic economy, lewis institute; lecturer university of chicago. marion foster washburne editor “the mother's magazine;” lecturer chicago froebel asso- ciation; author "everyday essays,” “family secrets,” etc. margaret e. dodd, s. b. graduate massachusetts institute of technology; instructor in domestic, science, garland training school, boston. amy elizabeth pope formerly instructor in practical and theoretical nursing, presby- terian hospital, new york city; author "practical nursing,” “es- sentials of dietetics,” etc. maurice le bosquet, s. b. director american school of home economics; member american public health association and american chemical society. contributors ani) ei) i tors ellen h. richards author “cost of food,” “cost of living,” “cost of shelter,” “food materials and their adulteration,” etc., etc.; first president amer- ican home economics association. mary hinman abel editor journal of home economics; author of u. s. bulletins, “practical sanitary and economic cooking,” “safe food,” etc. thomas d. wood, m. d. professor of physical education, columbia university h. m. lufkin, m. d. professor of physical diagnosis and clinical medicine. university of minnesota. otto folin, ph. d. special investigator, mclean hospital, waverly, mass. t. mitchell prudden, m. d., ll. d. author "dust and its dangers,” “the story of the bacteria,” "drinking water and ice supplies,” etc. frank chouteau brown architect, boston, mass.; author of “the five orders of architec- ture,” “letters and lettering.” mrs. melvil dewey secretary lake placid conference on home ecomomics. helen louise johnson professor of home economics, james millikan university, decatur, frank w. allin, m. d. instructor rush medical college, university of chicago. man ag ing editor maurice le bosquet, s. b. director american school of home economics. boari) () f trustees of the american school of home economics mrs. arthur courtenay neville president of the board. miss maria parloa founder of the first cooking school, in boston; author of “home economics,” “young housekeeper,” u. s. government bulletins, etc. mrs. mary hinman abel co-worker in the “new # kitchen,” and the “rumford food laboratory;". author of u. s. government bulletins, “practical sanitary and economic cooking,” etc. miss alice ravenhill special commissioner sent by the british government to # on the schools of home economics in the united states; fellow of the royal sanitary nstitute, london. mrs. ellen m. henrotin honorary president general federation of woman's clubs. mrs. frederic w. schoff president national congress of mothers. mrs. linda hull larned past president national household economics association, author of “ hostess of to-day.” mrs. walter mcnab miller chairman of the pure food committee of the general federation o woman's clubs. mrs. j. a. kimberly vice president of national household economics association. mrs. john hoodless government superintendent of domestic science for the province ci ontario; founder ontario normal school of domestic science, now the macdonald institute. textiles and clothing by kate heintz watson graduate armour institute of technology formerly instructor in domestic art lewis institute lecturer university of chicago chicago american school of home economics copyright , , , , , by home economics association entered at stationers hall, london all rights reserved t = w | ||-- contents primitive methods • * weaving - - - fibers . - - . . - cotton wool flax silk - - - - modern methods weaving weaves - - bleaching and dyeing . printing finishing cotton goods linens . - - - - - woolens and worsteds silks - - - • names of fabrics . - • • bibliography on textiles . - hand sewing . - - • - ornamental stitches . • hems - - - - - • tucks and seams . - - - plackets . - - - • sewing on bands - - - fastenings patching darning - - - - - mitering embroidery, join ing lace machine sewing - - - • i i o io. io. ii. i i i i i i i iii iv contents dressmaking . - • - - • • patterns . - - • - • • skirt making - - • - • • making shirt waists • • • o fitted linings - - • • - • sleeves • • • • • • o collars • • • • • • • seamless yokes • • • • - pressing - • • • - - - construction and ornament in dress • ornament of textiles . - • • - color • - • . . - • children's clothes • • • - • care of clothing - • • - • cleaning - - - • - - - repairing . • • - - • bibliography on sewing and dressmaking references: history of costume; ornament design . - - - - - • program for supplemental study - - index • • • • • • - i oo oi o i i i i “the thread of life” spinning with the distaff and spindle. from a painting. textiles and clothing pinning and weaving are among the earliest arts. in the twisting of fibers, hairs, grasses, and sinews by rolling them between the thumb and fingers, palms of the hands, or palms and naked thigh, we have the original of the spinning wheel and the steam-driven cotton spindle; in the roughest plaiting we have the first hint of the finest woven cloth. the need of securing things or otherwise strengthening them then led to binding, fastening, and sewing. the wattle- work hut with its roof of interlaced boughs, the skins sewn by fine needles with entrails or sinews, the matted twigs, grasses, and rushes are all the crude beginnings of an art which tells of the settled life of to-day. origin of textile arts nothing is definitely known of the origin of these- * arts; all is conjecture. they doubtless had their be- ginning long before mention is made of them in his- tory, but these crafts—spinning and weaving—modi- fied and complicated by inventions and, in modern times transferred largely from man to machine, were distinctively woman's employment. the very primitive type of spinning, where no spindle was used, was to fasten the strands of goats’ hair or wool to a stone which was twirled round until methods | italian woman spinning flax spindle and distaff. from hull house museum. (in this series of pictures the spinners and weavers are in native costume. russian spinning flax held on frame, leaving both hands free to manage the thread - and spindle from hull house museum. textiles and clothing spinning with the spindle ry spindle whori the yarn was sufficiently twisted when it was wound upon the stone and the process repeated over and over. & the next method of twisting yarn was with the spindle, a straight stick eight to twelve inches long on which the thread was wound after twisting. at first it had a cleft or split in the top in which the thread was fixed; later a hook of bone was added to the upper end. the spindle is yet used by the north american indians, the italians, and in the orient. the bunch of wool or flax fibers is held in the left hand; with the right hand the fibers are drawn out several inches and the end fastened securely in the slit or hook on the top of the spindle. a whirling motion is given to the spindle on the thigh or any convenient part of the body; the spindle is then dropped, twisting the yarn, which is wound on the upper part of the spindle. another bunch of fibers is drawn out, the spindle is given another twirl, the yarn is wound on the spindle, and so on. a spindle containing a quantity of yarn was found to rotate more easily, steadily and continue longer than an empty one, hence the next improvement was the addition of a whorl at the bottom of the spindle. these whorls are discs of wood, stone, clay, or metal which keep the spindle steady and promote its rota- tion. the process in effect is precisely the same as the spinning done by our grandmothers, only the spin- ning wheel did the twisting and reduced the time required for the operation. spinning with crude wheel and distaff distaff thrust into the belt. th colonial wool wheel e large wheel revolved by hand thus turning the spindle and twisting the yarn, which is then wound on the spindle; intermittent in action. colonial flax wheel worked by a foot treddle; distaff on the frame of the wheel; “fliers” on the spindle, continuous in action; capacity seven times that of hand spindle. dutch wheel - spinner sits in front of '. wheel-spinning flax at hull ouse. textiles and clothing distaff wheel bpinning later the distaff was used for holding the bunch of wool, flax, or other fibers. it was a short stick on one end of which was loosely wound the raw material. the other end of the distaff was held in the hand, under the arm or thrust in the girdle of the spinner. b.c. birth of christ a.d. : time during which the hand spindle was the only form of spindle known. . e= spinning wheel also known. steam has been applied to spinning. graphic diagram showing time during which different methods of spinning has been used. when held thus, one hand was left free for drawing out the fibers. on the small spinning wheel the distaff was placed in the end of the wheel bench in front of the “fillers”; this left both hands free to manage the spindle and to draw out the threads of the fibers. the flax spinning wheel, worked by means of a treadle, was invented in the early part of the sixteenth - - - - syrian spinning spinner sits on the floor, wheel turned by a crank; spindle held in place by two mutton joints which contain enough oil for lubrication. at hull house. i textiles and clothing century and was a great improvement upon the dis- taff and spindle. this it will be seen was a compara- tively modern invention. the rude wheel used by the natives of japan and india may have been the progenitor of the european wheel, as about this time intercourse between the east and europe increased. these wheels were used for spinning flax, wool, and afterwards cotton, until hargreaves’ invention super- seded it. weaving someone has said that “weaving is the climax of textile industry.” it is an art practiced by all savage | wit, in "' - %. , il. ''< * w" j - | iii, tº |||| | '' | % '', 'll | . "'>+. - ..",". # . "'> pueblo woman working heddle in weaving a belt tribes and doubtless was known before the dawn of history. the art is but a development of mat-making and basketry, using threads formed or made by spin- ning in place of coarser filaments. in the beginning of the art the warp threads were stretched between convenient objects on the ground .#- | - s | | % .* a navajo belt weaveb | weaving or from horizontal supports. at first the woof or filling threads were woven back and forth between the warp threads as in darning. an improvement was the device called the “heald” or “heddle,” by means of which alternate warp threads could be drawn away from the others, making an opening through which the filling thread could be passed quickly. one form £ £ | primitive heddles | £ | £ | | | | | of the heddle was simply a straight stick having loops of cord or sinew through which certain of the warp threads were run. another form was a slotted frame having openings or “eyes” in the slats. this was carved from one piece of wood or other material or made from many. alternate warp threads passed through the eyes and the slots. by raising or lower- ing the heddle frame, an opening was formed through which the filling thread, wound on a rude shuttle, was thrown. the next movement of the heddle frame the heddla navajo loom - one of the earliest types of looms. at hull house. weaving i crossed the threads over the filling and made a new opening for the return of the shuttle. at first the filling thread was wound on a stick making a primi- tive bobbin. later the shuttle to hold the bobbin was devised. simple colonial loom before the “reed” was invented, the filling threads were drawn evenly into place by means of a rude comb and driven home by sword-shaped piece of wood or “batten.” the reed accomplished all this at one time. it is probable that the european looms were de- ived from those of india as they seem to be made on the same principle. from crude beginnings, the hand loom of our grandmothers’ time developed. a loom the reed e . * - • • | -> . *- - : ing wool at hull house. typical colonial hand loom weav harnesses in use two weaving has been defined as a mechanism which affects the following necessary movements: . the lifting of the healds to form an opening, definition or shed, or race for the shuttle to pass through. of a loom tÉ's is: == | es s s' s. s diagram of a hand loom a-warp beam; b-cloth beam; d d-lees rods; h-harness, t-treddle. | . the throwing of the weft or filling by means of a shuttle. . the beating up of the weft left in the shed by the shuttle to the cloth already formed. this thread may be adjusted by means of the batten, needle, comb, or any separate device like the reed. & . the winding up or taking up of the cloth as it is woven and the letting off of the warp as the cloth is taken up. swedish hand loom norwegian woman weaving linen at hull house. weaving no essential changes have been made since our grandmothers made cloth a hundred years ago. the “harnesses” move part of the warp now up, now down, and the shuttle carries the weft from side to side to be driven home by the reeds to the woven cloth. our grandmothers did all the work with swift movements diagram of the working parts of a loom. s-suttle for £ woof; r-reed for beating up the woof; olc a-frame ng heddles, with pullies (p) making the harness; t-treddles for moving the harness. of hands and feet. the modern weaver has her loom harnessed to the electric dynamo and moves her fin- gers only to keep the threads in order. if she wishes to weave a pattern in the cloth, no longer does she pick up threads of warp now here, now there, accord- ing to the designs. it is all worked out for her on the loom. each thread with almost human intelli- gence settles automatically into its appointed place, and the weaver is only a machine tender. colonial loom fly shuttle hand loom the pulling of the reed automatically throws the shuttle back and forth and works the harness, making a shed at the proper time. & - - weaving no textiles of primitive people were ever woven in “pieces” or “bolts” of yards and yards in length to be cut into garments. the cloth was made of the size and shape to serve the particular purpose for which it was designed. the mat, robe, or blanket had tribal outlines and proportions and was made according to the materials and the use of common forms that pre- vailed among the tribes. the designs were always conventional and sometimes monotonous. the decora- tion never interfered with its use. “the first beauty of the savage woman was uniformity which belonged to the texture and shape of the product.” the uni- formity in textile, basketry, or pottery, after acquiring a family trait, was never lost sight of. their designs were suggested by the natural objects with which they were familiar. primitive fabrics textiles and clothing native ihome sea island cotton upland cotton four or five pounds of the fiber could be separated by hand from the seed by a week's labor. the modern saw gins turn out over five thousand pounds daily. cotton is the white downy covering of the seed of several species of cotton plant. it is a native of many parts of the world, being found by columbus growing in the west indies and on the main land, by cortez in mexico, and pizarro in peril. the value of cotton depends upon the strength, and evenness of the fiber. in ordinary cotton the individual fiber is about an inch in length. the sea island cot- ton grown chiefly on the islands off the coast of georgia, carol in a, and florida is the most valu- able variety, having a fine fiber, one and one-half to two inches in length. some of the egyptian cotton be- longs to this species. sea island cotton is used chiefly for fine laces, thread and knit goods and for the finest lawns and musiins. cotton fiber attached to seed the short fiber or upland cotton is the most common and useful variety. it is grown in georgia, north and south carolina and alabama. texas cotton is similar to upland, but sometimes is harsh with shorter fiber. gulf cotton occupies a position between upland and sea island cotton. the brazilian and peruvian cotton yields a long staple and is sometimes used to adulterate silk and tjpland cotton plant with fully developed boles from bulletin no. , georgia experiment station. bole opened, cotton ready for picking year book of . textiles and clothing nankin cotton other fibers. some varieties of this cotton are harsh and wooly and are prized for use in mixing with wool. the nankin cotton grown in china and india and in the southwestern part of louisiana is characterized by its yellow color. it is used in weaving cloth of various kinds in the “fireside industries” which have become popular in the united states and england. spinning qualities cotton fibers a a–unripe fibers; b b—half-ripe fibers; c c-ripe fibers. very fine yarn can be spun from cotton because of the spiral character of the fibers. this twist of the fibers is peculiar to cotton, being present in no other animal or vegetable fiber. on account of this twist, cotton cloths are much more elastic in character than those woven from linen, the fibers of which are stiff and straight. - after the removal of the seed, no other fiber is so free from impurities— per cent is the loss sustained cotton by cleaning and bleaching. in its natural condition, cotton will not dye readily because of a waxy sub- stance on the surface of the fibers. this must be removed by washing. cotton should be picked only when it is fully ripe when the pods are fully burst and the fibers expanded. the unripe fiber is glassy, does not attain its full #:: # *: #: £ #: £ #: - '' *::::: - *#): *" £, £ #: '' % # * - cotton bales strength and resists the dye. after picking, the cotton is sent to the ginning factory to have the seed removed. it is then pressed into bales by hydraulic presses, five hundred pounds being the standard bale in the united states. - purified bleached cotton is nearly pure cellulose. it resists the action of alkalis well, but is harmed by hot, strong acids, or if acid is allowed to dry on the fabric. it is not harmed by high temperature, and so may be ironed with a hot iron. picking and ginning physical character- istics wool fiber and substitutes , south american wool; , noil from the same; , tangled waste, , waste combed out; , lap waste; , shoddy. wool wool wool is the most important animal fiber. strictly speaking the name applies only to the hairy covering of sheep, but the hair of certain goats and of camels is generally classified under the same terms. the wool fiber is distinguished by its scale-like surface which gives it its felting and spinning properties. hair microscopic appearance of wool fibers as distinguished from wool has little or no scaly struc- ture being in general a smooth filament with no felting. properties and spinning only with great difficulty. fur is the undergrowth found on most fur-bearing animals and has in a modified way the scaly structure and felt- ing properties of wool. the great value of wool as a fiber lies in the fact that it is strong, elastic, soft, very susceptible to dye stuffs and being woven, furnishes a great number of character of fiber value for clothing textiles and clothing air spaces, rendering clothing made from it very warm and light. £ t climate, breed, and food influence the quality of the wool. where the pasturage is barren and rocky, the wool is apt to be coarse. merino rams the wariety of sheep giving the finest wool. #: there are supposed to be about thirty distinct varie- ties of sheep, nearly half of which are natives of asia, one-third of africa, and only four coming from eu- rope, and two from america. wool is divided into two general classes—long and short staple, according jazool to the average length of fiber. the long fiber wool is commonly carded, combed and spun into worsted yarn. the short fiber is usually carded and spun into woolen yarn. the short fiber obtained in combing long staple wool is called “noil.” it is used for woolens. alpaca, vicuna and llama wools are obtained from goat animals which are native to the mountains of peru " angora goats and chile. the angora goat, originally from asia minor, furnishes the mohair of commerce. this fiber does not resemble the hairs of common goats in any respect. it is a very beautiful fiber of silky luster, which constitutes its chief value. textiles and clothing sorting wool scouring wool the fur of beavers and rabbits can be and is used in manufacture, either spun into yarn or made into felt. the fibers of both animals enter largely into the manufacture of felt hats. the fleece of sheep after being sheared is divided into different parts or sorted, according to to the qual- a. b c wool fibers a—medium wool; b—camel's hair; c-diseased fiber; d-merino wool; e-mohair. ity of the wool, the best wool coming from the sides of the animal. as it comes from the sheep, the wool contains many substances besides the wool fiber which must be re- moved before dyeing or spinning. this cleansing is called scouring. before scouring, the wool is usually dusted by machines to remove all loose dirt. the scouring must be done by the mildest means possible in order to preserve the natural fluffiness and bril- liancy of the fiber. the chief impurity is the wool textiles and clothing hydroscopic moisture of wash water is never allowed to go above ° f. the scoured wool weighs from a little over a half to one-third or less of the weight of the fleece. wool has the remarkable property of absorbing up to per cent or more of its weight of water and yet not feel perceptibly damp to the touch. this is called * . * *)\! >) wool sorting “hydroscopic moisture.” to this property wool owes its superiority as a textile for underclothing. the thoroughly cleansed fiber is made up chiefly of the chemical substance keratin, being similar in com- position to horn and feathers. in burning it gives off a characteristic disagreeable odor. it is a substance very weakly acid in its nature, for which reason it combines readily with many dyes. wool resists the action of acids very well, but is much harmed by the alkalis, being dissolved completely by a warm solution of caustic soda. high temperature harms wool. flax woody portion of the stem. this consists of steeping the stalks in water. ( ) cold water retting, either running or stagnant retting water. ( ) dew retting. ( ) warm water retting. | |- o o | # # - ~ |: Ż --~~~~~~~ s - - - - " --> - retting tank a-inlet; b-undisturbed water; c-bundles of flax. <- cold water retting in running water is practiced in belgium. retting in stagnant water is the method usually employed in ireland and russia. the retting in stagnant water is more rapidly done, but there is danger of over-retting on account of the organic mat- ter retained in the water which favors fermentation. in this case the fiber is weakened. in dew retting, the flax is spread on the field and exposed to the action of the weather for several weeks from the government bulletin, “flax for seed and fiber.” flax without any previous steeping. this method of retting is practiced in germany and russia. warm water retting and chemical retting have met with limited su ccess. - when the ret- ting is complete, the flax is set up in sheaves to dry. the next operations con- sist of “break- ing,” “scutch- ing,” a n d “hackling” and are now done by - machinery. - fibers of flax jbreaking removes the woody center from the retted and dried flax by being passed through a series of fluted rollers. the particles of woody matter adher- ing to the fibers are detached by scutching. hackling or combing still further separates the hackling fibers into their finest filaments—“line” and “tow.” the “flax line” is the long and valuable fiber; the tow, the short coarse tangled fiber which is spun and used for weaving coarse linen. when freed from all impurities the chief physical character. - - - • - - istics of characteristics of flax are its snowy whiteness, silky £" luster and great tenacity. the individual fibers may - hackling flax by hand the “tow” is seen at the left and a bunch of “flax line” on the bench. (photograph of c. r. dodge, special agent u. s. department of agriculture.) textiles and clothing ramie jute &n hemp be from ten to twelve inches in length; they are much greater in diameter than cotton. it is less pliant and elastic than cotton and bleaches and dyes less readily. linen cloth is a better conductor of heat than cotton and clothing made from it is cooler. when pure, it is, like cotton, nearly pure cellulose. besides the linen, there is a great number of bast fibers fit for textile purposes, some superior, some in- ferior. india alone has over three hundred plants that are fiber yielding. one-third of these furnish useful fibers for cordage and fabrics. the next in importance to linen is ramie or rhea, and china grass. china grass comes from a different plant but is about the same as ramie. the staple is longer and finer than linen. the great strength of yarn made from it is due to length of the staple. the variety and great value of the ramie fibers has long been recognized, but difficulties attending the separation and degumming of the fibers have pre- vented its employment in the manufactures to any great extent. the native chinese split and scrape the plant stems, steeping them in water. the common retting process used for flax is not effective on account of the large amount of gummy matter, and although easy to bleach it is difficult to dye in full bright shades without injuring the luster of the fibers. jute and hemp belong to the lower order of bast fibers. the fiber is large and is unfit for any but the - a. n a. i s i u o : # : : ' # # r g e. jut . department of report of u. s. y'rom culture of hemp and jute silk - coarsest kind of fabrics. jute is mainly cultivated in bengal. the fiber is separated from the plant by retting, beating, etc. olona, the textile fiber of hawaii, is found to have promising qualities. this plant resembles ramie and belongs to the nettle family also, but it is without the troublesome resin of the ramie. the fiber is fine, light, strong, and durable. the philippines are rich in fiber producing plants. the manila hemp is the most prominent, of which coarse cloth is woven, besides the valuable cordage. the sisal hemp, pineapple, yucca, and a number of fiber plants growing in the southern part of the united states are worthy of note. these fiber industries are conducted in a rude way, the fiber being cleaned by hand, except the pineapple. silk the silk fiber is the most perfect as well as the most beautiful of all fibers. it is nearly faultless, fine and continuous, often measuring from to feet long, without a scale, joint, or a blemish, though not of the same diameter or fineness throughout its entire length, as it becomes finer as the interior of the cocoon is approached. silk differs from all other vegetable or animal fibers by being devoid of all cellular structure. olona southern europe leads in the silk worm culture—where italy, southern france, and turkey, with china and india. several species of moths, natives of india, china, and japan, produce the wild silk. the most produced silk terial of our mills. the cocoons are thrown into warm water mixed with soap in order to dissolve the gum. the outer or coarser covering is brushed off down to - s's" silk:—caterpillar, cocoon, chrysalis, moth the real silk and the end of the thread found. four or five cocoons are wound together, the sticky fibers clinging to each other as they pass through the various guides and are wound as a single thread on the reels. textiles and clothing organize and tram boiling off loading silk the silk is dried and tied into hanks or skeins. as the thread unwinds from the cocoon, it becomes smaller, so other threads must be added. at the mill the raw silk goes to the “throwster” who twists the silk threads ready for the loom. these threads are of two kinds—“organize” or warp and “tram” or filling. the warp runs the long way of woven fabric or parallel with the selvage and it must be strong, elastic, and not easily parted by rubbing. to prepare the warp, two threads of raw silk are slightly twisted. twist is always put into yarn of any kind to increase its strength. these threads are united and twisted together and this makes a strong thread capable of withstanding any reasonable strain in the loom and it will not roughen. for the woof or tram which is carried across the woven cloth on the shuttle, the thread should be as loose and fluffy as possible. several threads are put together, subjected to only a very slight twist—just enough to llold the threads together so they will lie evenly in the finished fabric. * after the yarn leaves the spinners it is again run off on reels to be taken to the dye house. first the yarn is boiled off in soapy water to remove the remaining gum. now the silk takes on its luster. before it was dull like cotton. the silk is now finer and harder and is known as “souple.” the silk fiber has a remarkable property of absorb- ing certain metallic salts, still retaining much of its silk luster. this process is known as “loading” or “weight- ing,” and gives increased body and weight to the silk. silk without weighting is known as “pure dye,” of which there is little made, as such goods take too much silk. reeling silk for the weighting of white or light colored silk goods, tin crystals (stanous chloride) are used and for dark shades and black, iron salts and tannin. by this means the original weight of the fiber may be increased three or four hundred per cent. this result is not attained, however, except through the weakening of the fiber. textiles and clothing action of common salt artificial silk character- istics of silk value of raw fibers common salt has a very curious action on weighted silk. it slowly weakens the fiber. a silk dress may be ruined by being splashed with salt water at the sea- shore. most often holes appear after a dress comes back from the cleaners; these he may not be to blame for, as salt is abundant in nearly all the bodily secre- tions,—tears, perspiration, urine. artificial silk is made by dissolving cellulose ob- tained from cotton. it is lacking in strength and water spoils all kinds manufactured at present. silk, like wool, has the property of absorbing con- siderable moisture without becoming perceptibly damp. like wool and all the animal fibers, it is harmed by alkalis. the important physical properties of silk are its beautiful luster, strength, elasticity and the readi- ness with which it takes dyes. silk combines well with other fibers, animal and vegetable. a comparison of the relative value of textile fibers may be seen from the following approximate prices: cotton—$o to $. per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching per cent. flax—$. to $ per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching about per cent. wool—$. to $. per pound; loss in scouring to per cent. - raw silk—$ . to $ . per pound; loss in “boiling off” about per cent which is made up and much more by “loading.” modern methods all the complex processes and machinery of the textile industry are but developments of the old-time methods of the home. brief outlines only will be given here for the processes are most intricate in detail. spinning the spinning of cotton yarn (thread) is typical of all the fibers. the stages may be divided into— opening and picking. carding. combing. drawing. spinning. : the picking and carding have for their object the removal of all foreign substances with as little damage to the fiber as possible. the foreign substances in cotton are sand, dirt, pieces of leaves, seed, husk, etc., which have become mixed with the fiber during the process of growing, ginning and transportation. the cotton bales are opened and thrown into the automatic feeder which carries up a layer of cotton on a spiked apron from which it is removed by a rapidly revolving “doffer” underneath which is a screen which catches some of the dirt. it is next fed between rolls in front of a rapidly revolving blunt-edged knife which throws out more of the dirt through a screen. there is a suction of air through the screen which helps remove the foreign substances. the cotton passes picking and carding cleaning textiles and clothing carding combing through several of such machines, being formed into a soft web or “lap” which is wound into a roll. the carding machine further cleans the fibers and lays them in a general parallel position. from this machine the web is formed into “sliver,” a loose rope cotton opener and picker the cotton from the bale is thrown into a, carried #. the spiked aprons r and c, evened by e, removed from the apron by f (some of the dirt falls through the screen into box c) is beaten by the revolving “knife,” n. p. more dirt being removed through screen n, then goes through the flue c.to the next machine. of cotton fiber about two inches in diameter. this is received in circular cans. the combing is omitted for short fiber cotton, but is used in worsted spinning and with long staple cotton to remove the short fibers. cotton to be used for spinning making yarn suitable for hosiery, underwear, sewing thread, lace, and for very fine cotton fabrics is carded. in drawing, from six to sixteen “slivers” are run together and the fibers drawn out in several stages until the soft rope is about an eighth of an inch in diameter, called “roving.” this tends to get rid of any unevenness and makes the fibers all parallel. from this machine the roving is wound on a bobbin ready for the spinning frame. cotton card the roll of webbing a is, beaten and transferred to the cylinder h. h. carded by the spiked belt. e, removed by the “doffer” and forme into a “sliver” which runs into the can m. the spinning frame may have a hundred spindles or more, each one of which is drawing out its supply of “roving” to the required size of yarn and giving it the twist necessary to bind the fibers together. the yarn to be used for the warp is given a harder twist so that it may be strong enough to stand the strain in weaving. the yarn for filling is usually left soft. spinning receiving the “sliver” at the bacr of the draw- ing frame. # a fly spinning frame the spools of roving above are being drawn . out, given the twist by the fliers, and wound on bobbins below. mule drawing and spinning frame' always used for wool, part of the machine moves away from the frame, thus drawing out the thread, which is then twisted. weaving the yarn for warp is now usually given a coating or “sizing” of starch and gums so that the thread may not become unwound and break during weaving. the process of spinning is much the same for flax and for wool, although somewhat differently con- structed machines must be used. flax is usually spun wet. weaving the modern power driven loom is a wonderful piece of machinery. the principle of its operation is essen- tially the same as the hand loom, but it is almost per- fectly automatic in its action, a man or woman being able to tend from ten to fifteen looms weaving plain cotton goods. the yarn coming from the spinning frame is some- times dyed before weaving. the warp is formed by winding as many threads as the width of the fabric is to contain on a slowly revolving drum, called a “beam,” in the same relative position in which they are to ap- pear in the finished cloth. from its position on the beam at the back of the loom, each thread is brought through its particular loop or eye with the heddle, then passes through its own slot in the reed, and down to the roller or “cloth beam” that is to take up the woven cloth. this is called “drawing in the warp.” if there is a piece of cloth coming from the loom, the work is very simple, for the ends of the new warp are tied to the ends remaining from the warp that has been woven out. modern loom warping o textiles and clothing. the shuttle with its bobbin, containing the yarn of the filling, is much the same as is used in the hand looms, except for form and size, which varies accord- ing to the requirements and size of the warp being used. at first only one shuttle was used, but in robert kay invented a mechanism by which several shuttles containing different grades or colors of yarn might be used. each throw of the shuttle across the width of the goods is called a “pick.” *: in making a cloth with plain weave, that is, with every thread interlacing with every other, as in darn- ing, only two harnesses are required, but the modern loom may have up to about twenty-four harnesses so that an infinite variety of weaves may be obtained. various cams and levers move the harness frame and so raise or lower the threads required for the design. jacquard the jacquard loom is arranged on a different prin- loom - - - ciple. in this loom, all kinds of fancy weaves may be obtained as in table linen, tapestries and carpets. each warp thread is supplied with a separate hook and by means of perforated card the desired threads are raised or depressed at each throw of the shuttle. the cards are worked out by the designer. a set of a thousand or more cards may be required to produce the desired design. jacquard looms are sometimes to be seen at fairs and expositions weaving handkerchiefs with some picture design. jacquard hand loom weaving ingrain carpet at hull house. weaves the great variety of weaves found in the textiles of to-day are modifications of a few fundamental weaves invented in the earliest times. the chief fundamental weaves are: (i) plain weave. ( ) twills. ( ) sateen. to which may be added the derivatives— ( ) rib weave. ( ) basket weave. these do not include the many fancy weaves, too "'" # h # #. | # '#' # ##########, ########### ############## uu u u u uu bu * d agram of fancy knit goods numerous to classify, and the open work weaves, made in the leno loom, in which some of the threads are crossed. knit goods are made by the interlooping of a single thread, by hand or on circular knitting ma-. weaves chines and lace by an analogous process, using severa' systems of threads. felt is made up of matted fibers of fur and wool and has no thread structure. *… % 'w - ****t* cessimere twill |- ), "... aft| "... till mill ill- !...". "i'll "... .im|| || |- ): ...". l.').", iii | | : !'...". | "... […]." # × % "… lyle". all i'... i | ". || ". - l, lil % s | %| # % z|z **** * Ż'z < * | # . saúeen weawe diagrams the plain weave is the mo st common, nearly all light weight goods being thus woven. in plain weav- ing, each thread of both warp and filling passes alter- nately over and under the threads at right angles. this makes a comparatively open cloth, requiring the plain weave textiles and clothing twills smallest amount of yarn for the surface covered. this weave is used in nearly all cotton goods, as in muslins, sheetings, calicoes, ginghams, and thin woolen goods. even in the plain weave variety is obtained by having d sections of weaves a--plain weave; b–prunella twill; c-cassimere twill; d-swans. own twill. | some of the threads larger than others, either in warp or filling or both, thus producing stripes and checked effects. after the plain weave the twill is the most common, being much used for dress goods, suitings, etc., as well as some of the thicker cottons. in this weave the intersections of the threads produce characteristic lines diagonally across the fabric, most often at an angle of °. the twill may be hardly visible or very weaves' pronounced. the simplest twills are the so-called “doeskin" and “prunella.” in the doeskin the filling threads pass over one and under two of the warp threads and in the prunella twill over two and under one. the most common twill is the cassimere twill in which both the warp and filling run over two and under two of the threads at right angles. double cloth. be-sket dlagram of rib and basket weave and double cloth a twill made by running both warp and filling under one and over three threads is called a swansdown twill and the reverse is known as the crow weave. in these the diagonal twilled effect is much more marked. various twills are often combined with each other and with plain weave, making a great variety of texture. numerous uneven twills are made, two over and three under, etc., etc. uneven twills textiles and clothing sateen in the sateen weave, nearly all of either the warp or weave the filling threads are on the surface, the object being to produce a smooth surface fabric like sateen. with textile design a-on cross-section paper; b–graphic diagram. this weave it is possible to use a cotton warp and silk filling, having most of the silk appear on the surface of the fabric. *: # the rib and basket weaves are derivatives of the , ske weaves plain weave, two or more threads replacing the single weaves strand. in the rib weave, either the warp or the fill- ing threads run double or more, thus making a corded effect. in the basket weave, both warp and filling are run double or treble, giving a coarse texture. this weave is sometimes called the panama weave. in the thicker fabrics like men's suitings and over- coatings, there may be a double series of warp threads, only one series appearing on the face of the goods, and in the still thicker fabrics, there may be a double set of both warp and filling threads, making double cloth, the two sides of which may be entirely different in color and design. in weaving plush, velvet and velveteen, loops are made in the filling or warp threads which are after- wards cut, producing the pile. double cloth velvet madder bleach singeing all bhearing bleaching, dyeing, printing, finishing when the cloth comes from the loom it is by no means ready for the market. nearly all kinds are washed and pressed and in some classes of goods the finishing process is very elaborate. bleaching and dyeing the fiber may be dyed in a loose or unspun state, as is customary with wool; after it has been spun and is in the form of yarn, as in the case of silk and linen; and when it has been woven to form cloth, as is most commonly the case with cotton. the bleaching of cotton involves a number of steps, the most thorough process being called the “madder bleach,” in which the cloth is ( ) wet out, ( ) boiled with lime water, ( ) rinsed, ( ) treated with acid, ( ) rinsed, ( ) boiled with soap and alkali, ( ) rinsed, ( ) treated with bleaching powder solution, ( ) rinsed, ( ) treated with acid, ( ) finally rinsed again. all this is done by machines and hundreds of yards go through the process at a time. the product is a pure white cloth suitable for dyeing light shades and for white goods. when cloth is to be dyed a dark shade the treatment is less elaborate. if the cloth is to be printed for calicoes, before bleaching it is singed by passing through gas flames or over a red hot plate and then sheared in a shearing machine constructed somewhat on the principle of the dyeing lawn mower, the cloth being run close to the rapidly revolving knives. although cotton is usually dyed in the piece, it may be dyed in the form of yarn, as for ginghams, and sometimes before being woven, in the loose state. cotton is more difficult to dye than wool or silk. although there are now what are called “direct” cotton colors, the usual process is to first treat the cotton goods with a “mordant”—various salts of aluminum, chromium, iron, tin and copper, fixing these on the fiber by means of tannin or alkali. the mordanted cloth is then entered into the dye bath and boiled for an hour or longer, until the desired shade is obtained or the dye bath exhausted. the salts of aluminum are used as mordants for the lighter shades, the salts of chromium for the medium shades, and iron for the dark shades. in general, chromium mordants give the fastest dyes. the discovery of the so-called aniline dyes has greatly increased the variety of colors available. al- though some of the first aniline dyes to be made were not fast to washing or to light and they thus received a bad reputation, they are now to be obtained which compare favorably in fastness with the natural dye stuffs such as cochineal, madder, etc., provided suf- ficient time and care are given to dyeing. the chief trouble is that in the endeavor to furnish cheap goods, processes are hurried and results are unsatisfactory. mordant colors aniline dyes textiles and clothing home idyeing natural dyestuffs dyeing woolen and silk home dyeing is practically confined to the use of direct aniline colors. these are put up in small quan- tities and sold in many places. directions for their use are given on the packages. the chief precautions are to have the goods perfectly clean and thoroughly wet before entering into the dye bath (this is by no means as easy as one might think), and to keep the goods in motion while dyeing so as to prevent un- evenness of shade. wool and silk dyes cannot be used for cotton and linen, nor the reverse. of course cloth already colored cannot be dyed a lighter shade of the same color and the original shade must be very light to enable one to change the color, say from red to blue, etc. the original color always modifies that of the dye somewhat and it is best to experiment first with a small portion of the dye and cloth. rather dark shades are apt to be most successful. indigo for blue, madder for turkey red, logwood with fustic for black, cutch or gambia for browns on cotton are about all the natural dyestuffs which are used to any extent commercially at the present time. the artificial product alizerin, the active principle of madder, has about superseded the natural dyestuff, and artificial indigo is gaining on the natural product. linen is bleached and dyed in much the same man- ner as cotton. this weakens linen more than cotton and the finest table linens are whitened by grass bleaching or a combination of grass and chemical bleach. woolen and silk may be dyed directly with a great variety of dyes without the addition of a mordant, finishing finishing the finishing of woolen and worsted goods has much to do with their appearance. no cloth comes from the loom in a perfect condition, therefore inspection is the first process. loose threads and knots are carefully cut off by the “burler” and imperfections in the weav- ing rectified by the “menders.” the goods may now be singed and sheared. woolens, and sometimes worsteds, are next “fulled” or felted by being run round and round in a machine while moistened with soap. the friction of the cloth on itself produces some heat which, with the mois- ture and soap, causes the goods to shrink in length and width while increasing in thickness. during this proc- ess, “flocks” are often added, especially for smooth finished woolen goods. these flocks are fine fibers of wool obtained from the shearing machine or made by cutting up old woolen cloth. they are felted with the fibers of the goods and add weight and firmness. after the fulling, the goods is washed to remove the soap, dyed, if desired, and often “speck dyed” with a special dye which colors the bits of burs, remaining in the cloth, but not the wool. the next process is the “gigging” which raises the nap. the cloth is run close to rapidly revolving “teazels” and also may be run through a napping machine. it may be sheared again and then steamed and pressed. this is but a brief outline; there are generally more processes. woolen cloth coming from the loom may be so burling and mending fulling flocks raising the nap textiles and clothing treated in the finishing room as to produce fabrics entirely different in appearance. one of the chief ob- jects of the finishing is to give to the cloth as fine an appearance as possible to attract the buyer. much of the fine finish disappears through wear, especially with inferior goods made from poor materials. the wear- ing quality of the goods is primarily dependent upon the strength and quality of the fibers of which it is made, so that the yarn of the filling and the warp should be examined when selecting materials. in gen- eral, hard twisted yarn will give the better wearing cloth. fabrics the present day shops offer such a great variety of fabrics that only a few of the most important can be mentioned here. cotton goods cotton is cool and heavy, is a non-conductor of heat, crushes easily, but like all vegetable fibers it may be laundered without injury to the fibers. cotton does not take the darker dyes as well as animal fibers and for this reason it does not combine satisfactorily with wool. as an adulterant it wears shabby and loses its brightness. it is only when cotton does not pretend to be anything else that it is our most useful and dur- able textile. the readiness with which cotton takes the lighter dyes and improved methods of ginning, spinning, and weaving have made cotton goods supe- rior to any other for summer use. muslin, calico, and gingham must always head the list of cotton goods. muslin is coarse and fine, bleached, unbleached, and half bleached, twilled or plain weave. under the head of muslin brought to a high degree of perfection in weave and finish will be found dimity, mull, indian lawn, organdie, swiss, and madras, and a host of others equally beautiful. mad- ras muslin has a thin, transparent ground with a heav- ily raised pattern woven of a soft, thick thread unlike the ground work. waste is used for the pattern. or- gandie muslin is soft, opaque, white, or colored, with muslin textiles and clothing raised dots of pattern and plain weave. dimity has a fine cord running with the selvage. gingham is a smooth, close cotton usually woven in checks or stripes. the yarn is dyed before being woven, making the cloth alike on both sides, and the weave is either plain or twilled. ginghams are also woven of silk and cotton mixed or of silk and ramie. cretonne, chintz, dress linings, crape, velveteen, and lace are made of cotton. flannelette, which is woven to imitate flannel, is soft and light and is preferred by many who find woolen irritating. it does not shrink as woolen does and is made in beautiful, soft colors and the best grades do not fade. for nightdresses, underwear, and sheets, during cold weather this inexpensive fabric is unequaled. among the heavier cotton fabrics may be mentioned denim and ticking which are now printed in beautiful designs and colors and used for interior decoration as well as for clothing and bedding. the great variety of fibers, the many different ways of preparing each for manufacture, the differences in the preparatory processes in spinning, weaving, or in any of the later processes of finishing produce the varied appearance of the finished product in cotton as in other fabrics. linens linen is one of the oldest textiles; it was used by the early egyptians for the priests' garments and for linens the wrappings of mummies. many housekeepers think that there is no material for sheets and pillow cases comparable to linen, but it is not an ideal dressing for beds, for in spite of its heavier body, it wrinkles and musses much more readily than good cotton. for table service, however, for the toilet, and for minor ornamental purposes linen has no equal. its smooth- ness of texture, its brilliancy which laundering in- creases, its wearing qualities, its exquisite freshness, make it the one fabric fit for the table. table linen is woven plain and figured, checked and diapered. in the figured or damask cloth the patterns stand out distinctly. this is due to the play of light and shade on the horizontal and vertical lines. in some lights the pattern is scarcely noticeable. when buy- ing a cloth, let it be between the observer and the light, for in this position the pattern will show to the best advantage. there is a certain amount of shade on all horizontal lines or of shadow cast by them, while the vertical lines are illuminated, thus although the warp and woof threads are of the same color, the pattern seems to stand out from the background. linen should not be adulterated. it should be for use and not for show, for use brightens and whitens it. linen adulterated with cotton becomes fuzzy through wear because of the much shorter cotton fibers. the tendency can often be seen by rolling the goods between the thumb and fingers. table linen textiles and clothing standard goods tweeds crash of different widths and quality furnishes tea towels, “huck,” damask and other weaves come in vari- ous widths and may be purchased by the yard. russia crash is best for kitchen towels. woolens and worsteds the many grades of wool with the great variety of weaves and finish make an almost infinite variety of woolen and worsted fabrics. new goods are con- stantly being put upon the market, or old goods with new names. standard goods, such as serges, cashmere, henrietta cloth, and covert cloth, are always to be found in the shops. these are all twilled goods. the serges are woven of combed wool and are harsh, tough, springy, worsted fabrics of me- dium and heavy weight, with a distinct twill, rather smooth surface, and plainer back. there are also loosely woven serges. cashmere and henrietta cloth have a fine, irregular twill—the finest made. they are woven with silk, wool, and cotton warp, but the latter gives an inferior textile. tweeds and homespuns are names given to coarse cloth of which the wool is spun by hand and woven on hand looms. these goods vary according to the lo- cality in which they are made. the wool is mixed without regard to color, the yarn being spun and twisted in the most primitive manner, giving the cloth an uneven, unfinished appearance. these are among the best wearing cloths on the market and are espe- woolens and worsteds cially suitable for suits that will receive hard wear. scotland and ireland are famous for their tweeds and homespuns and what are known as the “cottage indus- tries” have been recently revived in those countries as the products of their hand looms have become de- servedly popular abroad. the “harris tweeds,” made on the island of lewis and harris, north of scotland, are in the old style by the “crofters.” after weaving the goods are “waulked”—milled or felted—with the bare feet, ac- companied by singing the waulking song and beating time with the feet. the dyeing is done in pots in the old-fashioned way and until recently the dyestuffs were obtained from mosses, lichens, heather, broom, and other plants. now, however, some of the best aniline dyes are being used. a peculiar characteristic of the harris tweed is the peat smoke smell caused by the fabric being woven in the crofters' cottages, where there is always a strong odor of peat “reek” from the peat which is burned for fuel. the ordinary so-called harris tweeds sold in this country are made on the southern border of scotland, in factories, and are but imitations of the real harris tweeds. the light colored tweeds—natural color of wool— come from the island of st. kilda. this island stands out in mid ocean, barren and wild, devoid of plants or shrubs of any kind for making dyes. the crofters content themselves without dyestuffs. the industry harris tweeds textiles and clothing mohair alpaca loading silk is maintained by nobility to help the islanders and the fabrics are fashionable and high priced. the foregoing represent the worsteds. among the heavy woolens are covert cloth, a twilled fabric of hard finish and great durability, melton, doeskin, broadcloth and cassimeres. the light weight woolen goods are represented by crepe cloth, with crinkled, rough surface, nun's veiling, flannel, which is woven in many ways and given various names, wool canvas, and poplins. the list might be extended, but these fabrics are always to be found in the shops of good color and are the best of the all wool fabrics for wear. mohair is a material made from the hair of the angora goat, woven with silk, wool, worsted, or cotton warp. it is a dust-shedding material, does not shrink, and bears hard wear well. alpaca, on account of its softness, elasticity, and exemption from shaggy defects, combines admirably with cotton in the manufacture of fine goods, which attains almost the glossy brightness of silk. the yarn is used for weaving alpaca linings and light coatings for warm climates. silks many silks can be washed without injury to the fi- bers, but they cannot be boiled without destroying the luster. silks may be had in various widths and end- less variety of weaves. many are reversible. silks are adulterated with cotton and ramie fibers. the chemicals used in “loading” or “dynamiting” to give the weight lost by cleaning or removing the gum silks i from the raw silk give to the cheaper grades the stiff, harsh feeling and cause the splitting and cracking of the silk, hence the quality of the fiber should be con- sidered when selecting a silk, not the weight. taffeta is often heavily loaded. foulard and surah are twilled silks. corded silks are woven with a cord running from selvage to selv- age. to this class belong the grosgrains, ottoman, faille francaise—a silk resembling grosgrain, but softer and brighter. irish poplins and bengalines have wool for the filling instead of silk. great improvement has been made in the manufac- ture of wash silks. they are fine in color and have a glossy surface. pongee is a beautiful, durable silk in different shades of natural color. it is woven in dif- ferent widths. this silk is especially valuable for un- derwear. the first cost is greater, but it outwears muslin or linen. it is also used for children's gar- ments and for outside wraps. for many purposes, no better textile can be found. crepe de chine is an incomparable textile possess- ing as much softness as strength. it is always supple, never creases, launders well, and comes in the most beautiful soft shades as well as in black and dark colors. satin is distinguished by its glossy, lustrous surface, obtained in the weaving. | piled fabrics are rich, thick materials made of silk, wool, mohair, and cotton, comprising the velvets, vel- veteens, plushes, corduroys, and wilton and velvet car- wash |silks piled fabrics fabrics than silk velvet, are fine and silky, excellent in color and sheen, launder well, and do not press-mark as does silk velvet. velveteen takes the dye so beautifully and finishes so well that it has taken rank with our best standard fabrics. it is made entirely of cotton. it varies in width but is always wider than velvet. a knowledge of the various widths of textiles is im- portant in buying. transparent fabrics are usually wider than heavier goods made of the same fiber. muslin is wider than calico, or ordinary print, and thin silk fabrics such as mull and chiffon are wider than velvet. in wool dress goods various distinct widths are known as single—thirty and thirty-six inches—double fold (forty-five and fifty-four inches), etc. silk, vel- vet, and velveteen are single width. the velvet ranges from eighteen to twenty-four inches in width and vel- veteen twenty-seven. bodice linings vary from thirty- five to thirty-eight inches; skirt linings come in both single and double fold. household linen including bedding varies in width from one yard to two and one-fourth and two and one- half yards for sheeting and from thirty-eight to fifty- four inches for pillow case muslin. table linen is woven in both square and circular cloths of various sizes, and napkins vary in width from the small sizes to a yard square. no fixed widths can be given for any textile as width often changes with the weave. widths of fabrics fabrics for her beautiful textiles, outstripped all other places for beauty of design and gave the damascen or da- mask, so we have in modern times all fabrics whether of silk, cotton, wool, or linen, curiously woven and designed, known as damask, and diaper, which means pattern, is almost forgotten, or only a part of the elab- orate design on damask. bandekin, a costly cloth, took its name from bagdad. dorneck an inferior damask woven of silk, wool, linen, thread and gold, was made in flanders at the city of dorneck. from the asiatic city mosul came the muslin used then as it is now throughout the world. so skilled were its weavers that the threads were of hair-like fineness. this was known as the invisible muslin, the weaving of which has become a lost art. to this beau- tiful cloth were given many fanciful and poetic names. it was woven with strips of gold and silver. calico derives its name from the city of calicut in india. the city is scarcely known to-day; it was the first indian city visited by europeans. in the thirteenth century arras was famous for its areste or tapestry, “the noblest of the weaving arts”; in it there is nothing mechanical. mechanical weaving repeats the pattern on the cloth within comparatively narrow limits and the number of colors is in most cases limited to four or five. * . . silks and cottons are distinguished through their colors and shades. tarsus was a purple silk. other cities gave their name to various shades, according as muslin calico textiles and clothing they were dyed at antioch, alexandria, or at naples. watered or moire silk takes its name from the finish. from “canabis,” the latin name for hemp or flax, we have the word “canvas” to mean any texture woven of hempen thread. to this list of fabrics might be added many others of cotton, linen, wool, and silk with new names, closely resembling the old materials, having greater or less merit. the following lists of fabrics and terms may be help- ful for reference: art linen—with round, hard twisted threads. “albert cloth”—named for england's prince, is a reversible all-wool material each side of different colors and so finished that no lining is required. it is used chiefly for overcoats and better known as “golf cloth,” “plaid back,” etc. armure—a cloth woven in miniature imitation of feudal metal armor plates, heraldic devices, diamonds, birdseye, and seeded effects. astrakhan—a woolen or silk material with a long and closely curled pile in imitation of the fur from which it is named. backed-cloth worsteds or other fabrics which are woven with an extra layer of warp or other filling underneath the face, usually for increased weight and bulk. batiste—the french word for lawn, fine white cotton or linen fabric. sometimes printed. batting or padding, cotton or wool prepared in sheets for quilting or interlining. beaver—similar to kersey, but with a longer nap, soft, thick nap inside. bedford cord—a closely woven woolen or cotton cloth having a raised corded surface similar to pique, used for women's suits. bonde—a loosely woven fabric with a curly, hairy surface, usually made with a jersey or stockinet body. fabrics bourette—an effect of weaving produced by fancy yarns showing in lumps at intervals over the face of the cloth; used for women's and children's suits. beverteen—a heavy cotton cloth used for men's hunting garments. - broadcloth—a fine woolen cloth with a glossy finished surface, the better grades being woven with a twilled back. it takes its name from its width. it is used for men's and women's wear. buckram—a coarse, heavy, plain-woven linen or cotton ma- terial used for stiffening. buckskin—a stout doe skin with a more defined twill. butternut—the coarse brown twilled homespun cloth woven of wool prior to the civil war—colored brown with dye from the butternut or walnut tree; used for men's wear and for decorative purposes. cambric—fine white linen, also made in cotton in imitation. camel's hair—a beautiful, soft, silky fabric, usually woven like cheviot of hair of camel and goat. canvas—a linen, cotton, silk, or wool cloth of different weaves and widths, used for many purposes—clothing, as a background for embroidery, hangings, spreads, etc. canton flannel—a stout, twilled cotton cloth with a nap on one or both sides, used for clothing and decorative pur- poses. cassimere—a general term for all-wool fabrics woven either plain or twilled, coarse or fine, of woolen yarn. the pat- tern is always woven plain and distinct and the cloth is never napped. castor beaver—a heavy, milled, face-finished, all-wool cloth lighter in weight than ordinary beaver. chinchilla—a thick, heavy, double woven fabric with a long napped surface curled up into little tufs in imitation of chinchilla fur; used for coats. clan tartan—the plaids of the various highland clans of scotland. clay—a name given to serges, worsteds, and diagonals woven after a process of j. & p. clay of haddersfield, eng- land. coating—those woolen and worsted fabrics most especially adapted to men's dress and overcoats. textiles and clothing corduroy—a thick cotton pile material, corded or ribbed on the surface; used for men's, women's, and children's wear. corkscrew-worsted goods—so-called from its fancied re- semblance to the twists of the corkscrew. c'. worsted—all cotton or part cotton worsted-wove cloth. cottonade—stout cotton cloth in imitation of woolen or worsted cloth; used for men's trousers. covert—a twill-woven cloth sometimes with full face, some- times sheared to imitate whipcord. crape cloth—a stout worsted fabric with surface in imitation of silk crape, used for dress coats. crash—a strong, coarse linen cloth of different widths, used for towels, suits, table linen, hangings, bed spreads; in fact, there is no end to the uses to which this textile can be adapted. cravenette—cloths treated and finished before weaving by an improved process which renders them rainproof. a secret process owned by the cravenette company and by priestly & company of england and the united states. crepe—a light weight silk, silk and wool, or all wool or cot- ton cloth of irregular weave. diagonal—a worsted cloth with prominent diagonal ridges. doeskin—a compact twilled woolen, soft and pliable. drap d'alma—a fine, close, flat-ribbed, twilled fabric of wool or silk and wool, finished on but one side. drap d’ete—a fine, light worsted fabric woven in longitudi- nal cords. drilling—general term for various twilled cotton stuffs used for lining, men's wear, and general purposes. empress cloth—a heavy dress goods with napped or corded surface, named for the empress eugenia; sometimes called electrol cloth or beretz. etamine—a light woolen cloth similar to batiste and n:n’s cloth, used for women's and children's wear. * faille francaise—a soft, lustrous silk of wider cord than grosgrain, but narrower than ottoman. farmer satin—a lining of cotton chain or warp and wool filling, finished with high lustre, also called italian cloth. flannel–a soft, light weight woolen fabric of which the yarn is but lightly twisted, plain weave or twilled; used for clothing, etc. fabrics flannelette—a half cotton or all cotton flannel-like fabric. frieze—a thick, shaggy, heavy nap woolen overcoat cloth. gingham was first manufactured in gonghamp in france and was known as madras gingham. seersucker’gingham was originally a thin linen fabric made in the east indies. zephyr gingham is a soft fine variety of scotch and french ginghams, are superior qualities, heavier in weight. fur beaver—a long napped cloth imitation fur. grass cloth—a fine, smooth, linen woven in checks of blue and white, red and white, etc., used for dish towels; also a thin dress material of ramie and cotton, etc. renadine—a thick silk gauze, either plain with a solid design or pattern upon it or combined in stripes with other weaves, as satin, moire, etc. grosgrain—a close-woven, finely ribbed or corded silk with but little lustre. haircloth—a cloth woven of horse hair, from which it takes its name, for weft with cotton or linen warp; used for facings, linings, furniture cover, etc. holland—a stout, plain-woven, unbleached, linen cloth used for linings, window shades, etc. homespun—a cloth woven on hand looms or made in imita- tion of such cloth for both men's and women's wear. hop-sacking—a plain woven canvas dress fabric of wool. huchaback—a corruption of huckster-back, meaning orig- inally pedler's ware—toweling made of all linen, linen and cotton, cotton and wool, either by the yard or as separate towels; the part wool huck always separate towels. irish linen—full bleached, fine, plain woven linen used for shirts, collars, cuffs, etc., of different widths. jersey cloth—woolen stockinette. kaikai—a thin japanese silk. kersey—a heavy, closely woven cloth with a smooth face and glossy finish. kerseymere—a fine, twilled, woolen cloth of peculiar tex- ture, one thread of warp and two of woof being always above. khaki—a light, yellow-brown colored cotton cloth used for army service in hot countries. ladies' cloth—a fine, wide, wool flannel, slightly napped, similar to broadcloth. fabrics iot satin—a silk fabric having a high lustre on its face. satinet—a cheap clothing material similar to cassimere, made with a cotton warp and a filling of short, inferior, shoddy wool which is mixed with enough long wool to enable it to be spun and woven in a way to bring that filling to the surface of the cloth; afterwards fulled, sheared, and the pattern printed on the face. serge—a lining of cotton or linen warp and a wool, or mohair filling, woven three-leaf twill. serge—a fine, diagonal, twilled, worsted—both all worsted and with a worsted warp and woolen filling; used for men's and women's suits. shetlands—very shaggy overcoatings, named from the shet- land pony, the coat of which it is supposed to imitate in appearance. shoddy—waste thrown off in spinning—shredded rags, and bits of cloth manipulated into new cloth. sicilian—a mohair fabric. silesia—a light, close-woven, fine twilled cotton fabric used for dress linings, etc. stockinet—a plain, elastic texture made on a knitting frame, used for underwear, etc. surah—a twilled silk similar to serge; first made in surat, india. tricot—a double-twill cloth having both a warp and filling effect. tweed—much like homespun in appearance, both being either twilled or plain. they are made from rough worsted yarn spun at home. in tweed the yarn is harder twisted, giving a more distinct twill. it is generally more compact, less rough, and better finished than homespun. uniform cloth—cloth suitable for uniforms, usually a stout, fulled, woolen cloth, similar to kersey. venetian—a cloth milled and cropped bare in finish. vicuna—a soft twilled cloth similar to cheviot, made of the andes vicuna, hence its name. whipcord—a worsted cloth having a small, prominent twill. yacht cloth—a flannel heavier than ordinary serge or flan- nel. io textiles and clothing cord–the general term is applied to any fabric in which the lines run in the same direction as the selvage. count—in spinning, the number given to any thread or yarn, except silk, to indicate its relative fineness, based on the number of yards required to weigh one pound. felt—a cloth of wool, hair, fur, etc., not woven, but felted together; used for hats, slippers, boot tops, etc. flock—finely divided woolen waste used in finishing cheap woolens. kemps—fibers of hair like structure that sometimes come in wool, always in goat hair. they do not take the dye. mercerized—a term applied to cotton fabrics of which the yarn is chemically treated with a strong solution of caustic soda, giving the appearance of silk, more or less permanent; named after mercer, discoverer of the process. mill ends—trade term referring to short lengths, seconds, damaged pieces, etc., of cloth, embroideries, etc., that ac- cumulate in mills and shops and are usually sold at a nominal price. narrow cloth—trade term for fabrics less than inches wide. wider cloths are called broad cloths. oil-boiled—trade term for colors so treated to insure per- manence. oiled silk—the plain silk boiled in oil. silk boiled in oil and dried, becoming translucent and waterproof; used as a perspiration guard. pepper-and-salt—a black and white or grayish mixture, ef- fected in weaving. rubber cloth—usually cotton sheeting or drilling with a coating of rubber on one side; used as protective cloth for various purposes. shepherd check—tiny checks, usually black and white. twilled—woven in such a manner as to produce lines or ribs diagonally or across the surface of the fabric. woolens—name of fabrics of carded wool, usually soft woven. worsteds–fabrics made of combed wool, usually hard woven. the combing is the process of arranging the fibers of wool, mohair, cotton, linen, into a parallel con- dition, preparatory to spinning into a smooth, even and regular yarn. the perfected application of the combing principle. bibliography on textiles historical and art arts and crafts essays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ . morris, crane, et al. postage .io colonial days in old new england . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i. alice morse earle. postage , the primitive family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i. starcke. postage . i man before metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i. joly. postage .i origin of inventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i. mason. postage woman's share in primitive culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i. mason. postage . textiles—the lesser arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i.oo william morris. postage .io industrial evolution of the united states . . . . . . . . . . . . i. carroll d. wright. postage . technical books through a special arrangement with the american school of correspondence we are able to lend or sell to our students some of their textile books, which are technical though simple. price cents per part, postage c. textile chemistry and dyeing parts. part i. textile fibers. part ii. bleaching. part iii. mordants and natural dyes. part iv. artificial dyestuffs. cotton fiber. cotton spinning. parts. weaving. parts. io textiles and clothing textile design. parts. woolen and worsted spinning. parts. woolen and worsted finishing. parts. textile fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ . mathews. postage . textile fabrics ...................................... . rock. postage . dyeing of textile fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i. hummell. postage . bleaching and calico printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . duerr. - postage .i note.—books may be ordered through the school or may be borrowed by members for one week. send postage with request. u. s. government publication free of the department of agriculture, washington, d.c.: flax for seed and fiber, farmers' bulletin no. . cotton seed and its products, farmers' bulletin no. . raising sheep, farmers' bulletin no. . the angora goat, farmers' bulletin no. . silk worm culture, farmers' bulletin no. . essential steps in securing an early crop of cotton, farmers’ bulletin no. . the cotton seed industry, reprint no. . the hemp industry in u. s., reprint no. . improvement of cotton by seed . selection, reprint no . the growing of long-staple upland cotton, reprint no. . principal commercial plant fibers, reprint no. . textiles and clothing i . i . i . i . i . . i . i . o. i. (a) what is the chief constituent of the vege- table fibers? (b) how does their affinity for dyestuffs compare with wool and silk? (c) how do the alkalies affect wool? describe the principal weaves and give examples of each. (a) how are cotton and flax bleached? (b) what is a mordant? (c) how should mate- rial be prepared for dyeing? (d) state what you know about old time methods of dyeing. how are print goods made? name some print- ed fabrics. define woolens and worsteds. describe the finishing of woolen and worsted cloths. what is noil; shoddy; felt; flocks? with what dress goods have you had experience, and with what results? what factors determine the use of fabrics? of what value is the study of textiles? what have you gained by the study of this lesson? note.—after completing the test sign your full name. textiles and clothing part ii embroidered initials iv and l—sewed on initials; b-satin stitch in wreath of feather stitches; c–outline and seed work; d-chain and french knots; h – cross stitch; l–chain; h-at the right, and the cross stitch h are made over canvas and the canvas threads drawn. io textiles and clothing ornamental stitches sasting tucking the ornamental stitches most frequently used are ( ) outline, ( ) chain, ( ) cat or herringbone, ( ) blanket or loop, ( ) feather, coral or briar, ( ) hem- stitching, ( ) french knots, ( ) button hole, and ( ) cross stitch. excepting the cross stitch, these are all variations of the plain and button hole stitches. the plain stitches may be used for ornamental pur- poses. the basting stitch is known as queen anne darned work. the back stitch, known as “seed work,” is used in embroidering letters and monograms. the overhand stitch is used as an ornamental stitch for joining selvages and in hemming. the chain stitch, besides being ornamental, makes one of the best darning stitches, reproducing the stitch in knitting. the cat stitch is also useful in binding down open seams for flannel hems, patching, etc. ( ) basting proper is used only in the preparation of work to hold the stuff and lining, or any two or more parts of the work together while it is being stitched, none being left in the finished garment. it is also used as a guide for sewing, feather stitching, etc. the slanting basting stitch or “tacking” is used in dressmaking for holding linings. the needle is pointed towards the worker. even basting is used for holding several thicknesses of cloth and if the garment is to be fitted, the stitches should be placed rather close. un- even basting is used for hems and seams to be machine stitched. several short stitches with one long one are stitches and their uses i used to baste crape and wiry fabrics, for this method holds them better than stitches of equal length. all basting should be fastened at start with a knot fastening or knot and back stitch and finished with two or three "" back stitches. the length of thread may be broken or basting stitches a—even; -uneven;, c-for wiry fabrics; d-tacking; e—over- casting; f-double or tailor overcasting. cut from the spool, but should always be cut from the work. breaking weakens the fastening and biting off soils delicate work with the moisture from the breath, to say nothing of the injury to the teeth. basting for large work should usually be done with the goods ly- ing flat on the sewing table. iio textiles and clothing drawing for ordinary work, basting threads should be cut basting • £ every few inches and drawn out. in velvet, every al- ternate stitch should be cut and drawn out on the right side with the pile of the goods. in the basting for vel- vet where the slanting stitch is used, only one end of the stitch touches the line of the seam—the rest is on the outside of the seam. silk thread should be used position of the hands in running to baste velvet and gauze; fine thread should be used for basting delicate work. irunning ( ) running is closely related to basting. it is not * used for any seams that have to bear great strain, but for joining seams in this material, gathering, tucking, making cords, etc. the stitches are usually of equal length on both sides. take one stitch in the seam and hold the goods between the thumb and first finger of each hand, as shown in the illustration, with the back of the thimble on the eye of the needle. then, with as free wrist motion as possible, run or shake the needle through the material. the motion of the hand should come from the elbow joint. ii. textiles and clothing position in overhanding overcasting outline stitch being in. do not use a knot to begin sewing, but leave the knot end of the thread and sew it in with the first stitches, carrying the thread on top of the seam. to finish off the seam, overhand back over the last few stitches. in sewing this seam, the goods should be held be- tween the thumb and first finger of the left hand par- allel with the chest, not over the end of finger. point the needle towards the left shoulder, thus giving a slanting stitch. care should be taken not to pucker or draw the seam. when the seam is finished, it should be opened and pressed flat. ( ) overcasting is a slanting stitch used to keep raw edges from ravelling. this stitch, like oversew- ing, may be worked from right to left or from left to right. the hem stitch and blind or slip stitch will be con- sidered under hems. ornamental stitches never use a knot in any embroidery, but start by running a few stitches along the line which is to be covered. ( ) the outline stitch is the simplest of all embroid- ery stitches. take a long stitch on the surface, with the needle pointing towards the chest in the line to be covered, and a short back stitch on the under side of the material. the effect of the under or wrong side of the material is exactly that of an ordinary back stitch. the beauty of this stitch depends upon its - * - * - * - # - * - - *…* - * - - | - * - * … "… | . #** | * | - # * * - | - w - | * | - - - | -- | | | | .- ".- - . | | | | - - * | - - - | * ornamental stitches a—outline; b–chain: c—cat; c'—catch; d-single feather; e—double feather; f–tripple feather; g–modified feather; h-double feather with knots; i–french knots and outline; j—herrine bone; k—fancy feather; i-catch stitch with french knots. ii textiles and clothing chain stitch cat stitch ioo stitc # regularity and in always keeping the thread oil the same side of the needle. ( ) the chain stitch when perfectly done should look like the stitch made by a single-thread machine. this stitch is made by taking the thread toward the worker, and before the needle is drawn out of the cloth the thread is held by the thumb under the point of the needle, as in a buttonhole, making a loop. the needle is inserted in the last loop for the next stitch. the chain stitch is used in modern embroidery as an outline and for darning, but in old embroidery, the outline and chain stitches were used for filling as well. they are found in persian, indian, and italian renais- sance work. like the feather stitch, the chain stitch is worked towards the worker. ( ) the cat stitch or herringbone stitch is an alter- nate slanting back stitch, the needle being placed first to the right and then to the left. this stitch must be worked evenly to be effective. it is used to finish flan- nel seams and hems, fasten down linings, opened seams, and canvas facings and featherbone, in milli- nery—in fact, this stitch is one of the most useful in sewing. the catch stitch is a variation of the cat stitch. instead of pointing the needle towards the chest, the stitch is taken parallel with the chest. it is used for about the same purposes as the cat stitch. as with the outline stitch, the cat stitch is worked from the worker. - ( ) blanket or loop stitch, used to ornament the edge of blankets, etc., and for finishing the edge of | © // |- f a. * - a" | t * % aft | | | # hem stitching - - ; b-ladder stitch; e- niched with loop end cat stitches. finished hem stitch work fi * $ a il position of needle example of draw e- ii textiles and clothing feather stitch hem stitch stockinet or web material, is worked from left to right, the edge of the material being held towards the work- er. start with three or four running stitches along the edge so the line of stitching will cover them. in- sert the needle the desired width from the edge, draw it towards you down over the thread, being careful not to draw the thread too tightly over the edge of the flannel. fasten the thread by taking running stitches under the last blanket stitch on the wrong side. ( ) single, double, and triple feather or coral stitches may be made very ornamental and are used in all kinds of sewing and on all materials. they are al- ways made towards the worker, the stitches being taken alternately to the right and left of the line of the design. the thread should always be carried un- der the needle as in a buttonhole stitch. the design may be varied by taking the stitches diagonally or straight, by making them close or separated, etc. ( ) hemstitching is used for ornament in making hems and tucks. the first step in hemstitching is the drawing of threads. rubbing the cloth along the line of threads to be drawn will make the drawing easier if the cloth is sized. after the threads are drawn, the hem is turned and basted even with the lowest edge of the drawn space. insert the needle into the edge of the hem and material, taking up a cluster of threads bring the thread under the needle to form a button- hole stitch or make a simple stitch in the edge of the fold. the number of threads drawn and the number in a cluster must be determined by the coarseness or fine- ornamental stitches ii ness of the material, the greater number being drawn and taken in fine material. there are several methods of hemstitching, but the results are about the same. embroidery stitches eyelet embroidery. embroidery button hole, flat satin stitch. ( ) french knots are used in connection with other french stitches for borders enclosed in outline and chain " stitches, in initials, centers of flowers, and as a filling- in stitch. the simplest method is of taking a small back stitch, bringing the thread from the eye of the weedle under the point from right to left and drawing i o textiles and clothing embroidery buttonhole cross stitch the needle perpendicularly from the cloth. place the needle back of the knot and bring the point out in the place where the next knot is to be made. the size of the thread will determine the size of the knot. ( ) the embroidery buttonhole stitch has many pos- sibilities and many variations. it is worked from left to right instead of from right to left as in a buttonhole. the thread from the work is carried under the point of the needle from left to right, just the reverse of the buttonhole. this stitch is used on flannel and in em- broidery of all kinds; it may be padded or worked flat and the stitches may be taken a distance apart or near together. ( ) the cross stitch is worked on linen, scrim, can- was, or any open-meshed material. if done on a flat, smooth surface, it will be necessary to work over can- vas, afterwards drawing out the canvas threads. the canvas should be well basted on the material, the warp threads of the canvas lying perfectly straight on a line with the warp threads of the material on which the pattern is worked. the stitches should always run the same way. if the first ground stitches are made from left to right, from bottom towards the top, the cross stitches should be made from right to left from the top towards the bottom. all the ground stitches run one way and the cross stitches in the opposite way. this stitch is used for marking table linen, under- wear, and embroidery designs. when marking linen and unlined work, make the under side very neat by running the thread under the stitches already made, i textiles and clothing eyelet embroidery the stitches may be placed more closely at the inner edge and spread slightly at the outer edge. in flat work where the leaf or petal is large, two or three stitches taken in the cloth, back of the face stitch, arrow head. double arrow head and crow's foot. holds them even and prevents misplacement in launder- ing. (all embroidery should be ironed on the wrong side.) eyelet embroidery is a simple over and over stitch forming a smooth, round edge. like satin stitch, all outlines are run with an even darning stitch, except the very small eyelet holes, made with a stiletto. long or oval openings must be cut through the center. i textiles and clothing bias hem faced hem all bias and curved edges should have the first fold basted. in cloth or silk this first basting thread should match the material and not be taken out. a facing or faced hem is also used as a protection to the edge of a garment. a true bias or fitted facing should be used for a facing if the edges of the garment are curved. an extension hem is one in which the whole width of the hem is used. hemming a—shows method of cutting to do away with a clumsy corner. hems i slip-stitching or invisible hemming is done on silk, slip-stitching wool, and thick material. the hem is pressed with an iron, a stitch as fine as possible is taken on the surface of the cloth and the needle slipped under and through the first fold, drawing the thread lightly. the needle and thread used in this stitch must be very fine. mitered corners method of folding and cutting. textiles and clothing rolled hem rolled hem and whipped gathers are made with the wrong side of the material next the worker. make a tiny roll of the edge towards the worker, using the rolled hem and whipped gathers a—rolled hem gathered; £w' roll; £whipped; d-roll hemmed; e-gathers sewed to band. left thumb and index finger, rolling an inch at a time (and no more) before hemming. make fine, even stitches in the roll and goods. keep the hem perfectly round, firm and not too large. this hem is adapted i textiles and clothing tucks tucks are folds made on thin material for orna- ment, to shorten or to provide for lengthening a gar- ment. if done by hand, a card measure is preferable to a tape measure for marking the space and width of the tucks. the folds should be creased to a thread, basted and sewed with a running stitch showing but little on the face, or stitched on the machine. fine thread should be used. seams a seam is the line of sewing that joins material; it may be plain or ornamental. the most important are the overhand, felled, french, slot, lapped, flannel, and beaded. the overhand seam is described under the overhand stitch. - felled a fell is a seam hemmed down to the goods to pro- " tect the raw edge. it is usually made in night dresses, drawers, corset covers, etc. baste with the piece farthest from the worker extended one-eighth of an inch beyond the other and sewed with the grain of the goods, beginning at the widest part of any bias. press the seam with the nail on the right side, turn the wide edge down flat to cover the raw edge and line of sewing, and hem flat either by hand or ma- chine. care should be taken to keep the seam flat on the right as well as on the wrong side. if the felling is done with the machine hemmer, the wide edge must be on the opposite side. the seam may be basted with seams b-french screen. s—full seams i both edges even if preferred, cutting off one edge after stitching. a french seam is sewed twice—first on the right side as near the raw edge as possible. cut off all frayed edges, turn the material by folding on the seam or line of sewing, so the seam is folded inside and the second sewing is on the wrong side below the raw edges. this is not a good seam for underwear worn next the body, as it leaves a ridge on the wrong side, but it is useful for skirts of thin material, etc. it is more easily made than a fell. beaded seams used for fine white work have a line of beading overhanded between gores, hems, or gathers. the hem along the seam should be folded on the right side, leaving a perfectly flat surface to iron on the wrong side, and finished with an ornamental stitch covering the hem. the slot seam, used in cloth dresses and jackets, re- quires exact basting with silk or very fine thread with small, even stitches. if a coarse thread is used, the material will be badly marked. after basting, press the seam open as if it had been stitched, and baste the strap or under strip of the dress material (which has been cut perfectly straight and even) over the wrong side of the seam, having the center of the seam on the center of the strap. stitch any width desired be- yond the center through the three thicknesses. this will hold the seam in position. now remove the bast- ings from the seam and the slot effect is complete. if french seam beaded seam slot seams seams desired, there may be a double row of stitching, an extra row on the edge of the fold or plait. these seams may be finished at the bottom with arrow heads or stitched designs. the lines of machine stitching flannel seams and hems finished with various ornamental stitches. should not end without some ornament to appear to hold the plait. in the lapped seam the edges are folded each within lapped the other or one over the other so that both sides are " alike. if made of heavy material, the raw edges are a-made by folding a wide hem '' a narrow one; b-tape faced sewing for the purpose of a gusset. plackets ethod of folding the tape shown. plackets i left unturned; in muslin or linen the edges are in- turned, lapped, basted and the hem stitched on both edges or hemmed down on both sides by hand. flannel seams should be stitched, opened and pressed flat, either on the right or wrong side of the garment. if on the right side, taffeta ribbon should be basted over the seam, so that the raw edges of flannel will not show, and cat stitched or buttonhole stitched on both sides of the ribbon, or any fancy stitch—not too long—may be used. this is the dorothy seam. for the seam on the wrong side, the edges should be cat stitched with fine thread. any ornamental stitch may be used on the right side of the seam. always press flannel seams and hems before finishing. flannel should never be hem stitched. plackets a placket is an opening in a garment allowing it to be put on. the simplesi placket is made by cutting a slit and folding a wide hem over a narrow one turned on the face of the goods; this makes a pleat below the vent. there should be a double line of stitching across the bottom of the hem to strengthen the placket. the tape faced placket is stronger and may be used in children's drawers, etc., in place of a gusset to strengthen the end of the opening. a single piece of . tape folded back as for a loop is stitched along all edges, making an opening without a lap. this offers as much resistance as a gusset and is more quickly done. flannel seams tape faced placket faced placket a—wrong side, opened, showing tape; b-right side showing on-set piece; aa and bb the same ends of the tape; . method of folding and cutting end of on-set piece. plackets i in a third kind of placket, the opening is faced with faced a continuous piece of tape on both sides and finished placket with a piece of material on the outside. see illustra- tion. this makes a strong and simple placket. when - skirt placket with lap a tape cannot be used, a hem or facing may be made on the under side of the opening and a facing on the upper side, over which the on-set piece is stitched. the on-set piece and facing may be cut from one piece, but the fitting is more troublesome. in figured goods, the piece set on should match the pattern exactly. textiles and clothing gathering a simple placket for underwear is made from a single strip of the goods put on like an extension hem. on drawers it may be turned in at the button- hole end, but not stitched down except at the band. the placket of a skirt should have an underlap ex- tending well below the opening. sewing on bands divide the top of unhemmed edge of the garment in halves and mark with a cross stitch, notch or pin. gather from the placket to the middle of the front gore, if a skirt, apron, or dress. take a new thread and gather the remainder. put in a second gathering thread one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch below the first. two gathering threads are better than one and they should be longer than the length of space to be gathered. stroke or lay the gathers above and below the threads. divide the band and pin the middle to the center of the garment, placing the right side of the band on the wrong side of the garment. pin in the middle and at each end, secure the gathering threads by winding around the pin, adjust the gathers, and baste between the gathering threads. stitch just below the line of basting. fold the band over on the right side, press, baste over the line of stitching, press again, then stitch on the right side after having turned in both ends and over-sewed. turn the top of the band over on the right side one-eighth or one-fourth of an inch and stitch securely. this upper fold keeps - - |- - -- | | p | finishes ; -band on gathers: c-corded edge. a-bias facing i textiles and clothing drawing tapes the edge from wearing and stretching and is a stay for children’s skirts and drawers where button holes are used and serves as a finish for the top of the band. for flannel, pleating or gathers may be used to put fullness into a band. two rows of gathering threads draw tape finish for under skirt should be used and the stitches should not be too fine. the band should be made of cotton or at least lined with it to avoid clumsiness and prevent shrinking. ruffles are set in hems, etc., in the same manner. in finishing the top of an underskirt, many like to dispense with the placket and fitted band. this may be done by using drawing tapes at the back. the up- per edge is faced with a piece of material which should be bias in front to accommodate it to the curve, but may be straight across the back. work a button hole fastenings i i at each side of the back, insert a tape through one button hole and draw it over an inch beyond the oppo- site one and fasten securely by two lines of stitching across the tape. a second tape is put through the other button hole and fastened in the same way. by pulling the tape on each side the fullness may be adjusted. all facings around curves, such as arm holes and neck, should be a true bias which is cut by holding the warp threads diagonally across the woof threads. these strips for facings, pipings, ruffles, etc., should be cut exactly even in width. all bands, ruffles, etc., of serge, twilled, or diagonal materials should be cut across the twill and not with it, in order to have the ruffle hang well. fastenings the standard fastenings are buttons and button holes, hooks and eyes or hand made loops, lacings through rings and eyelet holes, loops over buttons, and fancy frogs, clasps, studs, ball and socket, “notta- hooks,” etc. button holes should be carefully measured and marked before cutting. they should be a little longer than the diameter of the button for flat buttons and one and one-quarter the diameter for round buttons. hav- ing decided upon the distance apart they are to be placed, cut a marker from a piece of cardboard and measure off the space, marking with pins, french chalk, pencil, or thread. the distance from the edge (one-fourth inch), as well as the length of the button bias facings making button holes i textiles and clothing overcasting buttonnoles hole may also be marked with the card. the scissors should be sharp, the hand must be steady, and the cut should be made with one firm slash, not with two or three jerks. great care must be taken that each but- ton hole is of the same length. the goods should be cut to a thread, for it is impossible to make a neat buttonhole if it is improperly cut. in cutting a round end buttonhole for thick goods, a punch may be used for the end, after which the remainder of the button- hole is cut directly on a line with the center of the circle. the same marker may be used to mark the position for the buttons. all markings for buttons and button- holes, or for hooks and eyes, should be made at one time. after cutting, the button holes are overcast. this should always be done directly after cutting, espe- cially if the goods ravels easily, otherwise it will be impossible to work a neat buttonhole. overcasting should be done with very fine thread (no. for white goods), split silk for wool and silk. three overcast stitches on each side are sufficient for an ordi- nary size buttonhole. a very good plan to follow in cutting a buttonhole in heavy material or material that frays easily is to chalk the position and length of the buttonhole, then stitch a row of machine stitching each side of this mark, the two rows being a little more than one-eighth of an inch apart. this holds all the thicknesses to- i textiles and clothing making ibuttonholes staying gether and the buttonhole may then be cut easily. it also serves as a guide in working the buttonhole stitches. the buttonholing is begun at the inner side of the slit. always place the knot on the outside of the garment a short distance to the right of the buttonhole, leaving a long stitch underneath which can be cut off when the buttonhole is finished. a buttonhole should be com- pleted with one thread if possible as it is difficult to mend the thread securely and neatly. letter d for twist is usually employed. insert the needle in the edge of the material and when half way through, take the two threads at the eye of the needle, bringing them towards you at the right and under the point of the needle, and draw the thread from you, making the purl or loop stitch di- rectly on the edge of the buttonhole. the stitches should be about the width of the needle apart to allow for the purl. be careful to complete each stitch with a uniform movement so that the line will be perfectly straight and not wavy. the stitches are placed more closely together in the rounded end of the buttonhole where the chief wear comes. many workers, particularly tailors, always “stay” or “bar” around a buttonhole before working. this may be done with several threads of twist or with a cord so that the worked edge of the buttonhole will be firm and distinct. tailors usually use a cord as this makes the edges heavier. it is always well to stay button- textiles and clothing cloak buttons it. if a button is much concaved, the pin may be placed underneath. the pin is removed before winding. in sewing on a four-hole button, the stitches should be made symmetrically, either parallel or crossed, but not both. if parallel or in a two-holed button the stitches should run in the line of the buttonhole. the thread should always be fastened securely at the begin- ning and at the end of the work. place the knot upon the outside of the garment where it may be cut off when the button is sewed securely. the knot is some- times placed under the button. in sewing buttons on a cloak or coat an extra strip of canvas or silesia over the canvas interlining should be placed the entire length of the buttoning for strength. this should be applied before the work on the garment is too far advanced and if cut sufficiently wide, will allow of any slight alteration. the sewing should go through the canvas facing and stay, but not through the under side or facing of the material. in sewing buttons on bodices a tape should be sewed over the front basting for a stay. if sufficient material has not been allowed for a lap, this should be added, as a lap is necessary under the opening of such but- tonholes. buttons may be sewed through lining having a small button on the wrong side. this method prevents the cloth from tearing and makes an ornamental finish as well as a substantial one. fastenings buttons which are supplied with wire shanks should be sewed down firmly as the shank already provided permits the buttons to set up well from the material. they should be placed in such a position that the wire shank will run parallel with the buttonhole and not cross it. - the position for hooks and eyes should be marked before sewing on. the simplest, though least desira- ble, method of sewing on these fastenings is to place the eye at the edge of the seam or facing and the hook sufficiently far back from the opposite side to give a lap. a much preferable method is to baste a bias strip of crinoline along the positions to be occupied by the hooks and eyes; this gives strength to the finish. suf- ficient material should be allowed for folding over the shanks after the hooks and eyes have been sewed on, or they may be covered with silk ribbon, slipping the edge under the beak of each hook and then catstitched in position. - the hooks and eyes are sewed securely through the crinoline and one thickness, but the stitches should not show on the outside. over and over stitches are taken through the small rings in the line of the full and again on each bar of the eye and on the shank of the hook so that they may be held in position securely. in many cases, it is advisable to have an underlap of the material. this should be slip-stitched in position on the garment after the eyes have been sewed in place. hooks and eyes | patching i eyelet holes are made with a stiletto which forces the threads aside, but does not cut them. the edge is finished with over and over stitches placed closely together, or with a buttonhole stitch making the purl on the outer edge of the stitches. loops are made by buttonholing very closely over several foundation threads, making the purl on the outside edge. the needle may be run under the loop eye first if preferred. patching with the underset patch have the part to be patched pressed smooth, baste the patch on the wrong side of the garment before cutting out the worn place. (if the garment or article to be mended is worn or faded and shrunken by laundering, boil the piece in soap, soda and water to fade the patch, if of cotton or linen.) after basting, cut away all the worn cloth, making a square or oblong hole. cut to a thread. cut each corner, diagonally, one-eighth or one-quarter of an inch, turn all four edges of the garment towards the wrong side. begin at the center of one side and hem all around the square, taking slanting even stitches, not too close together. remove the basting, trim the edges of the patch, press the patch on the wrong side and catch stitch to the garment. this shows less on the right side and does not make a hard line as if the patch were turned back on the edge. if the cloth has a pattern or stripe, match it perfectly, having the warp threads of both running the same way. cut both hole and patch square. an oval or round patch is un- eyelets underset patch cat stitched wrong side of patch i textiles and clothing -- - - - : | - wrong side of patch in table cloth-raw edge owercast workmanlike and does not wear well. keep the cor- ners square and hem down well. the object of press- ing is to keep both garment and patch flat and even. flannel patches should be cat-stitched on the right side. no flannel edges should ever be inturned. onset the onset patch is used on lined garments and lin- * ings. the patch should be rectangular and larger than - cross stitch initial linen patch i textiles and clothing the worn place. fold the four edges on the wrong side of the patch, place the patch with its wrong side on the right side of the garment directly over the center of the hole. this will bring the folded edges of the | right side of flannel patch edge cat stitched but not turned, back cat stitched in the same way. patch between the two pieces of cloth and both right sides towards the worker. do not baste, but pin care- fully. after the garment has been folded back until there are two folded edges side by side, overhand the textiles and clothing bias darn darning a three cornered tear be darned with linen or mercerized cotton. cotton is preferable. a long slender needle with a large eye should be used. darning should never be commenced with a knot, nor finished with a back stitch. a bias or diagonal cut and a three-cornered tear are the most difficult to repair. if the place is badly pulled and frayed, a piece of the same material should be basted on the wrong side of the material and darned in even stitches. always darning parallel with the warp threads and the woof threads. in the diagonal tear, as the threads are cut diagonally, to prevent draw- ing apart, the darning threads must cross each other. the stitches around any darn should not end in a stiff even line; this makes a hard edge which does not wear and is unsightly, and uncomfortable if on under- wear. the three-cornered tear may be darned in two ways. begin by darning diagonally through the center, darn- ing back and forth towards the end of the tear until one-half has been finished; then begin at the center and work in the opposite direction. at the corner, the stitches should form the shape of a fan. the other method, which is the stronger, is done by darn- ing a square in the angle, first with the warp threads, then with the woof threads and finishing each end across the tear. stocking darning may be done on the right side. begin by picking up the stitches and drawing the textiles and clothing machine darning chain stitch, thus imitating the knitting stitch. this should be done on the right side of the garment. if the hole is to be filled in with the interlaced stitches, draw the edges together, darn beyond the thin places lengthwise of the knitted garment, making each line of stitches longer until the center of the hole is reached, then decrease in the same manner, making a diamond in shape. darn across the hole in the same way, taking up every alternate stitch as in weaving. leave a tiny loop at the end of each row of darning, so that the threads will not draw. darning, satisfactory for some purposes, may be done quickly on a double thread sewing machine. it is best done in an embroidery ring, first drawing the edges together. loosen the tension on the presser foot, use fine thread with light tension. sew back and forth, first along the warp threads and then at right angles along the woof threads. the machine will be sewing backwards part of the time, but if the pressure is light, there will be no difficulty. for large holes, paper may be placed underneath. mitering embroidery or lace the mitering of lace or embroidery is often neces- sary in making collars and in finishing corners. be- fore applying, plan carefully and select a scallop or portion of the embroidery which will produce the best effects when finished. this can be accomplished by folding the embroidery over at various portions of the textiles and clothing pattern until a suitable point is found. fold over at right angles and mark along the line to be mitered. the triangle may now be cut, but an extra width must always be allowed for the seam, as there is frequently a slight unevenness and one side may have to be held a little full or stretched to make a perfect match. the mitered seam is over-sewed. - : after the corner is properly made, cut away the cloth of the embroidery, allowing only enough for an inturned seam on the edge. this seam may be stitched on the machine on both edges, or oversewed to the goods, or the embroidery may be securely sewed on the plain part, after which the underlying cloth may be cut away. this will make an almost perfect corner. lace may be matched and mitered in a similar way. matching and joining lace in joining lace, avoid a seam if possible. select por- tions of the design that will match, placing one pat- tern of the same design over the other. cut away a portion of the thick part of the pattern underneath and hem the edges and inner part of the design down with fine thread. smyrna or torchon lace is more difficult to hem or join when very open or very fine. a small, felled seam is better than lapping and trying to match the pattern. embroidery can be matched in the same way. never let two heavy designs lap over each other. the one matching and mitering i insertion with mitred corner, taped and faced; embroidery rolled whipped and gathered on the wrong side should be cut out and the edge sewed securely to the upper part of the design. the plain material above the embroidery can be joined by a lapped seam, turning first the right side and then the wrong side and hemming on both sides of the seam. machine sewing types of machines ( re of the machine the sewing machine has taken away much of the drudgery of home sewing, but its use does not lessen the need of skill in hand work. no machine can finish ends of belts, collars, sew on trimming, fastenings, and like work and the finish has much to do with the gen- eral appearance of a garment. all the prominent makes of sewing machines were invented in the decade following howe's patent in . the two chief types of machines are the lock stitch, using double thread, and the chain or loop stitch, using a single thread. whatever the make of machine it should be run in accordance with the rules accom- panying it. the worker should familiarize herself with the directions for setting and threading the needle, winding the bobbin, regulating the tension and the stitch and all other technicalities of the particular ma- chine she has to operate. agencies of the various machines usually have skilled workers to give instruc- tion to beginners. while it is not always an economy of time to use the attachments for hemming, tucking, etc., unless much work is to be done, it is worth while to know how to use them if desired. as much or more skill is required for neat machine work as for hand sewing. results will not be satisfactory without careful basting. the machine should be kept well oiled, free from dust and gum and it should be run evenly. in case it becomes “gummed” a drop of kerosene on the parts machine sewing that have been oiled will cut the gum. remove the shuttle and run the machine rapidly for a moment, then wipe off all the kerosene and oil the machine carefully with good machine oil—only the best should be used. a machine should always be wiped thoroughly before any work is placed upon it. as in hand sewing, needles and thread should be selected with care. a blunt or bent needle should never be used, it should have a fine sharp point and the eye should be sufficiently large to carry the thread easily. the needle and thread should be suitable for the material to be sewed. glazed thread should never be used in a machine. the best quality of thread and silk should be purchased but only enough for imme- diate use, as it loses strength with age, chiefly because of the action of the dyes and chemicals. even white thread may become “tender” from the chemicals used in bleaching it. sewing silk and cotton should be kept in a closed box to exclude the light and air. for sewing cotton or linen the best cotton thread should be used. woolen, silk, and velvet should be stitched with the best machine silk. the thread should match the material in color. cotton thread fades or loses its brightness when exposed to the light, there- fore for stitching that will show it is always better to use silk. the thread on the bobbin should be wound evenly and carefully to insure an even stitch and the tension of both threads should be equal, otherwise the stitch will not be perfect. as a lock stitch machine needles thread textiles and clothing fastening threads bias side next feed requires two threads while in hand sewing only one is used, the two need not be as coarse as the single thread. for ordinary home sewing, underwear, thin gowns and the like, no. to no. will be found satisfactory finer thread may be used when the ma- terials demand it, but no coarser than no. should be used in the machine and this only with the coarsest material. much time may be saved in fastening the threads at the ends of tucks, hems on sheets, towels, etc., by careful manipulation of the machine. for example, on sheets begin to stitch along the hem at the selvage, or if the end of the hem is over-sewed, begin an inch from the edge and stitch the hem towards the selvage, then lift the presser-foot so as to turn the work, and retrace the bit of stitching, continuing across the whole hem. when the end is reached, release the presser- foot, turn the work, and stitch back for an inch or more in the same line, as was done at the beginning of the hem. by this method the threads are fastened much more easily and quickly than by drawing them through on to the wrong side and tying or sewing them by hand and, of course, it is more satisfactory than the “shop” way of cutting them off short. tucks or seams may be fastened in the same way. if fine thread is used the double stitching at the ends is hardly noticeable. when stitching a seam having one bias and one straight side, let the bias side come next to the feed, textiles and clothing ii. iii. models, first series stitches. on a piece of cotton about by inches, make with colored thread ( ) a line of even basting stitches, ( ) uneven basting stitches, ( ) tacking, ( ) running, ( ) back stitch, ( ) running and back, ( ) half back. with embroidery silk make a row each of (i) cat stitch, ( ) single feather, ( ) double feather, ( ) chain, ( ) rows of french knots with border of outline stitch. make your initial in one corner, using any stitch preferred. overcast one long edge of the model, double overcast the opposite side, finish one end with plain loop or blanket stitch, and the other end with some fancy loop stitch. fasten all threads as described in the text. seams and hems. (a) join two pieces of fine cotton with a french seam at the long edge, about by % inches, with warp running lengthwise. (b) cut a piece of muslin on a true bias and attach the bias edge to a with a felled seam. (c) trim the model and hem all sides so that the finished model may measure by inches. darning and patching. (a) in gingham or figures cotton, make an underset patch of a square hole, matching the goods. (b) darn a three-cornered tear. fastenings. the proper distance from the edge of folded goods make (a) button hole, one end rounded and the other finished with a bar tack. (b) under it make a partly fin- textiles and clothing part iii textiles and clothing part iii dressmaking the greatest obstacle to home sewing of any kind is the failure to provide suitable materials with which to do the work. to do good work—to make attractive gowns—the simple tools which the work requires must be provided. first, there should be needles and pins of the best quality and make. they should be fine and well pointed. the needle should be suitable to the material to be sewn and sufficiently large to carry the thread easily. a blunt or bent needle should never be used. long or milliner's needles are preferred by many for basting. a good supply of thread should be kept on hand— not too great a quantity, but the stock should be added to as it is used. there should be both silk and col- ored cotton, also twist for button holes, loops and arrow heads and knitting silk to sew on and finish feather bone. two pairs of scissors are required—one with long, sharp blades, and a pair of medium sizes for snipping machine stitches. among the other necessary articles are a tape meas- ure, cake of wax, pencils or tailor's chalk, tracing wheel, emery, lap board. good tools necessary thread scissors padded bust form (from dressmaking up-to-date, butterick co.) textiles and clothing almost a necessity for one who does much home dress- ing. these may be purchased at department stores. some kinds are adjustable, but it is always best to make a carefully fitted lining for it and pad out to the correct shape and size. the pattern should be one that extends well over the hips and heavy unbleached muslin may be used. after padding firmly, the front opening should be oversewed. special care should be taken with shoulders and neck and the neck band should be carefully adjusted on the figure. a padded sleeve lining is also very useful in mak- ing sleeves. dressmaking never should be begun until each needed article required for the work has been pur- chased. the sewing room should be in order; the machine well oiled and wiped before any work is un- dertaken. skill if the finished garment is to be perfect, careful at- r: tention must be given to every detail of the cutting and making up. to possess mechanical skill alone is not sufficient. a successful garment depends not only upon the dexterity with which the worker manipulates the actual tools of her craft, but upon all her faculties and her power of applying them. she must have a comprehension of the laws of beauty in dress, con- struction, ornament, color, selection, economy. the artisan knows the technical part only, and looks upon each dress—each piece of lace and velvet—as so much material to be snipped and cut and sewed, copying from the fashion plate, making gown after gown alike. the artist, on the other hand, makes the gown patterns to suit the individual wearer, considering each dress no matter how simple—and the simpler, the more art- istic—as a creation designed to suit the woman for whom it was planned. people who study economy from principle will never adopt anything extreme in weave, or color, or make. these extreme fashions are never lasting; they are too conspicuous and are vulgarized by bad copies, while a thing which is known to be good and heautiful once will remain so for all time. those who are beginners in the art of dressmaking should select plain designs until skill is acquired. the making up and finishing of new fabrics and new or untried meth- ods are problems that often dismay even the most experienced dressmaker. patterns * the makers of good and reliable patterns are many. always buy patterns of firms that make proportion of figure as well as fashion a study. these patterns state length of skirt, waist and hip measure and quan- tity of material required in all widths. buy a skirt pattern with correct hip size, as it is much more diffi- cult to change this than to alter the dimensions of a waist. adjust the pattern to the figure for which the garment is to be cut and see that it is right in all of its proportions. always follow the notches indicated in the seams of the pattern, and thus avoid putting wrong pieces together. be sure that the pattern is selection of patterns textiles and clothing what the pattern gives placed correctly upon the material with the straight grain or warp threads of the goods running directly on a line with the straight perforations indicated in the pattern. lay the entire pattern upon the cloth. this gives an idea just where every piece is to come out. in symmetrical dresses the pattern gives one-half of the waist and the skirt, from center of back to center of front. the number of pieces in a plain pat- tern vary according to styles. the sleeve may be cut in one piece with the waist, as in kimona sleeves; the back of the waist may be all in one piece or have a side back when fitted waists are in vogue. likewise skirts may have few or many gores. most patterns allow for seams and state what that allowance is. all pieces are notched to show how they should go together. on the skirt pieces the front gore has one notch, the front side of the next gore one notch, the back side two notches, etc. the best patterns now are accompanied by charts showing the different pieces and the method of put- ting them together. directions are given which, if followed carefully, enable one to cut and make the garment correctly. srirt making fashions in skirts vary greatly, but a well-fitted skirt should hang in graceful folds, be even around the bottom, should fit easily without being strained and without defining the figure too closely. the object of goring the skirt at the top is, of skirt making course, to take out unnecessary fullness. in draped skirts this fullness is partly taken care of by the folds. skirts should allow perfect freedom in walk- ing, but prevailing styles do not always permit this. a skirt for street wear should be short enough not to pick up the dirt of the street—the narrow skirt may be longer than the wide one without becoming a “street sweeper.” plan of skirt making shortening or lengthening of pattern if neces- sary. placing of goods. pinning on of pattern so there is no waste. cutting. - removing and care of patterns. finishing placket hole. basting seam-fitting. stitching. pressing. finishing of seams. making and putting on waist-band. marking length and finishing the bottom. fastenings, loops, braids, hooks and eyes. to lengthen or shorten a skirt pattern, measure the figure and regulate the length of the patterns by mak- ing a fold in each gore two-thirds of the way from the top of the pattern if too long. this is for the simplest skirt pattern. the shape of the skirt may re- quire two folds, one two-thirds from the top and a small fold near the bottom to preserve the outline. if too short, pin the pattern on the material, cut iengthening or shortening patterns textiles and clothing placing patterns pinning patterns cutting out if the material is plain, has no nap, or if the de- sign is perfectly symmetrical, the gores may be alter- nated, the top of one gore coming opposite the bot- tom of the next. the half pattern of the front gore is always laid on a lengthwise fold of the goods. if the goods is wide, the other gores may be cut double with the cloth folded lengthwise. with narrow goods the cloth may be folded end to end after the middle gore has been cut out, and the other gores cut double. care should be taken that the line of holes in the middle of the gores runs exactly in a line with the warp of the material—i.e., parallel to the selvage. if the goods has a figure, the design should run up- wards. any nap should run downward, except with velvet or velveteen, in which it should run upwards. with such goods, the gores if cut double must be placed on a lengthwise fold, with the lengths running the same way. if the goods is narrow, the gores may have to be cut single, reversing the pattern (turning it over), so that both pieces may not be for the same side. - if piecing is necessary on wide gores, it should always be done along the warp thread, with the usual care that any figure be made to match perfectly. pin the middle of the pattern to the goods and smooth towards each end, pinning securely at top and bottom. avoid too many pins and pin carefully, otherwise the pattern will be displaced. after the pattern is securely pinned, cut out the gores, using long, sharp shears. care should be taken , not to lift the material from the table, not to have skirt making jagged, uneven edges, as both time and material will be wasted in straightening them. open the shears as wide as possible, taking a long sweep of the mate- rial, and do not allow the points of the shears to come together. mark all notches with basting thread, tailor's chalk, or notch the goods if it does not ravel. now remove the pattern, pin carefully all pieces to- gether and fold as little as possible. the trinity—pin, baste, press—should be written in large letters in every sewing room, for much of the beauty of the gown de- pends upon these three. the placket, which may be at the back, side or front, may be finished before the gores are put to- gether. the placket is easier to finish in this way, may be pressed better, and the other gores are not crushed. on the left side of the opening sew an underlap of sufficient length to extend well below the end of the opening. face the right side of the open- ing with a piece of the goods, or tape not too wide, hem or cat-stitch to the skirt, and finish with hooks and eyes, loops, or any fastening that will secure the placket. to join the skirt, pin the side gores to the front gores, beginning at the top, with pins running across the seams, then begin at the top of the skirt and baste downward, allowing all unevenness to come out at the bottom. baste straight and evenly, with the gores laid flat on the table, taking one stitch at a time. several stitches should never be taken at once on thick or piled goods, as the side next to the sewer is apt to be fuller in that case. when all seams are making placket joining the skirt textiles and clothing lined skirt stitching skirts finishing seams stiffening basted, try on the skirt and make all changes neces- sary before stitching. both the outside skirt and any under or “drop” skirt should be fitted as carefully as a waist. - if the skirt is to be lined the lining should be made and fitted first, then ripped and the outside carefully basted on the lining, being well stretched over the lin- ing, care being taken to have the warp of the outside and the lining run the same way. this will prevent the lining from drawing the goods. a stitch of medium length should be used on all seams whether white goods or cloth. if the stitch is too long, the seam will “gap” and will show the thread; if too short, the seam is apt to draw. the line of stitch- ing must be absolutely parallel inside or outside of the basting or the curve will be ruined. use silk or the best cotton for stitching skirts and be sure that the needle is not too coarse. after stitching, all bastings along the seams should be taken out by cutting the thread in several places. never pull a basting the length of the skirt. the seams should be opened and pressed according to direc- tions. the seams may be finished with a taffeta bind- ing, overcast, stitched flat or notched, as the case de- mands. fashion at times calls for lined skirts with stiffen- ing at the bottom. in such skirts the stiffening should be fitted to each lining gore separately and securely stitched before the lining and outside are put to- . gether. heavy cloth skirts with rows of stitching at the bottom should have a light canvas stitched in. skirt making i the skirt is now ready for the band, which should be narrow. always cut parallel with the selvage and the length of the underlap longer than the waist meas- ure, allowing for turning at the ends. the band should never be thick and clumsy and not too tight. excellent webbing bands which are ready to be put on the skirt may be purchased—these are firm and not clumsy. try on the skirt and fit the band carefully, mark- ng the seam with pins, a line of basting, or chalk. hold the skirt easy on the band and baste with small stitches, then stitch on the machine. if the skirt is too tight around the hips, it will draw. if the skirt is stretched on the band, the seams will not fall in a straight line. for a high-waisted skirt without a band use a firm piece of belting one and one-half to two inches wide. sew hooks and eyes on this belt, then baste skirt carefully to the top of the belt; try on. stitch about one-fourth of an inch from the top, being sure that the skirt conceals the belt. fasten skirt and belt separately, leaving the skirt free from the belt except at the top. before finishing the seams be sure that the skirt fits the figure smoothly but does not draw anywhere; that the seams fall in a straight line, and that gathers and draping take graceful lines becoming to the figure. the draped skirt requires skill in handling material and is more difficult to make than the fitted skirt. while patterns may be followed in draping, the best results are obtained when it is done on the figure. putting on band fitting draping o textiles and clothing finishing the bottom allowance or shrinkage after the band is securely stitched and finished with hooks and eyes, adjust the length by turning under at the bottom and pinning, after which baste all around and try on again to make sure that the length is correct. in finishing the bottom of the skirt a hem is used in narrow or moderately full skirts in all materials. care must be taken that any fullness in the hem is laid in smooth folds, where it seems to fall naturally. it is best to baste a hem on a flat surface. a bias facing may be used on any skirt, and is desirable on heavy materials when the skirt is at all full. fitted facings are also used, but the bias one answers all purposes. braid may be used to strengthen the edge of the hem and should be shrunken before using, then basted with care that it neither draws nor puckers on the skirt. braid should be sewed at the top by hand, and usually again near the bottom. velveteen is used when skirts are lined and have canvas in the bottom. it may be used as a binding, an inch or so wide, or as a facing—in either case the upper edge is usually cat- stitched down. skirts of wash material are better if the material is shrunk; even then it may continue to shrink with each washing. some materials—notably heavy linens— shrink across the warp. to allow for shrinkage in both directions extra width of hem and extra material at the seams over the hips is advisable. in wash skirts of medium weight material a six-inch hem is advisable. if desired, the bias seam down the back of the skirt textiles and clothing trace seams ibaste lavishly altering aist ipatterns careful fitting, good lines, an even bottom, are to be desired, whatever the style. extreme styles should be avoided not only for economy's sake but because they make one conspicuous. the home dressmaker should attempt only those things in which she feels moderately sure of success. a well-made skirt in a simple style is far more to be desired than an elab- orate one poorly made. shirt waists in planning a waist the same rules should be ob- served in placing patterns, etc., as described for skirts, except that the lines and seams should be traced with a tracing wheel or marked carefully. in making a waist of any kind care must be taken to cut all the pieces the proper way of the material. the difficulty of putting garments together after they have been cut properly is due to undue haste, lack of care in details and insufficient pressing. the ap- parently simple act of basting is really of primal im- portance, particularly in the making of a waist. one need never be afraid of basting too much or too care- fully. economize cloth and time in cutting, but use basting lavishly. the waist pattern may be made shorter by laying folds across both back and front. the fold across the back should be two inches above the waist line and across the front two inches below the arm's eye (in the back). securely pin or baste the folds in the pattern. if the pattern is of nearly the correct size it may be only necessary to make the waist shorter and smaller. the neck and arm's eye will seldom need altering. shirt waists the sleeves may be shortened in the same way by lay- ing folds in the pattern, above and below the elbow. plan for making a shirt waist after the waist is cut, remove and care for the pattern. make the sleeves, cuffs and collar band first. make box plait on right or left side as liked by - the wearer and hem or face the other side. put in tucks if desired. baste shoulders and under-arm seams. try on the waist, making all changes necessary by enlarging or taking up seams. pin for neck band and mark for seams. fit sleeves and mark places for seams. arrange fullness and place tape at back of waist line. if the pattern is for a plain, one-seam sleeve with the cuff opening at the end of the seam, hem each side of the opening one or two inches from the bottom, gather the bottom between the notches, lay the gath- ers, baste the wrong side of the sleeve band or cuff to the wrong side of the sleeve, stitch and press, fold in a hem on all edges of the cuff, fold the cuff over on the right side of the sleeve, baste, oversew the ends of the cuff, press and stitch the cuff close to all edges. after thus attaching the cuff, baste and stitch the long seam of the sleeve and gather at the top between notches. the cuff is usually cut in the direction of the warp of the goods. the sleeve described is the simplest that can be made. if the sleeve is to open at the back and finished making plain sleeve textiles and clothing material for lining pattern for waist cutting which to fasten the yoke, the draped waist, the girdle and the skirt. in home dressmaking a well-fitted lin- ing may be put on the dress form, the outside draped on and the trimmings adjusted. with some practice very good results may be obtained in this way. when fashion makes use of thin materials, chiffons and the like, a second and loose lining is put over the fitted one. when the styles are extreme in looseness, the fitted lining is omitted entirely. the material used for the lining will vary with the richness of the gown. white india linon is very satis- factory for a great many kinds of dresses. silk will be substituted in the more expensive one. the mate- rial must be firm enough to stand fitting and not heavy enough to be uncomfortably warm. while white next the skin shows soil more quickly than a color, it seems more desirable; a net slip which is easily washed may be worn inside the lining to take the soil. in making the lining the first requisite is a good pattern. if it is possible, have a pattern drafted to one's own measure, as a good foundation is essential to a well-fitted dress. if one cannot have a drafted pattern, buy a standard pattern with front, under-arm, back and side back pieces as shown in the illustra- tion. for a slender person the back and side back are sometimes cut in one, but this does not fit as perfectly as the two-piece back. in cutting allow liberal seams and be sure that the warp thread is parallel to the perforations. in a fitted lining this will be perpendicular to the waist line in lined waists each piece. all seams and darts should be traced care- fully and all notches put in. careful basting is necessary in all closely-fitted gar- ments. short stitches which will not pull, exactness in putting the pieces together and careful following of the tracings are all essential. the front shoulder typical lining patterns (a) front. (b) under arm piece. (c) side of back. (d) back. (e) collar. (f) outside sleeve. (g) inside sleeve. seam should be a little shorter than the back, and stretched when basting to it, because the front of the shoulder hollows slightly, while the back is full and the waist must follow these curves. the center back seam of the waist should be basted up, and the center front left open for fitting later. this may be changed if the opening is desired in the back. the seams may be basted on the right side to facilitate fitting and the waist should not be fitted wrong side out, as few peo- ple are exactly symmetrical, and trouble results when the waist is turned. basting textiles and clothing fitting stitching before trying on, gash the seams at the waist curve to prevent drawing. then put the waist lining on, pin together carefully from neck to waist line, pulling until it fits snugly. smooth the waist down at the waist line and if there seems to be too much length take it up at the shoulder. if the waist is inclined to draw from neck to shoulder, at the base of the neck, slip the front shoulder up on the back; if the neck is too loose, slip the other way at the shoulder. gash the neck and armholes for cutting out. alterations should be made at shoulder and underarm seams, and not on the curved back seam. a tuck may be taken across the top of the corset, or up and down at the waist line in front or back if necessary. always fit the lining up to the neck, even though it may be cut out later for a yoke or low neck. if the waist is to be opened in the back, leave the front pinned securely and open the back seam. take off, baste any places that have been pinned, trim neck and armholes if necessary, and slip on again to be sure all is right. if the seams have been basted on the right side, mark them carefully, pull out bastings and reverse them. if the pattern is drafted to one's measure, it is not necessary to baste seams on the right side, but when much fitting is to be done this is easier. the seams should be stitched in the line of basting, for a tight lining, and just outside it when more freedom is desired. the basting will always give more than the stitching, and this should be considered. the hems in front or back should be so turned as to lined waists make the waist just meet, not lap. a good method is to turn the hem only once, stitch near the edge and then again the width of the hook away. after the hooks and eyes have been sewed on, the edge is turned back and hemmed down over them. this method is simpler than putting an extra strip on to cover the hooks and eyes. the seams may be trimmed even but left rather wide, notched and opened. feather bone is cat- waist lining basted, seams out stitched on each seam to the height of the corset, or just below the fullness of the bust. an inside belt of firm webbing may be caught to back or front and underarm seams, according to where waist opens. the bottom of the lining may be notched, bound or left to be finished with the outside. the sleeves are usu- ally made with the outside sleeves and will be dis- cussed later, as will the finish for neck and armhole. with the completion of such a lining one has an excellent beginning for a successful dress, but the real taste and skill of the dressmaker is shown in the finishing and boning textiles and clothing draping waist manner of draping the outside onto the lining and adjusting the trimmings. making lined dress the materials used and the fashions determine the method used in adjusting the outside to the lining. when tight-fitting basques are in vogue, the outside is cut after the lining has been fitted and sewed into the seams with it. careful fitting, basting, pressing and finishing are then all essential for good results. bias strips of crinoline are used to make the bottom of waist and sleeves, and the edges to be fastened firm—and to prevent wrinkling. when two layers of material are put over the lining, the first one usually fits plainly at shoulder and neck, but is gathered in at the waist line, instead of being fitted in—this interlining should be carefully adjusted and fastened to the fitted lining at the waist and basted around the arm and neck. with veiled effects, the trimming is also applied to this second lining and finally the outside is put on. the inexperienced dressmaker will need a pattern from which to cut the waist, but the more experienced one, after putting the lining on a form, will drape the outside on, basting and pinning in place, and then cutting it out at the arm, neck and at the waist. if a yoke is to be used, that should be put on first, stretched tight on the fitted lining and sewed fast—the lining afterwards being cut out from under it. the collar should next be adjusted, before the neck has oppor- tunity to stretch. in draping the outside on, folds and gathers are laid i textiles and clothing kinds of sleeves kimona sleeves finish of sleeves on the outside separate from the lining. on lace yoke and collar small hooks and eyes should be set quite close together. a gap detracts very much from the appearance of a dress. sleeve and armhole finishes differ greatly in dif- ferent seasons. when the kimona sleeve, or the very long shoulder effect is used, the sleeve lining will be sewed into the waist lining and the outside left en- tirely free. lace undersleeves may be sewed to this lining, or, if no lining is required throughout the whole length, only a short lap, the depth of the dress shield, may be substituted. a normal sleeve and its lining may be gathered or basted together at the top, and both sewed into the lining and outside of the waist. sometimes the sleeves are both sewed into the lining only, and the outside drapery extends over the sleeve top. the armhole is finished by binding or overcasting. the latter method avoids clumsiness and is neat and strong enough in most cases. in the kimona sleeve the pattern which gives a gore in the sleeve under the arm is less likely to prove troublesome. in any case there must be some freedom in the waist or it will tear. the long shoulder also requires more room under the arm. there are many finishes for the bottoms of sleeves, but, whether the sleeve be long, short or medium length, the finish should correspond with the rest of the waist. the bottom of the sleeve, like the neck, offers many possibilities for individual touches, and may give a note of character to the whole dress. con- i textiles and clothing coat or tight fitting sleeves altering if it is necessary to lengthen the sleeve, say two patterns inches, cut the pattern at right angles to the lines in- dicated by the dots, above and below the elbow. the slashing should be done exactly at the same distance apart in the upper and under portions of the sleeve in order to retain the proper shape and size of the top and bottom. separate the parts, allowing one inch above and one inch below the elbow. to shorten the sleeve, lap the slashed part or lay a . fold in the pattern instead of slashing. in either case, care should be taken that the fold or lap is of even width all the way across, so that the original shape of the sleeve will not be lost. of # too much care cannot be taken in arranging the pattern of the sleeve according to the thread of the goods. especially is this the case in the two-piece or coat sleeve. generally the top part of the outside seam and the lower part of the same side should be placed at the edge or fold of the goods, so that the two run in the same straight line. in all cases, the foundation sleeve or lining should be cut and fitted before the outer portion is adjusted. ample time should be given to the fitting and basting of the sleeve. the “set” of the sleeve is very often unsatisfactory because the cut- ting and original basting was done in a careless man- ner. remember that greater care is required in sleeve making than in any part of the garment. each sleeve is complete in itself and one must not deviate from the coat sleeves i other in size, arrangement or ornament, or general ap- pearance. they should be cut, basted and fitted alike and if the arms differ in size or length the sleeves must be so adjusted as to conceal the inequality. the sleeves should be made at the same time and before the cuffs, then the cuffs, puffs, or whatever spe- cial trimming is to be applied to them should be put on both sleeves at the same time. if the second sleeve is not made or trimmed until after the first is finished, it will be much more difficult to secure exactly the same effect. if it is impossible to complete both sleeves at one time, make the sleeves one day and the cuffs or trimming the next day. in making the coat sleeves the general methods are the same, but each season brings out new styles which the maker will have to understand before proper mak- ing and finishing can be acquired. always master the simple and standard patterns and the minor changes dictated by fashion—new fancies and effects—will not be difficult to acquire after a little experience has been gained. the lining for both sleeves should be fitted and the outside cut by them. after economical cutting, trace the seams carefully, and baste the outside to the lining, basting both uppers before the under sections. join the under and upper parts by pinning and basting, the outside seam first, be- ginning in the middle of the sleeve and working toward each end. the outside seams should be begun at the joining the partr textiles and clothing adding cuffs notchat the elbow, working towardeach end. where the sleeve calls for gathering the fullness should be dis- tributed between the notches and the two portions of the sleeve should be secured at this point, before or after basting the upper or lower portions of each sleeve. finishing of seams notched at curves and bound or overcast. stitch the seams just outside the basting, then re- move the line of basting along the seam and press. trim off all rough edges. the inside seam is opened and notched at the bend of the elbow and an inch or two above and below and bound with silk binding ribbon or evenly overcast with twist or mer- cerized cotton. if an elaborate cuff or trimming is to be added to the sleeve, whether full or plain, it should be made sepa- rately and blind stitched to the faced sleeve. in case textiles and clothing battern for yoke seamless yokes to make a pattern for a seamless yoke baste to- gether the shoulder seams of the fitted waist pattern, place the upper part of the pattern on cambric or stiff paper, with the front of waist on straight edge or fold of paper, trace the shape of the neck yoke any desired depth below the neck line. the lower edge can be cut in any shape, the neck either high or low, round or square. this perfectly fitted yoke pattern can be used for a foundation for lace, velvet, ribbon, net, or any thin material. the circular yoke made of lace and rib- bon or bias strips can be made to open in front or back. the strips of inserting and ribbon should be basted on the paper pattern and joined by fancy stitches or over sewed. the parts next the neck will need to be held fuller than the outside curve of the inserting. all yokes to be worn under the gown should be made on a well-fitted lining. never trust to pinning, basting, or hooking the yoke to the waist. the finish of collar, cuffs, girdle and placket are hall- marks of good dressmaking. well finished ends and corners, the careful adjustment of fastenings, shields carefully fitted to the arm's eye and caught smoothly to the lining—all these are little things that count for more than money spent in expensive ornament. pressing o pressing the success of the finish of every garment depends upon the pressing, whether the material be heavy or light, cotton or wool. garments are always pressed on the wrong side, when being made. the iron used should neither be too hot nor too heavy and the work should be done on a perfectly smooth, well-covered board. for pressing black or dark cloth, the cover of the board should be dark and free from lint, while a perfectly clean light cover should be substituted when white or light goods are to be pressed. the whole face of an iron should never be put down on a seam or any part of a waist, but the side or point should be used, care being taken not to stretch a curved seam. a small rolling pin, a broom stick, a chair rocker, or any rounded stick well covered can be used for pressing curved seams or sleeves. this lessens the danger of marking the seams on the right side. these are only makeshifts; a regular half round sleeve board should be obtained if much work is to be done. in pressing, the iron should never be shoved or pushed, as in ironing. only heavy materials require great strength. it is possible to press too much as well as too little. whatever the material, pressing is work that requires to be done carefully and slowly. allow the iron to touch only the center of the seam, the edges of the seam will not then be outlined upon the goods. piled goods require infinite care. uncut pressing board placing the iron o textiles and clothing wet pressing velvet, crape, etc., should never be pressed with the iron flat on the seam. the seam should be opened carefully and over the rounded surface of the board, covered with very soft cotton flannel into which the pile can sink without being flattened. run the iron with the pile, or the iron may be placed on the side or flat end and the seams drawn slowly along the edge of the iron the same way the pile runs—only the edge of the iron touching the edge of the seam. corded seams should be pressed in the same way to avoid flattening the cord. very heavy cloths and chinchilla should have a small stream of water carried along the seam, followed by the iron; or the seam may be dampened by a soft cloth—very wet. this is the “wet pressing” used by tailors, which is adapted to the requirements of mate- rials used by them, such as serge, tweeds, etc. press- ing on the right side under a damp cloth is apt to give marks if the cloth gets too dry or if the iron is too hot, but is necessary on finished wool garments. silk scorches easily and should be pressed very care- fully with a cool iron, light in weight. some light colors fade or change in pressing. try a piece of the goods before pressing the garment. if the color does not come back when cold or when ex- posed to the light, do not use a hot iron on the garment. construction and ornament for dress many of the principles governing architecture and art apply equally as well to art in dress. both in archi- tecture and dress, construction should be decorated- decoration should never be purposely constructed. it is by the ornament of a building that one can judge more truly of the creative power which the artist has brought to bear upon his work. the general propor- tion may be good, the mouldings accurate, but the in- stant ornament is attempted, the architect or the dress- maker reveals how much of an artist he is. to put ornament in the right place—where it serves a pur- pose—is indeed difficult; to render that ornament at the same time an added beauty and an expression of the desired unity is far more difficult. all decoration should be planned to enrich—not to assert. all jewelry or ornament should form a note in the general harmony of color—a decorative touch to add beauty and to be subordinated to the object deco- rated. it should serve the purpose of seeming to strengthen the whole or to protect the parts receiving most wear. ornament is everywhere attempted. we see ornament at every turn—good and bad alike—in our homes, on clothes, linen, and kitchen utensils. carlyle tells us that “the first want of barbarous man is decoration.” we have no record of when this need was felt first. primitive man after supplying his ac- tual needs, seemed to develop a longing for the beauti- ful, so he ornamented his own body, scratched rude pat- terns on his tools and weapons and gradually devel- principles of ornament purpose of ornament textiles and clothing errors in ornamentation £mbroidery oped the artistic sense. this love of ornament dates back to the beginnings of the human race and there are no records of a race or a period devoid of it. we see gowns totally lacking in good results because too much has been attempted. the wearer has not con- sidered the effect as a whole, but has gratified her lik- ing for a multiplicity of ornaments and color which, perhaps would be good in themselves, if applied sep- arately, but which becomes an incongruous mixture when brought together on one garment. garments which seem to have required great effort in the making and which appear complex in construc- tion should be avoided, for the effect is not pleasing. the gown should set off the wearer, not the wearer the gown. to avoid committing errors against good taste it is essential first to consider the use of any garment and see if it answers the purpose for which it was designed. if any part appears meaningless, this is a sure indica- tion that it is wanting in grace and beauty. the orna- ment should harmonize with the materials, use, and construction of the object to which it is applied. the color must be massed with effect and detailed with care. there can be no ornamentation equal to that which is worked into the material, such as embroidery. the design should be appropriate in form and color and always conventional. flowers are used most fre- quently for embroidery and passementerie and the // ornament in dress simple, single flowers are the most effective, such as the daisy, the wild rose, and the flowers of the lily family. these simple flowers are the best because they radiate from a central point, have strong forms and decided proportions, can be most fully expressed in a few stitches requiring the fewest shades of color, and are admirably adapted for amateur workers. old indian stuffs, jewelry, and enamels are rich in suggestions of conventionalized flowers. the simple, single flowers are repeated constantly, the daisy ap- pearing to be the favorite in these beautiful ornaments. the most beautiful of all conventional flower work, jewel studded, is found in samples of work of the fif- teenth century. they simple suggest the forms of na- ture. the repetition of the same flower in all its as- pects is more pieasing and less tiresome to the eye than a variety of flowers or figures. we find upon analysis that the simple forms are the basis of all decorative art work. geometrical designs and arabesques are the most difficult, requiring the most exacting and careful work. narrow bands, braided, outlined, or chain-stitched in simple designs are effective, easily done, and wear well. braids and any of these stitches may be combined, making durable and effective trimming for sleeves and neck. these simple designs are also appropriate for children's frocks. the french knots are ornamental and dura- ble. all embroidery and passementerie should be rich, close, and continuous. it should not be cut up into flowers as ornament geometrical designs o textiles and clothing poor design, weak connection pieces and sewed on where it does not serve, or appear to serve, a purpose. there is very little passementerie that is at all suit- able for forming edges, as it is not sufficiently substan- tial, but when it can be found firm and of the right shade it is one of the most beautiful ornaments to edge neck and sleeves. it may be allowed to extend beyond passementerie ornament in dress the dress material, so that the flesh tints may show through the design, thus gradually softening the out- line. often a narrow passementerie can be found with one strong edge and a good border can be made by joining the two. this cannot be done where the pat- tern is united by a band running through the center of the ornament. joining narrow passementerie to form a border a band of velvet or cloth embroidered in outline stitch and french knots of same shade as the garment is a satisfactory edge. except for yokes, the knots should always be held together with the outline edge. the rich silk braids and passementeries are made of silk wound or woven over cotton and should be used only on dresses which are not intended for hard wear. such trimmings are, of course, inappropriate on serges and homespuns and soon become shabby if given much rough service. laces, like all trimmings, have defined limits within which they should be used, though they are often worn indiscriminately. machine made laces, often good in bands use of laces textiles and clothing design of lace placing of decorations simplicity and harmony the bow make and design, are now very common, but the best machine-made laces are not cheap in price. handsome lace should be applied rather plainly, as the pattern is often lost in the gathers. fine laces are out of harmony with heavy or coarse materials. when lace is desired for flounces that with running patterns which neither advance nor retreat, except in the folds which may be made, will be found most pleasing. dis- tinct objects, such as baskets, crowns, vases, etc., which suggest weight, are unsuitable patterns for so light a fabric as lace. attention to details is essential in the placing of these decorations, as in the selection or making of them. the worker should take into consideration the shape and size of the bands or pieces of trimming and should note carefully the chief characteristics of the design and above all the junction of leaves, flowers, arabesques, especially in the finishing of the corners of collars and cuffs. those at all skillful with the use of the needle can attain the most beautiful and artistic results if right laws in color and design are adhered to, even by the use of the simplest stitches, for the beauty of dress lies not so much in the richness and variety of material used as upon simplicity and harmony—a fact too often disregarded. perhaps no ornament is more abused than the bow. in order not to appear intrusive, ribbons require the most delicate handling. the only excuse for a ribbon ornament in dress as an ornament is when it makes a pretense of tying. when used as a sash where folds or gathers are con- fined, the tone of the ribbon should, in general, vary scarcely from that of the dress. whatever the ornament used, whether embroidered band, a ribbon, a cord that laces, a diamond pin, or a jeweled buckle, though it may possess great intrinsic value and beauty, it cannot be considered of real worth as an ornament unless it fulfills the most important condition—fitness of place. although the art of dress admits of innumerable variations, like all other arts it is subject to the three rules of beauty—order, proportion and harmony. ornaments are appropriate on the hems or edges of garments where it serves the purpose of strengthen- ing and protecting the parts most worn, and not sim- ply where fancy or fashion dictates. the natural fastenings and fold centers should be along the axis or center of the body. any jewelry, buckle, brooch, or ornament used to fasten, secure, or strengthen these centers or to hold bands of embroid- ery, collar, or folds together should be sufficiently strong to serve the purpose. there must be a reason for position and the purpose of its use must be ap- parent to satisfy the eye. the eye is unconsciously and irresistibly drawn to these natural centers and demands some object there on which to rest—some substance from which the fold emanate—some reason for their detention. if this ornament at the throat or waist fitness of place natural centers ornament in dress ii in fullness; it has no use on a close-fitting, plain waist. no draperies should be invisibly held; supply some ap- parent means of confining the gathers. ornament may be used to emphasize the good lines and proportions of a figure or to conceal the poor ones. breadth across the shoulder and chest are given by proper arrangement of folds, placing of orna- ment, or by merely raising or lowering the line of the armhole. the waist may be made to appear shorter or longer by raising or lowering the girdle, or by changing the lines of the trimming in the waist. the extremely short person will look better if the eye is drawn toward up and down lines rather than cross lines. the very tall person may not wear stripes up and down her skirt, but bands around will appar- ently decrease her height. trimming around or even on the hips emphasizes the size of the large woman. extremely close-fitting skirts, especially those which grow smaller at the bot- tom, make some women look positively deformed. to preserve the lines of the figure there should be unity in dress, correspondence in color, in material, in lines or in ornament between the waist and skirt. this is lacking in the combination of shirt waist and skirt, but even then the neck bow or the belt may sug- gest the color of the skirt. for convenience in sports, and in business, appropriateness to need must come first, and the shirt waist fills a great need of the practical woman, use of ornament unity in dress i textiles and clothing ornament of textiles ln addition to ornament added to garment, the orna- ment in the textile itself must be considered. appropriate textiles may be beautiful in weave, but spoiled by " the design. quite as important as intrinsic beauty is appropriateness of pattern. how often do we see woven on our curtains, carpets, and garment materials fans, bunches of roses tied with ribbons—bows with long, fluttering ends—landscapes, snow scenes, etc. nothing is beautiful out of its place. a fan suggests coolness and grace of motion, but woven in our tex- tiles it gives the same impression as a butterfly mounted on a pin—something perverted, imprisoned, or robbed of its natural use. nothing is or ever can be beauti- ful without use—without harmony. decorations on textiles are not to tell stories. there is a difference between landscape painting and using landscapes as a motive for decorating textiles or pottery. in one case the aim is to annihilate surface by producing the im- pression of distance; in the other, the object is to glor- ify the surface only. advantage for the woman of limited income it is wiser to se- £ lect plain material of good texture and weave. such material is never conspicuous, can be made over, and is always restful and may be interesting. any good textile must impress itself upon the mind by its sug- gestiveness and beauty of color. there is a difference between what may be called artistic and decorative color some women maintain that they cannot wear green, but nearly all can dress becomingly in this color if the shade and texture is selected carefully. the same may be said of other colors for the many variations should be taken into consideration. the average woman in selecting materials for gowns or house furnishings is apt to be influenced too much by details, as she would judge the merits of a fine piece of needlework, hence the value of good, broad color schemes fails to appeal to her. the chenille curtain, perhaps, suits her because it is full of complex decoration. after having determined the prevailing color of a costume, the details should be in harmony, rather than in contrast with it. different tones of one color are more satisfactory than striking contrasts, and even strong patches of light and shade of the same color should be avoided, as well as patches of crude and vivid color. the pleasing contrasts found in nature cease to be happy when attempted in textiles. use few colors, avoid bright shades except in small quantities. all bright colors should be placed near the face, rather than on or near the bottom of skirts or the edge of sleeves. avoid strong contrasts; the brighter the color and the greater the contrast with other colors, the louder and cruder will be the effect. “no color harmony is of a high order unless it involve indescribable tints.” harmony o contrast textiles and clothing with the proper kind of frock a child can indulge in any game without becoming in the least disordered. dresses for little girls may have drawers made of the same material, thus permitting them the same freedom as the boys. the life of the child is play. unfortu- nate is the child whose clothing is too good to play in. of course there should be frocks for gala occasions. children are sensitive to color and receive much inno- cent enjoyment from being prettily dressed. a child may be made unhappy and timid by ugly clothes, but plainness need not mean ugliness. there are many artistic and simple patterns now being put on the mar- ket and many of the ready-made frocks found in the best shops are satisfactory. textiles and clothing ruffled skirts packing away clothing folding garments cared for are far preferable to twice the number of inferior quality and make. skirts of thin material having ruffles around the bot- tom should be hung upside down by loops sewed under the ruffles at the seams. by hanging in the opposite di- rection from which they fall when worn, ruffles regain their freshness. all clothing for the season should be put away in perfect order to be ready for any sudden emergency which may arise. no clothing of any kind should be stored for the season without thorough cleaning and repairing where necessary. garments that are out- grown should be disposed of, instead of packing them away. wool garments should be carefully brushed and hung in the sun to remove and destroy any eggs of moths which may be present. they may be hung in tight cotton bags or packed in tight boxes with all openings posted over as a protection against moths. tailors' boxes which come flat are not expensive and are useful for this. they should be plainly labeled with their contents. to fold, lay all articles on the bed or table and fold on the seams if possible. particular attention should be given to sleeves and collars. coat lapels should be turned to lie flat, collars turned up, and the coat folded directly through the center seam. skirts and coats with bias seams are not improved by hanging as the bias parts are apt to stretch out of shape. cleaning no clothing should be put away for the night, even, without first removing all steel pins, as the least damp- ness may cause rust spots. clothes forms and hangers are so inexpensive that every gown and coat should have its own. skirts should be hung exactly on the form and no part of the band should be allowed to sag. if fancy waists are put in drawers or boxes, they should have the sleeves filled with tissue paper and the collars and bows should be pulled straight. cleaning large garments require the greatest care in hand- ling and in order to be done successfully, they should be sent to the professional cleaner. all stains and spots should be removed as soon as possible. fruit and wine stains may be removed by stretching the fabric over a vessel and pouring boiling water through the cloth from a height of a foot or two. the water must be boiling. ink stains can be taken out of clothing by dipping the cloth in milk, squeezing the blackened milk into one dish and dipping immediately into clear milk until the stain has disappeared. then finish by washing the cloth in warm water and in soapy water to remove the fat in the milk. iron rust may be removed from linen and cotton by using lemon juice and salt. wet the spot with the juice of a lemon, cover with salt and lay in the sun, remove pins hangers fruit and wine stains ink stains iron rust textiles and clothing grease spots lood tains solvents repeating the operation until the stain is removed, then rinse out the lemon and salt thoroughly. this of course cannot be used on colored fabrics, as it fades the color. grease is one of the worst foes to garments and the greatest care is needed to remove such spots from delicate fabrics. if not done at once, the dust and grease together often prove ruinous. when the color and fabric will not be injured by it, warm water and soap is the best agent, otherwise absorbents may be used. french chalk or magnesia powdered, placed upon the spot, and allowed to remain for a time will often absorb the grease effectually. if the first appli- cation is not effective, brush off, and apply again until the spot disappears. where water can be used without injuring the cloth, the chalk or magnesia can be made into a paste and spread over the spot. when dry, brush off with a soft brush. in removing fresh grease spots, blotting paper with a warm iron may often be used effectively. if the heat changes the color of the cloth, the iron should be held above the goods. - blood stains may be removed by making a paste of starch and applying it to the spot. several applica- tions may be necessary. only the best and purest benzine, naphtha, gaso- line, and turpentine should be used for cleaning gar- ments. for removing paints from coarse cloth, pure turpentine is useful, while for silks, velvets and wool- ens, benzine, naptha and gasoline are to be preferred. cleaning the secret of success in the use of any of these cleans- ing agents lies in immersing the garments in large quantities of the liquid. not less than a gallon should be used for a waist and two gallons will do the work far more satisfactorily. an effort should be made to remove all the worst spots before immersing the whole garment. those which have not disappeared should then be marked with white thread, colored thread may leave a mark. it is a good plan to enclose the spot with a line of basting. soak the garment for some time in the liquid, then soap all spots thoroughly and rub gently between the hands until they disappear. finally wash and rinse the garment in clear liquid and hang in the open air until all odor has passed away. soap may be used freely with gasoline with good ef- fect. some professional cleaners use a little of the strongest ammonia in their gasoline tanks. the goods should be shaken well and all folds pulled out straight with the threads of the goods. velveteen, corduroy, and like piled fabrics can be cleaned successfully if not too much worn, but no amount of cleaning will restore the pile that is worn off. if allowed to stand until the impurities have settled and the clear liquid poured into clean bottles, it may be used for a number of times. this should always be done in the open air. chloroform may be used for cleaning the most deli- cate silks, though this is rather expensive. whenever any of these liquids are used to remove spots alone, the spots should be placed upon a soft pad of several thicknesses of old cloth or blotting paper to cleaning garments soap and ammonia with gasoline absorbing pad textiles and clothing cleaning velvet before sending to cleaners absorb the surplus liquid and the spot should be rubbed from the outside towards the center. a hole may be cut in very soft cloth or blotting paper and placed around the spot to absorb the solvent around the stain and prevent the dark ring being formed. the cloth should be rubbed lightly and briskly until it is dry. if the fabric is light colored, a sponge or a soft piece of light cloth should be used, while for dark fabrics, the cloth used for rubbing the spot should also be dark and free from lint. the rubbing should be done light- ly so as not to wear or injure the texture of the fabric. the blotting paper or cloth underneath should be changed frequently until the spot has entirely disap- peared. - velvet hats and bonnets, after all trimming is re- moved, may be cleaned by repeated dippings in benzine or gasoline. the vessel used should be large enough to hold a sufficient quantity of the liquid to completely cover the hat. of course all dust should be carefully brushed off and all folds ripped and loosened before putting the hat into the liquid. the secret of success lies in having the article entirely free from dust and using a large quantity of the benzine or gasoline. before sending out garments to be dyed or cleaned, be sure that they are in good condition. all worn places should be mended carefully and all buttons should be removed. garments that are ripped should have all cut threads pulled out and be free from dust. dust silk fabrics with a piece of clean flannel and woolen material with a brush or broom. repairing repairing fabrics are so much cheaper and so much easier to obtain that patching has almost become one of the lost arts. the twentieth century woman feels that her time is too valuable to be spent in mending the old clothes and that she can better afford to buy new. however that may be, no one disputes the utility of mending. like so many other duties, mending is half done when well begun. a well made garment of good material should not be discarded when slightly worn, for a patch well put in or a neat piece of darning de- tracts in no way from the value of a garment and may even be a work of art. the children's clothes particu- larly should be kept in good order, for they are made uncomfortable by wearing garments that are out of re- pair, to say nothing of the demoralizing effect upon their characters. laundering is the great ally to tears and not only doubles the size of the hole, but pulls the threads apart so that it is impossible to make the mended place neat and smooth, therefore all clothing should be mended before washing. stockings and woven underwear are much worn by the rubbing on the washboard and thin places going into the washing frequently come out as holes, so that it is true economy of effort and time to “run” or darn the thin places before they are worn through. it requires much less time and the garments last longer. economical mending laundering and repairs textiles and clothing boys' trowsers sleeves table cloths lengthening garments it is a good plan, especially in knees of stockings and knitted underwear, to baste a piece of fine net over a worn or broken place and darn over it. (see darn- ing.) thread used for darning should be as near as possible the size of the threads in the garment. darn- ing cotton, linen, wool, and silk of all shades can be bought, so that the problem of matching is no longer a difficult one. in mending the knees of boys’ trousers a round patch should never be used. the seams should be ripped and the piece set in then, if the seams are pressed well, the patch will scarcely be noticeable. when bodices are worn under the arm, rip the seams and set in a new “under arm” piece. a good plan for one whose dresses are apt to wear through quickly is to have the under arm pieces and the adjacent parts of the front made of two thicknesses of the goods; then, as the outside wears through, the edges can be hemmed down or taken into the seam. when table cloths begin to wear in the middle fold or along the edge of the table, a few inches cut off one end and one side of the cloth will change the fold and the place where it falls over the table and give it a new lease of life. if the hem is turned down once and cat stitched, it will resemble the selvage more than a twice turned hem. in repairing or lengthening garments that have be- come too short, much can be done by adding to the bottom of the skirt and sleeves material of different textiles and clothing economy. never attempt cleaning and making over old clothes unless the material is good enough to make it worth while to do the work well. • mending the mending basket is an important adjunct of * mending and should be well supplied with darning cot- ton of all colors and sizes, good english tape, black and white, of different widths, linen tape, bias tape, differ- ent kinds and sizes of needles,—sewing, darning, shoe, carpet, and tape needles. use of for repairing bands and facings, where buttons have * been torn off by wringer or iron, and for strengthen- ing weak places, tape is invaluable. it saves the time required to turn in the edges of the cloth and is less clumsy and bungling. tjse of the mender should use good judgment as to the *# amount of work to be applied to each garment. she should substitute the machine needle whenever possible and not put tiny stitches by hand into half worn gar- ments or in unseen places. ripped tucks and bands can be sewed in a few minutes on the machine. serv- iceable darning can be done on the machine. - before putting away freshly laundered clothes it is a good plan to take out the clothes already in the draw- ers and lay the ones washed last on the bottom. thus all garments will wear alike, each article in its regular turn. test questions the following questions constitute the “written recitation” which the regular members of the a. s. h. e. answer in writing and send in for the correc- tion and comment of the instructor. they are in- tended to emphasize and fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. textiles and clothing part iii read carefully. to make this test of greatest value to ou, write fully from your personal standpoint and experience. ry as many methods given in the text as your time will allow so that you may ask for explanation if the descriptions are not clear to you. methods are many; if you do not agree with these given, suggest better ones. i. (a) what are the requisites for good dress- making? (b) how does dressmaking dif- fer from white sewing in make, finish, and ornamentation? . from your point of view what do you consider a successful garment? . give methods of altering patterns. . give briefly the method of cutting and making from patterns; (a) a shirt waist, with cuff open opposite seam: (b) a woolen skirt, including method of stitching, pressing, and finishing. . how may pressing be done to give the best re- sults? what garments require little or no pressing, and why? . (a) state some of the principles and purposes of ornament. (b) what is your idea of orna- ment applied to garments? (c) give some errors in ornamentation not named in text. textiles and clothing io. ii. i . i . i . i . cut from magazines illustrations showing your idea of good and faulty ornamentation in dress. give reason for your opinion. illustrate in some way, either by picture, draw- ing, embroidery, braid, or stitching, some de- sign appropriate for ornament work on neck or sleeve. where should ornament be placed, and why? (a) give your idea of appropriate design on tex- tiles. (b) the advantage and disadvantage of plain materials. make a color card of silk, wool, paper or raffia showing colors that contrast, (b) colors that harmonize. what colors do you find satisfactory for your own wear, and why? what materials are best suited for infants' gar- ments? (b) what can you say in regard to children's clothing? what is your opinion of the care of clothing? (b) what experience have you had in clean- ing (a) cotton, (b) wool, (c) linen, (d) silk, (e) velvet? do you consider it economy to repair garments? can you suggest better methods than those given in the text? textiles and clothing i . . i . . o. i. . if possible make some garment, shirt waist, skirt, or simple dress while studying this les- son and describe in detail how you went about it, the result, time taken, total cost. tell why you selected the design, the color, the mate- rial. have you found the ready made garments satis- factory in underwear and dresses? tell of some of your failures in dressmaking and give the reasons for your lack of success. what methods, new to you, have you tried in connection with this lesson? what questions have you to ask? can you add any suggestions that would be help- ful to others in this work? wherein have the lessons been of practical value to you? for teachers. draw up an outline for a course in sewing to combine two considerations: (a) adaptability to the child's interests and capaci- ties, (b) orderly sequence in the technical part. note: after completing the answers, sign your full name. supplementary program arranged for class study on textiles and clothing meeting i (study pages – ) primitive methods endeavor to obtain a colonial spinning-wheel in working order, and get some one to operate it. if possible, obtain samples of weaving done on a hand loom. examine a hand-loom if possible. they may be seen at the manufacturers of rag and remade carpets. references: woman's share in primitive culture, mason, chapter iii, the weaver. ($ . , postage c.) colonial days in old new england, by earle. ($ . , postage c.) textile fibres collect an exhibit of raw fibres and fibres in process of manu- facture. send to the u. s. department of agriculture, department of botany, washington, d.c., for small sam- ples; to manufacturers of thread; to friends in manufac- turing towns. test the various fibres by burning. examine under a mi- croscope with a small hand-glass, if greater power cannot be obtained. try warm acid—sulphuric, hydrochloric, or oxalic—on the fibres; let the fibres dry. also try a solu- tion of caustic soda on the fibres. w references: the textile fibres, by matthews. ($ . , postage c.) textile fibres and cotton fibre, pamphlets of the american school of correspondence. ( oc. each, postage c. each.) textiles aawd clothing test some of the samples of wash goods for fastness to wash- ing and light, by washing in warm water and soap (or boiling in the soap and water) and expose to sunlight all day for three or four days. keep a part of each sample for comparison. (select a composite set of answers to the test questions on part i and send to the school, with report on the supple- mental work done and meetings i and ii.) meeting iii (study pages – ) sewing: plain stitches send to manufacturers for samples showing the process of manufacture of pins, needles, etc. demonstrate different ways of making the same stitches; discuss best methods. embroidery show how all the embroidery stitches are made. get up an exhibit of all kinds of embroidery, including oriental, japanese, old samplers, etc. have members make model i, first series. references: home and school sewing, by patton. ($ . , postage c.) school needlework, by hapgood. ($o. , post- age c.) manual of exercise in hand sewing, by blair. ($ . , postage ioc.) topic: educational value of sewing in the public schools. methods. see “a sewing course,”by mary s. woolman, introduction ($ . o, post- age c.), and “the teaching of domestic science in the united states of america,” by alice ravenhill, pages - o, – . ($o. , postage c.) arogram meeting iv (study pages – ) hems, seams, fastenings, darning, patching have all members make models ii, iii, iv, and v. previously assign members to furnish models or examples of all other hems, seams, fastenings, patches, darns, etc., illustrated or described in the text, and as many more as possible. machine sewing get the local sewing machine agent to give a demonstration of the workings of the attachments of the machine. (select models and answers to test questions on part ii and send them to the school, with a report of meetings iii and iv.) meeting v (study pages – ) dressmaking get the local dry-goods or department store to lend different kinds of dress forms. collect patterns from different makers. show how patterns are altered to suit the figure. (see text and “dressmaking up to date.”) as many as possible cut out and begin making a simple shirt- waist or skirt. show finished garment at next meeting, giving accurate account of cost and time spent. references: dressmaking up to date, the butterick co. ($o. , postage c.) sewing and garment drafting, by margaret l. blair. ($ . , postage c.) o textvles aawd clothing meeting vi (study pages – ) construction and ornament in dress; color collect illustrations showing good and faulty ornamentation. procure samples of fabrics showing good and faulty orna- mentation. make a color card showing contrast and harmony of color. (see question .) references: see list on pages and . children's clothing get up an exhibit of simple and satisfactory clothing for children, including color, material, style and make. discuss children's clothes in reference to laundering. care and repair of clothes show examples of successful repairing. try some of the methods of cleaning. (see, also chemistry of the household pages – .) (select answers to test questions on part iii and send them to the school, with report on meetings v and vi.) adulteration of linen, alpaca, o altering sleeve patterns, index cotton goods, home of, nankin, sea island, o upland, cross stitch, cuffs, cutting table, darning, angora wool, aniline dyes, arrow heads, aack stitch, basting, bibliography, to , bleaching, bobbin, boning waist, bow, the, burling, bust form, button holes, large, making, buttons, sewing on, carding, care of clothing, . cassimere twills, , cat stitch, i catch stitch, i chain stitch, i checks, children's clothes, , cleaning, , collars, putting on, . color in dress, colors, mordant, combing, Öo conventional designs, costumes, references, cotton, boles, fibers, on machine, over net decorations, placing, distaff, double cloth, draped waist, drawing tapes, dressmaking, dyeing, home, so dyes, aniline, dyestuffs, natural, o embroidery, as ornament, eyelet, shadow, stitches, extension hem, eyelet embroidery, eyelets, fabrics, list of, – names of, primitive, width of, facing, bias, skirt, fastening the thread, io fastenings, i hems, rolled, herringbone stitch, home dyeing, o hook and eyes, hydroscopic moisture, acquard loom, o oining lace, jute, o knit goods, textiles aawd clothiawg - feather stitch, fibers, cotton, flax, silk, wool, finishes, finishing skirt, seams, waist, finishing, woolens, fitting, , sleeves, waists, flax, fibers, hackling, , flocks, folding garments, french hem, knots, seam, fulling, fur, gathering, i i i, gathers, whipped, gauging, gigging, gingham, grease spots, hand sewing, io. harmony in dress, harness, the, heddle, hemp, o hem stitch, hems, bias, faced, flannel, french, folding, lace, design of, laces, use of, laundering, lengthening garments, linen, - adulteration of, characteristics of, lining, cutting, loading silk, looms, colonial, , , development of, diagram of, fly shuttle, four harness, hand, acquard, o apanese, modern, , navajo, swedish hand, loop stitch, madder bleach, machine darning, sewing, mending, , mitering embroidery, modern methods, mohair, o mordant colors, muslin, nankin cotton, natural dyestuffs, avd.e.x. olona, ornament, embroidery as, fitness of, flowers as, of textiles, ornamental stitches, io , ornamentation, errors in, . outline stitch, i overcasting, i , oversewing, packing clothing, passementerie, patching, patterns, altering, cloth, lengthening, pinning, placing, selection of, testing, use of, picking, piled fabrics, plackets, faced, plaids, plain material, plush, pressing, board, , wet, oz primitive methods, printing, block, machine, warps, ramie, o raw silk, reed, reeling silk, repairing, retting flax, roving, running stitch, io sateen weave, satin, stitch, scouring agents, sea island cotton, o seams, beaded, felled, flannel, french, lapped, slot, serges, seven-gored skirt, sewing, hand, machine, sewing machines, care of, types of, use of, shadow embroidery, sheep, shirt waists, cutting, plan for making, shuttle, silk, artificial, boiling off, fiber, loading, , o production, raw, twilled, silk, wash, silk worm, # o ingeing, skirt, band, ** v goodwin's course in sewing practical instruction in needlework for use in schools and at home by emma e. goodwin t 'book iii,.y.^:^y\ v frank d. beattys & company lafayette street, new york city fig. .— gathering and sewing on ruffle with rolled edge. to gather ruffle with rolled edge.— roll the edge as for sewing on of lace, and take stitches as for oversewing about i inch apart, to the depth of the roll along the edge. sew on the ruffle by taking stitches in the same direction, over each gathering stitch, as in fig. . to set in lace inserting.—baste the inserting very evenly along the edges on the right side of the cloth in the pattern selected. turn to the wrong side and cut the cloth through the middle, between the bastings. turn back with the folded edge in line with the heavy threads woven in the edge of the inserting, as shown in fig. . oversew from the wrong side through the folded edge and the edge of the inserting, taking a stitch through each opening in the mesh of the lace. cut out the overlapping cor- ners of the insert- fig. .—inserting set in, right side. (note: in marking notches, etc., a cross-stitch or a short line of run- ning-stitches will be found to repay the trouble, as it is much easier to put the markings in when cutting out than to measure up the half-made garment to find the correct positions.) cut a strip inches wide and inches long, lengthwise of the cloth, for the binding of the placket. if the petticoat is to be made with flounce, as shown in fig. , cut the upper portion to the line of perforations inches from the bottom of the pattern. if to be made plain, cut the full length of the pattern, which allows inches for hemming, indi- cated by the line of perforations inches from the bottom. cut the flounce crosswise of the cloth, inches deep and yards in width. cut the bias band to finish the top of the flounce, if inches wide and yards long. to make the petticoat.—join the gores of the skirt according to the notches and finish with flat felled seams. close the center back seam to the double perforation (••), which indicates the placket opening, as shown in fig. . fig. .—flounce attached with bias band. flg. .—folding the box-pleat. to fold the box-pleat on right side } front.—measure the length required for the front of the waist. cut off the selvage of the cloth. measure inches from the edge and turn the fold to the wrong side. measure inches from the folded edge and fold and crease on the right side. baste ^ inch tuck along this edge, placing the raw edge of the under fold under the edge of the tuck on the wrong side. place the back with the cen- ter, marked with triple crosses (+++), on a length- wise fold. place the front with the front edge, marked with a line of single perforations, lengthwise of the cloth. in cutting out the right side of the front, place the pattern with the notch in the neck edge, which indicates the center front, exactly in the middle of the box-pleat. for the left side of the front, allow % inches beyond the notch in the neck edge for the hem. place the sleeve, cuff, and neckband, pocket and sleeve facings with the line of four perfora- tions (••••) lengthwise of the cloth. cut two portions for each cuff, for the neckband and for the sleeve facings. mark the notches, the center back at neck and waist, and the center fronts at the neck. fig. .—placing the shirt waist pattern. bottom and apply to the left side of the front in position indicated by the perforations. stitch flat around the edges. fasten care- fully at the corners of the opening. inside. outside. fig. .—facing for shirt waist sleeve. to make the sleeve.—bind the under side of the sleeve opening with the narrow piece for the underlap, sewing it on from the right side and hemming down underneath. sew the upper facing along its shorter side to the opening, with the right side of the facing to the wrong side of the sleeve. fold over to the right side and turn under the edges as indicated in fig. . stitch from the right side around the edges and across below the point at the end of the opening, through both top facing and underlap. close the sleeve with a plain seam, overcasted, or a french felled seam if the material is not too heavy. gather the sleeve at top and bottom according to the perforations. stitch the lower edges of the cuffs, right sides together, with a small seam. turn right side out and baste the seamed edge flat. baste the outside of the cuff to the gathered edge of the sleeve, the middle of the cuff at the seam inside, and the ends even with the edges of the opening. if the cuffs are intended for link buttons, allow the width of the underlap to extend beyond the edge of the cuff. memoranda fifth seriet. no. decen.be> . gfearfjpra (ttnlkg? vituftitt outline of a course in elementary clothing and handwork by ruth penfield sill instructor in household arts, teachers college columbia university technical education bulletin, no. price. cents published by uffartjrra (enllrgf. (enluttthia bntththltrj w«l th street new york gty outline of a course in elementary clothing and handwork this bulletin presents in outline the subject matter included in the course, elementary clothing and handivork, scheduled in the school of practical arts announcement as clothing . it is intended to serve as an outline for students following this course until such time as the course is published in full in book form. content of course: the course includes the following topics: use and care of the sewing machine and its attachments; making of stitches and seams by hand and machine; drafting and adaptation of patterns; cutting, fitting and finishing of undergarments; knitting, crochet- ing and simple embroidery. as planned, the course is not suit- able for use, as a whole, in elementary or secondary schools. the following outline shows that it covers, as far as possible, the entire field of simple hand and machine sewing necessary for an instructor in elementary, secondary, and normal schools, colleges, and y. w. c. a. courses, but the proper application, however, as a whole or in part, to these various institutions is not attempted in the course itself. this application is given in detail in the school of education, in the course household arts education - —theory and practice of teaching household arts. aim of the course: the aim of the course is the acquirement of technical effici- ency in the following particulars: . skill and speed in hand and machine sewing, by practice (a) in the handling of materials (b) in the use of tools, etc. . artistic and economic appreciation of all the problems involved. (a) artistic appreciation by application of the principles of design to spacing and proportion in the orna- mentation of garments. these topics are treated more fully in the course household arts design— household arts ii. technical education bulletin (a) suggested materials: nainsook, berkeley cambric, longcloth. (b) suggested trimmings: embroidery beading, narrow lace edges—torchon, french and german valen- ciennes, cluny. . various methods of making,—determined by (a) pur- pose intended, (b) materials used, (c) time to be spent. . cost. ii. pattern. . adaptation of shirt-waist pattern—teachers college draft used. a c<\> (v? diagram showing corset cover lines. front, (b) ab = " average depth of neck. bc = " or any desired fullness for plait, hem, tucks, etc. cd = line parallel to aa, extending from neck-line to waist-line. ii technical education bulletin problem . making a night-gown from a shirt-waist pattern; set-in sleeve required. much freedom given in choice of design. i. preliminary discussion. . materials and trimmings. (a) suggested materials: nainsook, longcloth, berkeley cambric. (b) suggested trimmings: lace edge, embroidery beading. . various methods of making. . cost. ii. sleeve draft. teachers college draft used. iii. tucking. . planning for tucks. . making: by hand, by machine. iv. cutting. . cut two lengths, each equal to distance from highest point on shoulder to floor plus desired width of hem. . fold pieces lengthwise through center. place shirt-waist pattern as shown in diagram, if gown be gathered back and front. . the amount of fullness desired at neck varies according to fineness of material, personal taste, etc. an average amount is ^"- " on each side of front, and " on each side of back. . average fullness at bottom is l/\ yards. the seams hang straight if front be made a few inches wider than back. . is added at the top of the underarm seam to enlarge arm's eye. seam curved " at waist line. course in elementary clothing and handwork id diagram, showing night-gown gathered front and back, material " wide, cut from a shirt-waist pattern. the fullness may be tucked instead of gathered—in that case, the tucking is done before cutting out. office of indian affairs - u synopsis ОР course in sewing het bror washington government printing office this publication is distributed free only to the officers the united states indian service. persons desiring copii for their personal use may obtain them from the superii tendent of documents, government printing office, was! ington, d. c., for cents. vern contents. page. .................................. 'reface. 'art i. preparation for sewing................. model i. hemming and patching....... ii. basting stitches... iii. seam stitches and finishing stitches iv. common embroidery stitches. v. buttonholing ....... vi. stockenet darn........ vii. plain placket for children's clothes.. viii. matching lace and embroidery.. ix. hemstitching and nitering.... x. french hemming, hemstitching and patching.. xi. patching........ xii. cloth darning.. xiii. seams .... xiv. muslin seams............ xv. the shirt-waist placket... xiv. the dress-skirt placket.. xvii. tucking and ruffling. 'art ii........ outline lessons.... first term..... second term... third term fourth term . fifth term sixth term millinery ........ general suggestions. a ca ... ... synopsis of course in sewing. part i. preparations for sewing. the hands should be perfectly clean. sit with the lower part of the spine against the back of the chair, oth feet upon the floor, the right foot a little forward. the light hould come over the left shoulder so that the right hand may not hade the work. the articles needed should be placed in a bag or basket ready for se. an extra needle should always be threaded for use in basting. never sew without a thimble. it is used to push the needle through he cloth and as a protection to the finger. to measure the thread sit with the left side next to the table. 'ake the spool in the right hand, bring it to the waist line on the left ide, take the end of the thread in the right hand, and unwind until he right shoulder is reached. if the cotton is not too coarse, it hould be broken; coarse linen or silk should be cut slantwise that he end may go easily through the needle. never bite the thread. to thread the needle, hold the end broken from the spool between he thumb and the first finger of the right hand to make a fine point. 'ake the needle between the thumb and first finger of the left hand, est the hands together to steady them and put the thread through he eye of the needle. while drawing the thread through the cloth ; should be held between the middle fingers of the right hand. iolding the thread in the hand soils and moistens it and it also causes erking motions instead of graceful ones. the size of the needle depends upon the material to be sewed. better use too fine than too coarse needles. when the work is passed to the teacher or when putting away nfinished work, the needle should be carefully put into the cloth. the emery should be used when the needle does not go easily hrough the cloth. a knot should be used to begin basting, running, and gathering, nd in stitches where there is to be great strain upon the seam. synopsis of course in sewing. model ii. basting stitches. on this model two basting stitches are taught. they are eac. worked from right to left. material: unbleached sea-island muslin. one piece inches oi warp by on woof. needle no. or , pink cotton no. . begin at corner of material and draw one thread one-fourth inc from selvage edge on warp and one thread one-half inch from rav edge on woof. cut carefully along space where thread was drawn divide this piece into three equal strips inches long warp thread by on woof. the line of sewing that joins two or more pieces of material is seam. basting is commenced with a knot and finished with two stitches, one taken over the other. every basting knot should be large and placed where it can be easily found when removing bastings the even basting stitch: place knot on top of seam one-fourth inch from edge of goods and take each upper and each under stitch about one-fourth of an inch long. finish the line of basting by tak- ing two stitches, one over the other on top of seam and do not cut thread shorter than one inch. the even basting is used where there is likely to be some strain on the basted seam. the uneven basting stitch: place knot on top of seam and take every under stitch one-eighth of an inch long and every upper stitch one-fourth of an inch long. the uneven basting is used where bast- ing is needed to keep the line of sewing straight and to hold the cloth in place while sewing. to remove bastings the thread should be cut every few inches. be careful never to draw a knot through the material. in velvet every alternate stitch should be cut and the thread pulled up with the pile. velvet and velveteen should always be basted with silk. never baste on the line of sewing and never sew through a basting synopsis of course in sewing. swimminvitiam, even yuukillllullos iommi narul virtumutn uneven. - - -- nu dihendino/ vitamiinnit vilnik w imm u nojumi, toll / ) murillonarilor third model ii.-basting stitches. - want it luminiu m / hun mulai mentionin/ wt) inite muri intimo y multh, k un" synopsis of course in sewing. iiiiii۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱ ۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۴ ) آرا / / ۱۱۱۱۱۱۱ ۹ ۰// ) ۰۱//// ۱۹۸۱۱۸۰۷۱۱۱۱۱ / ۱۱ اورری ۱۱» / / model iii.-seam stitches and finishing stitches. wwwiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii back stitch. محححححححححححححححد ممممممممممم two runs and half back. half back running ۱۱ /miritunhimi او۴isinit iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii روووووه تھ مخلل iwww ۱۱۱۴faitun / iwi aiiiii۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱۱riii fnriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii synopsis of course in sewing. anne .. model v. buttonholing. material: indian head bleached muslin, one piece, inches by inches. needle no. or . pink cotton no. . plain buttonhole: no. teaches the cutting and over- casting of a plain buttonhole; no. , the cutting, overcast- ing, and working. for all flat buttons the buttonhole should be cut the diameter of the button. all buttonholes are worked with the buttonhole stitch beginning at the right- hand end on the side toward you, working from right to left and from you. the plain buttonhole is not very strong and should not be used where any strength is re- quired. the stranded buttonhole: cut and strand by running a thread three times around buttonhole, taking a small stitch under each end of but- tonhole each time going around. no. teaches the cutting and stranding and overcasting, and no. the working of the stranded but- tonhole. the stranding strengthens the buttonhole and aids it in holding its shape. the square end is another process of making thestranded buttonhole, as is shown at no. . one end is left square, which is a nice finish for use model v.-buttonholing. on thin dresses. the barred buttonhole: no. shows another process of working the same buttonhole. a bar is run across the square end, which shorts mvi list synopsis of course in sewing. strengthens the stranded buttonhole. the bar is made by taking about three stitches over the end of buttonhole and then loop stitch- ing these threads, catching needle into material under the bar of each stitch. · no. shows the barred buttonhole with a bar on each end, which is the strongest buttonhole made. excellent for use on belts or tight clothing sewing on a button: buttons having four eyes should be sewn on with two straight bars running lengthwise with the buttonhole. model vi. stockinet darn. material: unbleached stockinet, inches square. always darn on right side of stocking, as that will leave the inside smooth and soft. hold the stocking over the left hand while darn- ing. do not use a darning ball, as it is apt to stretch the stocking una u liyin illius iim hut inilam " u ttinoujimitihnutulmuuttinniorit no hamiljuniomiton hiinamithru:n juhimno utza fj ti wilsiuiditum a l'illuslamwaminimo didindarle westy all and whwini uniihi maawwim antolin ni muonnonoom n immapomminisinisinoniminnan model vi.-stockinet darn. and make the hole larger and often changes the shape. the length- wise threads are put in first, then the crosswise threads are put in, by taking one thread over and one thread under the needle. the threads must not be drawn tight. weave short stitches into the cloth about three-eighths of an inch out from the edge of the hole. weave through worn places rather than trim them out. °— -- synopsis of course in sewing. model vii. plain placket for children's clothes. material: long cloth, one piece, inches on woof by inches on warp. needle no. . white cotton no. . hem each side with -inch hem and one end with {-inch hem. from center of other end cut an opening inches down on warp tollitou b u glinlittu model vii.-plain placket for children's clothes. thread. hem left side of opening with an eighth of an inch hem. fold the wide hem over the narrow, and backstitch across bottom of opening twice. all fastenings in women's clothing should be made to lap from right. synopsis of course in sewing. ivnih www. win mt mimi mwenien ihihihi m a lovihannmrudinihinni nimi ) mintiinthinulitan himintunu model ix.-hemstitching and mitering. synopsis of course in sewing. t lakkaitiallau r itifiillette/tiklalisifift& mi་་་་་་་་ ༥ f : m ftwit རས་པ་ནི་ཡིན་ནནན་ཞིག་ནས་《 སྣང་ར་ ན ངཧ་ནམ་ལངས་པར་ »ད་ཉིད་དེ་ཉིད་གདོན་ཉིད་mmmm attainlས་་་་་་་་་་་་་་natitulu ་་་་་་་་། /crt/ iitbatinir ittattatti/ ཅན ཉིjavaiའི༠ནtibm ར་ཤག་ •ཅུ*#ནས་ ...}} lhillmjjj/naitiiu lས་དnyi mb}} }} aaisis/jin}}}aih mis/ipm/ryimmmmmmmishaw bt u }}}b hipplp iiilibrtimila་དilijarat lit / /joilliat ད''''ཎ''ཎ་་༥''ལང་་ །''གསལ''”ཀ ར་ ནན་ བ་དང་ཡིག་པ་དེ་ཆོས་དང་པོ་དང་རྩ་ཆ་དེ་དེང་རབས་རྒྱ་ཆེ་དེ་ཉིད་ invivnt oow »tinipན་་་་n irrxrielativ• m i« ་་་ ་་བ་་་༤་་་་་ཡིས་་་་་ ary ་་་་wwjaultratiol/ wibiblm ussuhimu i ནས་ a &twས་ཀྱ&a ka ད་སt =itsha / % julfilittwitteijer@ihttwhilivitim*wttish divbin+ro jitrumhnimigilifity/ slyfis»inomori willhttvabhiwarwirrorista@tuy bntytivosto»ཚོ ཚ་ ག ནང་ མ ་ /luiritutilsalva l iw i itilisitesistrialsheliahi mjimp us maurit htm u ltuilloit u mulpav•ilipita mjultairi+phy kjijithinois/tai/jijii»jiju$$u/ /yidiiird/ iph model xi.-patching. synopsis of course in sewing. model xii. cloth darning. cloth darning in different cuts and darning to patch is taught on this piece wool cashmere. thite cotton no. material: all wool cashmere. a piece inches on woof and inches on warp. a fine needle and white cotton no. for the darn- ing and blind hemming. blind hemming: fold the hem and baste. (white cotton is used for the hemming on this sample but, in garments, split silk of the same shade would be used.) insert the needle about one-fourth inch into the folded edge of the hem and below the fold, take only a thread of merely a hair of the material, drawing the thread through lightly so as not to show any mark through to the right side. the stitches are straight instead of slanting, as in regular hemming.. . darning a crosswise tear: white cotton is used on this sample in order that the work may show plainly. in darning garments a warp thread of the same material or split silk of the same shade would be used. never use a knot in darning thread. take small stitches straight with warp thread back and forth fully three-fourths of an inch out on either side of tear. where garment is badly worn or frayed the weaving should extend out to cover all weakened parts. . darning a bias tear: run darning thread straight with warp thread, being careful to keep the distance on either side of tear the same. . darning a snag or tear on both warp and woof: darn the warp or lengthwise tear by running stitches straight with woof threads, the woof or crosswise tear by running stitches straight with warp threads. the last darn put in will cross the first darn at the corner. . if the garment is worn thin and badly raveled, a piece of cloth may be placed underneath and the material darned down to the patch. synopsis of course in sewing. model xiii. seams. material: wool flannel, inches on warp and inches on woof. cut a lengthwise strip from center of piece } inches wide. . plain seam: place the two edges together carefully, sew with white cotton no. , about one-fourth inch from edge. open out this seam and catch stitch down each edge. catch stitching is always done from left to right. this kind of a seam may be ornamented with the treble featherstitch as shown here. . the dorothy seam: sew seam on right side of material about one-fourth inch wide. open seam and baste taffeta seam binding or a piece of same material over seam so no raw edges will show. catch stitch down on each side with silk thread. . slot seam: fold and baste an inverted box plait. fasten down with some kind of fancy embroidery stitch to bottom of yoke on waist or skirt. finish end of line of stitching with arrowhead tack. . slot seam finished with catch stitch. . flannel hemming: do not turn under edge of flannel for hem- ming but catch stitch down the raw edge. . this is a cross stitch worked from right to left, holding the material over the left forefinger. uses: it is used to fasten down raw edges in seams, hems, patches, also in putting on bone casings, and to fasten down the edge of inter- lined material such as cuffs, collars, and bottom of waist, which are afterwards faced. the stitches should not be taken through the interlining synopsis of course in sewing. model xiv. muslin seams. material: long cloth or bleached muslin, strips, inches on woof thread and inches on warp thread. and . french seams: place the two pieces of material together with right sides out, sew as near the raw edge as possible. trim off all frayed edges, turn the material wrong side out, crease the seam even and sew a seam wide enough to cover the raw edges. in muslin undergarments or any heavy material this seam should be one- fourth inch. on thin material one-eighth inch. and . felled seam: put two edges together, the one farthest from you one-fourth inch above the other, then sew one-fourth inch below lower edge. fold down upper edge of seam one-fourth inch over the lower edge, open out material, crease down the seam and stitch as close to edge as possible. . welt seam: baste seam on wrong side and stitch. fold both edges of seam back the same way and stitch on right side of material as near the edge as desired. this seam is generally used in tailored skirts and coats. it may be finished with two or more lines of stitching on right side of garment or it may be finished with only one line of stitching altogether. baste the seam carefully, fold back both edges together, stitch on right side and then draw out bastings. . welt seams forming a plait: sew the same as last method given under , only stitching down to yoke length on skirt. for a plaited skirt the seam should be at least inches wide. after stitching yoke length at the top of the skirt, trim the seam off within one-fourth inch of stitching, slope it out to inches wide at bot- tom of line of stitching. stitch these two seams one-fourth inch from edge, beginning inches above the end of the line of stitching on yoke. remove the bastings, and press. this piece is done on the sewing machine, and with this instruc- tion will be given in the proper care of the machine, line stitching and gauging. - ---- - -. - ts ^v textiles the macmillan company new york • boston • chicago - dallas atlanta • san francisco macmillan & co., limited london - bombay - calcutta melbourne the macmillan co. of canada, ltd. toronto v textiles a handbook for the student and the consumer by mary schenck woolman, b.s. president of the women's educational and industrial union, boston, acting head of the department of household economics, simmons college, recently professor of domestic art in teachers college and ellen beers mcgowan, b.s. instructor in household arts in teachers college columbia university neto gorfe the macmillan company all rights reserved copyright, , by the macmillan company. set up and electrotyped. published october, . reprinted april, july, ; january, . storhjoao $)regg j. s. cashing co. —berwick & smith co. norwood, mass., u.s.a. preface this book is the result of twenty years' experience in teach- ing textiles to college students. it is intended as a textbook for college classes or for study clubs and as a guide for the housekeeper or individual consumer of textiles and clothing, the teacher, the club woman, the saleswoman, and as an intro- ductory survey of the subject for the student who contemplates professional work in the textile industries. the growing emphasis upon textile study in college depart- ments of home economics or household arts, and the increasing use of the textile industry as teaching material in other depart- ments and other grades of schools, shows a recognition of the part that the textiles are playing in the development of civiliza- tion and in our everyday life. interest in the subject is still further accentuated by the movements now on foot to regulate the social-economic conditions in the textile and clothing indus- tries and to secure standardization and honest labeling of textile products, as is being done for food products by the "pure food laws." to meet the existing need the authors have attempted to prepare a text suitable for use in college classes or by the pub- lic, shorter and more readable than the technical handbooks, yet sufficiently thorough and comprehensive to give a sound grasp of the subject as a whole with so much of the tech- nology as is directly helpful to the consumer and as should be included in general courses in colleges and technical or vocational schools. this has been a difficult task and could scarcely have been brought to a successful conclusion without the cooperation of vi preface the experts who have guided the authors, read the manuscript, and suggested ways of dealing with certain intricate and chang- ing processes so as to make the book scientifically and tech- nically accurate while non-technical in form. with full appreciation of the time this service has taken in the busy lives of the experts, the authors express a debt of gratitude to mr. william b. sleeper, mr. james chittick, mr. theodor quasebart, mr. gordon donald, mr. franklin w. d'olier, mr. george f. smith, and professor h. t. vulte of columbia university, who have read the technical chapters of the book, and to dr. susan b. kingsbury and dr. benjamin r. andrews, who have read the social-economic parts. they also wish to thank the manufacturers who have allowed the use of photographs and cuts of machines and also the authors and publishers who were willing to allow the reproduction of pic- tures from their printed works. june , . table of contents chapter i beginning of the textile industries page primitive conditions. era of hunting and fishing. pastoral age. agricultural life. the household system. the industrial revolution chapter ii spinning spinning by hand. spinning by wheels. the great wheel — parts — motion—method of spinning. the flax or saxony wheel — parts — motion — method of spinning. hand and machine carding. modern spinning machines — development. mule spinning. ring spinning chapter iii hand weaving what weaving is. principles underlying weaving. primitive looms. the hand loom — parts—-working. winding, reel- ing, warping, and drawing-in. taking off the finished warp. tapestry looms chapter iv power weaving the transition to power weaving. the power loom — parts — the jacquard loom. attachments affecting the shedding or picking. lappet weaving. swivel weaving. leno or gauze weaving. pile fabrics. stitched, backed, double-faced, double and multiple cloths. design, pattern, draft, and draw- ing-in. plain and twill weaves. satins or figured weaves. knitting vii viii contents chapter v woolen and worsted —raw materials page scope of the industry. value. nature. desirable qualities. con- ditions affecting wool. properties—hygroscopicity — heat conduction — evaporation — felting or shrinking — tensile strength— elasticity— electricity. wool or hair-bearing ani- mals. the domestic clip. growth and care of the sheep. marketing of wool. the wool supply. wastes and substitutes chapter vi woolen and worsted —manufacture woolen and worsted spinning. processes common to woolens and worsteds. explanation of processes. sorting — the feed — dusting— scouring— raw stock dyeing — drying — blend- ing— oiling—burr extracting — picking, teasing, opening, willowing, and the fearnaught. drawing and doubling. mule spinning. worsted yarn—carding— back washing—^pre- paring gilling — combing — finishing gilling — drawing and doubling — spinning. counts or sizes of yarn. weaving and sizing. finishing. inspection or perching. burling and mend- ing. washing and drying. fulling, milling, felting or shrink- ing. flocks. napping, gigging, or raising. shearing, cutting. general finishes. final pressing. special finishes. other uses of wool and worsted yarns. rugs and carpets. wastes and by-products. countries manufacturing. cutting-up trade. chapter vii cotton economic and commercial conditions. properties. botany and growth. planting and picking. cotton ginning. baling. the industry in the united states. classification. by-products and wastes. judging and testing. marketing. cotton spin- ning. representative processes — principles underlying cotton spinning — the bale breaker— breaker picker — carding — contents ix combing — drawing — slubbing— spinning. cotton yarns. bleaching. mercerizing. dyeing. sizing. counts or num- bering. winding, spooling, warping, and drawing-in. weav- ing. finishing cotton cloth. absorbent cotton. cotton printing. cotton manufacture chapter viii silk economic conditions. properties. life history. countries culti- vating. european silks. silk in the united states. classifica- tion of raw silk. silk reeling. conditioning. silk throwing. doubling and twisting. dyeing and attendant processes. further processes. winding after dyeing. weaving. finish- ing. silk manufacture. spun silk. market terms. counts for reeled and thrown silk. counts for spun silk. abuses . chapter ix linen and minor fibers introduction. properties. botany and growth. rippling. the seeds. retting. breaking. scutching. line spinning. ma- chine hackling. sorting and cutting. spreadboard. drawing and roving. spinning. tow spinning. winding, warping, sizing, and drawing-in. weaving. method of counting. finishing. bleaching. dressings. beetling. statistics. addi- tional kibers—- ramie— pina — jute — hemp— banana—sisal hemp — coir chapter x consumer's judgment of textiles testing materials. wearing quality, the burning test, and tear- ing test. content, quality, and strength of yarn. standard weight. finish and weighting. color changes. differentia- tion tests. standardizing textiles. analysis of cloth. addi- tional considerations x contents chapter xi microscopic study of textile fibers pagk parts of the compound microscope. directions for use. prepara- tion of the mount. wool and hair fibers. regenerated wool. silk. artificial silk. linen. cotton. mercerized cotton. other vegetable fibers. microscopic analysis of fabrics . chapter xii chemical study of textile fibers classification of textile fibers. ultimate composition. action of acids and alkalies. qualitative and quantitative differentia- tion tests. mercerization — nature of process — test for. unshrinkable wool. fireproofing of cotton. artificial silks. dressing and weighting — cotton and linen — silk — quanti- tative estimation . . . chapter xiii dyeing of textile fibers preparatory processes — scouring and bleaching. nature of the dyeing process. commercial methods. necessary equipment for dyeing. general directions. mixing, blending, and top- ping. classification of dyes. study and use of acid, basic, substantive, sulphur, and adjective or mordant dyes. dyeing in the household. list of selected dyes. dyes in oriental rugs chapter xiv laundry notes introduction. nature of the wool fiber—felting. action of the acids and alkalies of the household. bluings. fastness of dyes. methods of fixing colors. bleaching agents. re- moval of stains contents xi chapter xv hygiene of clothing page the hygienic importance of clothing. clothing in relation to body heat. clothing in relation to absorption. clothing and cleanliness. an unrestricted body. dangers in textiles . chapter xvi some economic and social aspects introduction. the need of an economics of consumption. con- sumer's influence upon the manufacturer. economic signifi- cance of dress. economy in clothes. dress as an ethical influence. practical investigations. labels and guarantees. shopping. making clothing at home. care of clothing. social economics ... chapter xvii clothing budgets the family budget. apportionments for clothing. typical budg- ets. clothing budget for a family on an $ income. child welfare budgets. budgets of students in a trade school for girls. budget for a business girl — for a college girl—for a professional or business woman— for two children . bibliography glossary index textiles: a handbook for the student and the consumer chapter i beginning of the textile industry the building up of the textile industries has been one of the greatest factors in civilization. the object of this chapter is to present the principles of textile manufacture as they existed in their simplest form, before they were obscured by the elaborate parts and adjustments of modern machinery. modern woman owes a debt to primitive woman, for until machinery was in- vented she held, in truth, the textile industries in her hand. she was the original inventor and workman. in the earliest times she bent her whole mind to improving the conditions imme- diately around her. her work had to do with shelter, clothing, food, and the growing of simple things. she had to gather as well as to manufacture. if she could not find what she wanted, she tried something else, using everything around her which her strong fingers, her sharp teeth, or her rude tools could render available. primitive conditions. — to consider the development of in- dustry in primitive communities is the best way to understand the reasons for some of the present industrial, social, and eco- nomic conditions. the need of food, clothing, and shelter caused the early inhabitants of the earth to use the materials spread about them by nature to supply their wants. they were at a great disadvantage in their struggle, for they had not the strength of the animals, nor had they weapons for defense b i textiles or for obtaining food. they had to fight with nature for life itself, but the results show that they were able to think and act, for they made progress toward control of their environment, and their labors and inventions made the modern world. the sharp stones at their feet were fastened to handles of wood or bone by the aid of rushes or strips of skin, and used for weapons. branches of trees were interlaced to form carriers, to cover the wet or rough floors of rocky caves, to make a shelter above the entrance, or a defense outside of it. the skins of slain animals were used for many purposes, being laid on top of interwoven branches to form a shelter, thrown on the floor, worn upon the body, or dried, cut into strips by sharp stones, and used for binders and for decorations. thorns, bones, and twigs served for pins or fasteners of the rude skin cloaks. sinews, rushes, barks, grasses, reeds, quills, rawhide, and vines were useful for twines, ropes, and handles. birds' nests, spiders' webs, and other animal industries offered suggestions for using nature's materials at hand. the gourds, the covering of some varieties of palm buds, the cocoanut, and the barks of cedar and other trees were ready for immediate use. adaptations and changes were made, which opened the way to greater inventions. mats for various purposes were made at an early period by tying, twining, twisting, knotting, and interlacing grasses, rushes, twigs, sinews, strips of skin, and fibers of plants when soft material was needed, or split canes, vines, willow, and other branches when rigid forms were desired. two kinds of materials were often combined in such articles as carriers or baskets. nets for fishing or for carrying burdens, and traps for catching fish or game, were made in a similar way. crude attempts at decoration show the birth of design and the instinct for beauty. mats were woven showing variations of color in design from the turning over of rushes. fringes of rushes, grasses, and shells were common, and later were used for clothing. a network of knotted grasses added to the attraction as well as to the comfort of the garment. such grass garments are still worn in the east. beginning of the textile industry the skins of animals were worn with the fur inside to make them comfortable. the felting of the wool of sheep as it touched the body led the way to the making of felt for clothing. the dried skin was later tanned to lessen its roughness. in some warm countries the soft, juicy inner bark of special trees was pounded into a flexible mass, soaked in water to ferment, and beaten again with mallets and rollers carved to give special effects. patterns were made on these bark clothes in various ways, leaves and flowers wet with dye being sometimes laid on and pressed down. bark material is still made. it is sup- posed to have been a forerunner of felted cloth. the cloth was beaten into large sheets, one being welded to the other, and was varnished with oil to render it waterproof. basketry was at first very simple, being made with splints, but it soon developed patterns in diagonals and diapers. the alternation of rigid with pliable materials gave a wide scope for design, and the twined and sewed basketry of some primi- tive people was an art (fig. ). basketry and weaving have much in common, and im- provements in one helped the other. pottery soon devel- oped, probably from the habit of lining baskets with clay in order to hold water. some of the most primitive pottery flc ,._wickerwowc basket. shows the form of the weav- ing of the basket on the clay. (see fig. .) the men were occupied in food getting, in fishing, hunting, and in war, while the women were working at the camp. the discovery of the use of fire tended toward further division of man's and woman's work, for she was the caretaker of the textiles fig. . — wattling. children, and naturally stayed by the fire. as the early people were wanderers, they needed carriers for transporting their young children and their household goods, and mats and baskets served many useful purposes in the life on the march, as well as in the tree, cave, or shelter homes. inventions were adapted to numerous purposes; for example, a method of holding rigid material by softer fibers twined about it, now called wattling (fig. ), was used for shelters by fastening several heavy sticks together in a point, with their loose ends stuck into the earth, laying grass and rushes on top, and holding down this cover- ing by laying sticks at intervals across the grass and rushes, and tying them down by intertwining pliable material around the sticks; for defenses, by holding together the great stakes used for stockades around primitive huts; for early weaving of soft materials, or for very coarse basketry, as well as the fine basket weaving of the pacific coast of the united states. wattling is really a form of weaving. such a principle once grasped by these awakening minds became a means of development as the environment offered new materials for use, and the many needs gave an impetus. the earliest beginning of the race has well been called the "age of fear," for man was afraid of his fellow, afraid of the animals, and afraid of nature. the individual was at first suffi- cient unto himself; there was little interdependence among the members of families. as family life increased, there arose a tendency to form into small groups. by degrees they entered into alliances with other nomads, thereby increasing their safety and bringing knowledge of new methods of fishing, hunt- ing, and living. these social interrelations tended to decrease fear and to develop industries, for some families had made more progress in the crafts than others, and added comfort and beauty beginning of the textile industry were found to come through new devices. gradually those who excelled in textile work began to attain prominence, as did the great warrior or the great hunter. era of hunting and fishing. —during this time many crafts originated and devices to assist labor were invented. work in metal had begun and was used to improve the textile tools. although women did some planting, the homes were moved too fig. . — a primitive type of loom. frequently for the maintenance of a settled agriculture. there was little trade between people, and little providence for the future in storing food or in making covering, for all extras im- peded travel. during this wandering life the important industries passed their simplest form. weaving was now done on looms, which were nothing more than two heavy sticks between which rushes were stretched so that the latter were held taut, while the weaver wove other rushes across these threads (fig. ). the value textiles of fibers taken from the plants and the coats of animals had been discovered, and crude forms of spindles and distaffs aided in the spinning of yarn. at first, hair, hemp, leaf fibers, strips of fur and sinews were in use, but when it was found that short fibers, such as wool and cotton, could be prepared and twisted continuously around each other, a great step was taken toward weaving (fig. ). the first woven ar- ticles were more for floor or house cover- ing than for cloth- ing. the advantage of the softer mate- rials for carriers and coverings was soon felt, consequently softer fibers were in demand. coarse handlike wood con- trivances (see fig. ) aided in the opening (carding) of the wool or other fibers, so that they could be twisted more easily into yarn. weaving which com- bined pattern with color gave results of interest and even beauty, increased by knowledge of dyeing, staining, and painting by the use of crushed berries and roots. climate, of necessity, had its effect. tropical regions gave fine, soft fibers which made ex- quisite weaving possible, while cold countries offered skins and coats of animals to be used for similar purposes. the ease of life in the tropics tended to idleness, but colder climates made it necessary to struggle continually to obtain the necessaries of life. it is in temperate parts that we must look for the greatest industrial inventions and improvement in living. fig. - plain weaving. beginning of the textile industry some form of sewing was used in various developing indus- tries, as in basketry. the thorns and bones used for fastening were now made into needles, with an eye to hold the twisted yarn. the bone needle, stiletto, and awl were treasured uten- sils (fig. ). the increasing knowledge of animals and of means of trap- ping them led to domestication of the less savage species. fig. . — primitive implements. a, b, needles; c, bone awl; d, needle pointed at both ends; e, wooden spool; /, net- ting mesh; g, weaving band; h, shuttle-like piece of wood; i, netting or weaving instrument; j, k, i, spindles. the effect of the keeping of such domestic animals on problems of food, shelter, and clothing was very great. more permanent homes were established for the women, children, and the less able, while the strong men went out with the flocks and herds, returning at intervals. a pastoral life took the place of the wild and uncertain life of the chase. care of animals developed a different and less savage temper. warlike instincts were less constant. peace between neighboring families increased, textiles and ceremonies showing the pact between them were held around mounds of stone, which became the center of life and govern- ment. the navajo indians are present examples of this pastoral life. they settle on land good for grazing, their property being chiefly flocks of sheep and goats, and herds of horses. the flocks give them food, and wool for their rugs, blankets, and lariats. they do some planting, but are not agriculturists. during the pastoral age the industries developed rapidly in spite of the semi-nomadic life. the more stationary home life gave an incentive to the making of rugs, hangings, and clothing, which were often rich and beautiful. the uniting of many families under one leader stimulated the desire to excel, and specialization in some particular textile craft was not uncom- mon. the wish for social approval led to the adornment of the person, and clothing became more decorative in character. it had been adopted originally to show prowess or to frighten enemies, by displaying the skins of animals slain by the wearer, or by strings of teeth or scalps worn around the body. this custom led to the use of cloth for ornament. a feeling of shame for not wearing clothes came only after dress had become cus- tomary. hats, which at first were inverted baskets, were now made especially for the head covering. the demand for material made from spun wool or cotton increased with the demand for clothing. dress now became a means not only of comfort or of decoration, but to show the distinction of sex or of classes. among the navajo indians the chief's blanket has its special design and colors, and the dress of the young unmarried women is different from that of the married ones. special costume was used for the medicine men and warriors, and for ceremonials. the use of dress for social distinction has always characterized developing people. the middle ages perhaps saw its height, but although moderated, it is still a part of modern civilization, though now more practiced by women than by men. the de- mand for fabrics of rare design gave great impetus to the art beginning of the textile industry of weaving (fig. ). tribes began to look to each other for exchange of products, and so tended to assume more peaceful relations. by the close of the pastoral and the beginning of the agri- cultural era, many textile industries had passed their primitive fig. . — pueblo woman weaving. from watson's textiles and clothing, by courtesy of the american school of home economics. stages. devices and even rude machinery to assist the hand were common. beauty of design and skillful handling are evi- dent from examples preserved in the museums. the most common of the textile crafts in use were: — braiding and looping. tying, wattling, and thatching. netting for fish nets, carriers, and clothing. weaving for shelters, mats, rugs, hangings, and garments. basketry, both woven and sewed, made into carriers, hats, traps, and house- hold articles. knitting and crocheting. carding and spinning. reeling. needlework in sewing, embroidery, applique, repairing, box making, and clothing. lace making, by sewing, weaving, and knitting. skin drying and curing. dyeing and staining. decoration in bead work, stenciling, block printing, and picture writing. felting and beating. making tools for use in the various crafts. loom building. textiles agricultural life. — the time when agriculture became the chief occupation marked an important stage in industrial life. the childhood of the race had passed, but was recalled in its emotional and recreational life. the people now lived in per- manent homes and life had become duller on account of its round of constantly repeated occupations. festivals, dra- matic representations, folk tales, dances, songs, and religious ceremonies were instituted. events in the former primitive life and the all-important industrial processes, such as spinning and weaving, became motives for these performances. incantations and charms were used to assist young girls in learning to weave. interest was taken in cultivating textile plants, such as flax and cotton. sheep were raised in order to provide wool for spinning. private ownership and a sedentary life increased the demand for household goods. two classes of textile indus- tries began to be developed, the extractive and the productive. the people gathered together in groups, moved by the impulse toward sociability and the need for mutual help. new social and political relations arose between them, which required the establishment of forms of government. slaves taken in the frequent wars were made to perform domestic services, hence a new class of industrial worker was available, who did not belong in the home and was considered inferior. a feeling of caste was more apparent, and dress was used to indicate varying conditions of life. the people built their own homes and pro- vided for their wants with occasional help from neighbors. the exchange of a few commodities was the only business re- lation. industrial towns developed as trade centers, and addi- tional workers had to be employed in the home workrooms to increase the output. the women were factors in this indus- trial change, for spinning, weaving, and bleaching were still home occupations. the household system. — entire families soon began to devote themselves to special industries in order to sell to others or to exchange, and many households became economic centers. beginning of the textile industry ii this era was in progress in bible times. in proverbs , the mother of king lemuel speaks of the work of women in the households as comprising both home use and sale: — "she seeketh wool and flax and worketh willingly with her hands." "she perceiveth that her merchandise is good." "she layeth her hands to the spindle and her hands hold the distaff." "she is not afraid of the snow for her household, for all her household are clothed in double garments." "she maketh fine linen and selleth it and delivereth fine girdles unto the merchant." the employer and helpers worked together in the home fac- tories, each owning his own tools. apprentices learned the whole process and were therefore fair judges of the output as well as workers on it. great fairs occurred at intervals at which the industrial products of the household were sold out- right or exchanged for farm products. trade difficulties soon made a middleman necessary to collect the goods, sell, and exchange. the demand for bedding, for blankets, heavy serge curtains, flannels, household linens, and homespun materials increased the number of textile workrooms where both men and women worked together. wherever industries were nu- merous, great towns began to develop. it was customary for workers to gather around the home of some influential man, giving their services in return for his protection, but the downfall of the feudal system at the end of the fifteenth century cast them adrift and they increased the number of those working in the commerce or industry of the towns. markets were opened for selling goods, and guilds for both the mer- chant and the craft worker were organized to help standardize the work, to better conditions, and to give good goods at honest prices. the textile guilds became very influential and did much to organize trade and to train the workers. how- ever, the passing away of the guild system in the seventeenth century deprived the workers of a central body which was re- sponsible for the coordination of capital and labor, and which textiles understood the relation of laborers to each other. there was not at the time any clearly defined division between the capital- ists and the working classes, and much of the textile work was still done in the home workroom. america was colonized about the time of the decline of the guilds, and its industrial life was characteristic of this era of home workshops. the life of the colonists was on the farm. each home was a self-sufficient unit, and consequently a center of varied occupations. the mother directed the work of her daughters and also paid for such additional help as she could obtain from the neighborhood. the farm occupations were numerous and were in the stage in which homemade machinery and devices were used by the worker. the textile activities fig. . — flax hetchel. in each colonial household were principally carried on by the women. they consisted of carding of wool; breaking, hetchel- ing, and swingling of flax; wool and flax spinning; winding, reeling, and warping; the weaving of cloth, blankets, and rag carpets; the bleaching of cloth and yarns; sewing; quilting; dress and garment making; embroidery and lace making. the devices and machines used for this work were the cards, hetchels (fig. ), flax breaks, the great or wool wheel, the flax wheel, winders, reels (clock and hand), niddy noddy, quill winder, swifts (fig. ), warping bars or warping drum, skarne, bobbin frame or creel (fig. ), bobbins of many kinds, healds and shafts, the raddle, and the loom. the fathers and sons assisted in the textile work by growing and preparing the fibers and making the machinery and tools. some small factories run by water power were established in the late eighteenth century. beginning of the textile industry the industrial revolution. — the inventions of hargreaves, arkwright, crompton, and cartwright brought the modern factory system and with it a new industrial era. power was now needed to move the spinning frames and looms. horse and water power were soon succeeded by steam. the markets were extended, for this same steam power made transportation fig. .—-. , swift; b, clock reel; c, quill or plug winder; d, niddy noddy. easier. an impetus toward increasing the output came as a result of the possibility of selling outside of the environment. workers of both sexes turned toward the textile factories, for the expense of power had driven the work out of the home work- shops into especially constructed and equipped buildings. the isolated workers could not compete with the machines. capital for the industries was provided by men of means who, unlike the heads of the domestic workrooms, were not of necessity tex- tile workers themselves. they controlled the situation, but textiles often knew little of the condition of workers. questions of the division of profit between capital and labor began to cause irritation. competition arose between factories and the sub- fig. . —bobbin frame. from hooper's hand-loom weaving, by courtesy of john hogg, london. division of industry followed as a means of increasing the out- put through rapidity of work. the worker, therefore, soon lost his individuality and likewise his interest in the perfection of the product. the capitalist increased in wealth, but low wages and poor living were prevalent among the lower class of workers. a powerful mercantile class began to have voice in national beginning of the textile industry affairs. the economic situation became acute, but gradually from it there developed a new social conscience in all classes, and laws were enacted which aimed to improve working condi- tions, to limit working hours, to regulate the work of women and children, to prevent industrial accidents or to compensate for them, to improve housing conditions and the sanitation of work- rooms. leagues and societies of workers and employers were organized and are still at work adjusting these conditions. the industrial revolution is responsible for bringing about great changes for women; for as their home workrooms were taken away and the manufacture of textiles was conducted elsewhere, the women were no longer important economic pro- ducers. with this change their knowledge and ability to judge of the content and value of materials passed also. those who had to labor became part of the huge subdivided activities in the factories and knew only the small part on which they worked. those who remained at home were entirely removed from participation in the work of making cloth or even knowl- edge of the methods. the desire for cheap yet pretentious fabrics and the cost and difficulties in manufacturing reliable ones have brought into the market a large supply of untrust- worthy and often adulterated materials to satisfy the demand. chapter h spinning carding and spinning by hand. — spinning is the twisting of a succession of fibers into a continuous cord, rope, or yarn. it was one of the earliest industries of the human race, and the necessary opening of the fibers, which were often matted and rough, to make them twist more smoothly, was the beginning of carding. it is supposed that both processes began about the same time. the need of some form of binding twine, and later of mats and shelters, led to the use of rushes, strips of skin, the hair and sinews of animals, the bark of trees, the fibers of the agave and of other plants. these fibers were limited in length, and had to be knotted or twisted together to serve the purpose required. they were not spun. it was later discovered that some fibers lent themselves to continuous twist- ing. wool spinning may have been the earliest, for wool was accessible and easily twisted on account of its natural oil and crimp. flax (linen), though difficult to prepare, was in use even before the age of metals, for the yarn has been found in hanks and also in cloth in the ruins of early dwellings now covered with the mud of some of the swiss lakes. pictures on egyptian tombs show the processes of flax preparation as conducted there at an early age. cotton was used in india, and the laws of manu, iooo b.c., give regulations concerning its manufacture, seriously objecting to the heavy sizing of the yarn, showing that spinning was an old industry at that time. in south america at a very early period cotton was spun into fine yarns and woven into cloths of great beauty. silk, too, was taken from the cocoons, slightly twisted, and woven into cloth in china and japan at the dawn of their history. spinning early spinning was done by the fingers alone, the fibers being held in the left hand and twisted with the right (fig. ). it fig.. . —spinning with distaff and spindle. from hooper's hand-loom weaving, by courtesy of john hogg, london. is a very simple process. even a little twist greatly strengthens the fibers. the spinner drew from prepared (carded) fibers, c textiles such as cotton or wool, a number of parallel threads and twisted them as they came, making a continuous piece. it took a little practice to make a firm, even yarn. as the fibers thus spun untwist very quickly unless held by some artificial means, the discoverer probably wound the product on a stick, later fastening the end of the yarn in a natural or manufactured cleft, or holding it by a half hitch around the stick. it was seen that if the stick or spindle on which the spun fiber was wound and caught slipped from the hand while the spinner was twisting in another length, it would revolve rapidly in the other direc- tion and untwist the length of yarn. experiment would show that by giving the spindle a sharp twirl as it descended, carry- ing the length of yarn, a twist might be put in during the time the revolutions continued. a spindle on which a quantity of spun yarn was wound would be found to revolve more smoothly and draw out the fibers better than one which had no yarn on it; this suggested the placing of a weight on the spindle. a lump of mud or clay, a stone or a piece of wood were early added to the spindle to assist the revolutions. it also kept the yarn from slipping off the spindle. such weights, called whorls (see fig. , j.), were often molded, carved, or painted attrac- tively. good spinning required careful carding of the fibers. some means other than the hand of holding these opened-up fibers was necessary in order to keep them in good condition. at first a simple stick was used, at one end of which the carded mass was placed, lightly tied around with a piece of yarn to keep it smooth. this stick was called the distaff. it was held under the left arm or in the belt, or it was thrust into the ground beside the spinner. in germany it was called the rock (fig. ), and was placed on a block to hold it erect, while the spinner stood or sat near by. in parts of the continent spin- ning with the distaff and spindle can still be seen. the spinner draws out a number of fibers from the under side of the carded material next to the distaff, twists them, and fastens them to the spinning fig. . — rock. end of the spindle. with the right hand she gives a sharp twist to the spindle; in the meanwhile, she continues to draw out a number of fibers with her left hand to supply the descending spindle. when the spindle reaches the ground, she picks it up, winds on it the length of thread just spun, and catches the end in the cleft (fig. ). spindles were made of wood, bone, and metal. they were usually from ten to twelve inches in length, while the distaff was from twelve to thirty-six inches in length. spinning is found among all primitive people, and although it differs in method, the underlying prin- ciples are the same, i.e., draw- ing out the fibers, twisting them, and winding them up. rope making was similar to spinning. the worker held the raw material, such as hemp or flax, in the hand or apron, and after attaching some of the fibers to a revolving device, walked backward, letting out the material. it was thus drawn and twisted. the required length of rope was made by extending the twisting for a hundred or more feet and then returning, to allow it to be wound. the single ropes thus made were united in threes, making a heavier rope. ropewalks across fields are still found in europe. in india we find a method of spin- ning the finest grades of cotton yarn by re- volving a thin piece of bamboo in a cup of cocoanut shell. the fineness of the yarn to be used for dacca muslin has never been surpassed by machin- ery. a simple method of spinning coarse yarn for hammocks fig. . — hand in action. spinning or twine was found in new guinea. the worker laid a bundle of fibers on the left knee, pulled some threads from it with the right hand, twisted them, and rolled them into a ball on the right knee. another method of spinning was to tie fibers to a stone and revolve the stone. the navajo indian women of new mexico and arizona have for a spindle a slender stick of wood with a circular disk or whorl at the end of it. the woman sits on the ground with her slivers of carded wool beside her, holds the spindle with her right hand, and puts the point of the spindle on the ground with the whorl just above it. she lays the long end of the spindle against her knee, attaches the end of a sliver close to the disk, holds it out and draws it away so that it grows thinner and is twisted as she twirls the spindle. when a length of yarn is sufficiently attenuated and spun, she winds it on the spindle. this process is repeated until the spindle is full (fig. ). the first yarn spun is soft and only slightly twisted, consequently the process is repeated several times until it is strong enough, especially for the warp threads. spinning by wheels. — between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries spinning wheels began to take the place of the distaff and spindle. the latter method had supplied the yarn from the dawn of history until the middle ages. fab- rics in museums testify to the skill, patience, and instinct for beauty in the women of the past. the process was, how- ever, so slow that a more rapid method was nec- essary to increase the flg ._the ghaeka wheel. supply of yarn. india at a very early period invented a method of spinning by attaching a wheel to the spindle by means of a band, causing the latter to rotate. it was called the gharka or teakwood wheel (fig. ). textiles the spinner sat on the ground beside the wheel and supplied the spindle with raw material. the india wheel was a very rude instrument, but could spin a coarse yarn; the fine spin- ning of india continued to be done by the revolving spindle propelled by the hand. the great wheel. — in europe early in the fourteenth century a single-thread wheel was used which was similar to the india wheel. the idea may have been brought from india, or it in a horizontal position, but later a large wheel drove a smaller one, which again turned the spindle by means of a wharve or small grooved pulley fastened on the end of the spindle. the wharve was a development of the whorl. the parts of the great wheel were: i. the standard (a) on three legs, on which were the two upright posts (b, b) which held the spindle (c) in a horizontal position. a wharve or pulley was at one end of the spindle, and a small wheel (d) pro- vided with a pulley or groove. at the other end of the standard (. ) was a post which held a large wheel. ii. a band or cord (£), which connected the large whe-;l with the small grooved wheel (d). iii. a cord (f) which connected the small grooved wheel with the wharve or pulley on the spindle. fig. . — the great wheel. •i may have been original. in england this wheel was called the jersey, the great, or the wool wheel, and in scotland the muckle wheel (fig. ). it was principally used for wool, as its slow, intermittent motion was well fitted for short staple fibers which easily pull apart after being carded into the roll or sliver form. the one-thread wool wheel differed slightly in various places. it was found in both the high and low form. at first the great wheel directly re- volved the spindle, the latter being spinning the motion of the great wheel. — by revolving the great wheel by hand the small wheel turned very rapidly, communi- cating motion to the spindle through the wharve or pulley, conse- quently the spindle turned as long as the great wheel revolved. the method of spinning on the great wheel. — the wool or cotton was first carded by hand combs into soft rolls a foot or more in length and a little less than two inches in width. (see fig. .) the spinner stood beside the wheel. an end of spun yarn had been left on the spindle to which she attached a roll, or, if not, she drew and twisted by hand a short length of yarn from one of the rolls and fastened that to the spindle. she brought the end of the twisted yarn to the point of the spin- dle, and held the remainder of the roll in her left hand. in her right hand she usually held a wooden peg, with which she struck a spoke of the great wheel, causing it to revolve and the spindle to turn. she gently drew the roll away from the spindle almost on a line with it. as the roll became attenuated, the revolving spindle twisted it into yarn in the same way that the revolving vertical spindle had twisted the yarn when it was spun by the hand of the worker. when the roll was drawn and twisted almost to its end, she stopped the wheel. by turning the wheel slowly in the opposite direction the spun yarn, which extended to the end of the spindle, backed off to the center of the spindle or to any point that the spinner desired. the yarn was now at right angles with the spindle. the spinner again turned the wheel in the original direction, thereby winding the length of spun yarn up on the spindle. she was now ready to piece on another roll. she laid one end of it over the end of the one just spun, again drew the end of the twisted part of the yarn to the end of the spindle, and repeated the process as described. she thus repeated the three principles required in the earliest spinning, i.e., ( ) drawing or attenuating the fiber, ( ) twist- ing it, and ( ) winding it up on the spindle. she did this in two parts or intermittently; the first division drew and twisted the yarn, the second wound it up. as has been said, the motion textiles of the great wheel was intermittent. for soft yarn, made of easily separated fibers, this was a decided advantage, for it did not put too great a strain on the yarn by winding it while it was being drawn or twisted. the wheel was the progenitor of the modern mule, the motion of which is also intermittent. the yarn was respun several times before it was strong enough to be used for warp threads. when the spindle was full of yarn the thread was wound off on a reel. (see fig. .) in general, the yarn from the great wheel was more satisfactory for the filling than for the warp threads. at the low wheel the spinner sat, but at the high one she stood, walking back and forth at her work. it is said that twenty miles a day were frequently covered by spinners on the wool wheel in our colonial times. the great wheel spun several times as much yarn in a given time as the distaff and spindle, and relieved the pressure for more yarn, but the cry for better warp thread still continued, and was met by the saxony wheel. the flax, saxony, or leipsic wheel was invented, it is said, by jurgens in germany about . it is probable, however, that wheels of a like character had been made before that time. this wheel was an elaborate piece of mechanism as compared with the wool wheel. the foot was used as power, consequently the hands were free to draw out and guide the fiber to the spindle. the saxony wheel was well adapted to the spinning of flax, for the principles of drawing, twisting, and winding were continu- ous, which made a strain on the yarn which flax could stand better than wool or cotton. the latter fibers were, however, spun upon it, not from the distaff, but from rolls of carded ma- terial fed by hand directly to the spindle, thus lessening the strain. there are several models of this wheel. a common one, though not the earliest form of it, is seen in fig. . the parts of the saxony wheel were: i. the frame ( ) which stood on three legs, the wheel end being lower than the distaff end. ii. the wheel ( ) had an iron bar through its hub by which it was supported in the deep grooves of two upright spinning < bars of wood ( la, lib). iii. the distaff ( ) was supported on a high standard at the opposite end of the frame from the wheel. iv. at the distaff end of the framework two upright bars ( a, ) supported the spindle ( ), which was made of polished steel, and had a pointed end protruding through a leather ring on the upright bar ( ) away from the spinner, and a needle end ( ) (in which was an eye) through an- other ring in the bar ( a) toward the spinner. a flyer ( ) was fas- tened about one inch from the needle's eye, and a large wharve or pulley one inch from the pointed end. a cord from the wheel caused the revolution of the spindle. the flyer had a series of hooks or guides over which the yarn was passed before it was delivered to the bobbin ( ). the turning of the flyer twisted the fibers, which were threaded through the needle's eye, and wound them up on the bobbin. the spinner changed the yarn from one hook to the other of the flyer as she spun, and gradually filled the bobbin evenly with yarn from end to end. the flyer went round very rapidly, but the bobbin was kept back by the friction of the yarn which was fig. .—the flax wheel. textiles let out as the spinner wished, according to her ability or her desire for fine yarn. the slower movement of the bobbin caused the yarn to wind upon it. the bobbin or reel fitted loosely on the spindle, and was slipped on it by removing the pulley at the end of the spindle. the bobbin had also a groove or pulley at one end of it, around which one of the cords from the wheel was placed. v. a band or soft cord ( ) was passed twice around the wheel; one part went over the grooved pulley or wharve on the spindle, and the other over the pulley on the bobbin, causing them to revolve with the wheel. vi. a handle ( ) regulated the tension by turning it either backward or for- ward, thus moving the standard on which the spindle and other parts revolved, and tightening or loosening the band. vii. underneath the framework was the treadle ( ), connected with the wheel by means of a rod ( ), which was attached by a crank to the iron bar through the hub of the wheel, and was tied to the treadle. the motion of the saxony wheel was continuous, that is, the drawing, twisting, and winding occurred simultaneously, and not as in the great wheel in two divisions, requiring the stopping of the wheel and backing off of the thread on the spindle before winding began. the method of spinning on the saxony wheel. — the flax was carefully prepared beforehand in order to have the fibers parallel and untangled. the spinner laid the flax carefully down on a flat surface, and turned the distaff in it until it was evenly covered. she then tied a ribbon loosely about it to keep it in good order, and placed the distaff on the standard. the fibers were now in good condition for drawing steadily down as many or as few as she desired. the spinner sat beside the wheel with her foot on the treadle, and by means of the connecting rod gave motion to the wheel. the double band caused the revolution of the spindle and flyer as well as the bobbin through the wharves on each. she drew the threads down from the distaff with her right forefinger and thumb until they reached spinning the eye of the spindle. the flax passed smoothly under her second, third, and fourth fingers as she held it lightly between the first finger and thumb, which she slightly turned toward her as the thread was drawn down. she used her left hand to open up the mass of fibers next to the distaff, making them into a wedge shape with the narrow end running toward the right hand. she slightly twisted them, and threaded the yarn thus made through the needle's eye in the spindle, brought the thread over one of the hooks of the flyer and fastened it on the bobbin by means of a thread which had been left for this purpose. beginners often found it difficult to keep the wheel revolving smoothly while drawing the flax evenly from the distaff to the spindle. it took time to become a good spinner. the threads of flax were kept moistened by the spinner in order to make a tighter and smoother twist. the spindle, the iron bar on the large wheel, and the crank connected with the treadle were kept well greased. the saxony wheel was more complex than the great wheel. the flyer (fig. ) on the spindle by which the thread was twisted (said to have been invented by leonardo da vinci) was a great step in advance of former spindles, and is utilized in power spinning even to the present day. the continuous motion of this wheel made it possible to spin more and stronger thread in a given time than had any pre- vious invention. the bobbin revolved at a different speed from the spindle, conse- quently it was possible to wind up the yarn as it was being spun. the flax wheel was improved upon in various ways, and flg- —detail of two spindles were later used on it at one time, enabling expert spinners to double the output. hand and machine carding. — the opening up, combing, or carding of raw fiber is probably as ancient as the art of spin- textiles ning. the first cards or combs were evidently the fingers, with which the matted mass was opened, dirt and knots were pulled out, and the fibers were laid in a soft, open lap. a device for aiding the hand was later made of wood or bone, the shape being like the outstretched fingers. this instrument was succeeded by two flat pieces of wood covered with skin (fig. ), through which teeth or thorns protruded. the fiber was laid be- tween the teeth of the two combs, and combed or carded thoroughly. such cards are still in use by primitive peo- ple, and also in some modern factories, where they are used for blending wools and trying out colors. the navajo indian woman of arizona uses cards to comb her wool. they are made like the primitive ones, but fig. . — hand cards. , „ , , the flat surfaces are from hooper's hand-loom weaving, by courtesy of , , j john hogg, london. now covered by card spinning clothing (bent wires closely set together in leather or rubber). after the indian woman prepares her raw wool, — always a very necessary part of successful carding, — she sits down on the ground and spreads a small quantity of wool on one card, which she holds face up with the left hand. the other card she holds with the right hand, having the card clothing down. she firmly presses one card on the other, and draws toward her the one in the right hand, thus combing through the fibers on the other card. by repeating this process she finally has the wool in a clean, fluffy mass. when the wool is sufficiently open and free from dirt she lays the lap on the back of the left card, and makes it into a roll or sliver with the back of the other. with these rolls she spins her yarn. when the demand for more rapid spinning came there was naturally an equal demand for better and more rapid carding, for good spinning depends upon it. the problems before the inventors of the eighteenth century were to accomplish the work of the hand cards by mechanical means at greater speed, and to make a continuous sliver instead of short pieces. they wished to do this with the minimum injury to the fiber and with the least possible waste. it cannot be said, however, that the modern carding engine, wonderful as it is, works with as little bad effect on the fibers as did the hand cards. when lewis paul in discovered that carding could be satisfactorily done by the use of revolving cylinders covered with wire clothing, he gave the principle of modern carding. james hargreaves invented an improved cotton carder in , which had more than one cylinder rotating in contact with the cotton. richard arkwright also invented one which he used in his own mill at cromford. until the fiber was fed by hand into the carding machine, but john lees or leigh of manchester invented an apron feed, which saved the labor of one worker and facilitated the process by making it con- tinuous. at that time the slivers received from the carder were in short pieces like the rolls from the hand cards. arkwright ° textiles made an invention by which the cotton was fed in a wide lap to the machine, which carded it and passed the lap thus made to a funnel, which contracted it into a sliver. he also invented a doffer or stripper to remove the sliver from the machine. the doffer was a helpful invention; it is claimed by both ark- wright and hargreaves. these inventions led to great changes in methods of manu- facture. by all of the principles of modern carding were in use, — the continuous carding surface, the continuous feed, and the continuous doffer. in the modern carding engine an enormous number of fine teeth come in contact with the fiber; the object sought — of cleaning, opening, and laying the fibers parallel — is accomplished, but the process is a severe strain on them. good carding often requires many previous processes of cleaning and opening, all of which have an effect on the strength of the fibers. on account of differences in the characteristics of raw materials, the processes leading up to carding and the work itself differ. silk and flax are not carded, although the latter undergoes a similar process called hackling. the revolving flat card (fig. ) is used extensively in the united states for cotton. it has a cylinder about fifty inches in diameter and forty inches in width, called a swift, which is covered with card clothing, having about six or seven hundred steel wire teeth per square inch, amounting in all at times to three or four million. the teeth are turned in the direction of the movement of the cylinder. they are fastened in a leather, rubber, or cloth foundation, similar to the hand cards. in the process of carding, a large roll of partly cleaned cotton is placed in front of the machine. a revolving small roller takes the end of this sheet of cotton and delivers it to the "licker-in," which in its revolution brings the cotton in contact with the big cylinder or swift, and the teeth catch the cotton and carry it on. flat bars on an endless lattice above the swift are covered with card clothing, and in rotation press their teeth into the cotton which is on the cylinder. the contact of these slowly moving flat bars with the re- volving cylinder is like the contact of the two hand cards; the cotton is thus combed and cleaned, and the poor fiber is carried away by a stripper. this rough, broken fiber is used for cheaper classes of goods, having machinery especially adapted to it. the impurities drop through to a box under the spinning machine. the revolution of the swift carries the good carded cotton to a point directly opposite the licker-in, where it is stripped off by another re- volving cylinder, called the "doffer cylinder," the teeth of which are so set that they take the cotton from the big cylinder or swift. an oscillating knife or comb, the "doctor knife," strikes the cotton from the doffer cylinder, and the soft lap is then delivered to a funnel or to two rolls which contract it into a ribbon or sliver and deliver it to a can. the great cylinder or swift often moves at a rate of to revolutions a minute. the doffer comb strikes the cotton about a thousand times a minute. the fig. i . — revolving top flat card. courtesy of the whitin machine works. card for wool does not aim to lay the fibers parallel, but simply to open them into a soft mass. a series of small cylinders, covered with card clothing, working over the top of the swift, take the place of the flat bars in the cotton card. these rollers or cylinders are in pairs called workers and strippers and alternately press the wool on the teeth of the swift and remove it again, thus opening the fiber. three cards in a train are in general use in the wool industry. (see chap. vi.) the fiber passes from one card to another in a transverse direction, to overcome the inclination to parallelism. the card in use in the worsted industry differs from the train of cards re- quired in the wool, but the principles remain the same. the rapidity of movement in the swift depends upon the length of staple of the fiber. in the wool card the final stripping roller is called the fancy. it is larger textiles and has longer teeth than the others, in order to lift the carded wool from the teeth of the cylinder, that the doffer may carry it off. the speed of movement in the various cylinders depends on the requirements of the raw material. modern spinning machines developed from the principles of the wheels. — in england about the middle of the eighteenth century pressure for more rapid production of cloth, especially of cotton cloth, began to be felt. suffering from poverty had lessened and more comforts were demanded. the subdivision of industry had increased in the towns, and as women no longer spun and wove in every home the demand for textiles was in- sistent. there was scarcity of yarn for weaving, for many of the spinners were not capable of making warp yarn. wool and flax heretofore had been the staples, but the introduction into england of cotton fabrics from india led to a demand for the spinning and weaving of that fiber. some inventions were made, but little was thought of them at first, therefore the names of the first inventors and the dates of their inventions were not carefully preserved and are even now uncertain. the supply of yarn and the ability of the weavers to turn out cloth were about equal when john kay of bury invented his fly shuttle and picking stick (see chap. iv), thereby increasing fourfold the output of the loom. this was followed by a patent of robert kay, son of john kay, of the drop box (see chap. iv), which also saved the weaver's time. these inventions brought the capacity for weaving far ahead of the supply of yarn. pres- sure was brought to bear on the spinners to meet the situation, by ( ) finding a mechanical way of spinning a number of threads at one time by keeping more spindles revolving, and ( ) some automatic means of drawing out the fibers. john wyatt of birmingham is generally conceded to have been the first to suggest a way of spinning thread without the use of fingers. his patent was taken out in in the name of lewis paul, his partner. in his machine he uses the flyer of the saxony wheel for spinning, but probably he had an entirely new and spinning brilliant idea in the use of drawing rollers to attenuate the yarn. this latter principle is important in power spinning. richard arkwright later used this principle in his water frame, but gave no credit to either wyatt or paul, and is generally given credit for the invention. in or james hargreaves, a spinner and carder, living in blackburn, lancashire, invented a spinning frame fig. . — hargreaves' spinning jenny. from robinson and beard's the development of modern europe, by courtesy of ginn&co. (fig. ) which was the progenitor of the modern self-acting mule. (see fig. .) his idea was evidently taken from the principle of the great wheel. for power he used one hand to control a traveling carriage, and the other to turn a wheel by means of a crank. the wheel was connected by a band with a cylinder under the framework, and bands went from the cylin- der to the pulley or wharve of each spindle, thus setting them in motion as the wheel turned. this machine spun from eight to eleven threads at once. it was a great invention, but the fibers were not parallel, and the yarn was too softly twisted to d textiles be used for warp. the pictures now seen of the machine have improvements over the original invention. the important principles of hargreaves' spinning jenny were ( ) a number of bobbins of roving (the last step in the preparation of yarn previous to spinning) were placed vertically in a creel under the frame; ( ) the yarn from these bobbins passed through a holder and across to the spindles. the holder was so made that it could keep the threads fast or let them slip, and ( ) a carriage which could be moved back and forth on the framework so that the holder could be drawn away from or moved toward the spindles. when the carriage was near the spindles the rov- ing was caught in the holder and fastened to the tip of the spindles, and was attenuated by drawing the carriage away from the spindles. in the meanwhile the stretch of roving was twisted by the revolution of the spindles by means of the wheel. when the carriage reached its farthest point on the track it was stopped, but the spindles were kept turning until the yarn was sufficiently twisted. the wheel was then stopped, and the carriage was backed slightly to allow guide or faller wires to back off the twisted thread from the end of the spindles, as was done in the great wheel. the carriage was now pushed back toward the spindles while the length of spun yarn was wound up. thus hargreaves' jenny repeated the intermittent motion of the great wheel, for the attenuating and twisting were done in one motion, and the winding in another. when one length of yarn had been spun, the bar on the holder was loosened, another length of roving was drawn from the bobbins into the holder, and the work of drawing and twisting was repeated. this machine was used widely, but hargreaves had little use of his patent, which was taken out in , for the hand spin- ners were infuriated, and persecuted the inventor for taking away their work. he was obliged to flee from his home on ac- count of the tumult. he deserves to be remembered as one of the fathers of the modern industrial world, for he made cot- ton spinning possible, and thus brought a cheaper fabric to the spinning poor of england. credit for this invention is given by some to high of leigh. the spinning jenny was known to richard arkwright, a clever barber of preston, who wandered about the towns of fig. i. — arkwright's water frame. from barker's textiles, by courtesy of constable & co., london. england in pursuit of business. he continually heard of the need of yarn and cloth, and probably improvements in devices were talked over with him, and new appliances shown him. about he brought out a machine founded on the principle of the saxony wheel. it had an upright frame, a continuous motion, and the spindle and flyer of the saxony wheel placed vertically (fig. ). the roving passed through twin drawing textiles rollers and was attenuated before being twisted. it is probable, though not proven, that he had seen this in the machines of wyatt and paul. he received much credit for his invention, but is thought to have been a greater business man in forward- ing the ideas of others than original in inventions of his own. his ideas of factory organization are not yet obsolete. he is, in any case, worthy of honor for what he has given to us. the principle of his machine is as follows: the roving was attenuated by means of a couple of twin rollers placed one behind the other. the first two rollers which received the roving ran rather slowly, but the two rollers ahead moved more quickly. hence the fiber was caught, drawn, and laid more nearly parallel. after the roving, now of the required thickness, left the rollers, it was twisted by the flyers of the spindles and wound on the bobbins. arkwright probably gave us the reciprocal vertical movement of the spindle. his first mill was built at cromford in , where he installed his own carding and spinning machinery. so greatly was his work appreciated that he was knighted. his machine was too heavy to be driven by the human hand, hence horse or mule power was used, and later water power gave his invention the name of the water frame, or water twist frame. the homes of that time where most of the spinning had been previously done could not provide sufficient force, consequently small factories sprang up where the arkwright spinning frame spun the yarn for those having private looms or for groups of manu- facturing weavers. steam power was applied to it in . the use of drawing rollers is the great basis of modern spinning. another inventor of note of this period was samuel crompton of bolton. he was a textile worker, and a capable man. he felt the need of a greater supply of warp yarn in his daily work. his invention in was a spinning frame which combined the good points of the machines of both hargreaves and ark- wright. from hargreaves he took the upright spindle frame, but placed it on the moveable carriage. (in hargreaves' ma- spinning chine it had been attached to the back of the main framework.) from arkwright he took the idea of drawing rollers and placed them where hargreaves had his spindles. it is believed by many that crompton invented the drawing rollers for his machine, and that he had never seen or heard of the arkwright patent. crompton placed the roving or slubbing in a creel behind the spindles. he patented his machine, calling it the mule spinning frame. it proved to be a wonderful machine, and has been the basis for one of the most useful spinning frames of the present day — the self-acting mule. crompton was not only an inventor himself, but he knew how to take advantage of the inventions of others and use them in his own way. at that era before steam power was utilized, crompton's mule was of more use than either hargreaves' spinning jenny or ark- wright's water frame. many other inventors made important additions to these inventions. the use of steam for power, and whitney's cotton gin, both of which came at the end of the eighteenth century, gave a tremendous impetus to cotton spinning, and the inventions of roberts in gave the world the modern self-acting mule, which was a triumph of skill and automatic action. the following dates mark important eras in the development of modern textiles: — . distaff and spindle, from the dawn of history to about the fourteenth century. . spinning wheels, from the fourteenth to the eighteenth century. . the great eras of invention: (a) improvements in spinning and weaving, ( ) the use of power other than the hand, and (c) the modern factory system. the beginning of modern spinning, carding, and weaving came principally from such men as the following: — john wyatt, birmingham. first thread spun without fingers, and the use of drawing rollers, . lewis paul. in connection with wyatt, carding, revolving cylinder, . (claimed by hargreaves.) john kay. fly shuttle, ; improved in . robert kay, the son of john. the drop box, . textiles hargreaves. spinning jenny; the spinning of a number of threads at once, - . arkwright. water frame (upright), ; the principle of rollers; doffer comb. crompton. mule frame, combining arkwright's and hargreaves' ideas, . lees or leigh. apron feed, . cartwright. power loom, . application of steam to arkwright's frame, . eli t. whitney. cotton gin, . roberts. self-acting mule with quadrant, . the half century from to was one of tremendous issues. on account of the inventions capital became more important than labor, factory towns took the place of farming villages, large numbers of women heretofore working in the homes had to work in the factories, markets were extended all over the world to make use of the larger output from ma- chinery, and society to meet these conditions had to be almost entirely reorganized. at first the industries of spinning and weaving were separate. little factories began to spring up where water power was good. when steam power was used, spinning and weaving were often combined to save expense. but about the middle of the nine- teenth century, so much capital was required to combine the two that they were again separated, except in very large plants. modern spinning frames. — the principles of modern power spinning follow closely the inventions of hargreaves, arkwright, and crompton. these men in their effect on the development of our factory system may be said to have been among the prin- cipal instruments in bringing forward the industrial and social problems of the present day. one girl now probably spins twelve hundred times as much in a day as was done with the old wheel. the difference between the old and the new is not in the principles employed, but in the mechanism which is used to take the place of the hand, i.e., the belts, pulleys, levers, textiles wheels, gears, springs, chains, and cams, which automatically handle a thousand spindles at once, where the hand controlled one. true spinning is in reality the final process of twisting, but the term spinning is used to cover all of the preparatory steps as well. before the final spinning the twisting is only suffi- cient to keep the attenuated fiber from breaking apart. the final process before true spinning is called the roving. the final spinning may be done by the mule (crompton's patent), or by a ring spinning frame on the order of the upright spinning frame (arkwright). both machines may be used for tightly or loosely twisted yarns, but the mule is better adapted to the softer yarns, and the upright frame to the closer twisted yarns. fig. . — detail of mule. from barker's textiles, by courtesy of constable & co., london. in the present day the true spinning machines are preceded by others which are more or less similar in method, but they only prepare for the final twist. the principle of rollers is used for drawing and attenuating the fiber, and the twisting is done not only by the flyer but by other methods. the modern mule spinning, which has developed from crompton's mule, is more complicated than ring spinning, which followed arkwright's upright frame. mule spinning — intermittent motion (fig. ).—the es- sential features are as follows: the bobbins of roving are spinning placed in a creel in the back of the machine. the roving is passed over bars through three separate twin drawing rollers, which attenuate and prepare the fiber. it is then carried between faller wires to spindles which are on a carriage which moves on a track. as it moves forward to its full ex- tent the fiber is fur- ther attenuated while the spindle twists it. fig. .—flyer. probably five feet are from barker's textiles by courtesy of covered by the move. constable & co., london. j ment of the carriage, the yarn being at the extreme end of the spindle for this purpose. when the carriage reaches its limit, it is stopped, the yarn is backed off the top of the spindle by the faller wires, one of which guides and the other holds taut, and the yarn is wound up on the spindles as the carriage returns spinning framito its place at the back of the mule. as a con- _ „ , , from barkerssequence the action is intermittent, as in the great textiles, by cour- wheel (fig. ). the spindles are placed at co., london. textiles angle of fifteen degrees, and each is provided with a wharve, whorl, or pulley by which it is revolved, a band around it passing to a driving cylinder. the mule is a compli- cated machine, and re- quires skilled attention. men are usually in attendance. the machine has to be adapted to differences in fiber, as between wool, worsted, and cotton. high counts of yarn may be spun on the mule. ring spinning — continuous motion. — the principle of ring spinning has largely taken the place of the flyer spinning as found in arkwright's patent. following the arkwright spinning frame came a series of inven- tions to improve the spindles. the upright frames look much alike. the drawing rollers were satis- factory and are found about the same, whether the flyer, ring, cap, or top principles are used for the spindles. a throstle frame (still used for making roving) followed arkwright's patent, and combined some features of hargreaves' jenny with arkwright's water twist, giving a new spindle, but it is seldom seen now in true spinning. the flyer (fig. ) principle is seen in the bobbin and fly frames, used to prepare the rove (slubber, intermediate, and roving) in cotton spinning. the twist depends on the relative speeds of the bobbin and flyer. the spindle has gradually been made more free in its motion, and runs more loosely in its bearings, which makes it steadier. cap spinning (fig. ), used much in cotton spin- fig. . — ring spinning frame. from barker's textiles, by cour- tesy of constable & co., london. spinning ning, utilizes this idea, and gives the spindle as much freedom as a spinning top, which running at full speed balances itself. cap spinning is used in spinning worsted yarns, the principle at base being a stationary spindle with a stationary cap and a revolving bobbin. the latter has a whorl on it, and a band con- nected with the driving shaft makes it revolve. the yarn comes from the rollers above, the bobbin moves up and down, and the end of the cap keeps the yarn evenly winding on the bobbin. in ring spinning (fig. ) the yarn is twisted immediately on leaving the rollers. in spinning frames there are usually fig. .— detail of ring. two rails. in the lower the spindles rest, and through the higher, called a bolster rail, the tops of the spindles pass. in ring spin- ning there is a third rail. this rail moves up and down the spindle, causing the yarn to wind evenly. a series of rings (fig. ), each with a flange, are fixed on the rail, and move with it. the front of each spindle goes through a ring, but does not touch it. a traveler, which is a crooked piece of fine wire, is sprung on the flange. it can move easily, but cannot come off. the ends of the yarn come through the rollers and each passes through a traveler and is fastened on a bobbin which is on the spindle. the spindle and traveler revolve rapidly. the latter is held back slightly by the yarn and consequently winds the yarn on the bobbin. a traveler makes as many as , revolutions per minute. separators of metal are often used between the spindles to keep the threads from interfering. chapter iii hand weaving weaving is the interlacing of two lines of threads cross- ing each other at right angles. (see fig. .) plain or pattern effects are made according to the manner in which the threads are interwoven. the threads running the length of the cloth are called warp, or ends, and are set up first in the loom. those that intersect and run across the warp are called woof, weft, pick, or filling. the filling threads which bind in the warp threads at either side form the selvage (fig. c ). weaving is one of the most ancient of the arts. its de- velopment has called forth and still requires a high order of mechanical ability. mar- velous results in fineness of cloth and beauty of design were attained in it even when it was in its infancy, with few devices to aid the hand, and when to make one rug required untold labor. even modern machinery cannot outdo the handwoven materials from various parts of the world. at first women were the weavers, but since the industry has passed from the home they are no longer preeminent in it, though they still work in the textile factories. it is said that one fifth of the working world is now occupied with weaving, its allied arts, and the distribution of the products of the industry. textiles our present knowledge of the beginnings of weaving comes ( ) from the work of nations which are now in primitive condi- tions and whose work we can watch, such as the natives of the fig. . — textile-impressed pottery. a. pottery. b. weave used. philippine islands, the american indian, and african tribes; ( ) from early pottery, which was frequently decorated with a textile design, and shows clearly that woven cloth was laid upon it when it was in a moist state (fig. ); ( ) picture writing on tombs; ( ) mats, rugs, and cloth which have been preserved in tombs. these ancient materials show the art from the coars- hand weaving est mat weaving to the finest cotton and linen fabrics, with often the most intricate designs in various colors woven upon them. principles underlying weaving. —a knowledge of the prin- ciples of weaving is found among almost all primitive people, no matter how savage, and their first steps toward an adequate loom seem strangely similar, when it is remembered that there was often no communication between nations. there were three principles developed, and these same three are the impor- tant ones in modern power weaving: ( ) shedding, or the raising of the warp threads as needed; ( ) picking, or the throwing across of the filling; ( ) battening, or the driving up of the filling. various devices were invented to facilitate these motions. weaving was done at first by the hand alone, rushes being laid lengthwise on the ground and lifted alternately, to allow the woof or filling to be inserted across them, and the fingers pushed the filling into place. one of the first inventions was a way of holding the warp stretched, that the threads of it might be raised more easily for the insertion of the filling. the early looms (see fig. ) were usually vertical, and had a heavy wooden bar or beam at the top to hold the upper ends of the warp, and stone weights tied to the lower end of each thread, thus keeping the warp taut. the beam was suspended in a framework, or be- tween trees. some nations placed bars at each end, which were forerunners of the warp and web beams of the modern loom. to accomplish a more rapid raising of the warp threads sticks were inserted alternately in the sheds, to indicate the path of the filling, a simple device which led finally to the harness of the modern loom. (see fig. .) to take the place of the fin- gers for throwing the filling threads across the warp, a stick was used on which the filling was wound; this later became the shut- tle containing its quill of yarn, and the shuttle race. (see fig. .) as a means of widening the shed for the insertion of the filling, and later battening it up, a sword or batten (see fig. ) was used, which served both purposes. the lathe or sley of the modern loom, with its reed, has developed from the early sword. textiles primitive looms. — many kinds of looms were invented: ( ) the upright or vertical, such as the navajo indian loom or some forms of the tapestry loom; ( ) the horizontal loom, like those of the moros of the philippine islands, and of the zuni and pueblos of america, a form also seen in the hand loom of colonial days and in the power looms, and ( ) slanting looms, such as are found among the rug makers of the east. a simple form of loom is found in british guiana, in which the lower end of the warp is rounded by the use of a flexible reed, and the upper bar is straight. as the warp threads are put in they widen slightly. a rod laid across the warp is attached to alternate threads by a cord and is used as a simple means of drawing these threads out while leaving the others down, thus forming the shed. a slender stick on which some yarn was wound was used for a shuttle, and a wider stick with a flat edge beat the hand weaving threads together. color was introduced by hand, the design being thus a variety of tapestry weaving on stretched threads. the navajo loom has similar devices. the beautiful chilcat blanket (fig. ) used for ceremonial purposes and woven by the tlinget indians of northwest united states, is rounded, and heavy weights held the warp threads in place while the weaving was in progress. it was woven of goats' wool combined with bark, and had a marvelous conventionalized design of a whale. few devices were used by the weaver. tools of various kinds were invented by differ- ent peoples to assist in the making of cloth, such as knives to split material, which took the place of the teeth of the worker; gauges to measure distances, which replaced the finger nail; awls to assist the fingers in fine work, and act as needles (fig. ), and combs to help the fingers in driving home short sections of filling. at the time of the discovery of america, the art of weaving was well advanced among the in- habitants. the zuni indians invented an in- teresting heald shaft or heddle for making the shed. it consisted of a series of small flat sticks held in a frame-work, with holes in the center of each stick, and spaces left between the sticks. (see fig. .) the first warp thread was passed through a slit between sticks and the second through a hole in a stick, the third through a slit, the fourth through a hole, until all the warp threads were disposed of, every other one being through a slit and the alternate ones through the holes. the shed was formed by raising or depressing the heddle, thus threads were alternately brought up or down, through which the filling was passed and battened up. this form of heddle is on the order of those used in the modern power loom (fig. ). heddles of similar con- e textiles struction are found in many parts of the world. the esquimaux made one of bone, and the european carved one from wood. our colonial women used a similar heddle in their tape weaving. the navajo women are still weavers. beautiful rugs were once woven of the wool of the native sheep, dyed or un- dyed, and characteristic designs upon them had been in use for centuries. unfortunately the demand for a cheap rug is injuring their art. few buyers understand the value of these old rugs, and consequently are unwilling to give an adequate price for them. the better grade of rug took sometimes as long as a year to weave, but the present one is frequently made rapidly and poorly, with a cotton warp and commercial wools for filling. cheap dyes and poor designs are used. in fact, these rugs are even copied on power looms and sold in large quantities. the real navajo rug has the hand spun yarn prepared for the loom by winding it around two up- right sticks which are set apart the length of the rug. the threads are wound on the sticks transversely or spirally to form a crossing, until there are sufficient for the width of the warp. a stick is then slipped through the warp at either end, which secures the lease or crossing — thus every other thread can be traced. the lease is vital in both hand loom and power weaving. the navajo woman sat on the ground to do her work. the loom (fig. ) consisted of a framework made usually of two poles and two beams. the poles were forked at the top and stood upright; the beams were lashed across at the top and bottom. at each end the warp was wattled (see fig. ) in and out by special threads, which kept it from slipping. it was then stretched between two other poles the width of the rug. the poles were lashed to the beams. as the warp hung taut the lease or crossing of the threads could be clearly seen, for every other thread was slightly forward of the alternate ones. by slipping sticks into these sheds they were accented. a simple harness was made by laying a long rod across the warp threads, fastening a piece of strong yarn to the rod, and in sue- hand weaving cession catching the yarn around each back thread in the lease and then around the rod. when all the back threads were thus connected with the rod, they could be drawn forward at one time, making a distinct shed. through this the sword was thrust and turned over to make a wider opening of the threads, while the filling was inserted. a stick had been placed in the fig. .— navajo loom. alternate shed, which preserved it. as the threads of this shed were forward in the crossing they were easily distinguished at any time. when this forward shed was to be used the sword or batten was placed in it and turned to its full width, as in the shed attached to the harness rod. the weaver usually be- gan to work from the bottom up, but some worked from both ends, using a needle for the final weaving. she alternately opened the sheds, turned her batten in them, put her filling across, and drove it home with the batten by turning it flat and drawing it toward the finished weaving. she used a rude textiles wooden comb to drive the filling home when she wished to batten in a few threads at a time, in order to make a design. if she needed to let down the warp threads, she loosened the lashings at the top, lowered the pole with the attached warp threads, wound up the finished weaving on the lower pole and made all tight again. when different colors were needed she used sepa- rate balls of colored yarn, white, gray, and black being favorites fig. . — hand loom. from watson's textiles and clothing, by courtesy of the american school of home economics. with the navajos, though red and yellow were also used. the navajo's work is really tapestry weaving, for the design is put in by the fingers as desired, and is not dependent on the harness. when she had finished with one color, she allowed the roll of yarn to hang suspended while she took up the next color. the navajos conduct their whole industry, growing the sheep, shearing, cleaning, carding, spinning, dyeing, and weaving. the hand loom. — the centuries which have passed since such primitive methods were in vogue have brought many varied suggestions for increasing the efficiency of the loom. finally the european hand loom (fig. ) was developed, on which the hand weaving modern power loom (fig. ) is based. continuous cloth was made, instead of the rug lengths of an earlier period. our colonial loom was like the european hand loom, and the weav- ing was at first done in the homes. it is estimated that there were in this country one hundred twenty-five or more years ago about three and a half million spinning wheels, and a quarter of a million hand looms. when the inventions leading to power spinning and weaving made it more profitable to do the work in factories, a number of them were started in the east, and also fig. . — primitive heddles. from watson's textiles and clothing, by courtesy of the american school of home economics. a few fulling mills were opened. thus began our textile in- dustry of to-day. the hand loom was used until about . the parts of the hand loom (fig. ) were as follows: ( ) for the management of the warp: the framework, c, usually of wood, and clumsily made, contained a warp beam, a, on which the yarn was wound, and a web, cloth, goods, or mer- chandise beam, b, for the finished cloth. these two beams were held in slots at each end of the framework; the warp, w, was stretched between them, passing through the harness, h, and the reed on the way. weights on the beams or rollers kept the warp stretched. when the weaving was going on, and the weaver desired to wind up the woven cloth, and at the same time textiles to draw out some of the warp, she could do so without leaving her seat by taking hold of a lever, which on being raised released a paul from a ratchet wheel, and loosened the warp beam. when she had drawn off sufficient warp, and had wound up the cloth, she could fasten the paul on the ratchet, thus holding the warp tight. the earliest looms did not have this device. inserted through the warp threads back of the harness were two smooth sticks called shed sticks, d, which kept the crossing of the warp intact. if a warp thread broke, it could be easily traced by fig. . — healds. means of these sticks. they were the earliest form of heddle, but are still in use as shed sticks on account of their value. ( ) shedding: the harness of the hand loom resembled some- what a collection of heddles of the zuni principle (fig. ). a series of healds or heddles were made of cord, and suspended on two laths or sticks. the cords were tied in various ways (fig. ), but in such a manner that there was an opening in their centers called the mail eye, through which warp threads could pass and be raised or depressed when a particular heald shaft was in use. threads not needed passed between some heddles to be threaded through others. when a number of healds were on one lathe, it was called a shaft, sheaf or leaf of healds (fig. ). the office of each heald shaft was to affect certain threads by drawing them up to form a shed when the hand weaving pattern required it. the method of threading these shafts, the number to be used and their succession, was indicated by the design and its draft. (see chap. iv.) for plain weaving two or more shafts were in use. when the yarn was coarse two were sufficient, but when it was fine, four shafts or even eight prevented the friction of the threads. for complex weaving three or more shafts were used. the method of threading the healds and fastening the shafts to the treadles | ] tin ,m, ! l i t controlled the warp threads, which could be drawn down as needed to make the shed (fig. ). these shafts were sus- pended from the framework over a roller, or tied by jacks which worked on a pulley, and therefore could be moved up and down. the shed was made by drawing down the various shafts as needed. ( ) picking: this was accomplished by means of a shuttle which held a bobbin or quill with the filling thread. it was boatlike in shape, and had an eye in one end through which the thread from the bobbin came. as part of the warp was depressed the shuttle was thrown through by one hand and caught by the other. a new shed was made and the shuttle returned. a selvage was formed around the last warp thread on either side. kay's patent of the picking stick and the fly textiles shuttle, and his son's patent of the drop box, put a quicker means of working into the hands of the weavers. ( ) bat- tening: the lathe, or sley, e, was set into a framework suspended from above or fastened below. it could be easily drawn for- ward by the hand, and pressed against the finished cloth, making it solid and even. in order to drive home every thread, a reed was set in the lathe. reeds were made of a series of wires of a varying degree of fineness, according to the coarseness or the distance apart of the warp threads. one or two warp fig. .—detail of harness, showing one heald shaft raised, thus form- ing shed. a, a', heald shaft. b, warp threads. c, shed. threads were passed through each dent or division of the reed. the width of the threads as they lay in the reed was the width of the finished cloth. the lathe with its reed was the develop- ment of the hand-shaped comb or the sword used in early times. a temple or tenterhook (fig. ) held the cloth the desired width and kept the weaver from drawing the threads inward as she worked. the working of the loom. — if a plain design is to be woven, every other warp thread must be up while the alternate threads are down. consequently if two shafts are used there will be one treadle tied to each; but if four or eight shafts are used for plain weaving, two or four will be fastened to one treadle and two or four to the other. the usual way in hand loom weaving. hand weaving with four shafts is to fasten the first and third shaft to one treadle, and the second and fourth to the other. it is more common in power weaving to have the first and second shaft act together, and the third and fourth. the healds are threaded in such a way that the odd numbers, such as , , , , , etc., will be in the first and third shafts, and the even numbers in the second and fourth. the drawing-in is from the back of the loom and from the left to the right. the weaver depresses one treadle, with the threads attached to it, leaving the alternate ones up. fig. . — temple or tenterhook. from hooper's hand-loom weaving, by courtesy of john hogg, london. she throws the shuttle containing the filling which passes out from the eye, leaving a thread behind in the shed (fig. ). she draws forward the swinging lathe or batten with its reed, through the dents of which are the warp threads, and drives the filling home. she then pushes back the lathe, and is now ready for the alternate shed. she removes her foot from the first treadle, and depresses the other, proceeding as before. if a thread breaks, as frequently happens, she stops to find it. the shed sticks are of use to her in tracing it, for it frequently breaks and springs back all the way to the warp beam. she must, therefore, after she has found her thread, tie a new piece of yarn to it with the weaver's knot, bring it under and over the shed sticks, through the correct eye of the heald, and up to the cloth, where she holds it in place until she has woven textiles fig. . — throwing the shuttle through the shed. from hooper's hand-loom weaving, by courtesy of john hogg, london. hand weaving a few lines. after it is well woven in, the end can be cut off. if the filling gives out, or a new color is to be used, she opens the shed which contains the end of the last thread, lays the new thread an inch over the old, battens the new into place, and continues weaving as before. winding, reeling, warping, and drawing in. — the thread- ing of the hand loom is a tedious process. the procedure is virtually the same in the power loom. a warp is formed of as many threads or ends as are needed in the width of the cloth. each thread must be the same length and wound smoothly on the warp beam. an important part of successful weaving is the preparation of the warp and the threading of it into the harness, or the drawing in. this was done by hand at first, but power now accomplishes the same result by an elaboration of parts which take the place of the hand. the necessary steps as taken by the hand workers are given in the following outline: . the bobbins of spun yarn are taken from the spinning wheel. . the yarn is wound from the bobbins on a reel, thus making a skein of definite length. the clock reel (see fig. ) is used, as the click indicates the time when the skein should be tied or removed. . the skein is put on a swift (see fig. ) and the yarn is run off on bobbins. . bobbins to the number required are put on a creel, scarne, or bobbin frame. (see fig. .) . the creel with its bobbins is put in front of the warping bars. (see fig. .) the yarn is drawn from the bobbins to make the warp, a lease being kept carefully at one end of the warp. . the warp is taken from the bars or from the drum in ( ) a chain form; ( ) on a niddy noddy (see fig. ), or ( ) on a stick, the lease always being carefully preserved. . the chain is taken to the loom, from which the harness has been re- moved. a special frame holding the warp beam is sometimes used. two people are required to do the work. one lets out the chain from the end taken last from the bars or drum, and the other rolls up the warp on the beam as the chain is let out. . cords are put through the lease of sufficient length to stretch the warp to the purposed width of the cloth. careful watch is kept for broken threads or for threads out of place. o textiles . the threads must now be attached to the warp beam. they are slipped over a thin, flat stick which is attached to a piece of cloth fastened to the warp beam. holes are punched at intervals in the cloth, and strings through these holes are tied to the stick. the warp threads or ends are stretched the required width on the stick. . the warp threads are distributed evenly on a raddle (fig. ) to a couple of inches wider than the cloth will be. the raddle is placed near the warp beam, that the ends of warp may pass through it and wind smoothly on the beam. . the warp beam is slowly revolved by one worker and the chain is let out by the other, who stands on the other side of the raddle. the threads fig. . — raddle. from hooper's hand-loom weaving, by courtesy of john hogg, london. pass through the raddle and the lease and are wound up evenly on the beam until the end of the warp is reached. a coarse brush is often used to lay the threads parallel. . two sticks are placed through the lease in place of the cords. they are tied together at each end to keep the threads from slipping off. the raddle is removed, the threads of the warp are cut through and tied in bunches of ten or twenty on the harness side of the lease. it is extremely important that the threads shall go through the harness in the exact order that they come from the lease. . the ends of warp are now threaded carefully through the eyes in the healds of the harness. the order in which this shall be done depends upon the particular pattern required, and is indicated by a draft. (see design and draft.) hand weaving . when the threading of the harness is complete, the warp threads are taken one by one through the correct dents in the reed (fig. ). . the warp threads are passed over the breast beam and fastened evenly to the cloth beam in the same way as on the warp beam. in general, when a warp comes to an end in a loom the threads are not pulled through the harness, but are left hanging in small groups and are tied together so that they cannot slip through. when that arrangement of harness is needed again, the new warp threads are tied to the old by a flat or weaver's knot, or twisted one by one to each of the former threads. this method saves much time. a good worker can twist in seven thousand new threads in a day. machinery which does this work as well and more rapidly fig. . — reed. is on the market. it is expensive and not found in the smaller mills. hand threaders are generally employed. two workers are usually found sitting on either side of the harness. one pushes the warp thread through the mail eye with a little metal device, and the other receives it. single warp threads are sized before weaving and after they are on the beam, to give them strength to bear the strain. filling threads are not sized. for numerous details of warping and drawing in, see hand-loom weaving, by luther hooper. several processes mentioned in the above outline are given in greater detail below. the creel (see fig. ) is an upright frame with a number of wire rods across it on which bobbins filled with yarn may be slipped. threads are drawn from all the bobbins at once. the creels used by hand workers are of various sizes, carrying from ten to eighty bobbins. those used for power warping frequently hold many hundreds. in hand warping the creel filled with its bobbins is placed beside the warping bars or hand weaving . drum, that the threads may be drawn from it for the warp. (see big reel in fig. .) warping. — the purpose of warping is to lay in parallel order the required number of threads for the width of the cloth. these threads must be the length of the finished cloth. the method used is to draw a small number of threads to the re- quired length and repeat until the full number for the width is secured. if a drum three yards in circum- ference is used and ten threads from the creel are carried ten times around it, the result will be ten threads thirty yards long. by reversing the movement of the drum and carrying other ten threads back, there will be twenty threads thirty yards long. the same work may be accomplished fig. . — warping bars. by a series of pegs, called warping bars (fig. ), set at a distance of three yards apart, on which the yarn is carried back and forth. making the lease is an important part of warping, for thereby the threads can be kept in perfect order, or if they become tangled can be set right again. three pegs are placed on the warping bars or on the drum for the purpose. the threads are drawn from the creel, the ends knotted together and placed over the first peg on the drum, the two remaining pegs being used for the lease. the warper begins by grasping the threads coming from the lowest row in the creel in the palm of her hand, twists her hand as she takes the second row, so that these threads pass over its back, and continues this alternation through the succeeding rows. she now has the lease in her hand and places it on the pegs, noting the order of placing. she revolves the drum, letting the threads from the creel lie on its surface, until she has drawn out the length of the warp. at this point there are two pegs, around which the threads are wound under and textiles over, but not in a lease, before bringing them back over the same track. she ties the bunch of threads together that she may later count them more rapidly. by reversing the drum she brings the threads back to the lease pegs. she must now make the lease again, remembering that she is reversing the manner of making it, but preserving the first plan. if the manner of placing has been such that the threads on the palm are on the fig. . — taking off the warp. from hooper's hand-loom weaving, by courtesy of john hogg, london. second peg and those on the back of the hand on the third, on the return the reverse order brings the threads on the back to the third peg and those on the palm to the second. when the warp is complete and ready for removal two cords are inserted in the lease to keep the alternation perfect, and a cord is tied over all the groups of threads at the end. the first peg, to which the threads from the creel were tied, is removed, which loosens the warp, and it is taken off by looping it into a chain or taking it around a stick or niddy noddy (fig. ). power warping accomplishes the same object as hand warp- ing. many methods have been invented to meet peculiarities of the fibers. filmy silk threads require different handling from cotton or wool. the yarn is in general prepared for warp- ing on a spooling frame, and the bobbins or spools are placed in the creel. the threads are all drawn through a coarse reed. a lease is made automatically, a measurer indicates the length hand weaving of threads passed through, a stop motion throws off the power if a thread breaks, and a distributer winds the threads evenly on the beam. large drums or reels for winding the entire warp at one time, and also sectional warpers are used. (see fig. .) the latter forms the warp in small divisions to be later united on one beam. creels are v-shaped and also semi-circular. taking off the finished cloth. — the warp threads are cut a few at a time far enough from the finished cloth to prevent raveling, and from the harness so that they will not pull through. they are then tied with a flat knot in small bunches, to keep them from slipping through the mail eyes of the harness. the paul is released from the ratchet and the cloth beam is taken out and the cloth unrolled. tapestry looms. — the modern tapestry looms are found in horizontal or vertical form, the latter looking much like the vertical looms of antiquity. the warp is stretched tightly in the frame, and the pattern is put in by the fingers. the filling is inserted as a plain weave, but the use of color forms the pat- tern. many colors are often used for the filling, and are usually put in by a sort of needle or bobbin. two heald shafts are generally used, so that the alternate threads can be raised to- gether and simplify the weaving, not only when the filling is to be thrown all the way across the warp, but also when only a small section is needed. the vertical loom was quite usual in europe until about , when a horizontal loom took its place. france developed tapestry weaving in the time of francis i., especially in the city of arras, the weaving being called arras work. raphael and his students were designers for these tapestries. the flemish tapestry weavers were considered the finest. ghent formerly had seven streets devoted to this class of weaving. although the industry has declined, tapes- tries are still woven. some of the noted modern studios are the gobelin atelier in paris; the weaving sheds at merton abbey in england, where william morris revived tapestry weaving; and the studios of albert herter in america, where french aubusson weavers are employed, the work being done on horizontal looms. f chapter iv power weaving the transition to power weaving. — during the early mid- dle ages an increased demand arose in europe for rich and elab- orate materials. it was difficult to weave these on the plain hand loom. the crusaders are given the credit of introducing the draw loom into europe from damascus, the term damask, used for elaborately designed linen, being taken from this city. the hand loom was naturally limited in the number of heald shafts and treadles which one worker could control. the draw loom allowed a wide scope in patterns. the shed was controlled by a series of cords attached to the heald shafts, which were pulled down in succession by an attendant called the "draw boy." the weaver gave his attention to the weaving. later an automatic attachment providing for mechanical shedding was invented, which took the place of the boy. a similar loom without the automatic attachment is still used in the east. in a loom was invented by m. de genres of france, which embodied many modern principles, but little was heard of it. in another frenchman, m. vaucanson, brought forward his loom, which had the principle of shedding later used by jacquard. it also had an embryo friction roller and a take-up motion, which are now found on the modern power loom. the invention of automatic spinning in england gave an impetus to weaving in that country. in john kay invented the fly shuttle (fig. ) which increased the power of the weaver many times. he placed a shuttle race on the lathe, with a box at each end to receive the shuttle which the hands of the weaver had caught heretofore. each shuttle box had a picker stick or driver connected with it, which when moved power weaving threw the shuttle across the race and through the shed. the motive power for the picker stick was a cord extending from one driver in a shuttle box to the other, and a peg in the center of the cord was held by the weaver. if he wished the shuttle to fly from either side, he drew the handle sharply to the opposite side, which caused the driver to give a sharp blow to the shuttle. fig. . — fly shuttle. from hooper's hand-loom weaving, by courtesy of john hogg, london. the hand looms before kay made twenty picks per minute, but the fly shuttle increased this to forty picks, and further improve- ments made possible sixty picks per minute. the early power loom brought the record up to a hundred picks per minute with one man in attendance. to-day one man can attend to from four to six looms, which according to the kind of materials woven will make generally from two hundred to two hundred sixty picks per minute, and have even made four hundred. on plain goods at the present time, one weaver has watched as many as two dozen looms. in the middle of the eighteenth century it was still necessary to stop the hand loom every time a new color was needed in the filling, in order to place a bobbin or quill with this color in the shuttle. this difficulty was met in by robert kay, the son of john kay, by his drop box. several shuttle boxes were placed at one or at both ends of the lathe in place of one at each end. the shuttles held bobbins of different colors, textiles and the boxes fell into place automatically. these two in- ventions of the kays were of great importance in the history of weaving, and helped to bring on the industrial revolution. they made more weaving possible, but the spinning wheels of the day could not provide enough warp. the inventions of hargreaves, arkwright, and crompton, however, made in- creasing quantities of yarn possible, and more effective weaving was soon needed. in a power loom was invented which had much merit, but unfortunately was not pushed. it was before dr. cartwright, of england, a clergyman of the established church, who had mechanical genius, brought out a heavy automatic loom. it was later improved and became the basis for the power looms of to-day. it required mechani- cal power to move it, the hand not being strong enough. the power loom (fig. ). —the hand looms passed away slowly before the power looms. in roberts invented his power loom which had a majority of the parts of the modern loom, and therefore required little attention. the hand weaver spent much of his time letting out the warp, winding up the cloth, moving the temple or tenterhook, changing bobbins in the shuttle, and mending broken threads. the modern power loom is a time saver, for everything is automatic. the har- ness, the pacing, or the let-off and take-up motions of warp and cloth, the self-acting temple, the fly shuttles and drop boxes move smoothly without attention. a detector in connection acts when the bobbin in a shuttle is empty, and causes the maga- zine to pass a new bobbin to the waiting shuttle, which can then finish its path. the empty bobbin falls into a receptacle be- low. a loose reed invented in (a fast reed had been used previously and is still in use) is so placed on a movable retain- ing board on the lathe that it can be pushed out when there is sufficient warp obstruction, thus stopping the loom and pre- venting further damage. when a shuttle leaves its race and plunges into the warp, technically called a smash, much harm will be done, if the loom continues running. the electrical o textiles "stop-motion " prevents this. it consists of wires which drop between the warp threads. if a thread breaks, the wire falls and completes an electric circuit which stops the loom. the filling stop is a weft fork which drops as the thread breaks. it is easier to understand the power loom of to-day, if the principles underlying weaving and the simple parts of the regu- lar hand loom of colonial days are understood. the power loom differs only in the multiplicity of parts necessary to take the place of the human hand. parts of the plain power loom. — ( ) the framework, a, usually of cast iron, which holds the working parts. ( ) the warp and its manipulation. the warp (ends) is wound on a beam, b, placed at the back of the loom. the figure does not show the beam; the letter b indicates that it is below. it passes over the whip roll, c, not shown in the figure, through lease rods or shed sticks to the harness, d, through the reed, f, which is in the lathe or sley, e, and over a breast beam, g (the place is indicated), to the cloth or goods beam, h. a temple, k, holds the width of the cloth near the last threads woven. an auto- matic letting out and taking up motion, m, gradually winds up the cloth on its beam as it is woven, and proportionately lets out the warp. the action is regulated through a cogged wheel set to the number of picks per inch in the cloth. in case of breakage the warp stop motion stops the loom. ( ) the shedding. this is effected by the motion of the harness, d, which is composed of as many shafts or leaves of healds as the pattern demands. (for drawing-in, see below.) if a drawer-in has made an error and placed a wrong thread through any mail eye of the heald, it is sometimes rectified by removing the thread from the eye, taking a new bobbin, threading the heald with a thread from it, and carrying this thread through to the cloth beam. the bobbin is put on a spindle at the back of the loom to unwind with the warp threads. there are two methods of shedding, the closed and the open, based on different ways of separating the warp threads. ( ) the picking. by means power weaving of the picker stick, l, on each side, the shuttles, carrying filling bobbins, are thrown across the race on the lathe, e, when a shed is made, entering the shuttle boxes first on one side and then on the other. a stop motion is connected in case the filling breaks. single or drop boxes or a magazine, /, are used to hold the shuttles. ( ) the battening. this is effected by the reed, f, combined with the weight of the lathe, e. the reed may be fast or loose in the lathe. ( ) the temple, k, holds the cloth firmly at either selvage. as threads are often strained by the temple, it is customary to have a close weaving near the selvage, or twisted or stronger threads are used in the warp at each side. mistakes made in weaving because of broken warp threads sometimes do not show until the finishing, and are then hard to repair; therefore in some kinds of cloth weavers will raise the shafts of the harness several times a day to be sure each mail eye is filled with its thread of warp. warp threads are frequently sized beforehand to make them smooth and strong for the strain of weaving. the jar on the warp is often so great in stopping the loom that a spring has been put on the framework to lessen the shock. the driving parts of the plain loom. — methods of actuating the loom differ somewhat in the various makes, but the follow- ing is representative of the direct loom control by the main shaft: the main or crankshaft, , extends a little beyond the framework, a. it is driven by a pulley, and is connected by wheels with the lower shaft; consequently the motion of the former is communicated to the latter or is reciprocal. the main shaft is cranked, and has connecting rods which give mo- tion to the lathe, e, which oscillates on sley swords. the num- ber of movements of the lathe is governed by a wheel which is set for the number of picks per inch in the cloth. the taking- up or pacing motion of the warp and cloth beams is connected with the motion of the lathe, and causes the cloth roller to move forward with each oscillation. the taking-up roller is a fric- tion roller which moving against the cloth beam winds up the textiles cloth. the other parts of the loom are moved by the lower or tappet shaft, . the transfer of power from this shaft to the other working parts is by a tappet wheel or by cams. by means of this lower shaft, the harness, d, which forms the shed, is depressed as needed by a tappet or by cams acting on the treadles. the picking motion is also controlled from this lower shaft through the arms of rocker shafts hitting the picking sticks alternately and thus throwing the shuttle back and forth through the warp each time the shed is made. the loom is sometimes controlled through the lower shaft or by indirect motion. many consider this gives a more uni- form action of the parts. whatever method is pursued, the important thing is the careful timing of each motion, so that one will succeed another without interruption, injury to the cloth, or too constant attention of the weaver or the loom fixer. looms vary somewhat according to the materials woven upon them. the terms "ribbon looms," "gingham looms," "worsted looms," "plush looms," "double cloth looms," and "carpet looms " are illustrations of adaptations to needs. the fineness of cloth is expressed by the number of picks and ends per inch with any count of yarn; thus in cotton ends and picks is coarse and picks by ends is very fine. the modern power loom has become an almost perfect ma- chine, the modern weave room a bewildering, throbbing mass of machinery. (see fig. .) the inventions of the present are toward greater rapidity and toward the correction of small defects. illustrations of this are the warp tying machines, invented to take the place of the "drawer-in"; elimination of oil stains; devices to prevent slack threads in the warp or bunches in the cloth from almost spent filling; or imperfect action in the numerous parts, such as skips and unevenness in the weaving. a simple power loom costs from $ upward. the jacquard loom (fig. ).—harness looms are limited in pattern, but the jacquard loom allows four hundred or more changes—practically an unlimited variety. the cost of working fig. . — jacquard loom. courtesy of crompton and knowles loom works. textiles on the jacquard is greater than on the plain loom. a twill containing sixteen changes ( -end) can be made on either the jacquard or the harness loom, but the expense would be less on the latter. the jacquard was invented by joseph marie jacquard, a straw hat manufacturer of lyons, france, in response to a de- mand for a method of weaving more elaborate designs in silk and linen materials. his ideas were undoubtedly drawn from the vaucanson model. the loom which at present is known by the name of jacquard has many improvements over the orig- inal. the invention consists of a new method of shedding (fig. ), influenced from above the harness, whereas the harness loom is by treadles worked from below. it may be said in a general way that the principle of making the shed in the jacquard loom is the raising of the harness cords (healds), a, by means of wire hooks, b, to which each cord is attached at its upper end. each harness cord has a mail eye, c, through which a warp thread passes; consequently if the cord is drawn up, the warp thread rises also. weights or lingoes, d, are attached to each cord at its lower end, which draw the cords back into place after the hooks have raised them. the warp threads are stretched between beams, as in the plain loom. in the jacquard harness each warp thread is influenced singly, including the repeats of any one. in the simple loom the warp threads are controlled in the groups on any one shaft. there are single and double lift jacquard machines. the principal parts of the single lift jacquard harness are the harness cords, a, the hooks, b, the mail eyes, c, the lingoes, d, and the beams (these have been men- tioned already); the griffe or hook lifter, e, consisting of a series of blades, knives, or bars, which lift the sheds as do the tappets or cams of the plain loom; the needles, f, which work horizontally, and have one end bent back to come in contact with the spring in the spring box, g, and an eye in the center, h (the double lift machine has two eyes in the needle), to allow the hooks to pass through. the duty of the needle and cylinder, /, is to press forward against cards, which indicate the pattern and are against the batten. the needles govern the hooks, b, which pass through their eyes. the detail or jacquard loom. a, neck cords. b, hooks. c, mail eye. d, weights or lingoes. e, griffe or hook lifter. f, needles. g, spring box. h, needle eye. /, cylinder. k, catch of needles. l, hook rest. m, additional harness cords. a', couplings joining upper and lower parts of harness. o, knots holding heald lingoes to cords. p, comber board. textiles hooks work vertically and are made with a catch, k, at one end, which goes over the griffe but can be easily detached. they rise automatically with the griffe unless the needles are pushed back by the cards, which will throw the hooks from the griffe, thus lowering the warp threads and making a shed. b a fig. . — cylinder of jacquard loom. a, cylinder. b, cross section with cards. the cylinder (fig. ) has four sides, and cards pass over it, coming in place alternately and indicating the pattern by pressing back those needles which are not required to raise the shed. the cylinder makes one quarter of a revolution with each pick of the pattern, thus placing one of its four sides in contact with the needles. the complete design is on the cards (fig. ), and each one represents one pick of the pattern. the cards are laced or tied together in perfect order at each end and in the center (fig. ). when fig. . — card of jacquard loom.the pattern is completed the succession of cards begins again. the cards fall in place at the right moment against the cylinder. if there are holes in the card, they come directly opposite those in the cylinder. all the needles advance automatically, and some of them pass through the holes in the card. those that do not pass into holes are thrown back and the hooks attached to them are thrown from the griffe, thus lowering the shed. figure shows only a part of the threads of the harness. for the com- plete loom see figure . the neck cords, a, are attached to additional power weaving iiarness cords, m, which give repeats to the pattern if any one of the neck cords are raised. at n are a series of knots or couplings, which connect the upper and lower portions of the harness, and at o are the knots which hold the heald lingoes to the cords. the comber board, p, keeps the harness cords from tangling, for each cord is passed through a hole in the board up to the neck cords. the number of cords in the comber is regulated by the threads per inch in the warp. the comber is divided into as many sections as there are hooks in the machine. an iron frame incloses the working part of the jacquard loom. the power is applied as in the plain loom. fig. .— lacing of cards (jacquard loom). there are many varieties of jacquard looms, from the small one hundred needle to the two thousand needle machine. while they vary in some particulars, there is a general standard. the double lift machine generally has eight hundred hooks, two to each thread, and also two griffes. two patterns can be made at one time upon it, one for background and one for figure, as in damask table linen. the expense of the jacquard lies in the making of the cards, the setting up of the harness, and the slow motion of the loom. for setting up an elaborate design requiring four thousand cards and four hundred needles, the cost would be about $ . the arrangement of the harness for such a design would take a man about five weeks. exception- textiles ally elaborate designs will have as many as twenty thousand cards at a cost of $ , and the setting up of the harness would be the equivalent in time of a year's labor of one man. lace curtains are woven on special jacquard looms in which there are three lines of threads, a warp beam holding those which run straight, bobbins holding the zigzag threads, and the pat- tern is made by threads coming from spools. in the ordinary nottingham curtain as many as seventy-two hundred threads are often in the harness of the jacquard. the lace curtain looms are very wide. carpets, such as brussels, wilton, and axminster, are woven on specially adapted jacquard looms. the making of the cards requires special machines, one for cutting and another for duplicating. each design is made first on squared paper in the usual way. the cards are first printed with a series of dots upon them. each card is to repre- sent one pick of a pattern, therefore holes are punched through the dots when the pattern appears on the surface. the worker has the design before him and reads a line across, punching the cards as he reads. his machine is similar to the typewriter. the cards are carefully numbered as they are punched, and are later laced together and hung over the cylinder of the jac- quard. the expense in jacquard weaving led to further inventions by which the effect could be attained without the cards and elab- orate harness. an english invention, the dobby attachment, which is placed on the harness loom, is an illustration (fig. . dobby in upper left-hand corner). the result of its work is similar to the jacquard, but the shedding is effected by a chain of narrow strips of wood (lags) into which pegs are placed which indicate the pattern and take the place of the cards. each lag represents a pick of the pattern. on reading the design for the pattern a peg is inserted when the pattern is on the surface. in the loom the work of the pegs is to raise the harness. they travel around the cylinder and come in contact with the levers which lift connected hooks, and the latter raise power weaving the shafts attached to the hooks and make the shed. a second chain controls the shuttle. multiplier chains duplicate the pat- tern and save time which would otherwise be taken in preparing the lags. the modern dobby offers almost unlimited possibilities. fig. —loom with drop box and dobby attachment. courtesy of crompton and knowles loom works. another method of weaving intricate patterns without the use of the jacquard harness is by the head motion attached to the harness loom (fig. , showing detail). this is an american invention and is used extensively in the united states. the heald shafts in the loom are elevated or depressed by pulleys, but the series of mechanical devices which actuate the pulleys is quite different from the english dobby system. it is claimed that the head motion is simpler and more steady than the dobby. the pattern chain consists of high and low links, which control the elevation and depression of the shafts. so textiles the chain is made of a series of rods on which'bowls or small fig. .—head motion. courtesy of crompton and knowles loom works. pulleys and lifters or risers and tubes called sinkers are arranged according to the requirements of the design. the chain lifts power weaving l the shafts by means of the bowls or risers which come in con- tact with vibrators, and they again with the lifting cylinder connected with the heald shafts. a second chain is used to control the shuttle. a reversing motion is connected which is of great value when mistakes in weaving have been made. patterns may be woven on the surface of cloth to resemble hand embroidery, with an attachment to the regular loom called the lappet. it affects the shedding, and is used extensively for decorative cotton goods. the embroidery may be contin- uous or intermittent. the floating threads left on the wrong side of the cloth by the lappet frame are shorn off later by a finishing machine especially adapted to the purpose. swivel weaving is somewhat similar to the lappet. it is used extensively in weaving silk ribbons and broad silk materials. the swivel attachment affects the picking motion and produces small continuous or intermittent figures without continuing the thread from one side of the material to the other. it thus pre- vents the waste of valuable silk by using it only when necessary. the cards of the jacquard machine can control the swivel patterns. swivel attachments are expen- sive and the action slow. the lappet frame is more economical. there are other varieties of em- broidery attachments. leno or gauze weav- ing departs from the usual straight lines of warp, for in it adjacent warp threads twist about each other in various flg ways, letting the filling pass through, thus holding the cloth to- gether and keeping the threads from untwining (fig. ). the i -gauze weave. textiles fig. . — leno weave. work is a sort of wattling and may be simple or elaborate. leno weaving (fig. ) depends upon the manner of threading the harness. there is a standard heald and a doup heald. the lat- ter can be drawn first to one side and then to the other of the stand- ard heald, and the gauze can thus be made as desired. when closely woven, leno weaving is enduring, but much of it is unsatisfactory. marquisette is woven in this way. the same principle is used for mak- ing the yarn for chenille curtains. pile fabrics. — terry fabrics used for turkish toweling and other pile goods are made on looms which at intervals omit a couple of picks of filling and then push the warp together into loops. these are held in place by succeeding filling threads (fig. ). in cheap grades, the loop thread is easily pulled out of its place, for few filling threads are inserted between. silk and worsted velvets and warp plushes are made in vari- ous ways. good qualities of silk velvet are woven much like wilton carpet, that is, an extra warp passes over a series of wires having sharp edges, which when withdrawn cut the loops of warp. the cutting of silk velvet is along the width, that is, the warp is cut. silk-faced velvets often have cotton backing. cotton velvet is woven differently from silk velvet, the pile being made by the filling, and the cutting is along its length. some plushes are fig. .—double cloth interlacing. . weft back. . double cloth interfacings. from barker's textiles, by courtesy of constable & co., london. power weaving woven as double cloth, and are cut between the cloths, leaving a pile on each side (fig. ). cotton velvets, corduroys, vel- veteens, and filling plushes are really varieties of double cloth. they are woven in a rib pattern, the cord being along the filling. the surface loops are cut by hand with a long cutter in the direction of the length. cotton velvets require a great deal of finishing to make them look well. (see finishing cotton goods, fig. . — plush weave. from barker's textiles, by courtesy of constable & co., london. chap. vii.) in their weaving the backing threads are brought forward to form part of the pile, and also to connect the two rows of warp threads. different weaves are used to form the face and the back respectively, but the two must be designed to work in harmony with each other, or the finish will be defec- tive. crepe or other crimped fabrics are woven in a variety of ways, plain, ribbed, or twilled. some are made by using a sateen twill for the filling and a satin twill for the backing, the aim being to confuse the surface of the material by the way the stitches from the back break the face. crepe is also woven with the warp yarn twisted in one direction and the filling in the opposite. in the dye vat these yarns are differently affected textiles and the cloth is inclined to cockle. they may be woven also with an extra special warp beam which allows the warp to be a little loose, while the threads on the regular warp beam are tight. when the filling is beaten up, the looser threads are rather full and the finishing gives them the creped appearance. wool crepons are sometimes made with the backing threads of cotton. by mercerizing the material after weaving it, the floats of wool are drawn together by the cotton, which is contracted. moire or watered effects are made by the manner of finishing after the cloth is woven. the material is placed over hot milled rollers which are arranged to give a watered appearance to the goods. stitched, backed, double-faced, double, and multiple cloths. — looms are constructed to weave double and multiple cloths, but by special warps and double harness the regular loom can serve the purpose. backed cloths referred to above are made by weaving them in such a way that extra backing warp is held by filling stitches to the face, making the cloth heavier. (for draft see fig. .) the stitch on the surface comes under adjacent face threads and is invisible. double- faced cloths are made similarly to backed cloths, but are well finished on both sides, silk-faced ribbons being illustrations. figuring on a plain surface by extra warp and filling threads is done in a similar way to the double-faced cloth, except that the design appears only at intervals. cloths having long floats of warp or filling on the surface to carry out the design are made with a double warp or filling, and stitches come from the back to hold down the floats. satin and sateen twills are much used for backing stitches. the double, triple, and mul- tiple cloths have both double warp and double filling. they can be so woven as to be entirely separate, and when unfolded make a wide sheet of cloth several times the width of the loom, or they may be fastened together on one edge or on both edges and make tubular fabrics for bags, hose, or lamp wicks, or the two cloths may be held together at regular intervals and thus power weaving . make reversible material for heavy coating and rugs. backing yarn is frequently made of much cheaper fiber in order to de- crease the cost while adding to the weight. shoddy, coarse wool, and cotton are used for backing threads. design, pattern, draft, and drawing-in. — weaving may be very simple, with only an alternation of two sets of threads, as in cheesecloth (see fig. ), or it may be so complex that hundreds of changes are needed to complete the pattern, as when coats of arms or portraits of noted people are woven on jacquard looms. when the hand loom could produce the in- tricate designs which we see in the spanish, italian, sicilian, and oriental cloths of the thirteenth century, a system of design was used to indicate the pattern, called drafting. a draft showed the weaver: first, the manner in which the filling should cross the warp; second, the entering or drawing in of the warp threads into the harness; third, the tying of the heald shafts; fourth, the trea- dling or succession in work- ing the treadles. figure shows a common way of indicating to hand-loom weavers one variety of the diaper, bird's- or fish-eye pattern. the draft has therefore the following meaning: there are four heald shafts; i.e., there are four straight lines representing the shafts, and four treadle? are attached singly to each shaft. the method of entering, draw- ing in, heddling, or threading the heald shaft is shown in fig. b. fig. . — fish- or bird's-eye pattern. a, draft. b, entering. c, treadling. textiles the first heald of the first shaft takes warp thread number i. in this same shaft will follow threads , , , , , ; and thread will begin the series again. the other warp threads are to be distributed in the other heald shafts as indicated. the treadles are fastened separately to the four shafts as shown in c. every weaver has his own regular method of treadling, which he follows when possible, as it makes for speed. elabo- rate patterns can be made by hand weavers from one set-up of the loom by different ways of treadling. in the early days of weaving each treadle influenced one heald shaft, but soon it was found that by tying the heald shafts together in various ways other effects could be gained. one shaft could work singly or in combination, hence, long before the power loom was in- vented, wonderful designs were made with even a few shafts. two sets of harness were often used for controlling the warp. one set gave the background, the other the pattern. damask of elaborate design was made in this way, having a twilled background and a complicated surface pattern. each harness was used as needed, and the heald shafts hung free enough to be used singly or in combination. textile design may be structural (pertaining to the weave) or surface. some varieties need have but a hasty mention, such as oriental rug making, in which threads of yarn are tied around the warp thread and held together by filling threads, or embroid- ery in which the hand or machine makes the design on the com- pleted cloth. the swiss embroidery machines, the french corneli, and the american singer machine are illustrations of mechanical embroidery. the india shawl method of decoration, in which small, richly woven pieces are fitted together like a mo- saic or like stained glass and sewed with a needle, is another instance. surface decoration of textiles may also be done by the way of finishing the cloth, also by block or color printing by machine, either on cloth or yarn; by stenciling or batik work (javanese method), or by discharge of color by printing designs on cloth with chemicals and then using heat to remove the color. power weaving the principal structural method of ornamentation is by in- terlacing the threads; i.e., by the way the filling or picks are floated, flushed or shot over or under the warp threads. to accomplish this interlacing the heald shafts carrying the warp threads through their mail eyes are lifted up, letting the filling pass under them; or depressed, letting the filling pass over them. in the first instance, the warp appears on the surface; in the second, the filling is on the surface. the varieties of pattern are attained by the manner of raising the sheds. other factors may influence, such as the introduction of varieties of fibers, or different sizes or novelties in yarn. even the plain weave may be thus ornamented, and effective ribs and cords given, or stripes either lengthwise or crosswise, by color alter- nations or checks and elaborate plaids. the omission of threads at intervals is also used to gain lacy effects. the great possi- bilities in design, and the elaboration of the draft to explain the intricate weaving plans, make the full study of drafting one for the expert. fortunately, analysis of designs has yielded the fact that the chaos of patterns may be reduced to a few fun- damental principles. in straight line warp weaving there is ( ) the plain or tabby weave and its variations; ( ) the twill and its variations; ( ) the satin and its variations, including figure weaving (pile weaving, double cloth, and lappet weaving belong to this group). in curved warp weaving there are gauzes, lenos, and marquisettes. in the designing and drafting for the weaving of textiles, whether by hand or power, there are two lines of threads to consider: first, the warp or ends, which run lengthwise of the goods; second, the filling, picks, woof or weft, which cross the warp at right angles. the manner in which the latter threads intercept the former makes the design, complex as well as simple weaving depending on the succession of sheds. in drafting for power weaving the work of the treadles is not indicated, as that is automatic. textile designers use squared or point paper for their drafts; eight by eight is a common variety textiles fig. . — design or point paper. (fig. ). the jacquard design usually requires ten by ten or twelve by twelve. these papers also come lined to represent coarser threads one way than the other, which condition is often found in weaving by having a heavy filling and fine warp. in general the squared paper is preferred. ways of indicating the method of procedure on the paper in the draft differ slightly. in the accompanying illustrations the shaded blocks represent the warp threads and the white blocks show that the filling is on top with the warp underneath. the numbers when given at the side indicate the number of shafts or leaves required by the weave. the simplest alternation of threads is called the plain, tabby, or cotton weave. it is found in muslins, ginghams, prints, panama cloth, and in some canvasses and broadcloths. india and taffeta silks and crash toweling also use the tabby weave. see fig. for the draft, which looks like a checkerboard. the numbers at the side show that under the first heald shaft a warp thread is up and then a filling thread, followed again by a warp thread. in the second shaft the filling thread rises first. two alter- nations complete the pattern. when coarse yarns are in use, a two-heald shaft is sufficient. (see fig. .) in finer yarns, four or even eight shafts are used (fig. ), as a better distribution of the warp threads can be made, thus lessening the strain and liability to break. the threads are so inserted and the shafts connected that they act as two, the odd numbered threads being raised at one time and the even at the other. there are variations of plain weaving which give considerable latitude in design. basket or panama weaves (fig. ) have two or more warp threads crossed by fig. . power weaving x two or more filling threads, or there may be a greater number of threads one way than the other. hair-line stripes, warp or filling way effects, can be made in the plain weave by alternat- ing colored yarns in the warp and filling, or by alternating one way and having it plain the other. bedford cords (fig. ) have a line stripe and raised cord effect running lengthwise of the cloth. the face effect is generally plain. poplin or rep effects are made by very heavy warp threads or by groups of warp threads shot over by one or more filling threads (fig. ). the very twist of the yarn will affect the pattern (fig. ). if after interlacing the threads the twist is in one direction, a smoother effect results in the finishing. twills are the first variation from plain design. the three- shaft, three-harness, three- end, or three-leaf twill, as it is variously called, is the sim- plest. (see fig. for four- leaf twill.) the names given to twills indicate the number of shafts which it takes to com- plete the pattern. in the three-shaft twill the filling threads go under one and over two warp threads in the first line, but instead of alternating in the second line, as would be done in plain weaving, the filling skips one thread to the right or left of the crossing of the preceding line, as the case may be, thus fig. .- - shaft combinations for plain weaves. go textiles forming a diagonal line across the material. in the three-shaft twill, the pattern begins to repeat itself in the fourth line. twills may run to the right or to the left or both ways. in the latter case the de- sign is called chevron, herring-bone, diaper, bird's- or fish-eye. twills may be so made that either warp or filling may be thrown on the face of the material. in the four-shaft twill (fig. a) the filling is on the face, for three filling threads are up and one down. in b the warp is on the face, as three warp threads are on the surface and one be- low ; consequently the twill is made by the filling. for the warp- faced twill there would be three risers and one sinker on the chain of a head mo- tion loom, expressed as / . if it were a four-shaft twill, filling face, there would be three sinkers and one riser, throwing the filling on the face, and expressed by / . drillings and jeans are often made on the three-shaft twill. twills are among the most popular weaves. they may run / x t- * fig. . — basket or panama weave. textiles as figure weaving. the term satin or sateen (fig. a and b) is used to designate certain classes of design, such as five-shaft or eight-shaft satin. these same terms are often used inter- a b fig. . — four-leaf twill. a, filling for face. b, warp for face. changeably, but according to some authorities the warp-faced design, a, is the real satin and the filling-faced is the sateen, b. the expression often seen, " weft-faced satin," would according a b fig. . — satin weave. a, real satin: warp face. b, sateen: filling face. to these authorities refer to sateen, and " warp-faced sateen" would be satin. the word sateen was first used for cotton satin made to look like silk satin. damasks are often woven with the background sateen and the figure satin, that is, the figure weave is a lengthwise twill and the background a cross- wise one. the corkscrew weaves are on one of these principles; power weaving they are a steep twill. the twill effect is made clearer to the eye if it runs in the direction of the twist in the yarn. smooth- faced serges are woven in this way, and the effect of clear light /t is (* li /> ///off fig. . — double cloth weave. a, weave for the face. b, weave for the back. c, arrangement for combining back warp with face filling. d, the complete weave. repeat: ends; picks. is increased by the finish. rough twills are often woven with the twist of the threads running opposite to the pattern. twills of various kinds are used extensively in elaborate floral figures and conventional designs, as a binder or stitch to hold together the warp and filling threads, that too long floats will not be on textiles the surface. elaborate combination twills look like jacquard weaving, but are really only clever repeats, alternations, or reversals of pattern. the stitches used to hold together double cloths are usually twills which come at intervals to the surface. (see fig. for explanation of the method of drafting.) in some classes of worsted goods the binder is frequent. the stitching requires care in planning, so that it does not make itself evident on the face of the cloth. the stitching stitches are now frequently employed in all classes of patterns. cheap stock is often used for them, as it gives weight and does not show on the face. cloths backed with shoddy or poor wool are usually rough on the wrong side. satins or figured weaves. — the step between twills and figured weaves is short. satin really belongs to both, for it is a broken or skip twill. the object in satin or sateen is to throw a series of closely twisted threads on the face of the material, with a cross thread at intervals, that the floats of warp or fill- ing may reflect the light. when the warp is con- stantly crossed by the fill- ing, the reflection of light is interfered with. in the satin the cross thread binds sufficiently to hold, yet it is not noticed. cotton-backed satins save expense, and the cotton thread coming to the surface is not seen. when well woven of good materials this class of satin is enduring. an odd num- ber of shafts is preferred for the satins; the five-shaft is much used, but the seven shaft is considered a perfect satin. diaper patterns (fig. ) and spots are illustrations of simple figure fig. . — diaper pattern. power weaving weaving, and jacquard designs of intricate figure work. the damask designs are reversible, but brocades are woven with the patterns on the face only, though sometimes faintly indicated on the back. the filling threads which are not in use in an elaborate design are sometimes interwoven into the back- ground until needed, and at other times are left in long floats on the back to be cut off in the finishing. damask weaving is usually beyond the power of the simple loom, and the jacquard harness is used. if the designer has a four hundred hook jac- quard and a cloth with one hundred threads in an inch, by dividing four hundred by one hundred he has four inches in which he must confine his design in width (the length is as he wishes it). he must avoid parallel and cross lines. damasks are usually designed with warp satin and with weft satin or sateen for background and figure. in figure weaving the background is generally a plain or satin weave. in designing, the relation of the pattern in the figure to the twill in the background has to be most carefully worked out, or the design will run into stripes or oblique lines. the number of needles in jacquard weaving is also limited. the five- and eight-shaft satins for figure work are generally pre- ferred by designers to the higher shafts. the use of color in silk designing brings in a large item of expense. as few changes as possible will reduce the cost of dyeing. the expense of the thrown silk is so great that computations of the amount of each color in a design have to be brought to the exact amount re- quired, that nothing may be wasted. the silk designer must know these points. the design in fig. a is a lozenge or diaper pattern, with six changes in length and nine in width, used frequently in damask weaving. the complete diaper is made by a reversal. fig. b gives the arrangement of pegs in the lags for the dobby and fig. c the arrangement of the cards for the jacquard harness. this design is a very simple one and perhaps would not be used on the jacquard, unless an elaborate central or border design were included, but it textiles i o o i i o 'o i i o o i o o o o o o i i o o o b * o o o • • • o o o o o o o o o o o o . o o o o • o o fig. . —lozenge dksign. b, arrangement of pegs in the lags for the dobby. c, arrangement of cards for the jacquard harness. power weaving illustrates the method of designing and preparing the cards. the numbers at the bottom represent the warp threads affected, and at the side the number of picks. in the cards the needles will pass into the holes and the connected hooks will remain on the griffes, but the other needles will strike the cards where the dots are, will be battened back, and the shed will be made by the hooks falling from the griffes; conse- quently in the first line the first, fourth, fifth, sixth, and ninth threads falling will make the shed and the filling will be upper- most, as seen in the design. the repeats of the pattern are provided for by the harness cords. in the lags of the dobby the pegs are inserted when the warp threads are to rise, consequently the filling passes under them. the first, fourth, fifth, sixth, and ninth will be down, and the second, third,seventh, and eighth up, which is what is required by the design. the repeats are controlled by the dobby. knitting. — knitted goods are being used more extensively each year and include sweaters, underwear, hosiery, caps, gloves, neckties, and braids. the process of knitting differs from weaving, for the fabric is made by looping each succeeding line of thread into the one before it. special machines of many varieties have been invented for the work (fig. ). napped fabrics are made with a background of knitting through which soft yarns pass to the surface. eiderdown flannel is an illus- tration. knitting may be plain or ribbed, or both kinds may be found combined in one garment. ribbed goods usually wear better, but they are more expensive. when the two varieties are used in one garment the article must be removed from one machine to the other, the loops being carefully transferred to the needles. knitted goods when well made are enduring, but must be kept in good repair, for a broken loop will stretch quickly into a large hole on account of the readiness with which one loop slips out of another. fancy knitted goods with open work and embroidery are made by special attachments or on special machines. good knitted goods are elastic and firm to the textiles touch, and have a fair finish. mercerized and lisle thread yarns are used widely for knitted goods. fig. . — knitting machine. knitting machines are circular in shape to make a circular article, or of a form to knit a specially shaped garment which power weaving can be cut and sewed together on a special sewing machine. the important part of these machines is the series of needles — the latch needle (fig. ), which opens and closes automatically, thus making the loop, or the spring needle, which accomplishes the same result in a different way. fig. . — latch needle, showing stitch, i, hook. , latch, moving on pivot. machines for sewing together the knitted pieces or for finish- ing necks or bottoms of garments, or for placing yokes of woven material on the knitted goods, are an essential adjunct to the knitting mill. methods of finishing by shrinking and steaming are very necessary in the final effect. the various ways of knitting stockings shows the method of these machines in producing in- expensive or costly goods. the cheapest hosiery is plain knit- ting made in a long tube on a circular machine, and lengths are cut from it. the stocking is finished by shrinking, cutting, and sewing the heel and toe into shape. a better class of seamless hosiery is made on a special knitter, and is finished by steaming, shrinking, and drying. the best kind of stocking is called full fashioned. the form of the stocking is made by a knitting machine in which stitches are dropped or taken up automatically, making the required shape. a special sewing machine unites the parts, and steaming and finishing follow. the united states has many knitting mills, pennsylvania, new york, and massachusetts being the principal states. chapter v woolen and worsted —raw materials scope of the industry. — materials made from woolen and worsted yarns are among our most useful and valued textiles. the raw material is procured from the fleeces of various breeds of sheep, goats, and other animals living in all parts of the world. the cloths made from this wool or hair vary greatly, as the fiber ranges from the short staple, soft, crimpy, dull merino wool to the long, silky, lustrous wool of the leicester sheep of england, the glossy hair of the angora goat of constantinople, or the long, coarse hair of the chinese sheep. the length of the staple varies from two to twenty inches (fig. ). the fiber of most of the shorter wools is covered with minute serra- tions which are inclined to draw together when subjected to moist heat. this quality of shrinking or felting is utilized in making some classes of goods, such as doeskins and broadcloths. on account of these variations the industry may be said to in- clude, in general terms: — . materials made from soft, dull, loosely twisted yarn of uncombed, short stapled wool, such as blankets, sweater material, broadcloth, melton, kersey, and many flannels, which are generally termed woolens. . cloths from carefully combed, long, more or less lustrous wool made into closely twisted yarn, and woven into serges, covert cloths, mohairs, worsted suitings, and diagonals, which are generally called worsteds. . innumerable varieties of materials made from either long or short stapled wools, which are carefully combed, and combine, in varying degrees, clear surface patterns and felted face effects. this class offers many kinds of dress goods, suitings and flannels, knitted underwear, henriettas, and other more or less dependable goods. a fourth division might be added, though it really belongs to the worsteds, i.e., the coarse, hairlike, combed wools used in such heavy materials as carpets, rugs, and floor coverings. woolen and worsted —raw materials ioi the difference between woolens and worsteds was originally quite marked, for the short, serrated wools were used for the former, and the long, brighter varieties for the worsteds, but modern machinery can now comb the shortest staple wools, hence the difference is principally in the yarn preparation. the fibers which compose the woolen yarn are carded, but not a b c d e fig. . — relative length of staple. a, merino. average length j" — j" b, fine crossbred. " " c, alpaca. " " d, mohair. "" " e, lincoln. " " combed, and cross and intermix irregularly, the appearance being soft and fluffy, and the preparation usually taking but a short time. the fibers, however, of worsted yarns are repeatedly carded and combed until they lie parallel and smooth, and are then closely and tightly twisted to make the yarn look regular and lustrous (fig. ). the preparation takes much longer than the carded woolen yarns, sometimes ten times as long. woolen materials are usually soft, elastic, and of dull finish, and textiles when they are felted the lines of weaving are more or less obliter- ated; while the true worsted cloth shows its pattern clearly from a firmly woven surface which reflects the light. value of the industry. — in the entire world there were in about , , sheep, which contribute annually about lbs.; united states, , , lbs.; france, , , lbs.; germany, , , lbs.; austria-hungary, , , lbs.; italy, , , lbs. fig. ). the wool industries and their connected occupations are of prime importance to the rul- ing nations of the world. in there were about , , sheep of shearing age in the united states, representing more than one half a billion dollars. the wool on these sheep amounted to about , , lbs. this was about two thirds of the wool used in the mills of the united states in that year. it can be seen that the growth and manufacture of wool are large items in the prosperity of our country. for various economic and political reasons the production of wool has decreased in the past few years, which condition may or may not continue. although sheep are grown for both mutton and wool in most bull. national association of wool manufacturers, . ! much of the data has been taken from "schedule k," report of the tari.f commission. fig. . — sliver of wool and worsted. a, wool. b, worsted. $ , , to the wealth of the world (fig. ). this includes the wool, pulled wool, and mutton in- dustries. the countries producing the most wool were in round num- bers: all europe, , , sheep; australasia (australia, new zea- land, and tasmania), , , ; south america, , , ; north america, including canada, mexico, porto rico, and philippines, , ,- ; africa, , , (fig. ). the main countries consuming wool were the united kingdom, , ,- woolen and worsted—raw materials of the states, the great sheep-raising states are west of the mississippi. the breed is generally merino of more or less full blood, but some long stapled wool is grown, and even the long haired angora goat is cultivated. in the manufacturing of wool the leading states in were pennsylvania, massachusetts, rhode island, and new york. textiles nature. — the woolen and worsted industries use both wool and hair. (see chaps. xi, xii for physical and chemical structure.) some wools have a great number of serrations, or scales, but these are rudimentary or apparently lacking in others. in manufacturing woolen cloth the wool having the most serrations all europe , , sheep australasia , , south america , , north america o. oo.°oo africa , fig. .— principal wool-producing countries. is desirable, but for worsted suiting the long, glossy wools with few serrations are best. some serrated wools are lacking in felting qualities. desirable qualities — conditions affecting wool. — the qualities desired in the best wool for the manufacture of dress goods and suitings are present when the breeding, cultivation, and care of the sheep have been of a high character. these depend on climate, soil, food, and the crossing with other united kingdom , , lbs. united states , , france , , germany , , austria-hungary , , italy , . fig. . — principal wool-consuming countries. breeds. careful wool buyers look for the trueness of breed which gives a clean, fine, sound, even growth of wool, full of vitality and elasticity. there should be no kemps or coarse, hairy fibers. the luster and length should be adequate in long staple wools, and the crimp and curliness in felting wools. uncared-for sheep which roam at will on the plains and moun- tains develop coarse hair in their wool, but cultivation tends to woolen and worsted —raw materials increase the soft wool around the roots, and to eliminate the coarse hairs. the health of the sheep is quickly affected by climatic conditions, food, water, and incidents of life. when these factors are good a natural oil or yolk secreted in the skin gives softness and vitality to the wool. a very cold winter, though hard on the sheep, often develops a heavy fleece, but when the climate is harsh and the rainy season prolonged, the yolk is apt to be washed out, consequently the fiber grows un- evenly and is likely to be brittle. wool from poorly bred sheep is apt to be tinged in color and does not spin well; the dead hair will not take the dye, and cloth made from it wears unsatis- factorily. when the climatic conditions are good, the quality of the wool and its soundness depend on the herder's or shep- herd's care and knowledge. the very soil has its effect. sheep crop very close and must be moved frequently. some soil tends to weeds, and the wool will gather the burrs; others bear poisonous plants which injure the health of the sheep. the herder must keep the flock calm and well fed, he must see that the feeding is regular between seasons, and must lead the flock to shelter when extremes of heat or storms menace. the well-trained shepherd and his ally, the sheep dog, are almost as important in the final condition of the cloth as is the superintendent of the mill with his heavy responsibilities. it is only when the environment and life of the sheep are satis- factory that the important qualities of trueness of breed, sound- ness of fiber, strength, softness, fineness, length, and pure white color are attained. the shrinkage of wool is also an important consideration. the carpet industries require the long, tough, enduring, hairlike wools. the sheep which provide these wools are hardy animals, and their long, hairy fleeces are a protection in their battle with nature. properties. — wool possesses properties which on the whole make it our most valued textile for all climates. absorbing moisture, or hygroscopic property. — wool is capable of slowly absorbing a large amount of moisture and of io textiles holding it between its cells and in the very center of the cells. under ordinary conditions it takes in from twelve to seventeen per cent of its weight, but when exposed to very damp air it will absorb as much as thirty to fifty per cent, thus making it much heavier. the legal amount of moisture at present is seventeen and one half per cent. those who wear greatcoats of wool have perhaps noted the increase of weight when they have been exposed for some time to a very damp atmosphere. the hygroscopic quality affects its handling, for the weight of a certain amount of wool will vary under different conditions, and the weight will affect the price. deceit can be practiced, and moisture-absorbing substances are often added to wool that a higher price may be received for it. conditioning houses have been opened for the benefit of the community, to determine whether a given lot of wool is standard weight, and also if its condition is as pure as represented. felting or shrinking. — most varieties of wool are covered with minute scales or serrations composed of gelatinous material, which softens under heat and moisture. if pressure is brought to bear, the serrations are locked together permanently, and the cloth is shrunk, i.e., reduced in width and length, and thickened. tensile strength. — wool is high in tensile strength, although the quality varies in different classes of wool, in parts of the fleece, and with the size of the fiber. carefully manufactured cloth of pure wool is a strong, reliable material. elasticity. — natural wool is very elastic, as may be noted if a lot of it in the raw state is pressed in the hand. elasticity adds to the strength of cloth, and to its comfort as a covering for the body, but this quality is impaired by careless manufac- ture or laundering. an instrument called the dynamometer is used to test wool for strength and elasticity. electricity. — wool is a good generator and a poor conductor of electricity, qualities which are advantageous in clothing. wool- or hair-bearing animals needed in the woolen and worsted industries. — the fleeces of many varieties of wool- or woolen and worsted — raw materials hair-bearing animals are used in the manufacture of woolen and worsted cloths (figs. , ). in a very general way wool or hair (the term wool is used to cover both) may be divided into two groups: short staple wools, the fiber being from two to fig. . — american merino ram. from collins' woolen and worsted spinning, by courtesy of the american school of correspondence. four inches, and long staple wools, the length of fiber being from four to ten or even twenty inches. (see fig. .) some wools occupy a middle ground. the various wools and hair now used in the wool and worsted industries of the united states fall fairly well under the following headings: — . merino (rambouillet breed is used extensively in the united states). . crossbreeds from the merino and other sheep, notably the lincoln. i textiles . pure blooded coarse- and long-haired sheep such as the lincoln and leicester. . coarse wools from the sheep of china, east india, turkey, russia, and other countries. . hair. mohair, alpaca, camel's hair, and others. the domestic clip. —the united states in grew about two thirds of the wool used in its woolen and worsted mills. fig. .—angora goat. . from collins' woolen and worsted spinning, by courtesy of the american school of correspondence. sheep are raised in most of the states, the mutton industry being often more important than the wool. new england breeds most of its sheep for food; the middle states, of which new york had , sheep (april , , ), subordinates its wool to its mutton. the south also inclines more to mutton breeds. the upper ohio valley grows some of the finest merino wool equal to the saxony, but the expense of raising is great, and mutton grow- bull. national association of wool manufacturers, . woolen and worsted —raw materials ing is as important as wool. the middle western states have over six million sheep, but the wool again is a side issue, for they are also kept for mutton, for scavengers, to destroy weeds, and to eat what would be otherwise wasted, to distribute valuable manure, and to improve the appearance of the farms. the sheep thus saves labor, eats waste, and yields good profit. it is in the far western states that sheep growing for wool is most important. in the southwestern states, texas, arizona, new mexico, and colorado, sheep raising is the most important industry, and the range merino the principal breed. the climate and conditions are more favorable than in the northwest. california has different conditions from either the southwest or the northwest states, and its wool is listed by itself in market reports. texas and oregon are also sometimes listed separately in the same way. in the northwestern states, idaho, wyoming, montana, utah, nevada, washington, and oregon (wyoming and montana having each about , , sheep), american labor is used in general, and wages are high, for there are competing interests. there are many varieties of sheep, and the mutton industry is also a factor. in the united states the principal breed is the merino (ram- bouillet) (see fig. ), which, in general, belongs to the short staple group. selection and crossing with other grades of sheep have developed a longer staple. three groups are commonly given in the market quotations: ( ) fleeces (washed) grown on farms in ohio. pennsylvania, west virginia, michigan, wisconsin, and new york, which have fine, not very long, staple wool sometimes equal to the australian in fineness and felting quality; ( ) bright wool which is coarser, longer staple with much luster, from missouri, indiana, maine, new hampshire, vermont, kentucky, and other states. these wools are cross bred with merino, and according to percentage of crossing are spoken of as j blood, j blood, i blood, and f blood. they are marketed both washed and unwashed. ( ) territory wool includes sheep of all grades grown in far western states such as montana, wyoming, utah, idaho, oregon, etc. this last class is usually marketed unwashed, hence no textiles the shrinkage at the mill is very great. some of it is sold on the scoured basis. a few special wools are quoted outside of these groups, such as cali- fornia, colorado, texas, and new mexico. some of these wools are mar- keted scoured, and are clipped twice a year, consequently send very short wool to market. delaine is a longer staple than the ordinary merino, being developed by selection in breeding. it is taken from selected merino fleeces and is grown all over the united states. lake (louisiana) and georgia wools really belong to the second group, but are listed by themselves. vari- ous designations for fineness are given,such as nos. , , , ; the first being the best; or fine, fine medium, and medium, or choice, good, average, and others. the growth and care of the sheep. — methods vary in different parts of the united states, but the following may be taken as fairly representative of the life on the northwest ranches. in in twelve of the rocky mountain states there were , , sheep, of which about one fifth were run on govern- ment land. this is changing, for agriculture is coming in rapidly in some sections, driving out the sheep ranch. the cost of forage is high, if the sheep are fed on the ranches. water is often scarce, owners are fencing in their water supplies, and conservation of forests prevents the herder from grazing his sheep at will. whole flocks are often lost by cold, storms, poisonous plants, predatory animals, and other causes. on these great western sheep ranches as many as , to , sheep are owned by one man. these are divided into a number of flocks, the average size being sheep under a herder. the fact that sheep so easily follow a leader makes it possible for one man and a trained dog to control thousands of animals where limits in fences or hurdles are unknown. the herder is given his provisions, and in addition is paid from $ to $ per month. the sheep ranches have their camp tenders, each of whom is responsible for two or three herders. they supply the latter with food, magazines, and books every few weeks, and move the sheep wagon if necessary. the cool nights in these western mountains clothe the sheep in heavier coats than in the south. a good dense fleece, the woolen and worsted —raw materials in conformation for good mutton, the ability to herd in large flocks, yet to keep together on the feeding ground, are points desired in these sheep. the snow will cover the grass for days and the sheep will suffer from hunger, which if it does not kill the sheep will injure the wool, producing weak places in the fiber which will break in the spinning. if the land is weedy, burrs catch in the fleece and injure its sale, for they can only be removed by machinery or carbonizing. insufficient feeding between seasons or poor food at any time injures the growth of the wool and tends to leave it harsh and dry. the flockmaster, in spite of careful preparation, may have all his calculations upset by a severe winter. entire flocks are often lost or the wool perma- nently injured by extremes of climatic conditions. the flocks are composed mostly of ewes, the wethers being sold young for mutton. the average price of one sheep on a western ranch, although it changes from year to year, is $ . . lambs are worth $ . from the fall after their birth. the shearing life of a sheep is about five years. when a ewe is too old for shearing she is fattened and sold for mutton. when the shearing season comes the flocks are brought to the shearing pens which are usually near the ranch house. the large ranches make preparations for conducting the shearing at their own pens, and the dipping in their own troughs. a good worker can shear in one day from to sheep, and receives about ten cents per head, the average amount made being $ per day. the heavy merino sheep takes longer to shear than the others, such fleeces having even weighed as much as thirty pounds. the average is from five to twelve pounds " in the grease." unless the shearer is careful he will cut the skin of the sheep, which not only causes suffering but also interferes with the even growth of the fleece. the usual method is for the shearer to throw the sheep on its haunches, clasp it between his knees and hold it with one hand while he uses the shears with the other. he cuts in circles from the neck or shoulders down to the tail (fig. ). the wool holds together and is stripped from the textiles sheep in a complete fleece. the shearer rolls it in a bundle. in large flocks the sheep are next branded on the back or side with the owner's mark. complaint is constantly made by wool buyers of the careless use of paint in branding, which injures the wool, making some of it worthless for spinning. after branding, fic. . — machine shearing. courtesy of the chicago flexible shaft company. the sheep are often dipped in an antiseptic solution to free them from parasites and disease. in some of the western states this is required by law. the fleeces are taken to the wool packer (jamber) who sits on top of a wooden rack or framework (like a very high stool) which has a long bag hanging down in the middle of it, and a shelf at one side to hold the wool thrown up to him. the packer drops the fleeces into the bag and treads them down. one bag holds about forty fleeces, and weighs from to woolen and worsted — raw materials or pounds. unwashed wool in the west ranges from the low price of cents a pound to the good price of cents or the high price of cents or more. in general, a wool that costs to cents a pound in the west is worth about to cents a pound in boston, the principal wool market of the united states, and the cost when scoured would be to cents per pound, due to the increased amount of wool needed to make a pound. about pounds of clean wool are obtained from pounds " in grease." when wool is sold in the grease it shrinks greatly in weight from the scouring process, — usually more than one half. wool buyers can estimate with much accuracy what shrinkage will occur in scouring, although it varies greatly with the quality of the wool in different places. foreign wool shrinks less than ours. good western wool often shrinks from per cent to per cent; the average shrinkage is per cent. the average shrinkage of fine merino wool imported into the united states from australia and south america is about per cent. the average english long-combing wools shrink a little over per cent. the advantage of washing before shearing is that the fleece is whiter and the cost of transportation is less. the dis- advantage is the brittleness of the wool on account of the lack of oil in it. merino and crossbred fleeces imported into the united states, are, as a rule, "skirted" before shipping; i.e., the poorest and dirtiest parts are trimmed off. the marketing of wool falls under the following heads: — . sold to dealers in raw wool. . sold to the mills direct. . purchased by order from foreign countries. boston, new york, and philadelphia are the principal cities of the united states for the sale of raw wool. the wool mer- chants in those cities, who are the middlemen between the grower and manufacturer, send their buyers west about the first of the year to purchase wools. they visit the various ranches and learn conditions of the clip. the wool bought is sent east textiles soon after it is cut. it does not go directly to the mills but to the wool merchant, who usually buys it on a scoured basis, that is, the buyers have estimated the shrinkage which will occur in any one wool, and pay for the raw wool minus the shrinkage and a few other charges such as freight and packing. the ability to judge the shrinkage of wool is an important asset for a good buyer. the wool usually comes east with all the oils, dirt, and waste in it. consequently the freight is heavy and the packing costly. on arriving, the bags or bales are taken to the warehouse of the merchant or placed in public storage. the greater part of the wool is sorted after arriving, and placed in piles or bins from which the manufacturer chooses the variety he desires. the merchants usually specialize in certain classes of wool. the wool supply. — the merino sheep, originally from spain, is the progenitor of many of the world's noted flocks. the saxony and silesian sheep of germany are of the merino breed, and give the finest felting wool in the world. merino sheep were early imported into the united states and were the basis of the present flocks. thiswool is valued for itssoftness, warmth, and felting qualities, and is used in broadcloths, flannels, cash- meres, soft serges, suitings, and dress goods generally. the australian sheep are also to a large extent merino or crossbred merino stock. this wool ranks high for felting qualities, often equaling the saxony. australian wool costs little to raise, on account of favorable climate, abundance of food, cheap labor, and profit on mutton. it is estimated that ninety-three cents will cover the cost of raising one sheep in that country, while in south america it costs $ . , and in the united states $ . per head. in there were , , lbs. of wool produced in aus- tralia at a value of about $ , , . there is promise, in some sections, of increasing sheep raising, though in other in- stances agriculture is taking the place of pasture land. in there were about , , sheep in australia. the 'data from schedule k. woolen and worsted —raw materials united states buys largely the australian clothing wools and also some of the combing wools. our market grades them as choice, good, and average. the principal ports for wool ship- ment are sydney, brisbane, melbourne, and adelaide. the great annual wool sales between september and april are at- tended by trained buyers from all the important wool manu- facturing countries of the world. the sydney sales of merino wool even threaten the supremacy of london, and in - represented a value of $ , , . as the sales in london are held the year round, many of the united states buyers find the english market better for them. great britain (england, ireland, scotland, and wales) grows both long and short staple wools. the climate is espe- cially favorable on account of the mildness of the winters, the coolness of the summers, and the excellence of the grass and forage crops. parasitic life, which in warm countries causes losses among the sheep, is little felt. in the sheep raising in great britain the production of mutton and the fertilization of the land are more important than the wool crop. the farmers are students of breeding, and produce many types of sheep, most of them for the dual purposes of mutton and wool. the sheep and lambs in numbered , , . great britain has developed many noted breeds of sheep which grow long, lustrous wool, especially desired in the manu- facture of fine worsted suitings. the leicester is one of the oldest, and has white, shining, curling wool often twelve inches long. it has been much used for crossbreeding and developing other varieties. the cotswold, with fine fleece less lustrous than leicester sheep, is much used in western united states for crossbreeding with the range merino. the lincoln, with very long staple, lustrous, heavy fleece, is used for bright serges, dress goods, braids, and coarse goods. this wool is too coarse for more than a limited use. another long-wooled sheep is the romney marsh, similar to the lincoln, but with less lustrous wool. various other types of sheep produce wool of the long textiles staple variety. the pure bred cheviot, which has a soft wool of three to four inch staple, is found in south scotland and in north england. the wool comes between the long and the short staple varieties. these sheep and the leicester have been crossbred with the highland sheep of scotland, and have pro- duced a type of wool from three to five inches in length, used in making cheviot cloths and high class tweeds. wools of medium length are clipped from the downs. these sheep grow prin- cipally in the central and southern part of england. the wool is fine and soft, and is used for hosiery and flannels; the longer staples are used for cloth. these sheep are noted for their mutton. the southdown and the suffolk are the finest, but the oxford and hampshire are good; the shropshires are classed with the downs, and the dorset is very similar. south america is second in importance to australasia. ar- gentina, uruguay, and the island of tierra del fuego are the most important sheep runs. uruguay will long remain pastoral, but argentina is giving up sheep runs for agricultural enterprises. the uruguay wool is sometimes sent direct to europe, but usually to buenos ayres, which has a big wool market. it is here assorted and sold for export. as a whole the wool is fairly dry and clean, but heavy with sand. the light shrinking wools are purchased by the united states in large quantities. the new zealand wool, of which much is purchased in the united states, is noted for its good color and for its sound, soft feel. the staple is rather long, with freedom from imperfec- tions. this wool shrinks little, and is free from sand and dirt. south africa has , , sheep, of which , , are in the cape province. the climate is fairly good, similar to the american southwest, and periods of dry hot weather with drought are followed by fine rains and good feeding. the flocks suffer from predatory animals and disease. most of the sheep are of merino stock. the best cape wool is snow white in color, and is used in the finest dress goods. there are many other classes of wools which are used in the woolen and worsted —raw materials industries. for the coarse wools, largely for carpet yarns, russia produces the donskois, which have long staple. from central asia we buy a number of coarse, similar wools, such as the bokhara, afghan, and khorassan from persia. from syria we buy the aleppo, orfa, damascus, and jaffa. from india we obtain a number of wools called in general east india. some coarse wools from various countries are also used in com- bination with finer clothing wools. canadian wools are in general shorn from english long- haired breeds, and are used in the united states for combed yarns, although there are also some merinos and crossbreeds from canada used for carded yarns. wool from adrianople is pulled from the skins of sheep killed for mutton. several kinds are often combined in one bale; they are used for both clothing and carpets. the mohair wool, taken from the angora goat, is very long and silky, and from four to ten inches in length. it hangs in ringlets on the sheep. it is used largely in the manufacture of plushes and lustrous dress goods. originally a native of asia minor, the angora goat is now raised in turkey, the balkans, cape of good hope, south africa, parts of the united states, and tasmania. the staple varies in length from seven to fifteen inches; it is strong and has luster. it is used for linings and dress goods. the alpaca, or peruvian sheep, is a species of llama. cashmere wool comes from the cashmere goat of thibet and the himalayan mountains. the fleece has long, glossy outer hairs and a soft under down of wool, which is shed or combed from the goat in springtime and called cashmere. it is silky to the touch and grayish in color. the amount from one goat is small. camel's hair is also used to some extent. the best is from the interior of asia minor from the bactrian camel, and is shipped to china, sold, and manufactured into clothing. the russian camel's hair is strong and long, and is used for bagging and coarse yarns. n textiles wastes and substitutes. — the world's wool supply is insufficient to make all the cloth demanded, consequently pure wool in the raw state is costly and substitutes are used in order that the material may be sold at a price within the means of the people. the united states imports much of its pure wool, but little of the wool substitutes at present. however, it obtains sufficient wastes from the home market, and the re- claimed wools are largely used in cloth production. the manu- facturer of woolen goods uses noils from the combing machines, waste from cards and other machines, coarse, hairlike wools, pulled wool from dead sheep, extract wool, shoddy, mungo, cot- ton, ramie, jute, and silk noils to combine with the pure wool. worsted spinners are not users of wool wastes and substitutes, but can use pulled wool, coarse hairlike wools and some cotton, al- though the latter does not combine well with long combing wool. the occupations connected with the collection and preparation of wool wastes have become very important. rag markets are held in many countries. germany has several noted ones, and some of the wool waste markets in england are perhaps the largest in the world. shoddies, mungoes, mechanical wools, cheap clothing and cloth are taken there and sold in large quantities. america sends shoddies and wastes to the german rag markets. new york city is a center for the clothing trades, and many are occupied there in the rag industry. old clothing and rags are collected, the buttons and seams are cut off from the clothes and the cloth is graded according to color and quality and sold in lots. these rags are beaten by machinery to free them of dust and later are fed to revolving cylinders armed with teeth which tear the cloth into a fibrous condition. the machine wastes are sold directly from the factories. when rags of cloth made of wool mixed with cotton are to be utilized, the cotton is removed by carbonizing before the wool is used again. terms unfamiliar to the reader should be looked for in the glossary at the back of this book. chapter vi woolen and worsted — manufacture it has been said that the manufacture of wool requires more brains than other industries. from the beginning of the mill processes to the turning out of the finished product conditions may arise to injure the cloth and reduce profits. the one re- sponsible for the result must have a practical knowledge of mechanics, of chemistry, and of design, color, and weaves. he must know the qualities of both foreign and domestic wools, that he may select the right kind and color for his varied pur- poses. he must have experience in selecting wastes and sub- stitutes to combine with the pure wools, that his recipes may be satisfactory and that the best results in cloth at the lowest price may be obtained. having selected his raw stock, he must next watch the various processes of manufacture to see that the wool shows the right reactions and results. each step, from the raw stock through spinning, weaving, and finishing, has its special difficulties, by which the product may be weakened or marred at any point. machinery must be watched, or some trifling lack of adjustment will cause it to wear out too rapidly. aprons, brushes, and other necessary parts will give better service, if special care is exercised. oil stains, difficult to elimi- nate from wool, may occur through carelessness. wool requires a humid, warm atmosphere, or the natural electricity becomes too high, yet it is hard to maintain the best condition without expensive apparatus. dangerous dust and gases must be re- moved for the protection of the workers. ventilation must be constantly considered, new labor-saving devices tried, and all waste and by-products must be utilized to the best advantage. irg textiles the superintendent must be keen as to efficiency and economy at every turn, yet must make a product which will please a fickle market. woolen and worsted spinning. — preparatory processes for both woolen and worsted yarns are similar, the machines used differing only in their adjustment to long or short combing wools. the practice is increasing of putting several machines in a train or series by which the wool passes automatically from one to the other and saves handling. each mill has its own method of procedure which has grown up through experience. unwashed wool contains a fatty or greasy matter called yolk, which has been secreted from the skin of the sheep, and dust, dirt, burrs, and straws cling to the fleece. if the wool is fairly clean, scouring alone is required to prepare it for carding, but if it is full of impurities, it must be dusted and opened before scouring is advisable, and carbonizing must follow scouring when the wool is full of burrs. if the mill makes woolen yarns, the processes aim to clean but not to lay the fibers parallel in the yarn. on the contrary, worsted yarns must be repeatedly combed, that the fibers may lie side by side before they are twisted. it is impossible, therefore, to present a series of processes which are regularly used, but the general practice may be outlined as follows, although conditions constantly change with new inventions: — processes common to woolens and worsteds i . sorting or dividing into qualities; classing. . cleaning, usually required to some extent. opening, when wool is matted and very dirty. dusting, for dirty wools. . scouring, for greasy or half-washed wools. there are usually three baths. . dyeing in the wool or raw stock dyeing, used often with woolens. dyeing sometimes follows burring by carbonizing, if the color will be injured by the chemicals. . drying. . burring. needed when wool is full of burrs, which is frequently the woolen and worsted —manufacture case with short staple wools. there are two methods of removal: ( ) by machinery; ( ) by carbonizing. sometimes a burr roller attached to the carding engine is sufficient. . blending or mixing the various kinds of wools needed for a particular yarn. . oiling (sometimes done before blending). processes for spinning a. woolen or carded yarn. . picking. for opening, cleaning, and mixing. sometimes the wool re- quires several of these machines. . carding. usually three machines in train. american names: ( ) first breaker; ( ) second breaker; ( ) finisher. english names: ( ) scribbler; ( ) intermediate; ( ) condenser. the wool is frequently ready for spinning after the last card. . drawing. usually omitted as a separate process. . spinning. b. w or sled or combed yarn. . picking or teazing. for mixing. (this machine is often omitted.) . carding. these machines as in wool (q.v.). . preparing gilling. . combing. the result of this process is the top. dyeing is frequently done in the top, and is called stock dyeing. it is also done in the yarn (skein) and in the piece after weaving. . backwashing. . gilling. . drawing. many times repeated. the last step before spinning is called roving. . spinning. explanation of processes sorting. — wool usually comes to our market unwashed or "in the grease," and the fleeces must be sorted into their different qualities after they reach the mill. some wools are scoured and carbonized before shipping to market, in which case the stocks are mixed and are not in the form of a fleece. the manufacturers, in general, prefer the wool "in grease." when the bags full of fleeces arrive at the factory they are opened and the wool is taken to the sorter's tables or benches (fig. ). woolen and worsted—manufacture the sorters are trained to recognize accurately the various qualities by look and feel, and quickly divide by hand a fleece into a number of parts, often six, eight, or even more, as occasion demands. the best wool comes from the neck, shoulders, and sides; the poorest, from the legs. the useless parts, which are often full of paint, tar, clay, and filth, are cut off and dis- carded, and the remaining portions are graded by the sorters. foreign fleeces come to us with the worst parts removed (skirted); the remaining classes are called sorts. the terms picklock, prime, choice, super, and others are sorters' terms to designate the different qualities for the woolen industry. the same terms are used a little differently in the market. a very fine, short wool is often distinguished in the textile journals by the size yarn it will spin. for example, such terms as s, s and others indicate fine saxony or merino wool. the sorters in each mill select the quality or qualities needed in that special industry, and the remainder of the fleece is sold. the fleece as it comes from the sheep may be graded into many qualities, as fig. indicates, no. being the best grade and no. the poorest. in a general way it may be said that the wool from the shoulders is fine; from the sides, long and even; from around the neck, fine but short; from the back, short and coarse; from the tail and legs, coarse and of little value, and under the body it is short and dirty. a special method of divid- ing the fleece into sorts is used in some of the mills of the united states. good wool grows on tender flesh, consequently good mutton and good wool come from the same part of the sheep. there have been and still are dangers to those who sort wool, especially dusty, eastern wool. wool sorters disease, anthrax, comes from a germ which enters the body through a break in the skin or by the internal organs. many difficulties come from it, the most serious being blood poisoning and inflammation of the lungs. medical knowledge is increasing as to the prevention of the wool sorters' disease, and modern methods of constructing the sorter's benches have minimized textiles the trouble by placing wire gratings on the top, and exhaust fans below to carry off the dust. some fleeces are so dirty that they are mechanically opened and beaten before sorting. after separating the wool into its different qualities, the classes are piled in bins marked with their names. wools from all over the world — white, yellow, black and gray — rest side by side fig. .—position of sorts. from collins' woolen and worsted spinning, by courtesy of the american school of correspondence. ready for use. when the wool is needed, it is usually blown through pipes or carried by other automatic means to the part of the mill where it is needed. the feed. — (a species of opener.) when wool is very matted and dirty it must be cleaned before scouring. this process is required by short staple wool rather than by long. wool impurities are difficult to eliminate. sand and dust can be beaten out, straws and burrs require carbonizing, animal woolen and worsted—manufacture impurities are removed, in general, by washing. as much dirt as possible must be eradicated very early, or the cloth will be injured. in many mills automatic feeds are used before dusting, before scouring, and before carding, as a means of opening the wool and passing it on in better condition to the next process. feeds are built either high or low, according to the length of wool which is to be passed through them. the wool is deposited in the hopper of the machine, and an apron of spiked slats carries it upward to an oscillating comb, which throws the surplus wool back into the hopper and carries the remainder to a revolving beater. the coarse spikes open the matted fiber, the dust is beaten out and falls below, and the wool is removed from the apron and passes to the next machine. a similar feed is used for cotton (see fig. ). in some mills a separate machine opener is found for matted wool, but the increasing practice is to have the feed a part of a train of ma- chines which cleans, washes, and dries the wool. dusting. — wool which is very full of straws, dust, and burrs requires repeated cleaning. the duster consists of a cylinder covered with coarse teeth or spikes, which opens the staple while a fan blows out the dirt. there are two forms of duster, the square and the cone. the work of scouring is simplified by this machine, consequently it is in use even for fairly clean wool. it often follows the feed in the train. scouring. — wool, as already explained, contains a greasy matter, called yolk, which is secreted from the skin of the sheep, and makes scouring necessary. the cloth will be in better condition if as much dirt as possible is cast out beforehand so that the scouring process need not be too severe (fig. ). when this process is well done the wool comes out clean, soft, and fluffy, and free from the chemicals which have been used in the cleansing solution. care must be taken, however, that the wool is not injured, for too hot water (it should not be warmer than the hand can stand) or a too strong alkaline solution will weaken the fiber and consequently the cloth. it is generally o o woolen and worsted—manufacture conceded that poor washing is followed by defective cloth. each mill has its own washing formulae, but potash, ammonium carbonate, and soda are in frequent use. the washer is a long, narrow trough, divided into several tanks or bowls of different sizes, according to the length of the wool used. the first bowls are scourers and are filled with warm, soapy, alkaline water; the last bowls are rinsers. a ducker plate pushes the wool on to the liquid. fresh water flows in continually, and the soiled water passes out. wringers are attached to each bowl, and the wool moves slowly toward them, carried along by rakes attached to the sides of the troughs. after each wringer the wool passes in cleaner condition to the next bowl, and in the final one is washed in pure water. it should issue from the last wringer clean, white, and soft, to be carried auto- matically to the dryer, unless it is to be dyed before drying. violent treatment of the wool in the scourer leaves it felted, ropy, and stringy. a train of machines such as the feed, duster, scourer, and dryer can be attended to by one or two men without needing to handle the wool. a naphtha system of cleaning is used in some mills, and it is claimed to yield excellent results. the wool is placed in a hermetically sealed tank filled with naphtha, which removes the dirt. the expense of this method of scouring has been an obstacle to its general adoption. the market at times quotes the price of wool on a scoured basis. if a variety of wool in grease costs cents a pound and loses per cent weight in scouring, it will take two pounds of such wool to make one pound of the scoured, hence the price on the scoured basis would be cents a pound. wools differ greatly in their shrinkage. the by-products left in the scouring water are of great value, and consequently are recovered and used again, or sold. raw stock dyeing. — when wool is very burry it is frequently carbonized before stock dyeing, unless the chemicals which are used in carbonizing will affect the wool so that it will not take the color satisfactorily. textiles drying. — it is very important for the sake of future processes that the wool shall be evenly dried. a hydro-extractor, similar to the kind used in large laundries, casts out the excess moisture by centrifugal force. the wool is next spread on a series of frames, made of network, placed one above another, and hot air is driven through by a fan; or it is dried in a large drying chest, where it passes for a time over hot air pipes and is then carried to a huge drum, on which it is turned over and fed back to the pipes until it is thoroughly dried. blending. — in many mills wool is burred and picked or teased before blending, for drying often entangles the fibers, and they need to be opened. blending is especially important in the woolen industry, as the combination of color is often the beauty of the finished cloth. the object of blending is, first, to combine wools of various kinds, such as australian with ohio, or with other wools of similar staple, or to mix shoddy, mungo, coarse wools, extracts, pulled wool, cotton, or silk noils with pure wool for the purpose of cheapening the cloth; and, second, to combine wools, or remanufactured wools, of different colors, into attractive effects, such as mixing wool dyed blue with white and with black wool to make blue gray, or combining various colored wools for heather mixtures. blends must often pass through the teaser several times to perfect the combination. it requires ability, experience, and a feeling for harmony of color to mix wools well, and a successful blender has many cherished recipes. samples of different wools or of colors are tried first on the hand combs until the right com- bination is reached, and then the percentages of the various wools are weighed carefully and laid in successive layers on the floor of the mill near the picker or teaser. oiling. — wool loses its oil in the scouring process, and must be re-oiled to pass easily through succeeding machines. oiling often follows blending, being done by hand or sprayed auto- matically as the wool lies on the floor, or as it passes on an apron to the picker or other machines. an oiler is often attached to woolen and worsted— manufacture the doffer end of the dryer. if cotton is in the blend, it is better to keep the oil from falling directly upon it. mills differ in the oils they prefer, but olive oil, neatsfoot oil, tallow oil, and other animal oils are in use. the oil must be evenly spread over each fiber. in the manufacture of soft serrated wools into yarns which will be fulled after weaving, the oiling before carding is very necessary, for it preserves the serrations from injury during the passage of the fiber through the thousands of fine teeth. after oiling or blending, the processes for woolen or worsted yarns begin to diverge. the machines used are often much alike, but, as different results are required from them, modifi- cations in structure are necessary. worsted raw stock, after oiling, goes directly to the card unless some blending is neces- sary, but the latter is less important than in the woolen industry. worsted goods are distinguished by their combed, finely twisted yarn and clear weave, rather than for soft mingled coloring and obscure pattern. woolen yarn burr extracting or burr picking. — short staple wools are often full of burrs which persist in spite of the work of sorters, and of various machines. these must be removed before carding, or they will injure the machinery and be so crushed into the wool that removal is difficult. mills differ in the manner and time of burring. the elimination of burrs, seeds, and leaves is, however, usually effected by two different systems: ( ) a mechanical method which consists of a roller covered with a series of toothed rings which open the wool, and a fluted beater or guard knife to knock out the vegetable matter. a brush strips the cleaned wool from the machine. the mechanical burring is used especially when fine wool is full of large burrs, the advantage of it over the second method being that the natural strength and color of the wool are not affected. ( ) a chemical burring is also in use, which carbonizes the vegetable k ° textiles matter. the wool is placed in a bath (usually a sulphuric acid solution) which attacks the burrs but does not affect the wool. a rinsing of soda and water follows, to free the wool from acid, and it is then baked until thoroughly rid of the vegetable matter, which has become carbon. this method is considered to be very effective, and is especially good when the burrs are broken and matted in the wool. carbonizing is often repeated after the cloth is woven, if vegetable matter is still present. burring rollers are sometimes attached to the carding engine. in very dirty wools, both burr picking and carbonizing are often used. picking, teasing, opening, willowing, and the fearnaught. — (names used in different localities for this process.) a picking machine is usually required after scouring and drying, to open the entangled fibers, but it often comes after the blend has been made in order to combine the various wools or other fibers, and to prepare for carding. the picker is much like the carder. in place of the mixing picker a toothed cylinder is often attached to the first card. the blend is placed on a traveling lattice or apron, and carried into the teeth of the cylinder, where it is opened, mixed, made pliable and flexible, and then is auto- matically passed to the card. the length of time required to prepare and spin woolen yarn differs. inexpensive yarns take but a few minutes from sorting to spinning, but the processes may be lengthened, repeated, or supplemented by additional machines when making higher grades of yarn. carding. — the carding for woolen yarn is done in a set of three machines, which are much alike except in their methods of doffing the slivers. in america these machines are called the first breaker, second breaker, and third breaker or finisher; a condenser often is connected. in england they are called scribbler, intermediate, and condenser card. the aim of the woolen cards is to open and clean, but not to lay the fibers in parallel order. the first breaker card (fig. ) is often preceded textiles by an automatic feed, which opens and blends the wool, de- livers it toa weighing pan,and evenly deposits the correct amount of wool on an apron to be carried to the breaker. each breaker card consists of a large cylinder against which small cylinders called workers and strippers revolve. thousands of teeth clothe the surface of the cylinder, becoming finer in each succeed- ing breaker, and open up the wool. the first card combs the wool into a fine film or sheet, which in that form or in a sliver passes to the second; from the second breaker the film is delivered in various ways, but often is contracted into a wide sliver and fed diagonally ("on the bias ") to an apron by an oscillating feed, which carefully deposits it back and forth, one layer half over and yet alongside of the other. the licker-in of the third breaker receives the wool from the side of the sliver, consequently the tendency to the parallelism of the fibers which has been given by the teeth of the card is counteracted. the product of this third machine is made ready to go to the drawing frames in the manufacture of some classes of yarn, or in others is condensed by a ring doffer and rub rolls into a coarse, lightly twisted roving wound on bobbins, which goes directly to the spinning frame. the heavy edges of the folded- back sliver are separated from the rest of the wool automatically when they issue from the breaker, and are later returned to the hopper of the feed to be carded anew. drawing and doubling. — these machines are similar in all the wool industries, being based on the principle of drawing by rollers. (see chap. ii.) mule spinning. — (see fig. .) the intermittent motion of the mule spinning frame, which adapts it to the twisting of soft, short staple yarns, makes it of service in the woolen in- dustry. the roving, which is soft and slightly twisted, with the wool fibers running in all directions, is placed in the frame, drawn smaller and twisted more, but has still the same character- istics as in earlier processes. the yarn comes from the mule spinning wound on bobbins. woolen and worsted— manufacture skein dyeing or dyeing in the yarn. — if the yarn is now to be dyed, it must be wound into skeins or hanks on the swifts, (fig. ). fancy yarns are made in many ways. colored yarns are united, threads are looped or knotted and often again twisted with other yarns, fibers of other textiles are combined with the wool, and yarns are twisted in different ways and again twisted together. woolen yarns are used for knitted and crocheted goods, for blankets, for staple materials such as broadcloths, flannels, golf cloths, cheviots, meltons, kerseys, homespuns, cassimeres, chinchillas, and fancy dress goods, where the weave is soft and indeterminate or obliterated, and the colors are softly blended. cotton warps are frequently used with wool filling, as in many flannels, blankets, and fancy dress goods. worsted yarn in making worsted yarn the wool fibers must be combed until they are parallel and flat before the sliver can be twisted into an even, lustrous thread. many processes are required to do this satisfactorily, several days being sometimes needed for the work, hence worsted yarn is expensive. after the wool is blended (if this is necessary) it is carried on trucks or blown through pipes to the carding room. a feeder (bramwell) is sometimes used before the first breaker card (fig. ). in some wools a burr roller is attached to the first card. carding. — worsted carders (three cylinders are sometimes used as in wool) differ from those used for woolen yarn in several minor ways, such as slower movement on account of the wool staple; the doffing, as the fibers must be kept parallel, and the way of preparing the sliver for the next process. there are several methods by which worsted yarns are made ready for spinning. when very long staple wool is to be spun into lus- trous, closely twisted yarn the combing and gilling processes are especially important, and carding is merely preliminary to the others. in such cases the first breaker card alone is used textiles parallel the fibers to prepare them for the comb. sometimes as many as twenty-four slivers will be united in a preparing gill box. gilling is done both before and after the comb, but the term gilling is not used for these machines until after the comb. preparing and gilling are therefore practically the same process, and the machines are similar in construction. each gill box has receiving and delivering rollers, between which is a series of bars or fallers covered with teeth or gills. the fallers move on screws from the receiving toward the delivering or draught rollers. as they move forward they press the wool down on a comb and lay the fibers parallel. when they reach the draught rollers they drop below, and are caught on a lower screw and carried back to the receiving rollers, where they are raised to the surface to begin again. the draught rollers move more rapidly than the rollers which are receiving the wool, and con- sequently attenuate the sliver. the speed is regulated by the size of the yarn desired, or by the length of the wool staple. when the product of the last preparer is to go to the noble comb a balling head is attached to it, which winds the slivers in such a way that four unwind from one ball and are united in the comb. combing. — the slivers which come from the preparers are level and fairly parallel, but short, curly fibers are mixed up with the long ones. the object of the comb is to rid the sliver of the short, curly wool (noils), and to comb the long, straight wool into a more parallel condition, called tops. there are several methods of combing, such as the nip, square motion, and circular combs, but the latter is generally preferred. the nip comb is adapted to english long staple wools, but the noble circular comb can deal with both long and short staple wools. the aim of the noble comb is to do the work of the brush and comb, i.e., to make parallel the long hairs and to catch the waste or broken hairs and throw them to one side. in order to accomplish this a series of elaborate and delicate adjustments is necessary. eighteen balls of the prepared slivers are placed woolen and worsted—manufacture in order around the comb, four slivers coming from each ball. the end of each sliver is passed through a ring in the edge of the circle, and thence into openings which lead to a feed box. through this they pass to a large, revolving, circular comb, to inches in diameter, where they are caught in the teeth of the combs (fig. ). the large circle has several rows of upright, pointed teeth, which become finer as they leave the circumference. two small circles, to inches in diameter, revolve on opposite sides of the big circle. rows of teeth decreasing in size are also on the small circles, and they come in contact with the teeth of the large circular comb and lay parallel the fibers of wool with which they come in touch. the longer wool is inclined to remain on the big circle, but the little circles comb it through and take away the short ends, which are called noils. the long hairs soon project free from the big comb, and are taken from it by vertical rollers to make the top, whereas the short ends are carried off in another direction. a dabbing brush presses the wool on the teeth of the combs. the slivers from the balls are carried by the feed boxes on an inclined plane soadjusted that they are at the highest point when they pass the dabbing brush. as the boxes descend the plane the wool is pressed down on the teeth. the fibers which remain between the teeth are automatically lifted out by knives and fed again to the combs. the slivers are kept from slipping back from the feed boxes by nips which hold them. the small circle on the opposite side from the large one combs through the wool which has not been combed by the first one. both small and large combs revolve together and in the same direction, and rest on a steam chest which aids the combing by keeping the wool warm (fig. ). as a result of the combing two slivers come from the large circle and one from each small circle, and are united into one, a false twist being sometimes given to the sliver before it falls into a can. the combed sliver is called a top, and the processes following make it into a finished top. the noil is removed from the teeth of the small comb by textiles knives and passed to rollers which convey it from the machine. it is used in many ways, being often combined with pure wools for dress goods and blankets. some mills use their own noils, but frequently they are sold to other manufacturers. finishing gilling. — the aim of the two or more gill boxes which usually follow the comb is to blend more completely different length fibers, to increase the parallelism, to apply moisture evenly to every fiber, and to wind the tops into a ball which will easily unwind. to accomplish this very fine teeth are necessary in these gill boxes. as many as twenty-eight fig. . —top. cans from the combs are at times united in the first finisher gill box, the result of which is a heavy sliver. three or more slivers are united into one in the last gill box, and by a balling head attachment the finished top (fig. ) is wound. in some classes of yarn no real twist has yet been given to the sliver. many mills buy their tops instead of making them, as it saves expense. combing and gilling are costly operations, and mills having well-equipped plants frequently do a commission business in tops, returning to the purchaser tops, noils, and waste. wool sold in this form often has an excess of moisture in it, which increases its weight and consequently its cost to the buyer. to offset this condition, which is sometimes fraudulent, conditioning houses have been organized to test wool. standards of moisture have been agreed upon, and variations from this affect the sale of the wool. silk conditioning houses were long ago established woolen and worsted—manufacture in europe and are now increasing in the united states. they now test both wool and silk for moisture as well as honest condition of the fibers. drawing and doubling. — the tops must now be reduced to a size small enough to spin, as in previous machines a number of slivers are united into one. the drawing process is repeated from six to nine times, until the required size is reached. in some classes of yarn little twist is given until the machine which directly precedes the spinning (the roving), whereas in other varieties the thin yarn is repeatedly twisted. the product from these machines is wound on bobbins. it is stated that worsted yarn is often doubled a half million times before it is ready for the spinning frame. spinning. — (fig. ). there are two methods of spinning worsted yarns: the bradford or english system, which thor- oughly oils the wool before combing and gives a smooth, lustrous yarn fitted for worsted suitings as its final result; and the french or dry spinning, which uses shorter wool, little oil, and spins a soft, dull yarn. the latter system offers more difficulty in handling the wool on account of the increased electricity arising from the lack of oiling, and it costs more, but it yields a soft, clinging material much in demand. the principal difference between the two methods is in the drawing and spin- ning, as the former system requires much twisting, and the latter avoids twisting. soft yarns are spun on the worsted mule, which is almost identical with the mule for woolen spinning, but closely twisted yarns require the throstle or upright frame, by the use of the flyer, cap, or ring principles. counts or sizes of yarns. — the sizes of yarns are variously indicated in different localities and countries. the united states has two systems in general use for woolen yarns. the first originated in philadelphia and is called the "cut "; the second is used in other parts of the united states, and is desig- nated as the " run." both methods are based on the number of hanks or skeins required to make a pound, but differ in the woolen and worsted—manufacture size of the hanks. the "cut" system takes yards of one-cut yarn (the coarsest) to make a pound (one hank). as two-cut yarn is as fine again as one-cut, it will take yards of it to make a pound, which will be in two hanks. in the "cut" system the coarse yarns in general use are five-cut to seven-cut (lower sizes are seldom used); medium yarns are eighteen-cut to twenty-one-cut, and fine yarns are thirty-cut to thirty-five-cut. the market expresses these cuts as / s cut when speaking of single no. yarn (thirty hanks), or / s cut when speaking of two-ply no. yarn. the "run " system has yards to the pound for one-run yarn; no. run yarn is twice , or yards to the pound (being twice as fine as no. run). fine yarns are numbered in a like manner. in the " run " system nos. to would be coarse yarns; nos. / to would be medium, and nos. to runs would be fine. the sizes of worsted yarns are numbered by the "count." in this system yards of i-count yarn weighs one pound, and higher "counts " are numbered as in the "cut" and "run" methods. worsted and combed wool yarns are used for weaving, knitting, and needlework (crewel, berlin, zephyr, and sax- ony). we find worsted yarns in serges of many varieties, diagonals, prunellas, panamas, venetian cloth, and voiles, and as the filling with cotton warps in alpacas, mohairs, si- cilians, and other luster goods. yarns from the combed wool industry are found in underwear, fancy dress goods, soft serges, and buntings. they are combined with cotton or with silk in such materials as poplins, henriettas, lansdowns, and challies. weaving and sizing. — yarn comes from the spinning frames on bobbins, but has still many processes to undergo before it is finally woven. when skein dyeing is necessary the bobbins must be run off into skeins or hanks on the swifts, and after textiles dyeing wound back on bobbins. filling yarn goes directly to the weave room to be wound for the shuttles. warp yarns require closer twisting than those for the filling. some yarn is doubled before being woven, and has to go to a special machine which twists the two yarns in the opposite direction from the previous twisting. warp yarn is frequently prepared for the loom by winding it on large dresser spools. forty or more ends come from each spool, and as many spools are required as will make up the number of threads in the warp. thousands of warp threads are required for ordinary cloth. the spools are placed on a creel and the threads are drawn off on a beam in the order in which they will be needed in the loom. if the yarn is to be sized or slashed, it usually is done at this time. the object of sizing is to strengthen the yarn and keep it from rough- ing up in the drawing-in and weaving. inferior yarns are often sized so that they will stand the strain of weaving. single woolen and worsted yarns are usually sized, but two-ply yarns need it less. many of the mills of the united states do not size their yarns before weaving, as the extra machinery and time consumed add to the expense. there are many ways of sizing and many ingredients used, such as irish moss, dextrin, gum arabic, potato starch, cornstarch, glue, and mucilage. the slasher is ordinarily a long trough filled with size, through which the threads from the beam pass. rollers press in the size and also squeeze out the extra amount, and a heated cylinder dries the yarn. much of the size drops out in a fine dust during the weaving. the yarn is warped before it is sized, and after- wards is drawn in and reeded before it is woven. (see chap. iv.) piece dyeing follows weaving, but the exact time for it depends on the finish the goods must have. finishing. — the beauty of woolen goods lies largely in the finish of the cloth; and of worsted goods, in the weave. both rely on attractive color combinations. stamped patterns and elaborate jacquard designs are not used as often as in silk and cotton materials. many of the favorite weaves are simple, woolen and worsted—manufacture such as the plain or tabby, the basket, stripe, and check. twills or diagonals, satins, corkscrews, herringbones, ribs, cords, crepes, and double-faced cloths are also staples. many effects are gained by the use of yarns twisted in novel ways, by combining other fibers with the wool, and by finishes and dressings applied after the weaving is over. worsted suitings, when taken from the loom, look much as they will in the finished state, but woolen cloths, especially those which are to be fulled, are far from attractive, being coarse and rough and requiring many processes to develop their beauty. woolen and worsted cloths may be finished in an infinite number of ways, but certain pro- cesses (which follow) may be taken as representative. the same processes are, in general, applied to both kinds of cloth, but when worsteds are fulled it is only to soften the weave, while the object in woolens is often to obliterate it entirely. fulling can be watched and stopped when desired, but broadcloths and other dress face goods are given the maximum of shrinkage. the latter materials are woven both longer and wider than they will be in their finished state, for they frequently shrink one third in each direction. they are therefore woven as much as eighty inches wide that they may be fifty-two or fifty-four inches when finished. broadcloth, melton, and kersey are usually woven with a twill which throws the warp on the face, conse- quently carded wool yarn is used for the warp, for when fulled it will cover the filling. worsted filling is sometimes used in broadcloth, but the character of the weave throws it to the back. cloth woven with the plain or tabby weave and fulled is some- times called broadcloth, but is really a fulled flannel, and is less satisfactory than broadcloth. the present demand for very light weight, pliable broadcloths for women's wear has reduced their strength while increasing their softness, for any defects of stock or early processes combined with the close shearing leave them weak and liable to tear. the finishing of dress face goods changes the rough, coarse product of the loom into the soft, satiny appearance which distinguishes these ma- l textiles terials. good stock and numerous processes make these goods expensive. inspection or perching. — poor stock, careless scouring and blending, inferior chemicals, and injuries in the many processes show when the goods come to the finishing stage. the most rigid inspection by experts is given the cloth after weaving, after mending, and after finishing. the material is drawn over rods or over an inclined plane and defects are noted, marked with chalk on the cloth, and remedies are suggested. these diffi- culties sometimes require that the cloth be sent back to pre- vious machines for treatment. if the wool cannot yield good results, surface finishes, artificial stiffenings, lusterings, and dressings are used. even with good stock carelessness or machines out of order may have caused injuries which must be mended. the material is now weighed and measured. burling and mending. —the usual difficulties with the cloth are unsightly spots caused by knots, bunches of threads, and thick or thin places, which are removed by special tools or by the fingers. this is called burling. mending is required when the threads have broken or the weave is imperfect, and the design must be woven back exactly. the burlers and menders are gen- erally women who are skilled handworkers and sewers. worsted suiting requires very careful mending, as the final finish will not cover the defects, as will the fulling for dress face goods. washing and drying. — the cloth is frequently soiled by the machinery, and must be washed before it is finished. some woolen cloths go to the fulling mill without washing, but worsteds are usually scoured in a special machine in which soap, fuller's earth, or other cleansing materials are in solution in warm water. careful rinsing follows the washing, to rid the cloth of oils, glues, and chemicals, as well as of dirt. moisture is removed by a hydro-extractor, and the cloth dryed in a cloth dryer or by a vacuum process. fulling, milling, felting, or shrinking. — this process is a very important one. a large number of cloths are slightly woolen and worsted —manufacture fulled to soften the appearance of the weave, but materials which are thoroughly fulled lose their weave lines, and after further finishing present a soft, even pile which has given them the name of dress face goods. fulling takes advantage of the property of shrinking which is found in many wools, but espe- cially in those having numerous scales or serrations. moisture, heat, and pressure or rubbing increase this tendency, for the rough under surfaces of the scales resist interlocking until sof- tened. woolen yarn felts easily on account of the crisscross arrangement of its fibers. cloth woven from such yarn and fulled decreases greatly in length and width, while increasing in bulk. a pattern woven in the cloth will be reduced in size. goods which are to be fulled are not only woven longer and wider in proportion to the shrinking which will occur, but must be woven loosely enough to be soft and pliable after felting, yet close enough to be substantial, for close weaving often results after felting in a boardlike cloth. fulling strengthens good wool, but poor, tender wool cannot be made strong in this way, though it may have a solid appearance. cloth which is to be fulled is sewed together in an endless belt, and it is folded with the selvages together and with the face inside. the fulling mill is a sort of huge chest or closet in which warm, oily, soapy water can act upon the cloth while it passes, twisted and hanging in loops over vertical rollers, under heavy hammers or in a trough. the friction also causes heat and aids in the felting. for slight fulling, as is needed in some worsted suitings, a couple of hours will suffice, but for broadcloths and meltons many hours are often required. woolen cloths are not usually washed before felting, as they are cleaned sufficiently by this process and the washing which follows. cloth which lacks in weight and density is frequently flocked in the fulling mill. flocks. — finely cut up wool waste can be fulled into cloth, making it firmer. this is usually applied to the under side. flocks made from good stock, and applied to pure wool cloth, are not a detriment to the finished material. it frequently happens, textiles however, that flocks are used to cover up defects and to deceive the purchaser. the careless choice and preparation of the flocks and the use of them to thicken and give feel to material made of inferior wool, shoddy, mungo, and cotton, give almost worthless material. after a time the flocks drop out and the real poverty of the goods is evident. this short, fuzzy waste can be found frequently in the linings of wool coats and skirts, consequently it has become customary to leave the linings free, thus allowing the waste to fall out unheeded. mill waste, sweepings, and clippings from the gig and shear are used. fancy dress goods are sometimes made having as a surface design white or colored flocks which were added to the yarn while being spun. flock wall papers are made with these same fine clippings, which are blown on the surface. washing, drying, and tentering. — after fulling, the cloth requires careful washing or rinsing to rid it of soaps. it is then dried in a hydro-extractor and perhaps later in a dryer. if vegetable matter is still present in the cloth, it must be carbon- ized. before the cloth is dry enough to be " set " it must go to the tentering machine. in olden times the cloth was fastened between posts in the mill yard, where it dried for several days, but now it is stretched carefully on a long frame, gripped on each selvage and passed over steam coils. this process removes cockles and creases, and sets the cloth evenly across the filling, which is most important, especially if cropping is to follow, for irregularities of surface will be cut. cloths which show their weaves, if tentered carelessly, have the filling threads running a little on the bias, or the materials lack in smoothness. cloths which are to be napped are moistened with water to make the next process effective. napping, gigging, or raising. — these terms are almost interchangeable. fulled cloth is rough and dull in appearance; the lustrous, soft pile which adds to its beauty and strength is made by roughing up the surface to disentangle the fibers and make them into a thick pile or nap, and then cutting them even with the shear. woolen and worsted—manufacture worsted suiting is merely napped enough to make the weave look clean and bright. brushes are often used instead of teazles. flannels are napped so that the weave is softened, but such felted goods as broadcloths and meltons have the pile so raised that the weave is com- pletely obliterated. they have to pass many times through the gig to accom- plish this. defects are often concealed by softly raising a surface and finishing it to look well. the raising gig (fig. ) is a large, open cylinder on which a series of slabs or shallow boxes, the width of the cylinder, may be fastened. the best means of raising the nap is the teazle (fig. ), which is a vegetable growth some- thing like a stiff thistle. fine wire raisers are sometimes used, but have this disadvantage, that they break the cloth when in contact with a knot, whereas the vegetable teazles break first. fig. . — double-acting gig. courtesy of curtis & marble. the narrow troughs or boxes are filled with the teazles laid lengthwise, so that they present a continuous napping surface. the cloth is stretched tight in the machine, a humidifier often sprays it as it passes slowly along, and the napping cylinder ° textiles moves rapidly in the opposite direction, rubbing up the surface of the material with the teazles. the process is repeated several times, at first with old, soft teazles and gradually with stiff, new ones, until the surface is thoroughly covered with the raised fibers. the nap becomes finer as the gigging is repeated. there are two methods of napping, the wet and the dry. in the former, the cloth is kept moist, and the resulting pile is more shiny than in the dry raising. dress face goods, such as broad- cloths, are napped wet. the dry raising is used for worsted suitings and fancy woven goods. the small clippings from the shear are used for flocks or other purposes. shearing, cutting or cropping, and brushing. —cutting the nap and brushing it clean follow gigging or napping. one ma- chine frequently combines all three processes of raising, cropping, and cleaning. the aim of the shear (fig. ) is to trim the raised nap to the desired height, it may be merely to even it off, or it may be to cut the nap close. the shear has to be adjusted to the need and requires care, for if the nap is too long the sur- face roughens with wear; or if too close, the material is weakened. fig. . — single cutter shear. courtesy of curtis & marble. woolen and worsted—manufacture i the cutting surface is a sharp blade arranged spirally around a cylinder which comes in contact with a sharp bar or knife. the two surfaces act as scissors and cut the nap as desired. the principle is similar to the lawn mower. a stiff brush or a set of soft teazles set in a bar follow, and rid the cloth of clippings and dust. steam brushes are also used for some classes of goods, such as kerseys. after the wet napping and cropping to which dress face goods are subjected, the hand, when laid on the cloth, can move smoothly in the direction in which the fibers have been raised, but feels the opposing nap when moved in the opposite direction. in goods woven entirely of wool the nap is along the warp way. in dry raising, to which worsted suitings and trouserings are subjected, the fiber is lifted to an upright position and the shear cuts it off, leaving the weave distinct. the nap therefore offers no resistance to the hand when passed over it. the differing order in which the many finishing processes are applied, their repetition or elimination, the appearance and use of new kinds of machines, and the large number of differing cloths, make impossible a definite statement of procedure. perching or inspection occurs at intervals, and defects are found which must be corrected. tentering, napping, and cropping are often repeated. some mills, knowing that irregularities are apt to occur, have these repetitions as a part of their regular schedule. general finishes. — boiling, steaming, pressing, and brush- ing are all used in varying degrees and times to give a final finish to cloth. some wools, such as mohairs and alpacas, have a natural gloss which is increased by pressure; other wools can have a permanent luster brought out by treatment, and a sur- face finish can be applied to poor stock, giving it an attraction which is more or less enduring. boiling or steaming, sometimes called crabbing, brings out luster, and is employed for some woolen goods and for many worsteds. it is used after tentering with some classes of goods, and after gigging and shearing, or even after pressing, with other kinds. the following are repre- textiles sentative methods: ( ) wrapping the cloth around a roller and boiling it for several hours; ( ) wrapping the cloth around a perforated copper cylinder through which steam is forced, oc- cupying several minutes; ( ) placing the roll of cloth in a steam chest. the material in each instance is treated first on one side and then on the other. cloth which is to be dyed in the piece is frequently sent to the dye house after steaming. it is sewed into an endless belt by uniting the two ends, and is passed through the dye until the requisite color is gained. sponging (decating) of cloth after its completion is necessary to keep it from spotting in the rain, as the luster is so fine that small drops of water injure it. all old housekeepers remember the careful sponging and pressing to which they subjected newly purchased cloth before it was made into a suit. the larger dry goods stores will now have the goods sponged before they are sent home. in the manufacture of woolens and worsteds in england and germany the sponging is now done before it leaves the factory, both for the cut-up trade and the retail. as yet the united states has not made a specialty of this, but some of the largest mills are installing decating apparatus. this part of the business should be attended to at the factory, where it can be done to much better advantage than at home or in the small tailor shop. final pressing. — a preliminary passing of cloth through the calender is often done before inspection occurs. dress face goods are frequently thus pressed after the shearing and brush- ing, and are pressed again as a final finish. a calender is a highly polished heated roll on which the cloth is pressed smooth and given luster. dry steaming often follows to make the gloss permanent, or steaming can be used to reduce an excessive luster. as a final finish a spindle or hydraulic press has been in use for some classes of goods, which gives a glaze to the material, but the calender is taking its place. the method of pressure in the spindle press is as follows: the cloth is carefully folded with press boards between the folds, so that one layer of cloth does woolen and worsted— manufacture not touch another. hot plates are put above and below, and hydraulic presses or screws bring pressure upon the cloth. it is left over night in the press, and then taken out and refolded in such a way that parts not pressed before now receive an equiv- alent amount. pressing adds to the look of solidity in the cloth as well as to the luster. brushing of various kinds is also used in the final finishing. special finishes. — cheviots, which partake of both woolen and worsted characteristics, though in general they are worsted, show the weave, but it is softened by some fulling and raising, and not as clear as in the regular worsted suiting. a good worsted cheviot costs about twice as much as when made of woolen yarn. in the latter case it feels softer and is less liable to wear well. the original cheviots were made from the wool of the english cheviot sheep. venetians are made of wool, but the weave, which is a sort of upright twill, is definite and clear like a worsted. thus worsted and wools partake at times of opposite characteristics, from variations in their finish. flannels woven plain or with a simple twill are finished in many ways. at times they are subjected to the processes of worsteds and clearly show the weave. they are even woven with worsted yarn and dry finished. still other varieties, such as the opera flannel and ladies' cloth, are woven of woolen yarn and fulled, napped, sheared, and pressed to look like broadcloths. they are sold at different prices, being made of pure wool or in many degrees of combination with cotton. when made of all cotton they can be chemically treated to feel like wool, given the finish to look like wool, and even labelled " all wool." it is sometimes difficult to distinguish differences in materials, even though they bear dissimilar names. unfinished worsteds, for example, which have the nap left on, look much like cheviots, though the process of finishing has differed. the former, however, are more open in weave, which can be seen when held to the light. the worsted cheviot has a crisper feel in the hand than the un- finished worsted. textiles special machines are used to give varieties of surface, the chinchilla machine being illustrative of such mechanical finish. the chinchilla cloth is made with a special weave, and is later fulled, gigged, and sheared to give it a long, soft nap, which is well opened and made erect with a wire brush. the cloth is now placed in the special machine, which has a rotary attach- ment, and rubs the nap into small rolls, bunches, or points. by adjustment of the machine these bunches can be made to lie in stripes or other designs. when this cloth is made of pure stock good results follow, but frequently it is manufactured of shoddy, cotton, or poor wool, and is unsatisfactory. cotton warp with a wool filling thrown on the surface is frequently used in its construction. the true worsted suiting is finished much more simply than the dress face goods. after weaving, it is generally sufficient to wash, tenter, brush or gig (to raise the nap which obscures the weave), crop the surface to make it bright and distinct, and crab and press to give permanent luster. fibers are removed from yarn or cloth by several methods besides shearing, such as gassing or singeing, in which the yarn or cloth is passed quickly through a gas flame, which singes it without burning. scouring or dyeing often follow on account of a slight discoloration. passing the cloth rapidly over white hot copper rollers also removes the surface fibers. the electric current is also used for napping and cropping as well as for other finishes. worsteds are usually dyed in the slub (top) or in the skein (spun yarn). a method of obtaining mixed effects such as the pepper and salt, called vigoureux printing, has been used in france, and is being introduced into america. (see chap.xiii.) the use of surface finishings of innumerable kinds is very general. they are employed to beautify, to strengthen, and to conceal defects. starches, gums, soaps, and chemicals are the usual dressings. frequently they are injurious in character, or help to deceive the consumer as to the real nature of the fabric. woolen and worsted— manufacture the feel of one textile can be given to another by chemical treatment. cotton is made to resemble wool and wool to have a silky effect. moire and embossed designs can be made by special machines, by the use of gums and starches. crepon effects and waterproof and fireproof finishes can be given by chemical means. goods are made absorbent or antiseptic, are made to have a pleasing feel and soft finish, or are given weight and substance as well as gloss and luster, by surface treatment. many materials which are lightly woven are subsequently stiffened on the back to give them an appearance of body which they do not really possess. poplins, bengalines, reps, and bed- ford cords are at times thus made to have a " good body," which is a questionable economy to the consumer, as the size comes out where any rubbing occurs and leaves the sleazy material. when materials are heavily weighted with vegetable matter they will deteriorate unless antiseptics are applied, which are often in- jurious in themselves, on account of their content, though the manufacturer may have bought them in good faith. new discoveries in industrial chemistry are resulting in new methods of finishing. the chlorination of wools; printing in light and dark; the production of unshrinkable yarns; com- binations in one cloth of felted and unfelted surface, and giving silk effects in the rustle as well as the appearance are interesting methods of gaining diversities in material. reliable trade journals should be consulted constantly by those who wish to know of new finishes and whether practical results have followed from the experiments which are being tried. other uses of wool and worsted yarns. — felt which is made of serrated wools was not woven originally, but was carded, felted, and pressed into cloth. at present it is frequently woven first, and fulled and finished later. a cheap kind of horse blanket is made which looks like felt, but is constructed in the following way: sheets or laps of carded wool are placed on both sides of coarse burlap. these layers are made into one piece of cloth by means of thousands of needles, which pull the carded textiles wool back and forth into the burlap, the rough jute or hemp fibers of which hold the wool in place. the finish gives the material an attractive surface. large quantities of wool and worsted yarn are used for knitted goods, for cardigan jackets, sweaters, hosiery, caps, shawls, gloves, mittens, underwear of all kinds, boot, shoe, and glove linings, and classes of materials such as eiderdown flannels, used for wrappers and blankets. in eiderdown flannel the wool is knitted into cotton stockinet and is made both single and double faced. the finishing of this material gives it a soft nap. cotton is used largely in combi- nation with wool in the knitted goods industry. rugs and carpets are made of both woolen and worsted yarns, but the latter give the best wear and are the more expensive. these floor coverings were originally made entirely by hand by tying or twisting short ends of yarn around the warp threads and holding the loops in place by the filling. the loops were cut by hand by means of sharp knives. the machine-made products imitate the hand made, and are frequently constructed on specially adapted looms. the worsted yarn is made from coarse, hairlike wools. the yarn is not only doubled and twisted after spinning but often three of these two-ply strands are twisted into one, and several of these are used in each loop. the best carpets have a hemp or linen back and a well-dyed worsted yarn for the face. in good pile carpets the filling is thrown through the warp three times after each row of loops, which holds them well in place. there are many varieties of these floor coverings on the market, the principal ones being the ingrain, which is woven like a cloth with two-ply or three-ply yarn. venetians and kidderminsters are similar. the weave is sometimes plain, but frequently there are elaborate designs which reverse the color on the front and back. either side of the carpet can be used. ingrain carpets with two webs are woven usually on jacquard looms and are enduring and rather expensive when made of good three-ply yarn, but are made in all qualities and prices. they are manufactured with worsted in both warp and woolen and worsted—manufacture filling, or with worsted warp and wool filling, or with worsted warp and cotton, jute, or even poorer filling. the best quality has a large and definite number of warp and filling threads to the inch, but the poorer qualities reduce the amount and conse- quently the endurance. drugget or felt is sometimes strong and serviceable, but often is cheap and poor. it is made plain or with a design printed upon it. pile carpets are constructed with the loops uncut, as in brus- sels, or cut, as in wilton. they have two warps. the best carpets have a worsted surface. wool is used in some varieties. the kind of fiber used for the backing makes considerable differ- ence in the expense of the carpet, and also figures in the wear. flax, hemp, cotton, cotton waste, and jute are all used according to the price of the carpet. after weaving, pile carpets are finished usually by brushing and shearing. brussels carpets are made in several qualities, depending on the stock used, the number of threads in a loop, the loops in a given space, the class of dye used in the yarn, and the material used in the backing. the number of colors possible in a design is limited, as the yarn for each color must be dyed separately. brussels carpets are woven on a special jacquard loom, in which the worsted yarns for the surface loops are wound on spools and placed on large frames at the back and slanting towards the loom. each color is on a separate frame, and there are about two hundred and fifty spools on one frame. the warp which is used for the back- ing is either wound on spools also and placed on the lowest frame, or it is wound on a beam and set at the back of the loom in front of the frames. the backing threads, both warp and filling, are also dyed. a body brussels, which is considered the best kind, takes its worsted yarn into its very foundation, so that the colored worsteds show on the wrong side of the carpet in the midst of the backing threads. if it is a five-frame brussels it will have five colors on the frames, and when one of these colors appears on the surface of the carpet the others can be seen at the back. there are several threads in each loop. the filling textiles usually is shot across twice in brussels, for the loops are less apt to pull out than if they were cut, in which case a three-shot fill- ing is better. flax and hemp make the best backing for both warp and filling, but cotton is sometimes used satisfactorily. well-made brussels carpets are very enduring and also ex- pensive. the loops on the surface are made by passing the worsted yarn from the frame over a series of wires and holding down the loops thus made by the filling threads. the rods or wires, usually eight or ten in number, come automatically in place, and are each withdrawn and placed at the end of the row after the filling holds the row of loops on the surface. tapestry brussels carpet is a poor imitation of the real brus- sels. many colors are used in it. the design is made first on squared paper, the scheme of color in each pick of the pattern is studied out, and the succession of it sent to the printer. the skeins of yarn to be used for the loops on the surface of the carpet are wound on a large cylinder, attached to which are troughs of color which come in contact automatically with the yarn, and print it according to the succession of colors indicated in the design. the skeins are taken from the cylinder, showing cross- wise streaks of varied color, and are carried to the steam chest to have the dye set. when the carpet is woven the pattern is complete, but has a less distinct outline than the real brussels. the jacquard harness and the frames full of bobbins are not needed, hence expense is spared. a simple harness is used, and wires are required to make the loops. the rows of loops are usually farther apart, and often but one thread is used in each loop. the backing is generally jute or some inexpensive fiber, and the face is a poor quality of worsted yarn. flecks of color are often printed on the back to increase the resemblance to body brussels carpet, and thus deceive the consumer. tapes- try carpet which has the loops cut is sometimes called velvet carpet. the original wilton rugs were, and are still, made by hand in england on upright looms. they are of great beauty and worth, woolen and worsted — manufacture and are high in price. the machine-made wilton is a copy of these, and an excellent article, at a much lower price. it is woven like a brussels carpet, but has the loops cut, for the wires over which the loops are made have sharp edges which cut through the worsted threads as they are drawn out from the row just made. the wilton carpet is usually woven of better worsted and backing yarn, a greater number of fibers are in each loop, the loops are closer together, and the filling thread, which binds the loops together, passes across three times after each row of loops is made. the warp frequently requires as many as two thousand threads. the number of colors for a design in wilton carpet is limited as it is in brussels. the french moquette carpet is similar to the wilton, and also named from the town of its manufacture. axminster carpet is a pile carpet resembling the wilton, but numerous colors are possible by a special arrangement for the supply of worsted yarn. the design is made, and the colored yarn as needed for each line of loops is wound on a separate small cylinder. these are placed in an endless chain above the loom, and the threads from each are passed through a series of slots or needles. each cylinder drops in place when needed, and makes its row of loops. it then automatically passes up to wait until it is again needed in a repeat of the pattern. royal axminster carpets are expensive. in england axminster car- pets are sometimes called moquette, but the latter is more like wilton carpet. the terms velvet and moquette have been used rather loosely in america for cut pile carpets. chenille ax- minster carpets were so called from the tufted cord of which the loops were made. a special loom was invented to weave a variety of cloth and then cut it into narrow strips along the warp, which formed the chenille cord. this cord is woven into the surface of the carpet. the principle is much used for the manufacture of chenille curtains. glasgow has manu- factured chenille carpets; the united states does not import them to any extent. i o textiles wastes and by-products. — the large variety and value of wastes can be seen by referring to any textile journal, and noting the kinds of products under such headings as rags new and old, shoddy, machine waste, and the like. an efficiently run fac- tory takes the pounds of machine waste and its disposal into account when estimating the cost of its product, as well as the expense of the raw material, labor, repairs, equipment, and over- head expenses. the final cost is reduced by selling wastes, noils, or clippings, and the effect is felt in the market price of cloth or of clothing. mutton, pelts, leather, rugs, cloaks, and oils help to make the utilization of the sheep one of the greatest industries in the world. countries manufacturing. — the leading manufacturing coun- tries are: ( ) great britain, to which we look especially for worsted suitings and diagonals. leeds is a noted center, preston and manchester are well known for the special finish they give their goods, bristol and bath make dress goods and trouserings, and southern scotland is looked to for tweeds. ( ) france excels in fine woolens and combed wool dress goods. ( ) germany has many large manufacturing towns noted for woolens and worsteds. ( ) the united states does a large business but exports little. thirty states have woolen and worsted mills. philadelphia is the leading city; and the principal manufacturing states, in the present order of their volume of business, are pennsylvania, massachusetts, rhode island, and new york. cutting-up trade. — the great increase of ready-to-wear clothing for men, women, and children has caused a demand on the manufacturer for classes of goods made especially for the "cutting-up trade," as it is called. some mills are working solely to supply these large clothing houses, and sections of trade journals are devoted to these interests. woolen and worsted— manufacture wool and worsted materials width 'price - in. $. - . in. . - . - in. . - . in. . - . - in. i.oo- . . - . pr. - in. . - . - in. . - . . up - in. • - - in. . in. • - - . - in. • - -o in. - - in. . - . s - in. . - . - in. - - - - in. . - . in. . - . - in. . up in. . - . felt - in. . - . , - in. • -i.oo in. . - . in. . - . golf cloth in. . up - in. . - . in. . - . - in. . - . - in. . - . >n. . - . in. . - . - in. . - . in. i- - . c in. . - . - in. . - . in. . - . - in. . - . in. . - . - in. . - . in. . - . m l textiles wool and worsted materials — continued width price - in. $ . - . - in. . - . - in. . - . tweed - in. . - . in. . - . voile - in. . - . in. • - - ° - in. . - . mixtures with wool width price alpaca - in. $. - . in. . - . in. . in. • - . in. . in- . - . in. - in. . - . - in. . - . - in. . - . chapter vii the cotton industry economic and commercial conditions. — the vegetable fiber cotton is of more value to mankind than any one of the other textile fibers, on account of its cheapness, its availability, and its varied usefulness. the materials made from it range from the finest threads, mulls, and laces, to heavy blankets and sailcloths. its value is enhanced by its resemblance, after special treatment, to linen, wool, or silk, by which warmth and attractive appearance can be gained at a small cost. it is probable that no other plant is so closely connected with the cost of living. the invention of the saw gin by eli whitney in was one of the factors in revolutionizing the industrial condition of the world, and in substituting the problems of factory production for those of the home. his invention made the cotton of the united states available to the english spinners, and the demand for cotton cloth gave the special impetus to the inventions of hargreaves, arkwright, and crompton. the influence of cotton on the commercial, political, and social relations of the united states is of noteworthy importance. other countries are depending on us for it, and it may properly be said to make for peace between us and other nations. properties. — the properties of cotton which are especially noteworthy are the following: — . the fiber has a natural twist (see chap. xi) which aids in the spinning of it into fine and coarse yarns. when long, fine staple cotton is used and the thread well spun it makes a strong yarn. . cotton burns easily on account of the natural oil in it and its cellulose nature; it is said to be even subject to spontaneous the cotton industry combustion. when cotton is nitrated, it is highly inflammable and is used for gun cotton. treatment with nitric acid gives cotton more or less a feel of wool, but as it makes it burn more readily than before, there is danger if the material is brought near the fire. many of these materials are napped to give them still more the effect of wool, and the danger of fire is further increased by the greater amount of air between the fibers. . cotton is very free from impurities, and bleaching cleanses it still more. it can be stored for a long time without deteriora- tion, unless sizings and starches and certain dyes are present. if kept clean it is a hygienic material for wearing next to the body. . the hygroscopic quality is less than that of wool or silk. artificial moisture is needed in its spinning to produce good results. it absorbs water slowly, and does not give it up quickly, consequently it remains damp a long time. to render cotton absorbent, the cotton wax is removed. it does not dye readily unless it is made more absorbent or a chemical is applied for which both it and the dye have an affinity. this mordant, as it is called, holds the dye to the cotton. (see chap. xiii.) . moist cotton is stronger than dry cotton. when cotton is heated, as under a very hot iron, its strength is less. alternate moisture and heat do not hurt cotton unless the heat is too great. . cotton crushes and creases easily, and needs frequent pressing. the surface of napped goods and blankets easily flattens down and takes on a rough, shabby look unless often brushed and shaken. . cotton soils readily on account of the numerous fine hairs protruding from the yarn. when it is new and has the sizing or finish still upon it, it will stay clean longer, for the fibers are held down. . cotton shrinks in water and in certain chemicals. this is a natural property, but is augmented in weaving. the strain on the warp threads in the loom stretches the yarn to its full length, and the sizings and starches hold it there. warm water and soap in the laundry loosen the finish and the yarn contracts. textiles the shrinking must be taken into consideration when cutting out and making garments. when cotton yarn is put into a bath of a certain strength alkali it will shrink and become stronger and heavier, and will take on a parchment-like appearance. (see mercerization, chap. xii.) . cotton is a better conductor of heat than wool or silk, consequently when thin it is a satisfactory summer garment. . the elasticity of cotton is less than either silk or wool, therefore the thread breaks more readily when subjected to pressure. . the tensile strength is fair. the cotton fiber is stronger than the wool fiber. india surat cotton is the strongest, and the sea island has the least strength. . specific gravity. this quality differs in various textile fibers, but it is least in boiled-off silk. wool is lighter than raw silk, and mohair is the same as the latter. linen and cotton are the heaviest. cotton blankets and quilts are much heavier than those made of wool of the same consistency. botany and growth. — cotton consists of the hairs (plumose fibers) which protect the seeds of the plant. it is called a sur- face fiber to distinguish it from the bast or stem fibers, such as flax or kentucky hemp. the stalks of the cotton contain bast fiber not utilized at present on account of the expense of prep- aration. cotton is almost pure cellulose. while growing, the fiber is cylindrical in form, but as it dries it twists and when fully ripe is like a narrow twisted ribbon (see fig. ). this characteristic gives strength when the fibers are made into yarn. cotton is often short in staple, but a fiber of even three fourths of an inch in length can be spun into a strong yarn. the cotton plant (fig. ) may be an annual, biennial, or perennial. in the united states it is an annual which grows to the height of from four to six feet. in south america and india a more tree-like cotton grows. the leaf of the plant often varies in shape on different parts of the stem. the flower has five whitish or yellowish petals, which are almost saffron color at the fig. . — cotton field■ showing picker at work. courtesy of u. s. department of agriculture. textiles base. they last a day, becoming purplish in color, and drop off, leaving a three- or five-celled pod, which increases in size and finally bursts into sections, disclosing the cotton fiber covering the seeds. some varieties of seeds are covered with a soft sur- face down called linters, which adheres very closely. this is removed by a second ginning, and forms a valuable crop. sea island cotton has shiny black seeds from which the lint is easily taken. cotton ripens differently, and a plant may contain at one time mature cotton bursting out, together with developing bolls, flowers, and opening buds. a cotton field in bloom is a beautiful sight. cotton belongs to the order mahacem, or mallow, which also gives the hollyhock and marshmallow. the important genus of the mallow family is the gossypium, which is found varying in height from two to thirty feet. the species are very numerous, for the plant develops new characteristics according to its habitat, the methods of cultivation, choice of seed, soil, climate, and posi- tion near or away from the sea. there are many agricultural varieties which have obscured the botanical species. authorities differ greatly in classifying the species of cotton, but the follow- ing are fairly well established: — gossypium barbadense, which takes its name from the bar- badoes, where it grows. sea island and the gallini egyptian cotton come from this species, and the peruvian is probably more or less related. the kidney cotton of brazil is a peruvian variety, the name kidney being given on account of the seed arrangement in the capsule. peruvian cotton has a long, strong staple which spins to medium fine counts, s to s. the gossypium religiosum of india is also considered by many to be a variety of the barbadense. the seeds of this species are black and free of down. the plants are both annual and perennial, the first growing to three or four feet in height and the latter to six or eight. the barbadense grows better in salt air and soil; the fiber is long and silky, and the natural twists are frequent. the yield is perhaps less than the short staple cotton, but the fig. . — the cotton plant. from brooks' cotton, by courtesy of the american school of correspondence. the cotton industry summers, and with salt in the air and in the soil it reaches its highest quality, as in the sea island cotton grown on the land near the sea or on the islands off the coast of north carolina, georgia, and florida. rain in the spring when the crop is growing helps the development of stem and leaf, but heavy rains in the summer when it is maturing injure the production of the bolls. humidity in the air is better than irrigation, although cotton thrives well under a system of irrigation in egypt. the plant is very sensitive to frost. the conditions in the southern part of the united states are very favorable, especially the gradual rise of temperature during the entire growth. the great heat in brazil makes the cotton rough and coarse. egypt with its warm, bright climate, good water supply, and system of irrigation, is an excellent place for grow- ing cotton, but the area of growth is at present too small for large crops. india has excessive heat, and a want of sunshine during the monsoon summer, consequently the cotton is im- mature and short in staple. outside of the american crop, the leading cotton countries are egypt, india, south america, russia, and china. egypt gives two main varieties, the long staple brown, and a white or rough cotton. the long staple cottons are in great demand in manufacturing countries for the making of strong warp yarns, for the backing of heavy material such as pile goods, for sewing cotton and fine knitted goods. egyptian cotton is next in value to the sea island cotton of the united states. the brownish color of much of the egyptian cotton is caused by the red coloring matter in the nile, which stains while it nourishes the plant. it is found classed in three grades in the market. egyptian cotton is much used in the united states, , bales of lbs. being imported in for purposes for which this cotton is better suited than the american. india cotton is grown under adverse circumstances, and therefore is short and coarse. the united states uses little of it, but it is exported to japan, and to germany and other parts of europe. textiles english spinners find it too coarse for most purposes, although it is used. it is adapted for poorer qualities of warp and filling threads. brazilian cotton is rough, harsh, and strong. it is classed in three grades, and is imported into the united states to combine with wool, which it closely resembles. in , bales of lbs. were imported. both russia and china grow large quantities of cotton, but the crop is principally used in home consumption, and full statistics regarding it are lack- ing. about , bales of cotton are exported annually from china to japan. planting and picking. — in the southern part of the united states, cotton is planted from march until may, according to the locality. machine planters are in general use. methods of cultivation are improving, resulting in a better crop condi- tion, and a better yield. it frequently happens, however, that an unexpected frost or a long wet season will ruin an entire plant- ing and it must be repeated. even after the growth is well started there are other dangers. diseases of various kinds attack the plant, and insect enemies are greatly dreaded, for they injure the growth and even ruin the entire crop. many farmers rely entirely on the cotton crop, for it finds a ready sale even before it is out of the ground, consequently the fail- ure of it means disaster, and anxious hours attend its develop- ment. the crop begins to mature in late july, and it continues to do so until frost, in november or even december. the moment the cotton matures and the open boll displays its seed cotton fully ripe, the picking must begin. it is usually conducted in three stages, in the order of the developing bolls. these open first on the lower branches. the lower and middle bolls contain the best cotton. the gathering is usually done by hand, men, women, and children being at work in the fields from early morning until late at night. a machine harvester would be an advantage if one could be invented able to dis- criminate between ripe and unripe cotton, leaves and pieces the cotton industry of bolls, and for which the price would not be prohibitive. ma- chines have been invented which seem almost human, but as yet nothing has been generally adopted for this purpose. the human picker takes hold of the ripe cotton inside of the open boll, and it easily comes off clean. an average picker can gather from to pounds of seed cotton in a day; twice as much, it is said, can be picked by unusually quick workers. pictures sometimes show the cotton pickers with baskets, but at present they more commonly use long sacks slung over the shoulder and trailing after the picker as he goes along on padded knees. the average pay for gathering pounds of seed cotton is forty to fifty cents. the cost of picking the crop is a large item, especially in low-priced cotton. careless work is only too common, and affects the cleanness of the fiber. the seed cot- ton is taken to the nearest gin house, where it is delivered to the gins, usually through suction pipes. cotton ginning. — after cotton is gathered the seeds must be removed. there are two kinds of gins in general use for this purpose, the saw gin (fig. ), which was eli whitney's invention in , and the roller gin, which is probably the descendant of the churka gin of india. eli whitney, a north- ern man, was teaching in a cotton district of the south. he saw that cleaning cotton was a laborious task, and that a method of facilitating the work was needed. his machine consisted of a drum with wire hooks or teeth, which rotated against a grate, on the other side of which was the seed cotton. the teeth caught the fiber and drew it through the bars, leaving the seeds to drop to the ground, and a brush took the cotton from the drum. the modern saw gin is an improvement on the whitney gin. where two men before whitney's time could clean two pounds a day by hand, at the present time two men can remove the cotton from the wagon, attend six gins and clean twenty- four thousand pounds a day; i.e., each saw gin cleans at least four thousand pounds a day. the modern gin has a series of circular saws, forty or eighty on a shaft, which project through textiles a slotted plate. the seed cotton is received at a and carried against the picker roll c and the saws e. the seeds drop below and the brush / carries the lint cotton to a flue to be carried to the condenser. a single gin may be used, or a number may fig. . — the saw gin. from brooks' cotton, by courtesy of the american school of correspondence. be combined, called a battery. one flue may be used for all the gins, or there may be one for each. the cotton is somewhat cleaned and straightened as it passes through the flue. a - saw gin revolving at revolutions per minute will gin about pounds a day. the saw gin is suited to short-stapled cot- ton. the fibers of the lint after ginning are crisscross, entangled, and often full of specks and dirt. several machines must fol- low in order to lay the cotton in parallel order and clean it. the cotton industry saw gins tear and snarl the cotton, consequently many advocate the slower method of the roller gin, although it adds to the expense. gins which do less damage yet work rapidly are needed, and a combing gin has been brought out which claims to clean as much cotton per day as the saw gin without its in- jury and waste, and to leave it in better condition for spinning. the roller gin is principally used for cleaning sea island and long staple cottons. the cotton is fed to a hopper, which has rollers at the bottom covered with rough walrus leather which seize the fiber. a fixed "doctor" knife presses against a roller and draws the fiber between the roller and the knife. the seeds, drawn to the point where the knife touches the roller, are gently but swiftly pushed off by two blades which strike the cotton alternately. the lint is carried on by the rollers and swept off by brushes. a recent roller gin cleans about two bales a day, or about a thousand pounds. the seeds, which are covered with down or linters, are ginned and are then sent to the oil presses, which are frequently in- stalled in the gin houses. baling. — the baling of american cotton follows the con- denser after ginning. the method of reducing the bulk of the cotton is by a screw, steam, or hydraulic power, according to the equipment used. a covering of jute is fastened by steel bands around the contracted mass. the bales from the farms generally are not tightly packed, and will not stand long trans- portation, consequently the railroad and steamship companies have compresses which give a special baling before shipping. the morse lever press is in general use. the cotton is de- livered to a special receptacle and a sudden pressure of terrific force ( , , lbs. to the bale) acts on the entire mass, thereby reducing it to a fraction of its original height. the covering and steel bands are fastened about it before the pressure is removed. the elasticity of the cotton and the air compressed in it cause the bale to spring to the turtleback shape character- istic of american bales. the size is usually for uncompressed textiles cotton " high, " wide, and " deep. the compressed cot- ton bale is approximately " high, " wide, and " deep. these figures are obtained from actual measurement of a number of bales. the weight is about lbs. the tare (covering, bands, etc.) is at least or lbs. foreign buyers are allowed per cent off the price for the tare, but additional weight is often added wrongfully. the poor and easily deteriorated jute covering gives way with the strain of hauling the heavy bale around with great hooks; the buyers tear cotton from the bale to test it; the cotton is subject to fire, and it is soiled and often weighty with water. the statement is made in a report of the department of agriculture that our cotton bale is "the clumsiest, dirtiest, most expensive, and most wasteful package in which cotton, or in fact any commodity of like value, is any- where put up. it has no friends among manufacturers, buyers, shippers, insurers, or producers. custom seems alone responsi- ble for this incubus on the industry." (bulletin no. , the cotton plant.) the bales of cotton from other countries (fig. ) reach their destination in much better condition. the egyptian bale ( lbs.) is long, smoothly covered, and easily packed in the ships, so that the cost of carrying is reduced and the loss from dirt and bursting bales is much less. the india bale weighs lbs., being smaller and of greater density than the american bale. the bale for sea island cotton is less tightly packed, and weighs lbs. the american cotton company has invented a bale, compressed in the cylindrical form by the bessonette press, which offers many advantages, but for various reasons it has not been popular and is little used. the industry in the united states. — the united states produces the bulk of the cotton used in the world (fig. ). the actual growth of cotton in this country during and marketed between sept. , , and aug. , , was about , , bales of lbs. the entire world crop was estimated as equivalent to , , bales. the importations of foreign cottons into the united states in fig. . — cotton bales. american bale in upper left-hand corner. u. s. dedt. of agriculture, tiul. . the cotton industry numerous agricultural varieties which are roughly classed as ( ) cotton of the atlantic states, or upland cotton, which is short in staple; ( ) gulf cotton, a longer staple grown on the low lands of the states near the gulf of mexico; and ( ) peeler cotton, a general term for good cotton grown in the states along the mississippi river. another classification which fig. . — cotton on the seed. from brooks' cotton, by courtesy of the american school of correspondence. is virtually the same is ( ) cotton grown on the uplands of the southern states with a staple of j to one inch; ( ) cotton grown on swamp and bottom lands with a staple of if to ij inches, and ( ) extra or fancy cotton with a staple of if to if inches. the short staple cottons are principally used for filling yarns, the long staple are used for fine yarns, and the extra and fancy cottons for thread, velveteens, and when mixed with brown egyp- tian for hosiery yarns. sea island cotton is the most valuable in the world, being i o textiles noted for its length and silky appearance. it is grown on rather a limited area on the low, flat islands or coast lands of georgia, south carolina, and florida, and to some extent in the west indies. a very beautiful variety is grown in the barbadoes and sells at about fifty cents per pound, but the crop is all taken by a thread manufacturer. sea island cotton is used for the finest yarns, from s to even s; for fine mousselines, laces, mixtures with silk, and for a good quality of sewing thread. it ranges in price from seventeen to twenty-four cents per pound. egyptian cotton, which most resembles it, sells far below it. in - the crop was , bales, of which , were consumed at home, , went to great britain, and the rest to the continent. classification. — american cottons are graded under set terms which carry special prices, based on the condition of standard middling upland cotton. grades above or below this are measured by the condition of the standard; i.e., the price of standard middling is the basis; better grades are listed as fractions above this, and the poorer as fractions below. the price is determined by a committee of experts of the new york cotton exchange, who know the state of the crop and trade. contracts for cotton to be filled in the future may supply the demand a little above or below the grade mentioned, as crop conditions are uncertain. american cotton in is found under six full grades. half grades are shown by the prefix "strict." quarter grades are indicated by the prefixes " fully" or " barely," as fully good middling and barely good middling. in trade journals the quotations are sometimes under initials which indicate the grades, such as f. for fair, and s. m. for strict middling. there is a tendency as cotton changes in condition from season to season to add new terms for the high- est and lowest grades. the words "tinged" or "stained" indicate color variations. the term "linters " is used for the short fibers taken from the seeds by delinting in a second gin- ning. low grade unbleached cloth, batting, coarse yarns, and the cotton industry carpet linings in which the clinging pieces of seeds are of no detriment, and artificial silk are made from the linters. the principal cotton shipping ports of the united states in the south are new orleans, galveston, memphis, norfolk, charleston, wilmington, savannah, mobile, and pensacola. the cottons that are sent from these ports are frequently called by the names of the shipping places, although the contents of the bales may differ greatly in condition. new york city ships a large number of bales to foreign countries. by-products and wastes. — during the past half century the by-products of cotton have assumed a large place in the financial world. at one time the seeds were thrown away after the ginning, but they are now used to advantage. in there were approximately , , lbs. of linters alone. the by-products are: first, the linters or the down, which is left on the seeds after the seed cotton is removed. this is removed and used for poor grades of cotton cloth. second, the seeds, which are pressed by special machinery and yield cottonseed oil, which is now largely used as a food and also has important industrial applications. the meal which re- mains is used for cattle food. the hulls give bran, fiber out of which high grade paper may be made, fuel, and fertilizers. in the spinning mills there is much cotton waste from the machines, which is sold to be used for cheaper grades of material, for cleaning machinery, or for other purposes. the rags left from used-up cotton garments are sold principally for the making of paper. judging and testing. — the important qualities of cotton are length of staple, strength, fineness, smoothness, uniformity, color, cleanliness, and pliability. the cottons of different coun- tries vary in these qualities, and consequently are adapted to the manufacture of different kinds of cloth. american cotton in general is noted for its whiteness, cleanliness, and regularity of staple. sea island cotton from the united states is noted for its length and silkiness, closely resembling spun silk. new textiles orleans cotton is renowned for its extreme regularity of staple, which does not vary a fraction of an inch. cotton manufac- turers and buyers know the qualities of the different cottons, though temporary climatic conditions and methods of culti- vation sometimes cause changes. each season the cotton buy- ers must test the crop to select what they need. the cotton is generally in bales from which pieces are extracted with a hook. the buyer considers ( ) the general look and feel of the cotton and whether it is clean (a few pieces of leaf do not matter, but if it is full of sand it is almost valueless for spinning); ( ) strength and resistance are tested by pulling the fibers apart between the fingers and thumbs, and by a sudden jerk on the fibers; ( ) length of staple and uniformity of growth are esti- mated by laying several groups of fibers on the dark coat sleeve and noting their appearance. the term "spot" cotton indi- cates that the cotton can be chosen by the buyer himself, usually in some large cotton market or in some port. the tendency is to decrease these annual sales at some intermediate market for more direct contact of producer and consumer, which will save cost. many bales of cotton are partly burned on account of in- flammability. sales of such injured cotton are attended by buyers who bid at a lowered price. complaints of the american crop are incessant, and many of them are well justified. the faults should be corrected, if we wish to keep our hold on the world's market. defective ginning causes the fibers to knot, which will later interfere with smooth spinning, for the knots persist, and show as dense white spots in the web as it comes from the carding engine, and finally as irregularities in the finished yarn. these knots are called neps. the content of a bale is likely to vary greatly in value, as cottons of different length staple may have been ginned and baled together. this condition is trying to the spinner, for it makes uneven yarn. an excess of moisture is frequently found in the bales, which increases the weight. the cotton industry cotton may vary in moisture from ! to § per cent. if it is above io| per cent it is not considered normal, and a rebate of price is demanded. there is also complaint of the amount of tare found in some bales. foreign buyers are allowed per cent off the price ( pounds off a -pound bale) for bagging, iron bands, etc., but when opened the bales are sometimes found to contain foreign matter which unduly increases the weight. if the buyer accepts the thirty pounds off, he may find when he opens the bale that there is much more tare in it than he was allowed. if he insists on having the cover taken off and the bale weighed before purchasing, he has to bear an added ex- pense, and may find it unnecessary. foreign lands complain that our -pound bales are too big and unwieldy, that our system of baling injures the fiber, that the jute covering of our bales easily deteriorates, that when they arrive in foreign coun- tries they are in worse condition than the bales of any other country in the world, and that the cotton is often mildewed or burned. our manufacturers' association protests against these conditions and claims that it is entirely possible to gin and bale better and with profit to us in the end. cotton spinning has long been an important industry in new england and in recent years has grown rapidly in the south. the southern mills in - consumed more cotton than did the mills of the north. the preparatory pro- cesses of cotton spinning differ according to the fineness of the yarn desired. early steps are repeated when greater cleanli- ness is needed and for higher counts of yarn; machines are repeated or even new ones are introduced. the general aim in cotton spinning may be said to be ( ) to clean by opening, beating, and fanning; ( ) to lay the fibers parallel by carding or even combing; ( ) to unite and draw out the fibers, and ( ) to twist them into yarn. the constant tension on the fiber, and the millions of teeth which pass through it, reduce its strength. when cotton is poorly picked, ginned, or baled, it requires repeated cleaning to prepare it for spinning, hence it textiles may be greatly weakened. when the preparatory processes have been carefully conducted, the number of machines may be reduced. there is also more waste when cotton has to pass through many mechanical processes, which adds to the expense of the cloth. cotton is spun best in a humid atmosphere. the southern states have a damper climate than the northern, but the climate in america is less satisfactory for spinning than that of england. humidifiers are used in good spinning mills. the following processes of cotton spinning and manufacture are representative: — bale opening. cutting the metal bands and allowing the cotton to ex- pand from its great pressure. bale breaking or cotton pulling. a machine which opens up and mixes the staples of various cottons of the same length is used in some mills. the process, however, is still done by hand. picking, opening, willowing, and scutching. (these terms are all used for similar processes.) the feed, the breaker picker, the intermediate picker, and the finisher picker of american mills cover the processes of clean- ing and opening previous to carding. the result of the pickers is a wide lap wound into a roll. carding and often double carding of fine yarn may be required. the results of these machines are slivers. combing, used only in preparing the finest yarns. a sliver lap machine is required, if combing follows carding. the result of combing is a sliver. drawing, — usually three or more machines. the result is a small sliver. stubbing, by a bobbin and fly frame. a slight twist is now required in the product to give strength as the sliver has become attenuated. it is wound on a bobbin to be delivered to the next machine. intermediate stubbing, by a bobbin and fly frame. the result is a twisted sliver wound on a bobbin for the roving frame. roving by bobbin and fly frame. a final slubbing when the soft rove is prepared for spinning. it is wound on a bobbin. spinning. the frame and mule are both in use, but the former is found more frequently. doubling and twisting. the yarns are prepared in various ways. bleaching, dyeing, mercerizing, and gassing of the yarn. these processes are used as necessary. the yarn may be dyed in skeins or warps. winding, spooling, and warping preparatory to weaving. the cotton industry sizing or slashing to prepare the yarn to bear the strain of weaving. drawing-in to thread up the loom. weaving. finishing as needed, the principal methods being: pressing and glazing, starching and calendering, napping, bleaching, beetling, printing. these processes are given in more detail below: — the bale breaker or cotton puller is much like the wool picker. cotton from different bales is carried on traveling lattices to the breaker, and is loosened up by means of four pairs of coarsely spiked rollers or beaters, each pair of which revolves more rapidly than those before it. it is thus prepared for the feed of the openers or pickers. picker, opener, willower, and scutcher. — in india cotton was originally opened by beating with willow wands to open up the staple. the mechanical means of doing this was called willowing. the term "scutching," which means beating, was used in england for a more advanced wil- lowing corresponding to the work of the in- termediate picker and finisher picker of the american mills. the picker room of the usual cotton mill con- tains a number of trains of pickers, the object of each being to open out the cotton that the sand, neps, leaves, and dust may be eliminated, and to form the lint into an increasingly even and filmy lap. the first machine in the train is an automatic hopper feed (fig. ) which connects with the breaker picker (sometimes called cotton opener). the machine is similar to textiles the bramwell feed. steel pins on an endless apron open the cotton, which is stripped off by a doffer and carried by an apron to the breaker picker. breaker picker; intermediate picker; finisher picker. — the object and method of these machines are similar. the cotton fiber becomes cleaner, softer, and more parallel. the film is finally rolled into a wide lap to be taken to the carder. in the first or breaker picker the cotton is beaten by spikes or knives, and driven against cleaning bars or a grate where the dust falls out. the cleaned cotton is carried by a fan to a cage (a cylinder filled with small holes through which the air rushes), and the soft fiber clings to the outer surface of the cage to be carried by guide rollers to the second machine or intermediate picker. four laps of cotton from the breaker picker are united. the intermediate picker has two or three blades with rather sharp edges which strike the cotton about two thousand or more times a minute. the cotton is then thrown on cleaning bars and carried to a cage as in the first picker. the sheet of cotton thus made is pressed between rollers into a lap wound on bars. in england these two pickers are often called a double opener. a finisher picker, similar to the scutcher of the english mills, is often used, in which about four rolls from the intermediate picker are united, the rolls being laid on an apron and unfolding over one another (fig. ). the cotton is beaten by a two- or three- bladed beater as in the intermediate and made into a lap for the carder. attached to these machines are special parts to even the lap and measure the amount of cotton. the best classes of cotton are sometimes clean enough to require fewer than three pickers. carding (see fig. ). — this is a very important process. the aim is to clean and lay parallel the fibers. the wide lap from the previous machine is placed at the back of the card and fed to the great cylinder by the licker-in. the revolving flat card is in use for cotton, and closely resembles the wool card (see fig. ), but has narrow flat bars filled with teeth fastened in an endless chain over the big cylinder in place of the small textiles worker and stripper cylinders of the wool card. the flats press the cotton on the teeth of the big cylinder and take out the neps and poor fiber, the action being like a comb pressing against a wire brush. the teeth of the flats are set in an opposite direc- tion to the teeth of the cylinder. after the cotton is carded by the flats, it is passed to the doffer, but the waste cotton is brushed off in another direction. a cotton cylinder has often or teeth on one square inch. the large cylinder may have from four to six million teeth, and the speed is sometimes feet per minute. the strain on the fiber can perhaps be appreciated. a great deal of dirt is taken from the cotton in carding, and falls into a receptacle below. the thin veil of cotton is taken off the cylinder by the doffer, reduced to a nar- row sliver by being passed through an eye or between rollers, or by a method of leather divisions in the apron, and then drops coiled into a can. for fine yarn the carding process is repeated, such yarns being designated as "double carded." the waste cotton from the card is used for many purposes, and special carders are now on the market which prepare yarn from it to be used for inferior grades of cloth. a lap winder prepares the card waste to pass through its own special carder. combing. — cotton is combed when a very fine grade of yarn is needed. it is employed usually for long staple fibers, such as sea island, florida, long stapled american, and egyp- tian. this yarn is used for sewing threads, fine knitted under- wear, mousselines, and silk substitutes. short stapled cottons can also be combed by the newer combing machines. the machine follows carding or double carding. slivers from the card are first united on the sliver lap machine and made into a lap to be fed to the comber. the machine extracts short ends of cotton and impurities, selects fibers of even length and lays them parallel and overlapping, and finally forms a sliver. the method of combing is intermittent, and is accomplished by a nip holding a bunch of fibers, while cylinders covered with card clothing — the needles gradually becoming finer — comb the cotton industry them out first from one end and then from the other. the newly combed fiber is then lapped over that previously combed, and the united fibers are combed again by a suspended comb and finally attenuated into a sliver (fig. ). the result is a fig. . — detail of combing machine, showing nip holding the sliver against the comb. very silky product. the short, rough ends are conducted out of the machine. naturally there is a great deal of waste from the comber, consequently the process is expensive and is only used with high-priced yarns. drawing and doubling. — this process is usually repeated three times. the aim is to unite several slivers, draw them to- gether, thus removing weak points, and make an even, smooth sliver. the principle is by drawing rollers. the doubling in these and succeeding machines often runs as high for average cotton manufacture as , to , doublings, and even goes considerably higher for special yarns. from four to eight textiles fig. . — slivers. cans of slivers are united and drawn together by rollers in each of the three machines (fig. ). the slivers are greatly re- duced in size and would break unless twist were now given to them. slubbing by bobbin and fly frames. — the first twist is now put into the yarn, and it is wound on bobbins. two attenuated slivers or soft yarns are united into one in each machine. slub- bing is done by three machines—slub- bing, intermediate slubbing, and roving. the methods are the same in each. the result of each machine's work is a finer and more twisted yarn. the final frame makes the roving which is the last step before spinning. spinning. — the spinning of cotton is done on the upright frame by the flyer or ring system, or by the mule. the first is a more rapid method and is in more frequent use, but the mule makes a softer and more attractive yarn. frames with a new variety of spindle requiring almost no attention are appearing on the market, whereby the output of yarn is increased and the cost of produc- tion lowered. all modern machines have automatic attach- ments which stop the action if a sliver or a thread breaks. cotton yarns are spun or twisted in various ways, and are used for warp or filling, knitting yarn, sewing thread, or for hand embroidery. the numbers run from no. coarse even as high as no. for fine yarns. after the yarn is spun on the frame or mule it is usually doubled and twisted before it is ready for service. there are many ways of doing this, and the yarn may be dry twisted or twisted in water. cotton yarns for weaving may be single or several ply, and the direction of the twist lends variety. knitting yarns have special twists. they may be spun on the mule, doubled and twisted slightly, with a result- the cotton industry ing soft appearance and woolly feel as used in some classes of underwear; or they may be closely twisted in water, dyed, gassed or singed, glazed, and hard finished for lisle thread effects. sewing cotton is frequently spun on the mule. for three cord sewing cotton, three yarns from the spinning frame are doubled and twisted. for six cord the yarn from the frame is doubled and twisted and three of these are united and twisted. the yarn is sized before being twisted in both cases. when a good grade of cotton has been used a strong thread is the result. sewing cotton requires more twisting than yarn for weaving, for greater strength is needed. the numbers in sewing cotton run from or to or more. sea island and fine long staple american cotton are used in the best grades. all sewing cot- ton is glazed, but special varieties to be used for the sewing machine have more dressing than those for hand sewing. the spools containing or yards are wound by machine. yarn which has been carded, double combed, and then spun on the mule has a lofty, soft appearance like spun silk, but the expense is much higher than when less preparation is required. special treatment of cotton yarn with gums of various kinds and a later machine polishing between rollers gives the appear- ance of a linen thread. the cotton thread made in this way is strong but not pliable. another way of preparing cotton thread to look like linen is by spinning it with small knots or rough places upon it. when the cloth for this yarn is woven and the fabric is finished it closely resembles material which is woven of flax. bleaching. — cotton yarn becomes yellowish in color during the preparatory processes and spinning, and usually requires bleaching. for this purpose it is wound from the bobbins into hanks, which are slipped one inside the other into a chain containing perhaps five hundred pounds of yarn. bleaching is done in various ways. (see chap. xiii.) mercerizing. — mercerized cotton is described in chapter xii. schreinerized cotton, because of its high luster, resembles textiles mercerized material. the effect is produced by passing the cloth under engraved calenders, with pressure. dyeing (see chap. xiii). — cotton is usually dyed in the yarn. dyeing in the unspun state, as in wool, is occasionally used, but this is the exception. sizing. — the shortness of staple and the softness of the cotton fiber make it necessary to apply sizing to the yarn that it may stand the strain of weaving. the sizing material is a starchy or glutinous liquid applied to the thread in varying proportions according to need. sizing of cotton thread has been in use since before the dawn of history. each modern cotton mill has its own special formulae. the process, which is generally called slashing, is done after warping and before drawing-in. it is especially necessary for warp yarns. special sizes or coatings are also used in the cloth to give the look of solidity and weight which are not always present. clay is often applied heavily to loosely woven cotton materials. the dressings or coatings used for cotton yarns are too numer- ous to mention, and are employed in various combinations. counts or numbering. — in the united states cotton yarn is counted by the number of hanks of yards in the pound. no. yarn (the coarsest, but it is seldom used) would have yards in one hank, which would weigh one pound. num- ber s single would have hanks of yards each, or , yards in all in one pound. single s yarn would be written -^js or two-ply s would be written ^s or and , yds. would weigh two pounds —or lb. would contain only yds. of ply. sewing cotton is twisted into three cord (three threads twisted together) and also into six cord (three two-ply threads twisted to- gether), but as the latter is smoother, stronger, and better adapted to the sewing machine, it is more in demand as serving both purposes. three-cord sewing cotton number would be ex- pressed ^s, and six-cord would be ^s. a three-ply no. yarn (fs) would be a coarser thread than single no. q-s), for the cotton industry three threads of number would be twisted together. num- ber , six-cord yarn, and number , three-cord yarn, are made the same size, but in the former case a finer yarn is used in the combination. winding, spooling, warping, and drawing-in. — the prep- aration of cotton warp yarn for the loom is similar to that of other textile fibers, i.e., winding the yarn into hanks, spooling it, warping it, slashing or sizing, and threading the yarn through the harness. (see chap. iii.) weaving (see chap. iv). —a large number of standard cot- ton cloths, such as muslins, sheetings, many ginghams, per- cales, and sheer materials like nainsook, batiste, longcloths, cambrics, and lawns, are woven with the plain or cotton weave, as it is sometimes called. there are very slight differences in the body and feel of these materials until after the finishing. regular twills and broken twills are found in denims, galateas, and sateens. elaborate designs made on special looms or on the jacquard, and double weaves of various kinds are found in expensive and bordered cottons, in fancy ginghams, leno weaves, and embroidered materials, in velveteens, turkish toweling, and piques, and in cloths which imitate linen, as in damasks; or silk, as in cotton brocades; and in imitation of wool and worsted materials, such as cotton coverts, chinchillas, beavers, diagonals, and worsted suitings. these materials are very soft and pliable when they come from the loom. finishing cotton cloth. — cotton materials depend greatly on finishing for their effect; the only difference between some of the plainly woven materials is in the method of treating the cloth after the weaving, and the resemblance of cotton to other textiles is principally a matter of dressings and machine finish- ing. so numerous are the dressings used and the processes which follow, that it is possible to indicate only representative methods. by means of these methods feel and appearance are given, such as a soft or supple finish by glycerin, fats, oils, and waxes; or a full finish by starch and pressing; or gloss, as needed o textiles in percalines, silesias, and percales, by mucilage, gums, and ammonia water; or high luster by warm dressings and the hot calender and mangle alternately; or stiffness by mucilage and gums as required in linings, swisses, tarletans, and lawns; or weighting with clay that a solid appearance may be gained, as in cretonnes and canvas. to give a dull finish or the appear- ance of other textiles, special dressings are applied. water- proofing, preserving, rendering sanitary, and taking away the natural inflammability, are also obtained through dressing. elastic finishes are dependent to some extent on hand work. the material is starched, dried, beaten, squeezed, and worked by hand in all directions. finishes are apt to pass off to some extent in the laundry, and the loss of the finish and crisp feel- ing, as in organdies, makes such materials unattractive, but starching or stiffening in the laundry restores to others much of the original appearance. cottons having designs woven in, such as fancy ginghams and madras, have frequently long warp or filling floats on the back. these threads are cut off by a special machine. when the de- signs are small, as in polka dots and lozenges, there is danger of pulling out the cut threads in home washing unless care is taken. soft, rather open mesh cotton materials, such as fine muslins and batistes, have to be dried carefully so that the dressing will not settle in the mesh and make the material too stiff. the calendering is an important part of the finishing of these materials. some cloths require a soft face and a stiff back and are treated on both sides, as in pique. percales and cali- coes also depend greatly on the finish. the face is shorn or singed to get rid of the fluff, and after dressing they are treated like sateens and beetled to soften them. dimities are finished with light farina sizing, the cloth being delivered to the size in large folds, and the rollers with the preparation upon them pass back and forth over the cloth. the material is dried, and as it is apt to shrink it is stretched on tenter frames an inch wider than necessary to allow for further shrinkage in the calendering. the cotton industry many of the finishes are expensive, and make the cost to the consumer rather high. this is especially noticeable in the fine cottons which have been carded, double-combed, and finally given the most delicate finish, as in some of the exquisite french cotton dress goods. enormous cotton finishing machines are used in large mills, and turn out yards a day, each finisher keeping five hundred looms busy. cotton is made to look like wool or worsted in various ways: first, by the preparation of the yarn; second, by weaving the cotton yarn into wool or worsted patterns; third, by chemical treatment or parchmenting to give the look of wool; fourth, by " animalizing " or so treating that cotton will dye in the wool bath; fifth, by dressing and calendering with rollers covered with cloth to give a rough or woolly appearance, or passing the cloth through a napper and shear. outing flannel, flannelette, pile goods, and blankets are napped by being passed several times over cylinders covered with card clothing. cotton re- quires more delicate manipulation in the napping gig than wool, for it is much softer and is less elastic. so-called woolen glove linings are frequently of cotton made to look and feel like wool, or the cotton is combined with a little real mohair or other wool. to make cotton cloth look like linen requires much dress- ing, for the fiber of the former is soft, while flax has body. to give the effect of the shiny, long, smooth fibers of flax, which reflect the light, the cotton fabric has to be pressed down after dressing and then beetled, which makes the surface glisten like linen. cotton toweling looks like linen on account of the yarn being spun with small knots in it at intervals, the design for the weaving being one of the ordinary huck or toweling weaves, and the dressing and finishing completing the resemblance. linen is absorbent to moisture, and cotton can be made so by treatment, but the water does not evaporate from it the way it does from linen. unfortunately, after laundering the cotton towel loses the effect of linen. by heavily loading closely woven textiles cotton cloth and pressing it, cotton canvas can be made to look much like linen, and at a very much lower cost. silk effects are largely the preparation of the yarn in mer- cerizing (see chap. xii), in weaving of a silk pattern, in gassing, dressing, and pressure. satin finish for cotton sateens is gained by dressing with glycerin, and passing repeatedly through the calender. glauber's salt gives the luster of silk, and common salt the "scroop " or rustle. mercerized yarn woven in a silk pattern as in cotton pongee looks and feels like spun silk. vel- veteens, corduroys, and cotton velvets (see pile fabrics, chap. iv) require elaborate finishes after weaving, which differ ac- cording to the purpose and quality of the material. they may be, as in cheap velvets, lined and stiffened for cutting, after which they are soaked, washed, and hydro-extracted, which removes the stiffening that aided in the cutting. they are then brushed, shorn, brushed again, singed, brushed. the cloth now has a brownish appearance, and is frequently bleached be- fore dyeing or staining. in the cheapest velvets a stain is put on the surface instead of full dyeing. they are finally finished by waxing the pile side, brushing the wax in to give polish, and peg finished by stroking the cloth across the width. a final brushing prepares the cloth for sale. in better classes of materials the pile is sometimes raised by forcing steam through. embossing machines make patterns in relief. after the ma- terial has a stiff finish, dots, checks, and twills can be placed upon it, but they pass away in the laundry. to represent embroidered cottons, dots of paste are printed on swiss; these will stand a little careful washing, but are darkened by the pressing iron. absorbent cotton is made by depriving the fiber of its oil, wax, and mineral salts. it will then take moisture rapidly. for surgical purposes the cotton must be very pure and kept absolutely sterilized. new orleans, texas, and mobile cottons are considered good for this purpose. cotton printing and printing machines. — the designs on cotton goods are frequently printed on the cloth instead of the cotton industry being woven in; calicoes or prints, percales, galateas, cretonnes, silkalines, lawns, and figured organdies are printed. there are several methods of printing, — by resist, i.e., printing before dyeing in such a way that the dye bath does not change the color (see chap. xiii); by discharge, in which the fabric is dyed and so printed afterward that the color of the design is removed (chap. xiii), or by the direct method. in the past, direct printing was first by stencils and then by blocks on which the designs were cut, a separate block being used for each color which was to appear in the design. the cloth was stretched on a framework or table, the blocks were dipped in the dye and then pressed by hand on the cloth. this method is still in use by hand workers. hand block printing is considered enduring, but is expensive, and machine methods of several kinds have superseded it. the customary way at present is by cylinders on which the design is cut or stamped. these revolve against flat rollers which are in contact with the color troughs. any excess of color received by the cylinder is taken off with a knife, that the impression may be clean. there are as many cylinders as there are colors in the design, even twenty being sometimes used. these cylinders impress the pattern on the cloth in such succession as is needed; calicoes are usually stamped in one color only. if the background is to be in color the material is usually dyed first and the figure is stamped on later. print- ing machines have usually a large drum over which passes an endless cloth into contact with the engraving cylinders, and the material to be printed is carried along by the cloth. as the drum is warm the color is quickly dried. the cotton material has to be prepared so that it will take the impression readily, and the woven cloth has to be bleached, if a white or light color is wished. bleaching again takes place after printing when a very clear, white surface is required. the color is fixed by steam. calendering under heavy pressure is given when gloss or luster is required. a breaking machine, which has blunt, spiral knives which come in contact with the surface of the cloth, softens the textiles gloss. the material is finally pressed between pressboards in the hydraulic press. preparing the designs for machine printing is done by two processes; in both copper rollers are used to give the impression. in one method the die is cut of soft steel, which is hardened and pressed against soft steel to make another die with the reverse of the pattern. these dies are pressed against copper cylinders and reproduced regularly along the length. the cylinders are placed as required in the printing machine and carefully adjusted that the pattern may be perfect. when the design has served its purpose and will not again be required it can be scraped from the cylinder, which can thus be used again. print- ing establishments often have very large sums of money in- vested in cylinders, which are kept in a storeroom ready to be used again or to be impressed with new designs. the second method is by the pantograph. the design is drawn five times the required size, inked, and pressed on metal (zinc). it is then etched in and the design placed in a machine, which reproduces it in one fifth the size along a copper cylinder covered with varnish. this takes the impression which is later engraved upon it. manufacturing of cotton. — the united states consumes more than a third of her own cotton crop in her mills, and the manufacturing interests are increasing. in the production, handling, and manufacturing of cotton nine million people are at work. in the year from to the united states exported , , bales of pounds each, and also ,- , yards of cotton cloth, at a value of $ , , . we send our raw cotton principally to great britain and the con- tinent of europe, and our manufactured cloth to china and the west indies. the south presents special inducements for cotton manufacture; the fields are near, the atmosphere is humid, labor is cheaper than in the north, and labor laws are less strict. the output from the south is principally print cloth, cotton toweling, sheeting, cottonades, drilling, bags and the cotton industry bagging, mosquito netting, wadding, ticking, muslins, and other lower grades of cotton materials. the northern mills make sewing cotton and both high and low grade goods. the output covers yarns, — coarse, fine, and mercerized, — hosiery and knitted goods, carded and combed yarns from peeler, egyptian, and sea island cottons, sewing threads, blankets, fancy ginghams, materials made of a union of silk and cotton, jacquard cottons, dimities, chambrays, crepes, lenos, persians, sateens, novelties, velvet, corduroys and plushes, duck, upholstered goods, such as tapestries and brocades; lace, chenille curtains, cotton coverts and flannels, ropes, webbing and twine, prints, denims, batistes, nainsook, plaid muslins, gauze, bunting, percales, seersucker, damasks, challies, and absorbent cotton. in general, the united states does not manufacture the finest classes of cotton goods: france is perhaps preeminent. the principal cotton manufacturing centers of the united states in the north are massachusetts, rhode island, and pennsyl- vania, and in the south, south carolina, north carolina, and georgia. fall river is the largest cotton manufacturing town in the united states, having four million spindles at work; the specialty is coarse cottons and prints; new bedford is the center of fine goods. the united states imported in the year - , ,- yards of cotton cloth, and , , yards of cotton yarn. the bulk of the yarn spun in the united states is seldom finer than s. in there were , , spindles in the united states, , , in great britain, , , on the conti- nent; making a total of , , . great britain is pre- eminent in cotton manufacture in the world. realizing that competition is close, she has looked more to details than other countries. she is expert in manipulation of stock, and in gen- eral uses the finer raw cottons. germany is advancing rapidly in cotton manufacture. textiles cotton materials batiste birdseye bobinet brussels net buckram — double-faced fabric bunting burlap calico cambric canton flannel canvas, java challie chambray cheesecloth corduroy cotton batting crash crepe cretonne crinoline damask dimity drilling duck . . flaxon galatea gingham grenadine handkerchief lawn .... huckaback indian head jean khaki lawn linon longcloth madras marquisette moreen mull width - in. |n- - in. in. in. in. - in. in. in. - in. - in. - in. in. in. - in. - in. - in. in. - in. yd.- yd. - in. in. in. - in. in. - in. in. in. in. in. - in. in. - in. - in. - in.' in. in- in. in. price $ . - . up . piece . - . . j up . up • -i-oo . . - . -. . - . -. • - • - . -. . roll • - . - . . up . ^ up . up . up . up .i j .i -- • . -. . -.io • - .io . • . -. o . -. .i i-. o . - . piece - - • -. • . - the cotton industry cotton materials — continued muslin, unbleached muslin, bleached nainsook . . . nearsilk . . . organdie . . . outing flannel percale . . . percaline . . . persian lawn . pique .... poplin .... ratine .... sateen .... scrim .... seersucker . silesia .... silkaline . . . swiss muslin . tarleton . . . ticking . . . velour .... velveteen . . . voile .... width in. in. - in. in. in. - in. in. in. in. - in. - in. - in. - in. in. in. in. in. - in. in. in. - in. - in. - in. price $. - . -. . - . piece . -. - -. . up . j up . up • - . - . .i -. . - . . - . up . up . up •is •i j- . j up . ^ up . up • - . .i j-i.oo chapter viii silk the filament which is obtained from the cocoons of the culti- vated silkworm makes the costliest and most beautiful textile fabric. a variety of materials are made from it, ranging from filmy chiffon and lace to the heaviest plushes and grosgrains, and from soft, dull finishes to the most crisp and glossy ones. for those who can really afford it the properties of pure, well manufactured silk justify the expense, for beauty, cleanliness, and endurance are combined. the popularity and demand for the fabric at a low price have caused adulterations of it and substitutions of other fibers for it, whereby the natural qualities are altered and we can no longer rely on it or know, even when paying a good price, whether it will wear well or not. the issue is not against low priced silk which looks like the best, for this has distinct advantages, but in the fact that there is generally little certainty when a high price is paid for a sup- posedly enduring material that the silk will wear. honest guarantees exist, but the term "guarantee" has been used so carelessly that it has largely lost its significance. the econom- ical consumer who is a judge of textiles has two needs or de- sires, one of which is to gain temporary effects at a small expense, which she can have by purchasing silk combined with other fibers. for such purposes as millinery, hair ribbons, sashes, and neckties, for passing fashions to be used for one season only, for light colored garments in which change is better than cleans- ing and for the outgrowing of clothing the cheaper silks are a boon. the consumer, however, has a second need for which she is perfectly willing to pay if she can be assured that she is ob silk taining what she wishes, i.e., pure silk materials which will endure for a long time for upholstery, hangings, umbrella covers, underwear, petticoats, and serviceable gowns. it is distressing to the woman who knows the limitations of the cheaper textiles and desires to buy the best, to have so little assurance that her money is being wisely spent. the most careful experiments in the laboratory are the only satisfactory tests by which even the expert can be sure that a piece of silk having the feel and the look of the best will endure. the manu- facturer who made the goods is the only one who can tell the content, and, if adulterants have been used, even he is likely to be much in the dark as to the exact percentage of the weight- ing. every woman should know the present ways of treating silk and the prices which should be paid for pure silk, that she may be on her guard. she should ascertain the names of re- liable manufacturing companies, and try in her own shopping to distinguish between silks she wishes for temporary use and those she wishes to endure. the manufacturers state that they are only too glad to provide good guaranteed stock, if women honestly wish it and will pay for it. the consumer should make it possible to do this without loss to the manu- facturers. women's lack of knowledge is a large factor in the unreliability of the purchased materials. fabrics indeed are in the shops which are not enduring, being defective in the weave as well as from treatment, for they are made at a low price for effect alone. there are also light, gossamer-like silks which are very strong, and heavy silks are made for temporary appear- ance as well as for endurance. stiff, shiny, luster silks are for sale which are strong, yet many varieties of this class of goods are so unreliable that consumers fear to buy. some manufac- turing firms have tried to provide the market with an honest guaranteed article, but have not had the encouragement they should have had, on account of the ignorance existing and the fact that fashion changes so rapidly that many women no longer wish the old enduring silks. the economical consumer, how- textiles ever, is awakening to her responsibility and is beginning to study the entire subject. she will soon demand a knowledge of conditions and what she can do to be assured that her money is well spent. properties. — the properties of cultivated silk give it pre- eminence among textiles when it is pure and well manufactured, for such silk combines strength, lightness, cleanliness, dura- bility, high luster, and beauty. the characteristics of wild silk differ somewhat from the cultivated. softness. — silk, especially after the gum is removed, has an unusual degree of softness, which is of value in the manufacture of some of the most exquisite materials. fineness. — the diameter of the filament ranges from . mm. to . mm., or . to . inch, while cotton ranges from . to . inch, and linen from . to . inch. specific gravity. — the weight of silk is the lowest among textile fibers after the gum is removed, consequently light weight fabrics can be made from it. endurance. — pure silk will last for years, even though given hard wear. strength. — it is the strongest of all the fibers in relation to its size when the gum has not been removed. on account of this quality it is used in scientific experiments of a delicate na- ture. weighting (chap. xii) decreases this quality. tenacity. — the tensile strength is about one third that of the best iron wire, or about , lbs. per square inch. it loses some of this quality when the gum is removed. elasticity and ductility. — these qualities are high in silk which has not been boiled off, and a thread may be stretched from one seventh to one fourth of its original length. weight- ing decreases elasticity and ductility. electricity. — it is a poor conductor of electricity, but a good generator. this quality makes it difficult to manipulate in a hot, dry atmosphere. humidifiers are used in mills to overcome it, and lessen breakages. silk heat conductivity. — it is not a good conductor of heat, consequently even when it is wet it feels warm in contact with the body. cleanliness. — silk sheds dust, and experiment has shown that germ life does not increase as rapidly on it as on some of the other textiles. transparency. — the transparency of some of the woven material lends attraction. luster. — this quality in silk is in excess of other textiles. it can be increased by treatment, and the removal of the gum increases the glossiness. mordanting and weighting in the dyeing decrease it. the gloss of silk is easily destroyed by careless washing. hard rubbing breaks the filament, weakens the material, and takes away the luster. silk is easily scorched. scroop. — the crisp, crunching sound associated with silk is a quality natural with some silks; it is lost under some treat- ments and restored by a bath in dilute acetic acid and drying without washing. hygroscopicity. — the power of absorbing water, dye, or other substances in solution is very great. in dry weather the content of moisture is about ten per cent, but three per cent more may be taken in wet weather. the weight may be still further increased through artificial means as much as thirty per cent; therefore, according to expert statement, the amount may become ten plus three plus thirty per cent, or forty-three per cent. the universal standard of eleven per cent is added to the absolute dry weight to represent the usual absorption of moisture from the normal atmosphere. the moisture in thrown silk is about the same. raw silk contains slightly more moisture than boiled-off silk, as the sericin is more hy- groscopic. because silk has a great absorptive capacity, it takes dyestuffs more readily, perhaps, than any other fiber, but the technical difficulties connected with the process are the value of conditioning, . issued by the united states silk condition- ing co. o textiles greater than with wool. its avidity for moisture and its quick absorption of metallic salts have caused the practice of restor- ing the weight lost in boiling off by adding more or less foreign substance. life history. — the silkworm has been cultivated for many centuries on account of the filament which it spins. roughly speaking, there are two general varieties of silk, the cultivated, produced by the bombyx mori, and wild silk from unculti- vated moths such as the tussah. the name bombyx mori comes from the family to which the silkworm belongs, the bombycidce (spinners), and mori, from the morus multicaulis or mulberry tree, on the leaves of which it feeds. the species sericaria mori, or silkworms of the mulberry, belongs to the class lepidoptera or scaly-winged insects. the bombyx mori is divided into other groups according to the method of repro- duction. the annuals reproduce once a year, and sixty per cent of the silkworms belong to this class. the bivoltines repro- duce twice a year, and the polyvoltines several times during the year, the first crop after cold weather being the best. silk- worms are cultivated by large breeders, or by small farmers, who with all of their families work together in the silkworm nurseries. the eggs are bought from growers who devote their time especially to reproduction, the best cocoons being kept for this purpose. in some countries there is strict government inspection to prevent the spread of disease. the manner of cultivation and the fertilization and growth of the mulberry are important factors in successful rearing. in japan had one half a million families who were giving their entire time to silk culture. the yield that year was , , pounds of undried cocoons. in temperate climates the silk is apt to be strong and even. in the tropics it is soft and bright. bengal silk is excellent, but some of the tropical silk is lacking in strength. the silkworm which breeds once a year in temperate climates is considered the best. the cultivated silkworm passes through four changes in its silk life of a couple of months, i.e., egg, larva, chrysalis or pupa, and adult, — a cream-white moth which is about one inch in length (fig. ). mating follows; the female lays several hundred eggs. she scarcely moves three inches during the three days of life, the entire life of male and female being devoted to producing e d fig. . — different stages in the growth of the silkworm. a, full size. b, moth. c, chrysalis or pupa. d, eggs. e, diagram showing cocoon and method of spinning. from matthews' textile fibres, by courtesy of john wiley & sons. eggs. the eggs are laid on sheets of paper or pieces of muslin provided for that purpose. a slightly gummy liquid comes from the moth and holds the eggs fast. the sheets are gathered, hung for a few days in a damp atmosphere, and then placed in cold storage for about six months, the period of cold being ad- vantageous for later hatching, which is done by heat. the textiles worm sheds its skin four times; the times between the molts, or ages, as they are called, are as follows: ( ) birth to first molt five or six days; ( ) first to second molt four days; ( ) second to third molt four to five days; ( ) third to fourth molt five to seven days; ( ) fourth molt to maturity seven to twelve days. the time between ages varies with different silkworms. trays are provided to hold the different ages of worms and there are open shelves on which the trays can be placed that the worm can be watched. the cocooneries where the silkworm is best cul- tivated are quiet, spacious, well-ventilated rooms or buildings where an even temperature is maintained. each worm is kept absolutely clean and has plenty of room, as overcrowding brings disease. mild fumigation is resorted to at intervals. heavy odors such as garlic or tobacco smoke are not allowed, being dis- turbing to the worms. the best food for the bombyx mori is the perfect leaves of the white mulberry, which must be young, fresh, and dry, but never withered. they are chopped fine during the early ages of the worm. the tree is cultivated especially to provide food for the silkworm. three varieties are found, the early, medium, and late-budding mulberry. the leaves, there- fore, can be found in condition for the various stages of growth of the worm. the late-budding tree is cultivated in greater numbers, as the worms are larger and consume more leaves. the soil is important, and one which is rich in certain minerals has been found to provide leaves which keep the worm in better physical condition. a cold winter followed by a warm spring develops the leaf well. two prime requisites for good silk are the state of the leaves and the choice of the eggs. when the leaves of the early mulberry are almost ready, the eggs are brought out from cold storage and subjected to heat for a month or less before they hatch out. the eggs are small, dark, flat, and round. the worm, when hatched, is about the diameter of a hair and less than three fourths of an inch long. it gnaws a hole in the end of the egg from which it issues. showing under the magnifying glass are long hairs, many legs, and a shiny nose. silk at first they merely suck the sap of the leaves provided for them, but later they gnaw the edges with their semi-circular jaws which move sideways. the noise of many full-grown worms eating is like the sound of rain. about thirty meals a day are eaten in the first age, for the worms are gluttons and eat their own weight daily. the development is very rapid, and during the next few weeks, as has been stated, the skin has to be changed four times. after the first molt the worm is lighter in color and requires more room; after the second, the spinning organs are more marked; after the third, the leaves do not need to be chopped. after the fourth molt the worm is full sized, about three inches long, white and velvety, and the spinning glands are full of transparent liquid. hunger lessens, restlessness grows, and the lifting of the fore part of the body indicates the desire to climb and to spin. brush or twigs are provided and the worm climbs into them and begins to inclose itself in its silken shell by expelling, from two openings underneath the mouth, two delicate threads which form a single one on issuing. they come from the in- ternal glands, and the liquid hardens as it comes to the air. at first the silk is rough and is thrown out like guy lines on the twigs by the motion of the body. gradually the worm incloses itself in the interior as it forms the cocoon. the method of spinning is by a movement of the head as if making a figure , weaving back and forth. (see fig. .) the silk is a contin- uous double thread fastened together by the gum, the length varying from three hundred to fourteen hundred yards. the worm can be seen for a day, but gradually disappears, though it can be heard working within. it takes three days to complete the cocoon. the silkworm wastes away as the silk is exhausted, and gradually changes into a chrysalis. from fifteen to twenty days are spent in this state, and then the chrysalis changes into a moth which moistens the end of the cocoon and breaks its way out. the female cocoon is oval and the male cocoon is peanut shaped. the silk consists of two parts: fibroin (the silk fiber), and sericin (the gum). on the outside of each cocoon is coarse, f silk justinian introduced the silkworm into the levant in a.d., and from the ninth to the sixteenth century the production spread from the south to the north of europe. silk raising is still a national industry in these countries, though the north of europe is engaged in manufacturing silk rather than producing it. the culture was started in america as early as , in virginia, and has been attempted many times since, but econom- ically the united states cannot compete with the cheap labor of the orient or of the south of europe. the principal silk-rearing countries at the present time are china, japan, italy, france, spain, austria-hungary, russia, india, and the levant, the first four being the most important (fig. ). china is perhaps the leader, with japan a close second. both countries are noted for their rearing, reeling, and weaving. three methods of reeling are found — the primitive, by which silks such as the tsatlees are produced, from which the raw silk comes of irregular size and in irregular skeins; the rereels, by which system the silks reeled in the primitive manner are re- reeled into skeins of a more regular character, which gives a reliable product; and the steam filatures or filandas, equipped with modern machinery and improvements, from which the silk comes in good condition for the throwster. steam filatures are found throughout europe and japan, and to a certain extent in the north of china and in canton in south china. the name "steam filature " is used for certain china silks to differentiate them from tsatlees. the real pongee silk comes from the shantung province of china. the worms are fed on leaves of the scrub oak. each lot of silk is woven into a piece, and varies from another in quality, weight, fineness, and color. it is an undyed silk. the united states takes per cent of the product. in the canton districts of south china there are six or seven crops of silkworms annually; the cocoons are very small; much of the reeling is on primitive reels. the bales of reeled silk weigh about io f lbs. and the highest price per bale in textiles was $ . in china exported raw silk to the amount of $ , , , and piece goods valued at almost $ , , . much of the tussah or tussur silk is grown in manchuria. it is used largely for dress purposes, hosiery, electric wire covering, and upholstery. china keeps the greater part of its silk for • daily consular and trade report, march , ; april , . silk home consumption. there are many different races of silk- worms utilized. in japan improved methods of cultivating and reeling have increased the export of silk. the steam filature and the rereel systems are used. three crops of silkworms are grown annually by feeding them with mulberry leaves which are sometimes kept in cold storage. in the total export of silk from japan, reeled and woven, was $ , , . wild silk is also grown, the yama mai being celebrated. the united states con- sumes much of its raw and good waste silk. the quality is good and the range wide. the bales contain about j lbs. india produces much silk, but the industry has been poorly or- ganized. the bengal district has many filatures, and much of the output is used in burma. the woven fabrics are for the "saris" worn by the native women, for handkerchiefs and dress goods. india offers opportunity for good silk rearing, as food for the worms abounds. the multivoltines are the most common variety of worm. the silk is reeled in / and / deniers. (see counts below.) tussah and other grades of wild silk are common. european silks. — the best raw silk comes from italy and france. in both countries the cocoons from the highlands are better than those from the lowlands. in italy, the important silk-raising districts are piedmont, in which turin is the principal silk center, noted for its even, regular silk, and lombardy with milan as its center. about , , lbs. are produced annually. france grows the bulk of her silk in the south and southeast departments. the best silk in the world is said to come from the granite mountains in that country. france produces about , , lbs. annually. the european silks are more carefully reeled than those from the east. spain and austria- hungary grow a good quality of silk. syria produces much which goes principally to france. the size of the bales of european silks, including the syrian, is kg., or lbs. the levant (greece and turkey in europe and asia), and the caucasus produce much silk of good quality. textiles silk in the united states. — new york city receives the bulk of the european imports of reeled and manufactured silks, and san francisco most of the silks from the east en route to new york. the principal mills are in new jersey, new york, penn- sylvania, and new england. the trains which bring the pre- cious freight across the country from the pacific coast are dirt- and moisture-proof and thoroughly insured, as the value of one train may be from one to two million dollars. no stops are made except to exchange engines. in the united states spent on silk importations: cocoons, $ , ; raw silk, $ , , ; silk waste, $ , , ; bolting cloth, $ , ; clothing and wearing apparel, $ , , ; dress and piece goods, $ , , ; artificial silk, $ , , ; bandings and belting, $ , ; laces and embroideries, $ , , ; ribbons, $ ,- ; spun or schappe yarn, $ , , ; pile fabrics, $ , , ; miscellaneous, $ , , , — with a grand total of $ , , . the united states produced silk goods to the value of $ , , plus $ , , made in factories not listed as dress industries. in and the world's product of raw silk was , , lbs. classification of raw silk. — the silk from the various coun- tries shows characteristics which fit it for different purposes. chinese and japanese silks arc packed in bales covered with matting. the weight is supposed to be lbs. (one picul), but is not constant. the value of a bale is $ to $ , more or less. it is made up of a number of bundles called books, which weigh four and one half pounds upward, and contain about thirty rolls of raw silk. those which have been reeled in steam filatures are generally put up in rolls of two skeins each, of a size convenient for winding, and with the ends fastened so that they can be easily found. the skeins from native reels are apt to be too great in circumference, and give much trouble to the throwsters. the length of asiatic raw silk skeins is largely consular and trade reports, april , . silk limited by the length of the working day, the skeins being started in the morning and finished in the evening. "native reeled" skeins are often full of flaws. the ends of such skeins are hard to find. the various asiatic reelers have trade-marks. some of these have a high standard of excellence, even though climatic and other causes affect the product from year to year. the buyers and manufacturers know the classes of silk from the various filatures, and order from previous experience. the best raw silk is even, clean, elastic, strong, and lustrous. in a general way it may be said that the raw silk from north china is noted for its whiteness, brilliancy, and snap, but cantons are creamier in color and much softer. japan silk is creamy white, clean, and of good strength and nature. sicilian silk is yellow in color, suitable for soft satins, such as the liberty satins. south- ern france produces excellent silk, brilliant and suitable for black satins. the trade-marks from china and japan, known as chop tickets, are very numerous, for they include those of the filatures and the rereels. the market terms as adopted by the silk association of america june , , were: — european silks grand extra extra classical best classical classical best no. no. realina japan silks filatures rereels extra no. kakeda best extra double extra extra sinshiu extra best no. to extra best no. hard nature no. no. [of the grade of sinshiu no. no. ij no. lj- no. no. - extra no. no. no. okaya "(chicken)] summer no. \ no. reeling season - no. no. i - no. j no. the value of conditioning, . issued by the united states silk condition- ing co. l textiles east sometimes as much waste as reeled silk from these cocoons. the price of reeled silk changes constantly, but runs approxi- mately from three to five dollars per pound. conditioning. — the function of conditioning houses is to test the physical attributes of commercial fibers. they have been organized particularly for silk, but are extensively used for wool and cotton. these testing stations are found in silk centers such as milan, st. etienne, basle, zurich, st. gall, lyons, kre- feld, and new york. conditioning is principally used for reeled and thrown silk. the elasticity and tenacity of silk are greatly affected by the moisture in it, and by other conditions. silk, in commercial practice, is supposed to contain moisture equal to per cent of its absolutely dry weight. it will carry per cent without feeling appreciably damp, and can be made to absorb considerably more. the method of testing for moisture is as follows: samples are taken from a number of books in one bale of silk and weighed carefully. they are then placed in ovens and dried perfectly. the samples are again weighed, and the difference noted, and the dry weight of the full bale is worked out by proportion. the conditioned weight of the bale is based on this dry weight of the silk plus the accepted commercial regain of moisture, per cent. tests by special apparatus are made of other points on which information is needed, such as the average size and regularity of size of the silk, its strength, elasticity, and boil off. skeins are measured, bales weighed net, and like investigations are made. silk throwing. — the term throwing is used for the series of processes by which reeled or raw silk is made into yarn for weav- ing. silk direct from the reel is strong enough to stand the strain of weaving, but the threads would open up if dyed, so silk that is to be skein dyed has to be more or less twisted. when raw silk arrives at the throwing mills, the bales are opened, and, if necessary, the skeins are sorted as to size and color. skeins that are to be thrown "bright," that is, without having been soaked, are taken directly to the winding machine. those which silk are to be soaked are put in a bath of lukewarm water containing some olive or neatsfoot oil and some olive-oil soap. silk usually stays in this bath overnight, the gum being thus softened. after soaking, the skeins are "whizzed" in a hydro-extrac- tor and then dried. winding the skeins follows to transfer the thread to bobbins. this process requires careful work. in the winding machine the skeins are stretched on a series of swifts or reels which are arranged side by side, and the end of each thread is passed through an eyelet to a bobbin and by means of a guide wire is wound without friction up and down the length of the bobbin. the attendant must piece all bad places and deliver a smooth thread. the threads are passed from one bobbin to another through a slot or between two parallel plates so set as to remove all irregularities on the silk. winding pre- pares the silk for doubling and twisting, which are necessary to give to the filament sufficient coherence for boiling off and dyeing. doubling and twisting. — these are usually separate pro- cesses. in the doubling machines the threads pass from as many bobbins as there are threads to be doubled together upon one bobbin. the doubled thread is now twisted on a second machine. in some american machines throwing, doubling, and twisting are combined, but such machines can only be profitably used with perfectly reeled silks of good strength. the amount of doubling and twisting depends upon the future use of the thread. there are many different ways of throwing silk, but the three following are in constant use: singles or no-throw, organ- zine, and tram. singles have little twisting, a single filament of reeled silk being used. hard-twist singles are usedior gauzes and chiffons. organzine (fig. ) is made from the better grades of silk, for it is generally used for the warp, and that must be strong. a single raw silk thread is twisted with a right-hand twist, perhaps sixteen turns to the inch. two, sometimes three, or even more of these twisted threads are again twisted together, left-hand twist, perhaps fourteen turns to the inch. there are variations textiles of the manner of twisting. in taffeta weaving the organzine is twisted sixteen or more times on the first twist. for soft satins, on the contrary, the twisting may be less, for the sheen or luster is greater if the silk is less twisted. for dull finishes for strong silks the organzine is twisted very closely. when two threads are finally twisted together the yarn is called two-thread organ- zine; when three are united, three-thread organzine. tram. — for tram silk, which is generally used for filling, two or more single, untwisted, reeled threads are united into one and twisted very slightly. the terms two-thread, three-thread, etc., are used to designate the number. a poorer quality of silk is used for tram than for organzine. there are many special twists, of which sewing silk is an illus- tration. there may be as many as one hundred cocoon fila- ments in one thread of sewing silk, depending upon the size. from three to perhaps two dozen raw silk threads are united and twisted together, after which two, four, or six of these threads are again twisted together in the reverse twist while held at a tension. after the throwing, the silk is wound into skeins again for dyeing. when thrown silk is to be sold, the hanks of yarn are made into bundles. thrown silk is sometimes called net silk. fig. . — organzine and tram. from barker's textiles, by courtesy of constable & co., london. silk dyeing and attendant processes. — degumming and stripping. — reeled silk is harsh and wiry, as it contains considerable gum or sericin, and it may also have much color in it. after the thread is thrown and before bleaching or dyeing it, the gum and color are boiled out. all silk does not require the same treat- ment, for the gum is more difficult to remove in some cases, and in some classes of silk the gum is only partially removed. strip- ping or boiling off the gum greatly reduces the weight of the silk, for per cent or more is often lost. the process is simple and not injurious. the natural luster and softness of the silk is enhanced by boiling off. if the silk is to be very lustrous, it is sometimes stretched in the gum before the stripping or boil- ing off occurs, and is again stretched and steamed after it. the boiling off, as usually practiced, consists of a boiling in a vat of soapy solution, the silk being placed on sticks and worked up and down until the gum is removed. this is a process of much deli- cacy, as the degumming must be complete but not overdone. for soft silk, about or per cent of the thrown weight is lost in stripping, leaving it soft and lustrous; for " souple" silk the loss is less, being from to per cent. the re- sult is a duller appearance and a firmer touch, suitable for gros- grains. "ecru " silk has still less gum removed, probably from to per cent. after stripping, a silk may need several washings. a bath of dilute acid is given if" scroop'.' (the crunch- ing sound of silk) is required. large dyeing establishments have given careful study to stripping, for carelessness in this process will prejudice the succeeding operations. weighting (see chap. xii). — as silk is an expensive fiber and loses weight from the boiling off of the gum, harmless additions of plain sugar and sugar of lead were early used to make up the loss. the demand for less expensive silks has gradually brought about an exaggerated and injurious weighting. the silk to be weighted is immersed in a series of solutions, with thorough washings be- tween each. a light weighting may be given which really seems to help the silk, or the silk may be charged heavily or " dyna- textiles mited." the receptivity of the silk fiber for the substances used enables it to be loaded, in colors, to an extent equal to about double its boiled-off weight, and in blacks to three, four, and in extreme cases even five times its boiled-off weight. the result is the mechanical weakness of the filaments, on account of the stretching of their walls when taking in the metallic weighting. this later causes them to break; or crystallization of the tin takes place when exposed to the light, and its crystalline facets cut the silk from within; or oxidation occurs in the course of time, with a consequent weakening of the fibers; or if perspi- ration is present in the silk, chlorin is freed, which causes rotting, and pink spots appear on certain colors which later become tender. even perspiring hands touching the silk will bring about this rotting of the fiber. dyeing (see chap. xiii). — the dyeing of silk has great diffi- culties, even though the fiber takes the coloring matter readily. silk is dyed in the yarn and in the piece, but the methods differ greatly. overworked silk does not wind well. silk cannot stand the boiling which may be given to cotton. wringing, stretching, and lustering of many kinds come after dyeing to give gloss to the silk. when the dyeing process is without weighting of any kind, the manufacturer has to bear the expense of the loss of weight. the consumer is seldom willing to pay for this. further processes. — bleaching (see chap. xiii). — silks that are not perfectly white are hung in a sulphur chamber or they are bleached with peroxide when the color is difficult to remove, as in tussah silk. stretching and lustering (for silk thread). — bringing out the gloss on silk thread may precede or follow dyeing, according to the character of the silk or the practice of the dyehouse. both hand and machine methods are used. the dyer throws the skein over a strong peg in the wall, puts a smooth stick through it, and pulls the skein down hard, twisting it about from right to left until it is soft and glossy. by the machine method, bobbins of the twisted silk are placed in water and the silk is wound from silk them on a revolving copper roll. it then passes to another roll just above, which in revolving more rapidly stretches the silk. this stretching is usually done before dyeing. a high degree of luster is given by exposing the skein to steam in an oven, where the silk is stretched on highly polished rollers. the steam and friction, however, sometimes wear on the threads. steam luster- ing often both precedes and follows dyeing, for the dyes, mor- dants, and weighting decrease the luster of the thread. a special olive-oil bath is given to some silks. "scroop " as well as luster are given by soaking the silk in dilute acid. the boiled- off liquor containing the sericin or gum is frequently combined with the dye to increase the luster. winding after dyeing. weaving. — after dyeing, the skeins are wound in various ways on bobbins or quills according to the use to which they are to be put. silks which are to be woven immediately are warped. silk warping differs somewhat from that of other fibers, and requires the most delicate handling. there are several methods in use, the aim is the same as in all warping, and the weaving is also much like other weaving, though special silk looms are built. the fineness of the silk filament in- creases the difficulty. silk does not have to be washed or scoured in the finishing process. the weave in silk is of paramount im- portance, and ranges through all kinds of designs from plain to the most intricate jacquard patterns. the silk designer re- quires training, years of experience, and artistic taste. stand- ard silks found in the plain weaves are the china, india, and japan silks; glace silk, which is the name given to silk with contrasting colors of warp and filling; pongee and shantung, taffeta and crepe de chine. in twills there are the surah, and others such as serge and foulard. in ribs and cords there are the ottoman, grosgrain, bengaline, poplin, the cut and uncut terry velvets, the faille francaise, and many others. these are often made with a wool or cotton filling, and the ribs are filling ways. in satin weaves there are the messaline, merveilleuse and satin de chine, satin duchesse, liberty satin, and peau de cygne. in textiles gauze weaving, the marquisette; in jacquard, the brocades and tie silks, and in double cloth there are many kinds of double- faced ribbons and broad goods. some silks are woven of singles or of two or more reeled threads, which are united and wound without throwing. finishing. — the general aim of finishing is to increase the luster and also to improve the cloth by giving "handle," strength, and body to poor, adulterated, or union materials. the kind of finish depends upon the aim to be attained. finishes are of two kinds — mechanical, or by means of dressings. some of these have already been mentioned. the main yarn finishes are: ( ) sizings to smooth certain hairy yarns and make them wear better; ( ) soaking in dilute acid to give scroop and gloss; ( ) gassing to burn off the fluff and to make the yarn smooth; ( ) dressings and mechanical finishes to give gloss and to harden. organzine (if it needs sizing, which it rarely will) is sized with gelatin. finishes for woven silk are also mechanical or by dressings. the first includes calendering, mangling, or pressings of various kinds by which the woven material is made smooth. the goods may come directly in contact with metal rollers or may be pressed between finishing paper, according to whether a glistening or a soft effect is needed; moireing or embossing cylinders having designs etched upon them may press into the dressed material, leaving the design on the surface; special machines of many kinds, used to give such effects as panne and miroir velvet; polishing machines; steaming machines for velvets and other pile goods; gassing and shearing machines to eliminate fluff and ends in materials made of spun silk or any silk which is in- clined to have too rough a surface; breaking machines which are used to soften up material made too stiff by dressing, the material passing over rollers on which the tension can be in- creased or decreased as needed. flat spiral knives or rollers with brass knobs or buttons break the finish; printing either on the woven silk or on the warp threads, used extensively on silk foulards, crepes, and ribbons, may be direct or by resist or dis- charge. (see chap. xiii.) after printing, finishes are neces- sary, such as gumming the silk, calendering it, and breaking the surface to soften the handle and look. dressings are of many kinds; each mill has its own secret formulae. the aim may be to soften, to stiffen or to harden, to glaze, to strengthen, to waterproof, so the material will not spot, to fireproof, as special treatments make silk inflammable, or to cover defects. the following dressings are in constant use, usually in combination with each other, dextrin being perhaps the only one used by itself: rice water, isinglass, gelatin, dextrin, starch, glues, gums, and waxes. the waxes are made into an emulsion with alkali, and the gums are softened with castor oil. resinous substances, such as amber and resin, are also used. pure silk requires no dressing, but is finished by pressing, mangling, or calendering, with or without friction. it is the poorer, cheaper silks and half silk materials which have dressings to add to their body. for them are used such finishes as gassing to remove fluff, gumming to give feel, calendering to improve gloss, breaking to remove stiffness and to give handle. taffeta silk is finished in many ways. gelatin water gives it stiffness; pressure and heat bring out gloss; waterproofing keeps it from spotting, so that it can be used for umbrellas and raincoats. for the latter purpose a special treatment is often given with melted rubber between two layers of silk. light silk fabrics are stretched in a tenter frame and finished on the wrong side. satin is often sized as well as calendered to increase its luster. warp printed ribbons have a soft, uncertain pattern, on account of the plain filling passing over the printed warp. a surface print is made after the material is woven, consequently it is clear in outline. counts for reeled and thrown silk. — there are several systems by which the counts of reeled and thrown silks are estimated, such as the metric and denier systems for raw and q textiles thrown silk, and for the latter, also, the manchester dram system. the denier system for raw silk and the dram system for thrown silk are those customarily used in the united states. there are published tables which show the relation of these systems to each other. the irregularity in the sizes of the raw silk makes it necessary to use an average figure when stating the count. the usual count of reeled silk used in the united states is / denier (see glossary). in the denier system, the higher the number, the coarser is the silk (this principle differs entirely from that for cotton or wool). the system generally used in the united states is the english. to quote from a short description of silk and silk manufacture, issued by cheney brothers: — the hank is eight hundred forty yards, and the number of hanks in one pound avoirdupois is the count of the yarn. it is based on the finished yarn, and singles, two- and three-cord yarns of the same number all have the same yards per pound. thus: no. singles has , yds. per lb. no. - singles has , yds. per lb. no. - singles has , yds. per lb. in the dram system the size of the silk is based on the weight of the thousand-yard skein in drams. a skein weighing five drams is called five-dram silk. counts for spun silk. — the usual method of counting spun silk in the united states is much like cotton. (see chap. vii.) the number of yards in a hank is eight hundred forty, and the number of hanks in a pound gives the count, but silk is based upon the finished yarn, and the singles as well as the various two- or three-ply thread have all the same yards per pound, which thus differs from the cotton. for illustration: — silk i/ os , yds. per lb. silk / s , yds. per lb. cotton i/ os , yds. per lb. cotton / s , yds. per lb. see value of silk conditioning. silk silk manufacture. — the principal silk manufacturing coun- tries of the western world are france, england, germany, switzerland, italy, and the united states. france, germany, the united states, and switzerland produce about per cent of the total. france makes the highest class of woven goods. lyons is her chief manufacturing city, and has a water supply which is especially adapted for the successful dyeing of silk. this city is preeminent for its jacquard weaves, velvets, embroidered tulle, gauzes, mousselines de soie, and chiffons. st. fitienne is noted for ribbons; avignon, nimes, and tours produce velvets, taffetas, and other classes of pure and mixed silks and silk knitted wear. italy does a large business in silk reeling and throwing and also in woven materials, milan ranking next to lyons in silk production, while naples and como also have large silk industries. palermo in sicily manufactures mixed silk and cotton material. switzerland does a large business in silk knitted and woven goods, zurich making plain and fancy silks, basle ribbons, and berne knitted goods. passementeries, embroideries on tulle, plain and drilled embroideries, netting and lace in imitation of the genuine venetian, brussels, and other kinds are made in switzerland in the appenzell and st. gall districts, and in bohemia near carlsbad. hand and shuttle work are both used. the work can be seen in various stages — all handwork, part handwork, and machine. the hand-embroidery machine is about five yards wide. the cloth on which the embroidery is to be done is stretched the length of the machine, and a carriage on either side of the stretched material carries in a double row from two hundred to four hundred double-pointed needles, each having an eye in the middle. the needles are pushed through by one carriage and taken up by the other, a stitch being taken with each operation. a pantograph is at the left side of the machine on which the design is six times enlarged. the operator with his left hand traces the pattern, which is reproduced in the correct size on the stretched material. if the cloth is to be an textiles embroidered strip it is taken off after the work is completed and finished by hand. if it is to be made into passementerie, the same pattern has been repeated many times across the length of the strip. after the embroidery is finished, it is given to workers who cut out the designs, leaving a small rough edge around them. the background is made of vegetable fiber if the embroidery is to be an animal fiber such as silk, i.e., a thin cotton fabric is stretched in the embroidery machine to receive the silk stitches. after the handworkers have cut out the designs, they carefully sew and embroider the many designs together to make the passementerie perfect, and the latter is sunk into a chemical bath which destroys the back- ground, leaving the embroidery standing out clear, for the fraying edges have been eaten away. it is finally finished for sale by handworkers and pressers. large amounts of the machine laces, embroideries, and passementeries are sent to america. loop embroideries and nettings are also made by machine. germany has large silk industries and manufactures dress silks, satins, velvets, bindings, braids, and linings. barmen, elberfeld, and krefeld are important centers, the last named having a water supply which is of especial value in silk dyeing. germany is producing large quantities of mixed and cheaper qualities of dress goods and trimmings. russia has factories, especially in moscow. belgium also has many silk mills. the united kingdom manufactures dress goods, ribbons, laces, and embroideries. the production of material made of silk mixed with other fibers is increasing there. leeds is noted for its sewing silks, and coventry for its ribbons. the united states makes all varieties of silk materials, but does less than france in the finest qualities and in velvets. paterson and passaic in new jersey are the most noted silk manufacturing cities. silk waste is used in all the countries where the silk industries are developed, basle, milan, lyons, paterson, and passaic using large quantities of it. spun silk. —the raw material of the spun silk industry silk is silk waste, and cocoons which are unfit for reeling or throwing. there are many qualities of silk waste, ranging from wastes of the highest class of reeled or thrown silk to a low class of waste silk used principally in the east. the lowest quality of asiatic waste is not exported, but is used in the countries producing it for wadding, for interlining winter garments, and for other purposes. there is a large amount of waste in silk production: only about half of the total world's supply of silk spun by the worm comes into the market as raw silk. the principal sources of waste silk are the following: ( ) from cocoons, such as the rough threads thrown out first from the silkworm; from the teasing brush; from broken cocoons; from parchment- like inner layers, too fine to reel; and from defective and pierced cocoons. ( ) reeling waste — poor reeling yields a large amount. some chinese silk is reeled solely for use as material for spun silk, as the punjum. ( ) gum waste, i.e., throwster's waste, being fine and coarse ends made in the various reeling and winding processes, as in piecings. ( ) weaving mill waste. ( ) various wild silk cocoons which will not reel. the bales of waste are tightly packed and are difficult to open, an axe being sometimes used to break into the mass. there are several methods of removing the gum: ( ) the english, or boiling off; ( ) the french, or schapping; and ( ) the alkaline or acid processes. in boiling off, the waste is put in bags made of open mesh material and pulled up and down in vats of hot soapy water kept just up to the boil, which softens the gum so that it passes out through the meshes of the bag. after several hours, the silk is taken out and dried. the silk is again soaked in another vat to rid it of more gum, and comes out soft, fluffy, and white, having lost from per cent to over per cent of its weight, the loss varying greatly according to the kind of waste. in the schapping system the waste is put in vats of tepid water for a week, until fermenta- tion sets in and rids the silk of much of its gum. for some classes of goods, such as velvets, the schappe silk is preferred. the textiles third process degums by soaking the silk in a solution of alkali, or in an acid solution. the main processes after degumming the waste silk are, in general, the following, but considerable differences are found:( ) beating the fibers to open them and make them flexible; ( ) winding them on a cylinder; ( ) cutting them in short lengths for short spinning; ( ) examining the material for foreign matter and imperfections; ( ) combing the lengths through a hackle; ( ) spinning by forming the threads of silk into slivers, then into rovings, and finally drawing out, spinning and twisting them into spun yarn on a frame or on a mule; ( ) winding the spun yarn on bobbins for warping or on quills for the shuttle. there are many qualities of spun thread; the term bourette is used for a low and rough class. spun silk yarn is frequently gassed to make it glossy by ridding it of short, fluffy ends. the united states imports from the east large quantities of the best silk waste, or an average of , , lbs. annually. the best spun silk yarns are largely used for filling or woof for silk dress goods, and for warp velvets and half-silk goods. lower grades of yarn are used for knitting yarns and poorer kinds of dress goods. bourette yarn is used for coarse knitted goods, and for packing and insulating materials. silk shoddy or recovered silk from cuttings and remnants is prepared like wool shoddy. (see chap. xi.) it is employed in combina- tion with silk waste and with other fibers. silk wadding is made from the waste from bourette spinning. market terms. — silk wastes from the east and europe are often known under the names of places from which they come. there are many kinds, and of different gradings; for instance, the japanese curlies (kikai kibizzo) is a well-known waste. there is also a china curlies. both of these are listed under three or four grades. some few wastes are found under chop marks. abuses. adulteration and substitution. — the effort to cheapen silk has tended to develop numerous processes which silk give effects that pass for real qualities with the ordinary con- sumer. these may be reviewed as follows: — in reeling, various soaps, oils, gums, glues, and chemicals are added to increase the weight yet escape detection, but such silks, it is said, do not often come to the united states. in dyeing, an excessive amount of weighting may be added in mordanting or other processes. salts of tin, iron, and lead are commonly used. substitutes. — these may be spun silk used in place of reeled silk, and sea island or other fine grades of american cotton. fig. .—silk substitutes in skirt bkaids. . left-hand figure. mercerized cotton braid sold as silk-finish. price cts. for yd. bolt. . middle figure. mercerized cotton braid sold as silk braid. price cts. for yd. bolt. . right-hand figure. artificial silk braid sold as silk braid. price cts. per yd. artificial silks (see chap. xii). — artificial silks resemble silks in appearance, but differ completely in their properties. they are glossy and attractive, but they are frequently in- flammable and become gummy in water, although treatment is lessening this. they are brittle and inelastic. for some purposes they are fairly satisfactory. they do not cover so well in the weaving as silk, therefore more picks per inch are required. the weight is greater; the price is lower. they are used in hosiery, neckties, drapery, and dress trimmings. silks weighted in order to cheapen them are usually weakened either directly by the treatment or by the additional weight. textiles the silk looks rich and feels heavy, but the walls of the fibers easily break down. this deterioration will occur while the material is being constructed into a gown, is lying on the shelves of stores, or hanging in the closet. an expensive silk gown had been worn but a short time when fraying splits appeared here and there where there was no strain on the material. the remainder of the gown was intact even where there was tension. chemical tests showed that the entire silk was well weighted, but irregularly. the parts which were still good were carrying a weighting of per cent, while those rapidly disintegrat- ing were unable to endure per cent. at the same time similar tests were made on an old-fashioned pink taffeta silk almost identical in color and weight. this gown had been in use for fifty years with almost no deterioration. it was found to contain so small a fraction of weighting that the silk was virtually pure. the effect of poor or strong chemicals on silk is often noticeable in polka-dot or small sprigged materials which have been made by discharging the color from the solid ground. careless or cheap treatment results soon in a rapid destruction of the textile as well as the color, and a perforated garment is the result. another common illustration of weakness where strength is needed is in the wide silk shoe laces sold at twenty-five cents a pair. while they are often "all silk," they are so heavily weighted to secure the look, feel, and weight of a better-class material that they are unenduring. a mercerized cotton product would wear better. black silk stockings were once considered luxuries, in which only the wealthy could indulge, but the demand for a cheap product has resulted in bringing them within the reach of every one. heat and chemical tests on the silk show how this reduction in price has been made possible. half hose, which were offered for sale at cents a pair, as " a great bargain in 'pure silk' on account of changes in business," were tested. the general appearance of the stocking was of thin reeled silk, but silk the tests showed that the upper part was all cotton, that the toe was of cotton mixed with silk, the latter weighted per cent, and the part between the toe and the upper part of the leg was of silk carrying a weighting of per cent to give it body. for mere pleasing effect this pair of half hose was a success, the inserted cotton would add to its service, but the all-silk portion would soon go to pieces. it would be a bad investment for poor people, and rich ones could afford a better article. the greatest objection, however, is not to hosiery made in that way, but to the labels stating that the articles were "pure silk." sewing silks should be strong and enduring, but here, too, the demand by the consumer for cheap goods has its effect in lessen- ing the economic value of the product. sewing silk comes in various grades, a to e being the common numbers. the lowest priced spools have yards of silk on them and sell for the same rate per spool, whether no. a or no. e. yet the latter being much heavier thread should contain more silk in its hundred yards and should consequently sell for more. as the consumer expects to pay the same price for all grades of the same length, the manufacturer has been obliged to adjust his expenses in such a way that he will not lose. silk materials width price in. $ . bengaline in. i .oo-i. - in. . - . in. . - . in. . - . in. . up - in. . - . - in. . - . in. . up foulard - in. . up in. . - . - in. . - . silk materials — continued width price in. $ . - . in. . up in. . - . in. . up in. . - . in. . - . in. i- ° in. . - . in. - - in. . - . in. . - . mousseline de soie in. . up mull in. . up net in. . up ottoman (similar to bengaline) in. . up in. . up in. - in. • - - - in. • - - o- plush in. . in. . - . in. . - . in. . up - in. . - . in- - ° in. . - . in. . - . - in. • - . taffeta in. up . - . chapter ix the linen industry linen has been called the textile of luxury, as its expense in finer grades stands in the way of its common use. the fiber, however, has qualities which adapt it to special service. it is held that ramie, which most resembles it in appearance, has like properties and is cheaper, but as yet the latter is not common enough for comparison. linen, therefore, at present is pre- eminent for surgical uses and for household purposes. no other textile is so free from lint, gives up its moisture so rapidly, is so quickly cleansed and so pure and hygienic for constant service. fabrics woven from other fibers are adulterated and cheapened, yet are still acceptable with many consumers, as the appearance is all that is really required of them, but with linen, it is in general the properties that are sought, and as all adulterations decrease these, pure linen is demanded. for higher grades, such as table damasks and fine linen, flax is neither grown nor manufactured in the united states. the difficulties of cleaning and manufacturing it, the expense of bringing it from other countries, and the tariff charges, make it expensive. when it is pure and well cared for, however, it has so much endurance that even the cost is justified when the quality can be secured. each housekeeper must consider whether for her it pays to buy pure linen or not, or whether unions with cotton, plain or mercerized, will serve her as well. in order to judge wisely and to obtain the full value from a purchase, she should know the properties of flax, and the probable life of the towels or cloths made from it. she must also understand the care which will make them endure. the fact that this textile of ancient lineage can be laundered after textiles lying four thousand five hundred years in the tomb of some egyptian king shows that endurance is inherent in it. the naturally sturdy linen unfortunately comes to us often in a weakened condition, on account of the careless and rapid preparatory steps, the poor and cheap chemicals employed in retting, bleaching, and dyeing, and the use of tow instead of the stronger line. when linen is combined with cotton, as is frequently the case, we lose the properties of the former, and the only gain is in cheapness. for hygienic clothing, linen is to be commended. its pur- chase, when pure, well manufactured, and enduring, may be justified even for the poor, but modern dress linen does not usually wear well, and methods common in the laundry hasten disintegration. linen is accorded a respect which we do not give to other textiles, for its long history, its old-time reliability, its exclusive command of many household needs, its purity and wholesome- ness have given it a high record. we usually wish it to last, and will mend and repair old sheets and treasure old tablecloths and napkins when other textiles are discarded. almost every household keeps its old-linen bundle in case of accidents. properties. — absorption.—linen absorbs water rapidly, the amount being to per cent according to some authorities. this is about equal to cotton, which is to per cent. vegetable fibers are about equal in their absorbent qualities. experiments have shown that linen does not absorb perspiration as well as cotton does. the moisture, however, seems to spread through the woven meshes of linen differently from cotton, but experiments do not indicate much difference between the two. linen which has been sized does not in general absorb water as rapidly as the unsized linen. smooth, damp linen adheres to the skin slightly more than will cotton. evaporation. — water evaporates quickly from linen, which makes it valuable for toweling, handkerchiefs, and wash cloths. the linen industry the quality of rapid evaporation gives it a cold feeling next to the skin; this effect is lessened by weaving it with an open mesh. the natural smoothness of the material adds to the feeling of coolness. it is worn as winter underwear by russian peasants on account of its cheapness and availability in that country, and by many others who believe in its hygienic qualities. cleanliness. — the property of cleanliness makes it valuable. when correctly laundered it easily gives up its dirt and continues to be white and clean even after long service. its cleanliness has made it of value in surgical use, and experiments have shown that germs do not increase as rapidly on linen as on wool, silk, and cotton. endurance and strength. — linen thread is the strongest of the fine bast fibers. the wearing qualities are excellent when the fiber is pure. chemical bleachings lessen the strength, although a dazzling whiteness can be obtained in a shorter time than in grass bleaching. the latter adds to the expense, but is justified in the longer endurance of the material. unbleached linen is stronger than the bleached of the same weight. the length of the filament is a factor in the strength of linen. the material does not deteriorate quickly when laid away unless it is filled with sizings and dressings. tenacity. — when pure, linen is very tenacious, and is, therefore, used for the strongest twines and cordage. this quality is a factor in strength. weight. — closely woven linen is heavy. very much less air is held in the meshes than in cotton, so that equal volumes of the two textiles show linen to be per cent heavier. linen, however, is more penetrable by air than cotton, which adds to its feeling of coolness. fineness. — it is possible to spin the flax until it is almost like a hair, and the strength will still continue. the delicate linen threads for the finest lace are spun by hand in damp cellars, where the eye cannot see the gossamer filament, but the fingers can feel it. the linen industry mark, holland, belgium, france, russia, germany, austria, spain, and portugal. india and the united states cultivate it for seed rather than for fiber. japan and australia are experi- menting with it. the plant is an annual, and has an erect, slight, and willowy stem. it grows from twenty to forty inches in height, branching frequently in the upper part when not planted too closely, and having numerous small flowers which range from yellowish to bright blue. the seeds are small, flat, brownish, and smooth. the soil should be carefully selected, and the ground should be in a high state of cultivation for producing the best fiber, as is done in belgium. the flax crop makes a heavy demand on the soil, which must be guarded against exhaustion; rotation of crops is practiced for this purpose, especially in belgium. in the courtrai district the interval varies from five to ten years between successive plantings of flax in a field. the united states does little in the rotation of crops. a drill is used for planting, and the flax stalk is threshed for the seed, which is the principal crop. the straw is so broken and tangled after the threshing that it is useless for fine fiber. in the countries of europe where flax is cultivated it is usually sowed broadcast by hand, with much regularity. if fine fiber is desired, the sowing is close so that there will be little branching of the stalk, consequently the filament is complete without break. the seeds should be carefully selected. the riga seeds from russia, or the riga seeds which have been grown in belgium, and the dutch seeds are considered to give the best results. flax springs up with many weeds which must be removed. in europe the weeding is done principally by women and children who go over the ground on their hands and knees when the plants are from one to two inches high. in the spring wherever flax is being grown, wavering lines of workers, side by side, can be seen moving across the fields, weeding as they go. flax is in the best state for fiber when the leaves and stem of the lower textiles part of the plant turn yellowish and the seed pods are becoming ripe. this may be any time between the last part of june and the end of august. dry, clear weather is selected for the pulling. men now go through the fields grasping a handful of flax at about the middle of the stems, and pulling the sheaf up by the roots (fig. i ). the dirt is knocked off by hitting the root end against the boot. when the flax is cut instead of pulled, the sap runs out and the quality of the fibers is inferior and in addition there would be some waste of stalk, yet the pulling is a tedious operation. as yet, no satisfactory flax- pulling machine has been invented. the drying of the flax before removing the seed is done in various ways. in some places each handful is laid diagonally across the former one. these sheaves are called beets. the root ends are together and the lengths are as nearly alike as possible. the flax is left to dry and is later stacked. in some countries it is hung in bunches on the fences or on racks, or it may be kiln dried. still another way is to tie the sheaf together at one end and spread it open into a tent-shaped stack like the american indian corn. rippling. — after the flax is dried, it is rippled, in which process the stalk with its dried seeds and leaves is drawn through a large comb which has teeth about eighteen inches long, placed a short distance apart. the comb is usually set in the middle of a bench; two workers facing each other sit astride the bench at either end. a handful of flax is taken by each and alternately thrown upon and drawn through the comb. the dried leaves and seed bolls fall off on a sheet spread under the bench. rip- pling must be carefully done or the fiber is injured. the stalks are often kept until the following season before they are prepared further. they are tied in bundles and piled up ready for the next process or for storage. the term straw is now used for the flax. the seeds. — flax seeds are commercially of great value. when the main aim is seed culture the bolls are allowed to textiles ripen completely, and special care is taken of them in the har- vesting process. there is difference of opinion as to whether good, fine fiber and also good seed can be produced at the same time. flax seeds are an important agricultural product in the united states. in the united states crop was , ,- bushels, comparatively little of which was exported. in the same year the greatest producers of flax seeds, in order of fig. . — retting at courtrai. importance, were russia, argentina, india, united states, and canada. the seeds are used for linseed oil, which is required in paints, varnishes, linoleums, and oilcloths; linseed cake for feeding cattle; linseed powder for poultices; and linseed tea for an emollient. retting. — this is an important process in flax preparation. the object is to separate the filaments of flax from the bark and woody core. the straw is treated in such a way that fer- mentation is set up through the presence of bacteria. (see chap. xii.) retting may be done, first, by cold water, as in the running water of the river lys in belgium (fig. ); or in stagnant pools, as in ireland, which gives a creamy white color to the fiber; or, second, by steam or chemical retting; and, daily consular and trade reports, april , . the linen industry third, by dew retting, as in parts of germany and russia. the balance of favor is for the first method both for color and strength. the second methods are rapid, about sixty hours being taken, but they injure the fiber more. dew retting is a weathering method, in which the sheaves of flax are spread in rows over a wet meadow and left, perhaps for the winter, exposed to rain, sun, and dew. the color is apt to be darker after this method than after the water retting, and sometimes is called silver gray or steel gray. the best flax is usually pale yellow white. where there is no running water special vats or pools with steep sides are built and water is conducted into them. all impurities must be kept out of the water. in ireland the soft water in numerous pools is excellent for fermentation, but the color is not so good as when the retting is done in running water. the water of the river lys, in belgium, is especially adapted for retting the flax, which is remarkable for color, strength, and fineness. the region around courtrai is given over to flax cul- ture. along the winding lys at all seasons the flax is in various stages of preparation: growing and being weeded in the spring, covered with bloom in the early summer, and at all times of the year in stooks or stacks, or in crates retting in the water. along canals and waterways passing into or out of medieval courtrai come or go great barges of the flax to be retted or taken back to farms for further preparation. scutching mills and great spinning and weaving factories are at hand to complete the preparation into cloth. the method of retting in the lys is in open crates of wood, with jute burlap around the four sides to keep the dirt out (fig. ). the bundles are stood on end alternately to keep the size equal, and are packed so that they cannot move. from two to three thousand pounds of straw are often in one crate. the crates are covered with fresh straw and floated into position in the lys, and are then weighted down with stones and sod until they are a certain distance below the water, perhaps textiles six inches. it takes about fourteen or fifteen days for the retting, depending on the temperature of the water or air and the color of the flax required. coarse straw is retted more easily than fine. there are various indications of the completion of the fermentation, such as bubbles rising in the water and the crate lifting itself above the surface. when the process is complete, the crate is floated opposite a windlass and pulled fig. . — retting tank. on the bank. the bundles are taken out and stood in tent shape to dry. after a time, the bundle is turned wrong side out, that the inside may be also presented to the air. fine fiber is usually immersed for about five days and taken out and dried for half a day, first on one side and then on the other, then put back for further retting. the fall season for retting begins about september and con- tinues until it is too cold. the retting begins again in march and continues until it is finished. sometimes the year is not sufficiently long, and the remainder of the crop is carried into the next year. overretting the straw causes the fibers to be brittle and weak. after the retting, in belgium, the flax is spread on a grassy meadow to dry. this bleaches the fiber and helps in the separation of the bundles of filament. it is then the linen industry stacked much like hay to be ready for the next process of break- ing and scutching. during the time of fermentation the odor from the flax is extremely disagreeable, and the water, unless carefully dis- charged, may poison fish and even cattle. after the flax is retted and dried, the straw should be bright and have a somewhat sweet odor. the fermentation separates the bark and woody pith from the fiber, but further cleaning is needed to remove the pieces of straw and the dirt which still cling, and to separate the bundles of fiber, which adhere closely. several processes follow to accomplish this, of which the breaking and scutching are often conducted on the farms. scutching mills, however, which also break the straw, are becoming frequent. the hackling and combing are done in spinning mills. breaking. — this process is done both by hand and machine, the purpose being to crack the inner wood all along its length. the chaff is then cast out from the fiber by shaking or hitting the sheaf. a very ordinary method of breaking is by a hand machine (fig. ). a series of long bars or knives are placed on a stand with a beater at one end, which can be raised and brought down again in con- tact with a sheaf of the flax straw as it is thrown across the bars. this breaks the wood into pieces and it drops out below, leaving the fiber. breaking machines are in use in scutching mills which have several pairs of grooved rollers, through which the flax straw is passed. the pith is broken by the rollers, and much dirt falls out. after breaking, the flax is taken to the scutcher. scutching. — the flax must now be shaken or beaten to remove more of the coarse pieces of wood or bark which are textiles clinging to it. already the fiber begins to show itself more clearly, looking much like a switch of gray hair filled with straw. in early days flax was beaten against stands to clean it, or it was hung up and beaten or " swingled," as it was called. still another method was to take a bunch of the fiber, place it in a cleft of an upright post, called a scutching post, and with a sort of flat beater to strike and clean the fiber (fig. ). scutching mills are now common in all flax coun- tries, and the process is very simple. a shaft runs through a long room, controlling a series of beaters of wood, which revolve rapidly. the workmen stand each in a separate compartment and present bunches of the flax fibers to the beaters through a hole in a board. the blades or beaters hit the flax and knock out the "shive" and dirt. when one end of the flax is clean the other end is presented. short fibers break off during the process, which are called scutching tow. the latter are rescutched, spun like cotton, and used for coarse cloths. the long fibers are called the line. scutching roughly divides line from tow. the process as used at present is not very satisfactory, for it frequently injures the fiber, and thought- ful flax workers say the less of it the better for fine thread. an improved scutcher is needed. during the scutching the worker roughly divides the cleaned flax into bundles of even lengths. these are tied up together and baled, two hundredweight or two hundred and twenty-four pounds being usually in one bale, although russia also puts up bales weighing four to five hundred pounds as well as those of two hundredweight. the flax is now ready for market or for the spinning mills. fig. . — scutching device. from dodge's useful fiber plants. the linen industry fig. . — flax in different stages. photograph by c. r. dodge. textiles line spinning. — the baled flax arrives at the spinning mills, many of which are near the scutching mills, as is found in courtrai in belgium. the flax must now be opened, cleaned, and straightened before it is ready for spinning. the spinning of flax differs from that of the other fibers in such particulars as the clearing away of large amounts of dirt, the combing out of the tow from the line, the great length of the filaments of line, and the necessity for still further subdividing the fibers by combing them through increasingly fine wires. flax prepara- tion requires special machinery or hand methods, which are expensive. the processes as seen in british and belgium mills are usually the following: first, a preliminary cleaning, combing, or hackling called roughing (fig. ). the rough flax as it has come from the scutching mill is combed through coarse combs like the ripple or primitive hackle (fig. ). this removes broken pieces of tow and dirt. roughing is a hand process. the roughing room has a series of benches, each containing usually two hackles, one coarser than the other, and also an upright, coarse, metal pin on which ends of flax can be broken by a quick pull. a rougher or worker presides over each bench. he spreads a lot of flax into divisions, called fingers, winds one of these around his hand, spreads the opposite end out into a fan shape, and throws it over the coarsest hackle. he draws the flax through first one way and then the other, until it begins to be smoother and finer and the dirt is removed. he casts the tow into the box at the back of the bench. then he combs the line on a second comb, which is finer, in the same way. he lays the line in even piles with the root ends together. three combs are sometimes used on a bench, coarse, intermediate, and fine. there is considerable art in hackling or roughing, and a poor rougher reduces all the flax to tow, but a good one has his line looking even and smooth, even after the first combing. the hackles or combs used in roughing are very similar to the old hand hackle of colonial days. for finer yarns hand hackling the linen industry fig. .—hand hackling. from watson's textiles and clothing, by courtesy of the american school of home economics. ° textiles is sometimes repeated many times in order to subdivide the flax bundles. seemingly there is no limit to the amount of division the flax will stand, until the filament begins to look like a mere hair. in england and russia the finest grades of flax are hand roughed before machine hackling, but in other countries machine methods are being used. the process of fig. . — machine hackling. courtesy of the york street flax spinning co., belfast. hand roughing is expensive, and takes a longer time than the machine. it is claimed by many that coarser flax does not require the hand processes. machine hackling. — the result of the roughing process is a fairly clean bunch of line, which is now subjected to a series of hackling machines which are much alike, except that the combs increase in fineness (fig. ). the object is the same as the hand hackling, to disentangle, clean, comb, and divide line from tow. machine hackles are long upright machines. the linen industry the ends of a bunch or tress of line are placed in a plate in the upper part of one end of the machine and held by a clutch; a series of pins or teeth becoming gradually finer pass down through the flax as it moves slowly from one end of the machine to the other. the tow is left in the combs, and at the further end an attendant receives the line, turns it upside down that it may be combed through in the opposite direction, fastens it in another clutch, and it passes back by a second machine along- side the first one. the line, meanwhile, has become smooth, fine, and glossy; the tow is removed from the pins by a revolving brush or doffer. sorting and cutting. — these two processes are sometimes used for fine yarns. flax for coarse yarns goes directly to the spreadboard, but for fine yarn it is hackled by hand and assorted into different qualities before it is passed to the next machine. for very fine yarn the line after sorting is usually cut into three divisions by a blunt instrument, the middle cut being the best. the term "cut line" is used. the fiber is now ready for the spreadboard. spreadboard. — as the fiber is long, the bunches or strips are delivered to the spreadboard on an endless apron, each strip overlapping the former one by six or eight inches. it passes into the machine to be combed through by fine wires and made into a continuous ribbon or sliver. drawing and roving. — the drawing is repeated, four times being customary. the slivers are doubled, it is said, as many as ten thousand times. the frames are much like those used for wool and cotton. several machines are required, varying according to the fineness of the thread desired. (see chap. ii for description of these processes.) spinning. — the upright spinning frames (see chap. ii) for wet, dry, and semi-dry spinning are used for flax, and are like those for cotton or worsted, except for the trough of hot water through which the linen yarn at times passes before it is twisted. wet spinning of flax and tow makes a fine thread which does textiles not look as silky as that which is dry spun. it is twisted tighter, however, and the flax is more subdivided, which has its advantages for special classes of thread. dry spun yarns have greater firmness than the wet spun, but the highest numbers are made with wet spinning. warp yarns are usually made with the wet finish, as it adds to their strength. the use of too hot water is injurious to the flax, and the result is a frowsy, cheap looking yarn. even in dry spinning, water is often dropped on the thread, or humidifiers are used to keep the air moist. it is necessary after wet spinning to have the yarn quickly dried, or mold will appear. linen sewing threads are wet spun and then specially twisted and dressed much like cotton sewing threads. tow spinning. — the tow, which is the short staple, coarse product, is treated differently from the line. it is beaten and shaken, carded, doubled, and spun much like cotton, and used for coarser counts of thread. the spinning frames for line and tow are much alike. winding, warping, sizing, and drawing-in. — the processes for linen preparatory to weaving are much like those for other textiles. sizing is used on the warp yarns to give strength, and yarns are frequently bleached wholly or partly before weaving. the dressing or sizing of linen yarns is important. flour and farina paste are much used, and are applied to the yarn in the slasher. weaving. — many linens, such as sheetings, lawns, and cambrics, are woven in the plain, tabby, or cotton weave. the twills and diaper patterns are found in towelings. the jac- quard loom is generally used for damask weaving. the damasks differ from the brocades in that both sides are alike and the cloth can be used on either side. the background is generally a plain or a broken twill. there are single and double damasks. the pattern shows more distinctly on the wrong side of the double, as there are more threads, which makes possible greater shading effects in the design, throwing it into relief. the threads of the linen industry double damask are usually double in the filling. as the pattern is made by the way the warp and woof threads cross each other, an elaborate damask design requiring floats of six or nine threads is not as strong as a more closely woven pattern. method of counting. — the method of counting linen yarns in england and america is by the number of leas in a pound, each lea representing three hundred yards. no. lea yarn would therefore have three hundred yards in a pound; no. lea would have six hundred yards. the method of numbering in france and austria is different. the counts for jute, hemp, and ramie are also figured by the lea. fine linen yarns for costly handmade laces run as high as s or even s. they are spun by hand. belgian hand spinners often work in damp cellars. such yarns are very expensive, being quoted at as much as $ per pound. the hand can spin finer counts than the machine, three hundred being as high as the latter can spin, and that is unusual. finishing. — the finishing of linen materials is important to their appearance, but the processes are not unusual. the bleaching of the yarn or the fabric is perhaps the most important process. dressings of various kinds are used, but the highest class of linens receives little, as the mangling, calendering, or pressing bring out the gloss. beetling is often used to assist in giving luster both to dressed and undressed linens. a usual series of finishes in an irish mill is, first, bleaching by chemicals; second, rub boards to wash the chemicals from the bleached linen; third, crofting or grass bleaching; fourth, bluing, starching, washing, and mangling; fifth, damping; sixth, beetling; seventh, calendering and pressing, which processes are often repeated a couple of times, and the material is finally finished by heavy pressure in the hydraulic press. in- spection, folding, marking, and packing complete the prepara- tion for market. bleaching (see chap. xiii).—the finest irish table linen is usually woven of half-bleached yarn. it is then crofted from the linen industry and dark sewing threads a very glossy dressing is applied to strengthen the yarn, which, without it, would wear rough. beetling (fig. ). — this process is frequently used to give gloss to the surface, and a supple, leathery feel to linens. it may be applied to dressed or undressed linen materials. strik- ing the woven cloth with wooden mallets after it was washed and dried was the original process. hand-woven damasks are still finished at times by hand beetling. the power beetle is a large and heavy machine. the linen is dampened, wound on a roll, and placed in the machine; the roll is turned slowly and the cloth is hit by heavy hammers or stamps, which descend directly upon it, or stamps with square butts are set spirally on a cylinder and impress the entire surface of the cloth, leaving small faces close together which reflect the light. the beetling machine is somewhat similar to the stamping machines used in ore concen- tration mills. some yarns are beetled, such as filling yarns for heavy sailcloths. statistics of linen manufacturing. — the estimate of the number of flax spindles and of looms in operation in was: spindles looms , , , , - , , , . . , , ,ooo other cities . . . . , , , j probably - machine looms; , j , - , hand italy h , russia: - • , estimate of : • • , o , power and great britain: hand looms , |england . . . , , , daily consular and trade reports, june , . textiles great britain's output of linen piece goods in was , , yards, with a value of thirty million dollars. in addition, a number of mills were working on highly finished fabrics, of which there is no exact report, but at least several million dollars more was made. the manufactures of flax, speaking generally, cover toweling and table linen, fine handkerchief linen and dress goods, shirt- ings, sheeting, canvas, ticking and tarpaulin, fine and coarse laces, and heavy yarns for carpets, sewing threads, embroidery threads and flosses, twines and cordage. the world's annual production of linen fabrics is stated as , , , pounds. theweaving and finishing of fine tableand dress linen are done in great britain and on the continent of europe, rather than in the united states. we have at least four million acres of land under flax cultivation, but for seed rather than for fiber. we import raw flax, linen yarn, and fabrics, for which we spend at least twenty million dollars annually. the flax straw which remains after the seeds are removed was at one time burned, although much protest was made against the waste. within a few years, however, the weaving of coarse and medium grades of linen has increased in the united states. in there were but three establishments for weaving linen, but in there were eighteen, with a capital of $ , , in round numbers. a number of these mills are in massachusetts. the development of machine methods for preparing the flax, in place of the usual hand methods of europe, has made it possible for us to do more of the manufacturing business. flax grows well in the united states. michigan, minnesota, north dakota, and oregon cultivate flax for fiber as well as for seed, but lack of persistent care of the soil has permitted the development of germ diseases which attack the flax plants and injure them for industrial service. the flax we have cultivated for fiber has produced mostly a rough, tow-like yarn, and not the kind re- quired for fine linen. the cultivation of flax for the finest thread the linen industry presents many difficulties for this country, and the returns in money do not attract the farmer, who has other crops which are less trouble and are more easily sold. labor is much cheaper in europe, and the women and children are willing to work in the fields weeding the crop. there is a great deal of waste in the crop at any time, and the returns per acre are small. the machinery required for preparing and spinning fine linen thread is very expensive and of a special kind. it is said that a flax-spinning mill costs four times as much as one for cotton. tow can be spun on cotton machinery, and the medium grades of cloth made from tow have a large market. it takes a larger number of workers in fine linen manufacture than in cotton, the relation being from four to six times as many. the value of the seed industry is great, and although it is possible to cultivate flax for both seed and fiber, the best results in both industries are not obtained. we are not, therefore, likely to enter fine linen manufacturing with much energy at present, as such linens are really a luxury and the sale compara- tively small, whereas the market for cotton cloth is large. each year there has been an increased acreage for the seed, and also a greater number of mills for the low grade of fiber, which has a good sale. irish linen has had and still holds a high reputation; the in- dustry is mentioned in the history of the country as early as the thirteenth century. the linen is noted for its snowy whiteness, its reliable quality, its endurance. the climate is a factor in this, as sunshine and rain alternating give a moist climate good for the growth and manufacture of flax. the great center in ireland for fine linens and damasks is belfast and the northern part of the country. the trade goes calmly on with its own methods and does not make much effort toward doing new things to attract business. the old patterns are still used, being still greatly appreciated. much of the linen in ireland is grass bleached and in one noted old firm at least is still hand woven. driving through the country outside of belfast, the bleaching s textiles grounds can be seen covered with linen as in the old days. the linen is good and honest, but not always showy. besides the toweling and table linen, there is quite a business in fine cambrics, lawns, and batistes. ireland relies on belgium for much of its fine fiber. scotch linen, especially from a few well-known houses, has a high reputation; much of it is sun and grass bleached. the color is silver white. some consider it lighter in weight than the irish. it sells particularly in the medium grades. the heaviest classes of sailcloths, canvas, tarpaulin, sacking, and carpeting are also manufactured in scotland, dundee being a center. dumferline and perth weave damasks. much of the scotch linen is of moderate price. the designs are generally more showy than the irish. french damask is noted for its exquisite designs and effective appearance; the thread is fine and round. especial attention is given to the pattern and the beauty of finish. the most ex- pensive materials are made as well as the plainer ones. france also provides many linen materials for dress goods. belgium in the courtrai district has the finest variety of flax fiber in the world. many other countries buy it after it has been scutched, to spin into fine counts, or they purchase the yarn and weave it into cloth. belgium has also a large manufacturing trade. materials of great beauty are woven in the region about courtrai. besides toweling and table linen, belgium manufac- tures twilled linens, diapers, and drillings. it is said that more dressing is used on the linen in belgium than in ireland. in some respects belgian linen is like that of germany. german linen is silver white. the highest grades of table linen are manufactured, but are not exported as much as the me- dium and lower grades. those who have visited german cities, such as dresden, well know the exquisite designs and the fineness of the table linens. printed and dyed linens have also been manufactured for lunch cloths and napkins in germany and are very attractive, but not as enduring as the white. germany textiles cheap labor in the countries from which many of these fibers come has made it possible to prepare them by hand and sell them at a lower price than would be possible in the united states with its higher cost of labor; therefore we are not producing them to any large extent. the bast fibers in general are harvested, dew or water retted, and broken, scutched, hackled, and spun much like flax. the structural fibers are treated and prepared similarly to manila hemp. ramie, often called china grass (fig. ), is a bast fiber with many valuable properties, of low price, and of future promise as a useful and attractive textile. it grows easily in the united states, but the diffi- culties of decortication and conse- quent expense have kept it from the development it deserves. both ramie and china grass belong to the family of stingless nettles (urticacecb); the ramie, or rhea, being of the species bwhmeria tena- cissima, and china grass, of the bashmeria nivea. they flourish in india, china, japan, and in warm parts of europe and of north and south america. the plant grows very high and the woody stalks are cut as they mature. the bark, when green, is hand-stripped and scraped without the linen industry retting. when the bark is dry it is dew or water retted like common hemp or flax. this process is repeated a couple of times if necessary. the fiber is usually hung in the sun after it has been relieved of the woody matter and at first looks much like coarse hemp. degumming, combing, drawing, and spinning follow. it is more difficult to clean than flax. the degumming, a chemical process, is repeated, as a portion of the gum only is taken out by the first bath, and the remaining gummy matter is much harder to remove. unless all of it is taken away, how- ever, the material feels like haircloth as it touches the skin. after the final degumming the fiber is soft, white, silky, and glistening, and even more beautiful than flax. in the combing and drawing processes the long silky fiber, or line, is separated from the noils, or short fiber. both are spun, the latter being used for coarser materials and for wadding. ramie is manufactured to an increasing extent in france, england, and the united states. it is frequently combined with silk and is made into materials to compete with linen, which it strongly resembles. like linen, it is difficult to dye. it is brilliant, strong, and durable, not easily affected by moisture, though some of its luster is lost by a wet finish. it has more tenacity than other fibers, and its elasticity, though not great, equals cotton and is greater than flax. it is not very flexible, but endures wear and tear. for underwear it has much prom- ise, for it is cheap, yet has the qualities of flax. there seems to be no limit to the possibilities of this fiber, for it has a range from the finest lace to the heaviest canvas, waddings, and cord- age. it is found in the market of the united states in dress goods, upholstery, underwear, tablecloths, toweling, and lace. pifia, or pineapple fiber, belongs to the family bromeliacem, the species being ananas sativa. it is native in tropical asia, africa, southern europe, and america, but in many countries the plant is grown for the fruit rather than for the fiber. the large fleshy leaves of the plant contain the fiber, which is usually extracted by hand. pina is considered to be the most delicate textiles and exquisite of vegetable filaments. the woven cloth is found in great perfection in the philippine islands and is often com- bined with silk in designs of great beauty. the weaving is usually done with the untwisted fibers. the appearance is white, soft, and lustrous and the material is flexible, durable, and unaffected by water. it is used much for coarse grass cloth as well as for fine transparent materials. the latter are for sale to some extent in the united states. jute, or jew's mallow, is used in cheaper classes of textile manufacturing. it belongs to the family tilacem. the species are very numerous, but the best known are corchorus capsularis and corchorus olitorius. it is a bast fiber and is retted and separated by hand methods. it grows in the hottest parts of india; being cultivated especially in bengal. china also is giving some attention to its growth. the plant grows very high, the fibers reaching thirteen to fourteen feet in length. it is a very cheap and unsatisfactory fiber, as it rapidly deteriorates when subjected to light, air, and moisture. it is perhaps the poorest of the textile fibers. the best grades are light brown or silver gray and fairly lustrous. it dyes easily but soon changes color. it is useful where cheapness is better than durability and is used for bagging, for covering cotton bales, and for cheap bind- ing twines and cordage. tapestry materials of jute and cotton are attractive in appearance but are not enduring. the fibers are combined with wool in cheap dress goods. carpets, rugs, upholstery, and burlaps are also made of jute. it is spun in fine and coarse counts. the united states does not grow much of it, as hand methods are too expensive, but much fiber is imported and manufactured here into twines, cordage, and cheap materials. bast hemps. — true or common hemp is a bast fiber of the species cannabis sativa (family urticacem). it is frequently named from places where it is grown — such as kentucky hemp, italian hemp, russian hemp, and others. it grows from three to seven feet in height, and is harvested and treated much like flax. dew retting is used extensively. the color of the fiber, the linen industry like flax, is pearl gray or yellowish. it bleaches well, is very strong, is more hygroscopic than either flax or cotton, and is not easily rotted in water. the coarser fibers of hemp are used for sailcloth, canvas, carpets, cordage, and ropes, and the finer for fish nets and cordage, but it is not used for fabrics to any extent. hemp is one of the principal export crops of russia; it is pro- duced in poland; france cultivates a fine variety of it; italian hemp is of the highest grade; japan used it very early; india is growing it, but for its narcotic effect rather than for its fibers; and the united states at one time cultivated it largely, but has small crops at present, owing to the decline in the shipbuilding industry. when the stalk is fresh much of the outer bark and gum can be stripped off by hand. the yarn is sometimes twisted only slightly, and has a very glossy appearance. the ambari hemp of india is of the same family as the cotton plant — malvacea; the species being hibiscus cannabinus. it is a bast fiber and is used for very coarse textiles and for cordage. the sunn, brown, or madras hemp is another bast fiber of india. it belongs to the family leguminosm; the species is crotalaria juncea. this fiber is also used for ropes and heavy textiles. hemps. — manila hemp, or abaca, is a structural fiber. it is a plantain and belongs to the family musacem and the species musa textilis. it is cultivated largely in the philippine islands and has its best development on rich flat lands. manila hemp is a more brittle fiber than the true hemp. the coarser varieties are used for binding twines, cordage, and heavy cloth; the finer for dress materials, veils, and shirtings. the cultivation is simple and the fiber is obtained by native methods. the leaves are cut before the flowering of the plant; they are slit down and the layers of fiber are removed, dried, and then scraped free of pulpy matter, leaving only the fiber. the latter is shaken, washed, dried, and spun. fiber for weaving sheer materials is beaten to separate the filaments into finer threads. france manufactures manila hemp into fine muslins. textiles sisal hemp (henequen) is an agave and is cultivated in the west indies and in parts of mexico and central america. it is a structural fiber from the leaf, like the manila hemp. the fibers are not so strong as those of the latter. they are used largely for hammocks and sacking. cocoanut, coir, or coco fiber comes from the fruit of the coco palm (cocos nucifera) and is also a structural filament taken from the inside of the husk of the cocoanut. it consists of bundles of stiff fiber which separate into finer threads after treatment. the palm grows extensively in india, the malay peninsula, java, and japan. the husk of the fruit is removed and the nuts are soaked in holes dug for them or in tanks. the best coir in the market is soaked in heated water in specially prepared tanks, for machinery is now being tried successfully. the fiber in general is beaten, cleaned by hand, and spun into a loose rove. the color is cinnamon brown; the fiber looks like horsehair and is very strong, light, and elastic. it is used for many purposes such as stuffing, upholstery, coarse mattings, sails, and cordage. linen materials width price butcher's linen .... - in. $ . - . - in. . - . diaper , , , , in. . - . piece , , , in. . - . holland for shades . . . - in. . - in. . - . - , - , - in. . - . by in. . - . . upsheets, hemstitched . . - in. double . - . pr. sheets, hemstitched . . single . - . pr. table linen, damask . . - in. - - - toweling, huckaback . . - in. . - . toweling, crash .... - in. .i §-. toweling, glass .... - in. . ^- towels, huckaback . . . x to x in- . - . doz. in. . up chapter x consumer's judgment of textiles testing materials. — chemical and microscopical tests (see chaps. xi, xii) are used to determine the content and value of materials, but these are at present hardly feasible for the rank and file of consumers. there are many simple physical tests, however, from which a housekeeper may gain fairly accurate information of standard materials and of those which are not up to this mark. it must be borne in mind that the wonders of cloth finishing at the present time make it difficult even for the expert to judge entirely by the appearance and feel, and that the only reliable tests are the scientific ones. the best cloth is made of good stock with strength in the yarn and woven of an enduring pattern. it should have a standard weight, the finish should be developed from the stock and not placed superficially upon the goods, it should have a good feel and appearance, should be capable of holding its color under definite conditions, and should be of good wearing quality. the physical tests aim to discover if these points are present or lacking, but will not in- dicate what the content is except in a general way. the economical housekeeper should train herself to recognize the look and feel of the leading fibers, yarns, and woven goods and also the names and prices of the standard materials. the standards are fabrics which have long been known and regarded as representative and enduring. variations in quality and price are found, as in serges of many values and kinds, but if a house- keeper learns the look, feel, weight, cost, and worth of one re- liable variety she can grade others from that. serge is found in all wool, in mixtures with cotton, or mixtures with re-manufac- tured wool, but still bears the same name. if a consumer knows textiles the cloth in its best condition and what to expect of it, she can better judge the value of other varieties of the same fabric and know whether the price is sufficient for a good material and if the width and weight are satisfactory. she should also know the properties of fabrics that she may test a doubtful piece of cloth for such qualities. each textile has special characteristics. it may be elastic, soft or harsh, firm, wiry or sleazy, cold or warm to the touch; it may look dull or lustrous or smooth; its weight may be heavy or light; it may absorb moisture and evaporate moisture. the consumer should know enough of the methods of manufacture (see chaps. vi, vii, viii, ix) to judge of difficulties and adulterations which may occur and affect these characteristics, and should distrust material which seems to be too good for the price asked. in order to know these points she must study the pure state of the four textiles as well as the adulterated. after such preparation she is ready to test doubt- ful materials. wearing quality.—a good way of testing the endurance of any material is by pressing the two thumbs together on the cloth and then pulling the material straight out, first warp way and then filling way. if it tears or frays in either direction it shows a lack of strength. to discover if material will bear strain in the seams, the threads of the warp and woof should be tested to see if they move easily. if they can be pushed with the finger nails without difficulty and are soft and brittle, the material is not strong, and when strain is applied it will fray. another way of testing such cloth is to weave a needle in and out of the double of the material as if making a tuck. the single cloth is then drawn away from each side of the needle and if a row of holes shows clearly alongside of the needle the material will not bear a strain. soft silks which are good otherwise will sometimes draw in the seams and should be so made up into garments that there is as little strain as possible. wool which is woven with a weak thin warp and heavy filling, as is found in some poplins, shows a decided lack of endurance wherever there is a textiles raveled both ways. the yarn can be examined for strength or weakness, for the manner in which it is twisted, for the length of the fibers, for their purity or inferiority, for the luster and whether one kind of fiber or mixed fibers have been used in it. the burning test is helpful here. the breaking strength of the yarn should be tried and the relation in size and strength be- tween the warp and filling threads. a very fine, weak warp will soon be broken if a heavy filling thread is inserted across it. this condition is sometimes found in poplins, of all wool or silk and wool, even if the fabric is as high as $ . a yard. cotton and linen mixtures in a yarn can often be told by raveling it and noticing whether its content is soft short fibers and also long strong ones; the former being cotton, the latter linen. tow with its short ends looks much like cotton if it is combined with the long linen fibers or line, but is harsher in feel than cotton. weaving test. — close, even, firm weaves are usually endur- ing. loose and open ones are apt to catch on small obstructions, to pull out of shape, and look shabby. the way the cloth has been woven often constitutes its strength or weakness. as ex- plained in an earlier chapter, the surface of material is often finished by gigging to give it a soft look. this surface is apt to wear smooth or shiny wherever there is friction. goods woven with long floats of warp or filling yarn on the face or even on the back are apt to wear poorly. napped cotton goods will crush down and wear off as the fiber is soft and not elastic. napping in wool goods sometimes covers imperfections. simple tests and thoughtful observation guided by knowledge of the properties and processes described in preceding chapters will show many of these disadvantageous conditions. cloth may be wiry and enduring, or smooth, strong, and shiny but requiring much care, or soft and sometimes easily mussed. the varying qualities are adapted to different purposes. the first is for hard wear, the second for dressy suiting, the third for house or evening service. raveling a sample will sometimes show the weave if it is not evident to the eye, or a weaver's glass can consumer's judgment of textiles be used. felted goods, like broadcloth, cannot be raveled but a very thin broadcloth is apt to lack endurance although beautiful to the eye. the demand among women at present is for very thin broadcloths, but when given rough wear they may slit at the hem as the felting is not sufficiently strong and the shearing has come close to the weave. by holding a sample of cloth to the light, imperfections of weave may become evident, threads that have been repaired can be detected, and any undue openness of the texture can be seen. standard weight. — each fabric, according to its use, should have weight sufficient for endurance. this quality is tested by the appearance to the eye and the feel of it as raised in the hand. linen is purchased by the weight, and there are a standard num- ber of threads in the different linens. a good test of linen is to count the threads either way in an inch, and see if they conform to the requirement. a consumer is helped in her judgment if she learns the usual weight of such materials in their best condition. finish and weighting. — goods may be poor, yet after dress- ing and finishing may look rich and strong. closely woven cottons and linens are often filled with sizing or clay and are un- satisfactory after a few launderings. luster and stiffness are often a matter of treatment. the housekeeper must learn to detect the difference in appearance and feel between pure and treated goods. the tongue can often detect sizing, or the nail can remove it, showing the coarse texture below. another means of discovering sizing is by rubbing the material between the hands to see if the surface dressing will come out. sizing can be re- moved usually by a very thorough boiling, although this is not always easy to accomplish. mineral weighting in silk can be detected by placing the sample on a small dish and leaving it in a hot oven (about f. or c.) for about an hour; the pure silk will be consumed and the weighting will, until disturbed, remain in the form of the fabric. this experiment is more satisfactory when performed in a laboratory furnace but may be done in an ordinary oven. textiles color changes, spotting, weathering, and crushing. — cot- tons and linens are apt to fade, shrink, and tear in the laundry, and if they contain sizing will look coarse as this passes away. colors are frequently ruined by strong soaps, by careless drying in the sun, or by pressing with too hot an iron. the endurance of wash materials depends greatly on careful treatment in the laun- dry. a doubtful material should be tested for these points by taking a small sample, noting its color to see if it fades and its size to see if it shrinks and then washing, ironing, and exposing it to hot sunlight. a piece of white cloth rubbed on dyed goods will sometimes show if the dye is permanent or the material crocks even without moisture and heat. if material is to be exposed to sun and air, its endurance can be tested by placing a sample for a couple of weeks on a window ledge or roof and covering one half of the sample with a card. the sun, air, rain, and changing at- mosphere will affect the part which is not covered and will indi- cate the result to be expected from continued use. (see chap. xiv.) in general it may be said that bleached materials do not wear as well as unbleached, as in bleaching at the present time chloride of lime, or other strong chemicals, whiten but weaken the fiber. the old time housekeeper used unbleached and undressed muslins for underclothes and sheeting and unbleached tablecloths and toweling. gradually these materials were whitened through the laundry and by spreading on the grass. some materials are finished in such a way that they easily spot with water and must be sponged or washed before making up. these should be tested by dropping water on a sample before purchasing the cloth. those who have worn pongees know what is apt to happen when caught in a slight shower. it must be remembered that no one material is dyed fast to all influences; some are made fast to laundering, others to sun- light, others to dust, mud, and general wear. it is impossible to expect them to stand all bad conditions. perspiration will often change the color of cloth; a sample can be tested by consumer's judgment of textiles dipping it in a little warm acetic acid and drying between parch- ment papers, without rinsing, and noting results. elasticity is inherent in some fibers but is lost through adulteration and substitutes. a simple way of testing fiber which should have elasticity is by wrinkling the material in the hand and then try- ing to shake it out. if the wrinkles continue, the materialwill easily become lined and crushed. differentiation tests. — fabrics made of cotton and linen do not have the full properties of pure linen. doubtful material can sometimes be tested by dropping water on it and noting the way the water spreads and the material dries. moisture spreads rapidly on linen and soon dries, but a drop of water will often lie some time on the cotton before being absorbed, and the material will remain wet for some time afterward. ink can also be used as a test. it must be remembered, however, that when cotton and linen goods are heavily dressed with sizing the water does not spread as easily. glycerin is considered a more successful test than water. it causes linen to appear transparent but has not this effect on cotton. in general linen yarn is irregular in appearance but cotton yarn is more exact in twist. by breaking the yarn across quickly the cotton threads will usually curl up, while flax threads remain smooth. this test takes practice to do well. singed ends of linen thread appear even and compact; cotton threads spread out like a paint brush. crushing in the hand will also indicate the difference between all cotton and all linen material and the unions. silk and arti- ficial silk, or mercerized cotton combinations, are difficult to test physically, but the burning test will sometimes show that the material is not pure silk. artificial silk and mercerized cotton burn in a like manner, as they are cellulose. in general soft finished silks are much better for wearing than stiff ones, but they must be tested for the possible inability to stand strain in the seams. crepe de chine or other silks woven of closely twisted threads wear better than the soft silks but do textiles not have the characteristic gloss of silk, looking much like wool. taffetas are stiff and crease easily; they are very apt to be heavily weighted and unreliable, especially in black. cheap, heavily corded black silks are generally weighted. a good wearing silk should be closely and evenly woven and soft to the feel. if the threads are raveled out and broken, they should stand some strain. to some extent price is indicative of values in silk, for it is impossible to get good silks at low price, but this cannot be entirely relied upon, as even silks sold at $ . per yard have been found too heavily weighted to wear well. the purchase of linen. — linen should be pure, for then only has it the properties for which we buy it. damasks as well as some other linens are bought by weight. damask is made double as well as single. double damask is more beauti- ful, and is usually made by having a double thread in the filling, and it is woven of well-twisted fiber. in double damask the pattern shows more distinctly on the wrong side of the cloth than in the single, and is, therefore, especially desirable for its beauty as table linen. the pattern in damask is in the warp lines, that is, the threads of design run lengthwise. when the cloth is held up, the vertical lines reflect the light and the cross lines look dark, hence the right and wrong sides can be determined by the way the pattern stands out in the light. in order to judge table linen the following points should be remembered: good linen in the hand is soft and yielding, yet elastic and tough like leather, and is not stiff and crackly. the medium range in price would be from $ . to $ a yard. hand woven, grass-bleached damask wears better than damask made by power looms and chemically bleached. in general, the grass-bleached linen comes to the united states about the first of january, having been bleached in the summer, and the housekeeper can find it on the counters at that time. colored linens are not satisfactory, since flax does not hold dye well, and as a strong mordant has to be used to hold the color, the yarn is apt to be weakened. if one has some knowledge of the best linens, it consumer's judgment of textiles is well to buy them at a time in the year when the stock is low and the price reduced, before the new stock comes in. linen should always be bought at a reliable house, and of a salesman who knows the quality. some retail linen houses have their own patterns, which are used only when weaving for them. table linen comes by the yard and in the bordered cloth. the cloth having a border around it is more attractive, but for the same weight linen it is generally cheaper to buy the material by the yard. over-fine thread in damasks is not always a wise investment, but a strong, rounded thread is best. the best linen is sized very little, if at all. the sizing in the yarn or in the cloth is apt to make a break in the yarn when the cloth is folded, which will later become a hole. highly sized or dressed linen should, therefore, be distrusted. a round thread of even weight in both warp and filling gives strength. it is true some hand-woven linens have the thread somewhat flattened by bee- tling, but it has been round and strong in the first place, and not being dressed is probably not injured by the beetling. the number of threads per inch in damask should be noted by the weaver's glass, both warp and woof or filling way. the correct amount for the warp in a good damask is for medium quality, threads; for fine quality, threads; and for the filling, of double damask, threads; of single damask, threads. the weight of the linen is a factor in its value. when the number of threads per inch is satisfactory and there is no dress- ing, the cloth will wear well; when the cloth is coarsely woven and the weight is made of dressing, it will not wear, for after laundering the material will be coarse and flimsy. the mini- mum of weight is oz. per square yard. high grade linens are made from the line and the poorer grades from the rougher fibers. good linen has a smooth sur- face; if when rubbed between the fingers it becomes fuzzy, it probably has much tow in it, or is a cotton mixture. an all-over pattern in damask is generally more satisfactory than one with plain bands, for ironing is apt to twist the plain t textiles design, therefore the effect of the former is better after several washings. at one time certain patterns were characteristic of different countries, as the snowdrop or shamrock of ireland and the check of germany. at the present time these patterns are used interchangeably, and cannot be depended upon as repre- senting any special country. excellent linens come from many parts of europe. those accustomed to any one kind and who rely on good firms are apt to feel that that particular linen is the best. certain brands of table linen can always be relied upon, and a housekeeper should know these. hemstitched sheets are more apt to tear in the laundry than sheets with a hem made by sewing machine or hand; fringe is not enduring, and machine-scalloped edges soon become ragged. in sheeting that is not high priced, yarn made of tow is some- times used, which will not wear satisfactorily nor even look well, as the tow is short in staple and soon has a rough look. homespun sheets and towels are liked for their feel and texture. in the past the line was not so carefully separated from the tow as now, and therefore the spun yarn had a more irregular sur- face and was more artistic than the extremely smooth yarns of the present day. standardizing textiles. — our federal and municipal govern- ments realize the necessity of providing reliable materials for the army, navy, and police service. standards are set for judg- ing the integrity of various suitings, linens, blankets, and other materials, which must meet the specifications or the cloth will be returned to the manufacturers. (see chap. xiv.) efforts are being made to secure some degree of standardization of textiles offered in general trade so that the nature and quality may be judged from the labels. an intelligent interest on the part of consumers will greatly strengthen this movement. a serious study of textiles in the schools and colleges, in women's clubs, and by individual consumers is necessary in order that the demand for "pure textiles," like that for "pure foods," consumer's judgment of textiles may be supported by an alert and intelligent public opinion. in both cases "pure" should mean materials honestly stand- ardized and labeled; it should not imply an unwillingness on the part of consumers to accept the honest products of new processes nor an unduly conservative attitude toward new materials. analysis of cloth. — the analysis of cloth is finding its con- tent, the nature of the weave, and the cost of manufacture. in the textile industries it is a very important and elaborate process leading into technical fields, and requiring information on many difficult branches of design, manufacture, and methods of dressing and finishing. to know the make-up of the yarn often necessitates both chemical and microscopical investi- gations. the final report must be absolutely exact, must give methods and expenses of reproduction, with kinds, sizes, and amounts of yarn, colors, dyeing costs, and methods and details of warping, weaving, and finishing. in plain weaves or simple twills with unfinished materials it is usually not difficult to judge the nature of the weave. weavers' glasses are easily obtained at a slight cost, and show a small field magnified per- haps ten times. the ends and picks are then easy to count. the investigation becomes more difficult in felted and sheared goods, in double and backed materials, or in those finished in such a way that the condition is changed. such special trade analyses are not needed by the student of economic consumption, but she should gain standards by some experience with the dis- section of cloth. the following points might be a basis for the study of standard materials: — i. the name of the material, with a statement of the fiber or fibers comprising it; the general character, such as worsted or wool, single, double, or backed cloth; and the use of it with its price and width. new names are constantly appearing for common materials, and a little study will enable the student to classify such fabrics under standard kinds. ii. analysis of weaves. the weaver's glass or a magnifying consumer's judgment of textiles rather coarse cloths, such as worsted serges, until the methods of weaving become clear. in some cloth it is difficult to tell the right or wrong side, but by slipping the hand along both sides one side will be found to be smoother than the other, or "draws," while the wrong side "bites" or resists. the dif- ference in printed warp goods and in printed materials should be considered. the methods of disposing of threads in an elabo- rate pattern when a color is not in use on the face should be noted. it may be by long floats on the back or by weaving the thread in. various crepe weaves, leno and swivel, embossing and moire- ing, should be likewise studied. a student should keep a card catalogue with data of her investigations and results. such simple analyses will result soon in realization of the ignorance of the general purchaser of even common fabrics, of the differences between textiles, of characteristics of fiber, of the false effect of artificial finish, of the strain of uneven weight of warp and filling, of goods that are effective but not strong, of poorly prepared yarn, which often breaks under the strain of weaving, of spots and flaws in cloth, and of the relation of beauty, as well as strength, to weave. all this tends to a better judgment of cloth which endures. additional considerations. — as has already been pointed out, the suggestions given in this chapter will be much more effective when applied in the light of a knowledge of the proper- ties of the textiles and the typical manufacturing processes as described in the special chapters devoted to wool, cotton, silk, and linen (chaps. v-ix). the consumer should also be acquainted with the possibilities of the microscopical and chemical methods of testing (chaps. xi, xii) which are of increasing importance in trade and some of which are simple enough for everyday household use. the selection of tex- tiles and clothing should also be influenced by a knowledge of their properties as regards dyeing and laundry processes (chaps. xiii, xiv) and the hygienic, economic, and social con- siderations discussed in chapters xv-xvii. chapter xi microscopic study of textile fibers the microscope is a most valuable aid in the study of textile fibers. each fiber has its peculiar structure and characteristic markings, which are revealed by the microscope alone, and which furnish the best and often the only certain means of identi- fication. chemical tests fail, for instance, in distinguishing between wool and hair fibers, or between different grades and qualities of wool, cotton, or linen. familiarity with the mi- croscope, therefore, and with the appearance of the more im- portant textile fibers, must be the basis of their analytical study. a compound microscope of to magnification is nec- essary. the following directions for its use are given to aid beginners: — parts of the microscope. — the essential parts of the com- pound microscope are those belonging to the microscope stand, and the optical parts. the microscope stand includes: — . the base. . an upright or pillar. . a stage for holding the mount. . a mirror, having a straight and a concave side. the concave side is used in poor light. the mirror is manipulated till a shaft of light is sent through the hole in the stage and so through the center of objective, tube, and ocular. . the arm, which supports the tube. . the tube, which in turn holds the draw tube. in focusing an object, the tube is moved up and down by the rack and pinion, or coarse adjust- ment. a finer adjustment is secured by a slight turning of the small wheel at the top of the pillar. the optical parts include: — . the eyepiece or ocular, which fits into the draw tube, and may be taken out and used as a single microscope. . the objective. there are usually two objectives, which swing around on the nosepiece. a click tells when one is swung in position. the low power objective is generally short and stout; the high power long and slender. textiles fication, the fleece of sheep is called wool, but it varies from the long, hairlike covering of the lincoln, leicester, and cotswold varieties to the soft, crimpy merino. the so-called hair fibers come principally from the alpaca, cashmere, angora, and thibet varieties of goats. (see chap. v.) how- ever, both forms are usually produced on the same animal. the long hairs of the cash- mere goat cover a soft, wooly coat, and mixed with the fleeces of most sheep are long, stiff fibers called beard hairs. physiology and structure. — the root of the wool or hair fiber is in the follicle (fig. ) situated in the dermis. both wool and hair show a common structure:— r. the epidermal covering, consisting of flattened, overlapping cells like the scales of a fish. these give the appearance of serrations or saw teeth to the fiber edges. occasionally in fine wools, single scales encircle the fiber like a series of funnels; more often two or more make up fig. . — hair follicle. i. hair root. . bulb of the hair. . internal sheath of root. . external sheath of root. . mul- tilobular sebaceous gland. . excretory duct of sebaceous gland. . simple sebaceous gland. . mouth of hair follicle. textiles wool or hair is dependent upon the kind and arrangement of the epidermal scales. when these are smooth and horny, and set firmly as in hair fibers, a lustrous effect is given, which is lacking when the scales are coarse and irregular, or damaged. . the cortical region, made up of narrow, elongated cells, giving strength and elasticity to the fiber. by focusing deeply, small striations can be seen, which are the lumens of the tiny cells. the waviness of wool is supposed to be due to differences in size and development of the cortical cells. . the medulla or central canal, composed of cells, generally rounded in form. the medullary canal may be broad and plainly visible; it may appear as a continuous or broken line, or it may not be seen at all in some fine, transparent wools. granular fragments and often pigment matter may appear in the contents. hair fibers commonly show the medulla, wool fibers often do not. by its capillary action, the medullary canal has much to do with the absorptive capacity of wool, and is an important factor in the dyeing of the fiber. two important secretions adhere to the wool or hair fiber. the sebaceous glands pour their contents into the hair follicle, from the sweat glands (fig. ) and consists largely of water-soluble compounds of potas- sium with oleic and stearic acid, forming soaps, and of potassium fig. . — diagram of sweat gland. the sebum being known as wool grease. the chief con- stituents of this substance are cholesterin, a waxlike alcohol, and its compounds with two or more fatty acids. wool grease is insoluble in water, therefore a coating of it makes the fleece waterproof, besides keeping it soft, pliant, and resistant to matting and felt- ing. the second secretion is microscopic study of textile fibers chloride, sulphate, etc. as generally accepted commercially, all the extraneous matter on the wool fiber is known as yolk or suint, although according to its french meaning the latter term is limited to the sweat secretion. the removal of the yolk is important, first, to enable the wool to take dyestuffs, and second, because the lanolin extracted from the wool grease, and the pot- ash salts from the sweat, are of great commercial value. (see chap. v.) tabular comparison:— diameter length serrations inches inches per inch wool: — . to medium^ southdown, etc. . . . to . to to hair: — . to regenerated wool. — this is wool recovered from old gar- ments or other sources and used again as textile material. three principal kinds are recognized: — . shoddy. the best grade of recovered wool. it comes from materials which have not been felted, hence the scales are in better condition than those that have undergone the felting operation. . mungo. obtained from fulled or felted goods. in tearing the firm material apart, the fibers are broken into short lengths and the scales damaged or removed entirely. . extract. recovered from wool and cotton mixtures by treatment with sulphuric acid or other carbonizing agent. the cotton fibers are destroyed, while the wool is left, with scales often missing or corroded. these fibers, collectively called shoddy, cannot always textiles be determined under the microscope even with care and practice (fig. ). uneven sizes and damaged scales may or may not indicate shoddy, but the presence of cotton fibers now and then is an indication of wool obtained from mixed d b cfig. . — shoddy fibers. a, b, fibers differing in color and kind. c. cotton fiber. d, e, fibers with frayed ends, torn places, and damaged scales. weaves by the carbonizing process, and other probable identify- ing marks are the presence of many frayed ends, together with a lack of uniformity in the size and appearance of the fibers, and of fibers of various dyes, due to their various sources. kemps are fibers which through disease or other causes have the medullary canal undeveloped or closed. consequently they do not absorb dyestuffs, and give a streaky appearance to the yarn or cloth. in addition to the absence of dye, diseased microscopic study of textile fibers fig. . — raw silk. wool often shows swellings or other irregu- larities under the microscope. pulled wool is removed from the pelts of slaughtered animals. lime is used to aid in the removal, and as it is apt to penetrate the medulla and close it with insoluble particles, such wool also takes dyes unsatisfactorily. fibers with close, thick scales resist dyes more than those with small, open scales, hence different tones of color may appear in a fabric containing different kinds of wool. silk. — silk differs from all other natural fibers in that it shows no cellular structure. the fluids secreted by the two spinnerets of the silkworm unite on issuing to form the double continuous thread of the raw silk. under the microscope these two threads of protein material, called fibroin, are seen to be held together by an external gum or silk glue, the sericin, which appears in raw silk as irregular masses on the surface of the fiber (fig. ). after being freed from the sericin by boiling off, the individual fibrils look smooth, cylindrical, structureless, lustrous, and transparent. occasional constrictions or humps may appear. cross sections of silk from the mid- dle layers of the cocoon are rounded; those from the outer and inmost layers may be flattened or triangular. wild silk. under the mi- croscope the wild silk fiber is broader and coarser than the cultivated silk, and shows numerous longitudinal stria- tic . —wild silk. tions (fig. ). the cross textiles section is flattened or sometimes wedge-shaped. the diagonal lines often seen in tussah or other wild silks taken from woven material have been attributed to pressure of other fibers on the filaments. artificial silk. — this shows regular cylindrical rods having the appearance of glass (fig. ). most varieties, the gelatin fig. . — artificial silk. silks excepted, have their surfaces marked by grooves or flutings running lengthwise of the fiber, and minute air bubbles are sometimes seen, especially with the chardonnet silk. cotton. — cotton is a unicellular seed hair, which grows as a modification of the epidermis of the cotton seed. its length varies from less than one inch to about two inches, and it has an average diameter of about . of an inch. being a part of the epidermis, the seed hair or cell is covered with a thin, microscopic study of textile fibers structureless cuticle. the walls are strong and thick, and an interior canal or lumen is present which is filled with protoplasm until the cotton is nearly ripe, when it gradually dries and the cell collapses. the typical appearance of a ripe cotton fiber under the microscope is that of a smooth, flat band with thick- fig. . — cotton fibers. a, end of fiber. b, dead or unripe fiber. c, ripe cotton. d, mercerized cotton. ened edges — the cell walls — which make up about one third of the diameter of the fiber (fig. ). the lumen is generally visible, its breadth being usually greater than that of the walls. the most characteristic mark is the twisting which occurs at intervals. the stronger and more uniform the twist, the greater the elasticity of the fiber, and the better it is adapted to spinning. dead or unripe cotton fibers show little or no twist, and a less strongly developed cell wall. in general, the cotton fiber is textiles larger in the middle than at the base, and tapers gradually to the point, which is rounded or blunt, with thick walls. the lower end of the fiber, which has been torn from the seed coat, is open. while the twist is a distinguishing mark of cotton, the presence of a cuticle can also be made to differen- tiate it from bast fibers, unless it has been removed by treatment, as is the case in mercerized cotton, and often in well-bleached yarn or weave. when cotton is placed in cuprammonia the cuticle is not affected, but the walls of the fiber become greatly swollen and break out in places through the cuticle, which is left hanging in constricting rings or shreds on the fiber (fig. ). the lumen becomes like a coiled thread as the fiber shortens and swells. cross sections of ripe cotton fibers show elliptical, reniform or crescent shapes, with a central line represent- ing the lumen (fig. ). the fibers of unripe cotton have not fully collapsed, therefore their cross section shows a more rounded appearance and a more regular outline than the ripe cotton. mercerized cotton. — in the mer- cerizing process (chap. xii) the strong alkali used removes the cuticle of the cotton fiber and swells the cell walls, while the tension employed takes out the natural twist more or less com- pletely. under the microscope the modified fiber is seen to be straight, smooth, lustrous, and cylindrical (fig. ). charac- teristic markings are occasional slight twistings, if the merceriza- fig. . — cotton fiber in cupeammonia. . swollen cell wall. . con- stricting rings of cuticle. . lumen. fir.. . — cross sections of cotton fibers. textiles for linen yarn have the following characteristics in common: the shape is cylindrical, tapering to a sharp point. the cell wall is so thick that the lumen appears as a narrow, often thread- like, line. a distinguishing feature is fine cross lines at intervals, giving the appearance of joints or nodes, strikingly like those on the sugar cane or bamboo. sometimes these intersect like the letter x (fig. ). in cuprammonia the walls dissolve with irregular swellings, but with no appearance of constricting cuticular rings, as with cotton. the lumen resembles a coiled thread. cross sections of flax are characteris- tic. they are polygonal, made up of fig. . —cross sections groups of five- or six-sided cells, with a of flax fibers. ,, , small lumen (fig. ). fibers from the base of the stem and the root of the plant are flattened, broad, and stratified, with wide lumens. in cross section the lumen shows its considerable size. these fibers are one source of tow yarn. other vegetable fibers. — ramie is a bast fiber, obtained from the nettle boehmeria tenacissima. a very similar fiber, and one generally called ramie, comes from the boehmeria nivea, or china grass. the fiber has a silky luster, is smooth, stiff, and inelastic. the bast cells are unusually large, being much longer than linen fibers and on an average three times as wide. like linen, the cell walls are well thickened. the lumen varies, but is generally plainly visible, and sometimes equals one third or one half the diameter of the fiber. characteristic appearances are a folding over of the cell wall at times, heavy transverse markings or nodes, and frequent striations along the fiber. the ends of the fiber are thick walled and rounded (fig. ). jute is the bast fiber from different species of the corchorus, grown principally in india. the fiber is fine, long, lustrous, and soft, but deficient in strength. this is due in part to irregu- microscopic study of textile fibers larities in the thickness of the cell walls, which show in the micro- scopic examination, as frequently the inner and outer cell walls do not lie in parallel lines. the fibers have a smooth appearance, without the transverse markings of linen and ramie. hemp is derived from many plants. for a discussion of different varieties see chapter ix, and matthews' textile fig. . — ramie. fibers. in general hemp resembles flax, with the difference that the ends of the fiber are frequently forked. pineapple fiber, incorrectly known as silk grass, is obtained from the leaves of the pineapple plant. the elements of its bast fiber are extremely fine and lustrous; the lumen is thread- like. woven with silk, the product is called jusi cloth; alone, it forms the pifia cloth of the philippines. coir. — the shell of the cocoanut furnishes a fiber known as coir. it is about ten inches long, but the fiber elements may be textiles less than one millimeter in length. under the microscope, the fiber shows irregularities in the cell wall, and a correspond- ingly irregular lumen, so that the latter may seem to have serrated edges. pore openings are frequent. microscopic analysis of fabrics. — the purpose of the micro- scopic examination of a material is usually fourfold: to deter- mine the method of construction, the nature of the fibers used, the relative amounts, if of different kinds, and their quality. a measured square of the fabric is cut out, large enough to contain all of the different threads which may appear in the weave. it is then separated into warp and filling threads, which are carefully placed in different piles. the threads in each pile are indi- vidually examined. if different fibers have been used, the micro- scope will show whether they appear separately in warp and filling, or are combined either by twisting together or by making one a core around which the other is veneered. other methods of combination may also be found. if possible, the different varieties of fibers are separated and weighed, which will give a quantitative estimate of the makeup of the fabric. when the various points in question have been settled and the weave has been analyzed, the microscopic examination is complete. there may yet remain questions which can be settled only by chemical tests, such as more accurate quantitative analysis, and an estimation of sizings or weightings. chapter xii chemical study of textile fibers with a few exceptions, the tests given in this chapter are designed for classes beginning the study of textile chemistry. only simple apparatus is required, and many of the experi- ments can be performed in the home. until the law shall re- quire the proper labeling of goods, the buyer's protection lies in more knowledge of the character of materials used, and the processes to which they are subjected, and to this end these practical chemical tests will be found of value. classification of textile fibers. — arranged according to their origin, the principal textile fibers are grouped as follows: — animal vegetable mineral artificial wool and hair cotton asbestos lustra-celluloses fibers flax gelatin silk silk hemp metallic threads jute spun glass ramie coir pina according to chemical composition, animal fibers are protein in nature, and therefore contain the elements carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen in common. in addition, they may or may not contain sulphur, and on this basis they are subdivided as follows: — sulphur-bearing (keratinic) fibers: wool and hair. containing no sulphur: cultivated and wild silks. textiles vegetable fibers contain the elements found in cellulose: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. an altered form of cellulose, lignocellulose or bastose, which is a compound of pure cellulose with lignin or woody tissue, is sometimes present. the prin- cipal vegetable fibers fall therefore into the following groups: — true celluloses: cotton, flax, ramie. lignocelluloses: jute, hemp, new zealand flax, coir, raffia, vegetable silk. mineral fibers are best represented by asbestos, a silicate of magnesium and calcium, which separates easily into straight metallic threads, capable of being spun into fabrics which have a well-known value as fireproof material. artificial fibers are of mineral, animal, or vegetable origin. the application of the mineral fibers is limited mostly to trimming effects in non-washable materials, such as gold and silver threads in embroideries, brocades, tapestries, etc. artificial silks, which are principally of vegetable origin, will be considered later. ultimate composition. — the ultimate composition of the principal fibers can be easily determined by the following ex- periments, and the method further serves as a ready means of identifying certain fibers. experiment i. burn a sample of woolen material in a dry test tube. notice the odor like burning hair or feathers, and the condensation of hydro- gen and oxygen as water on the sides of the tube. test by odor and red litmus paper for nitrogen and hydrogen combined as ammonia. the paper turns blue if ammonia is present. hold in the mouth of the tube a roll of filter paper moistened in lead acetate. in the presence of sulphur the paper is colored black. the carbon content appears in the charred residue. . repeat with silk no sulphur is found, unless sulphates have been used in the weighting. other reactions are the same as with wool. . repeat with cotton. notice odor like burning wood. hold a strip of moistened blue litmus paper in the fumes. it turns red, due to a com- bination of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the form of a volatile acid, impure acetic. try to find ammonia and sulphur as before. ordinarily, animal and vegetable fabrics may be distinguished by the characteristic odor on burning, and the manner in which each burns. vege- table fibers flash quickly into flame; animal fibers burn slowly. frequent peculiarities of weave and treatment often make this test of uncertain value, however. chemical study of textile fibers action of acids and alkalies. — the chemical nature of animal fibers is both acid and basic, like that of proteins; the reactions of vegetable fibers cannot be so definitely stated, although cotton has been observed to show the characteristics of both an acid and a weak base (vignon). wool absorbs both acids and alka- lies, due to its double nature, but neutralizes only the former. hydrochloric acid is absorbed by wool to a less extent than is sulphuric; the absorption of dilute sulphuric produces an in- creased affinity for acid dyes. in general, animal fibers are attacked more strongly by alkalies, vegetable fibers by acids. however, cold dilute acids, either mineral or organic, have little action on cotton or linen unless allowed to dry and concentrate on the fiber. acetic acid, being volatile, has no action. silk is less rapidly destroyed by alkalies than wool, but is attacked by acids more strongly, and is dissolved in a few moments by strong sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. acids of suitable strength, with the time of action under control, have the effect of contract- ing cultivated silk strongly, with not so much effect on tussah silk. this fact is applied to the manufacture of crepe from a mixture of these two silks. the important differences in the action of acids and alkalies on various fibers can best be learned by experiment. experiment . immerse samples of cotton and of woolen material in concentrated sulphuric acid and in a per cent solution of caustic soda. after fifteen minutes remove any residue, wash, and examine condition of material. . in separate dishes, immerse samples of silk and wool in hydrochloric acid and in sulphuric acid for two minutes. remove and wash, and ob- serve the comparative action of these acids on the two materials. chemical study of textile fibers reactions with acids —continued wool silk linen cotton strong hc hardly per cent dissolved action quicker affected solution very slowly than with contracts by cone. linen fiber; per cent dissolves in min.; per cent dissolves in min. picric yellow yellow organic acids, absorbs read- absorbs read- not injurious same as linen oxalic, etc. ily; no inily; in- unless jurious creased dried on effect luster fiber. no action with acetic tannic does not ab- greatest af- absorbed to same sorb readily finity for of all fibers some extent suggested work: the student may perform experiments based on these tables, making the experiments identification tests for the different fibers. a few household tests should be worked out, using the acids and alkalies of the home ; for instance, solutions of the lye used in soap making, strong solu- tions of washing powder, etc. qualitative and quantitative analysis of fabrics. — in general materials should be freed from dressing before conclusive tests can be made, but this is not necessary for the qualitative tests which follow. in all color determinations, fringe out a square of the material to the depth of about one inch, exposing both warp and weft threads. differing fibers will thus show the expected color differentiations more plainly. the microscope should always supplement the chemical test, as it alone shows the quality of the fiber. weaves should be chemical study of textile fibers strength by replacing the water lost by evaporation, or by using a reflux condenser. (a long piece of glass tubing rising vertically through the cork of the flask will answer.) wool is destroyed; cotton remains (figs. , ). remove the cotton residue, wash thoroughly, restore to air-dry condition, and weigh. it is estimated that the cotton loses from to per cent of its weight through the action of the alkali. five per cent of the weight of the cotton residue is therefore added to it to correct this loss. subtract this weight from the wool, and express composition in per cent. example: — weight of air-dry sample . gms. weight of cotton residue . gms. difference (approximately wool) gms. correction ( percent of . gms.) gms. weight of cotton ( . + . ) . gms. weight of wool (. -. ) gms. cotton per cent wool per cent to be more accurate, the above analysis must first take into account the weight of the finishing materials in the fabric. a method of removing these, recommended by matthews, is as follows: — weigh the air-dry material, boil in a per cent solution of hydrochloric acid, then in a very dilute solution of sodium carbonate (about one twentieth per cent), and lastly in water. air dry and weigh. the loss is finishing material and coloring matter. dry in an air bath at ioo° c. to constant weight, to remove the natural moisture of the fabric. record weight of moisture-free material, and treat with the solution of caustic potash as above. make the correction for loss of cotton. finally, since the amount of wool and cotton in a mixed weave is not based on dry weights, estimate the natural amount of moisture in cotton at per cent, and in wool at per cent. on this basis the cotton found represents per cent of the true amount, and the wool per cent. in large classes beginning textile chemistry, it may be con- venient to omit the quantitative work, and make the above test approximate. in the household, lye can be used in place of the caustic potash. wool and silk will be destroyed by heating in a solution of babbitt's lye, in the proportion of one tablespoon- ful to a cup of water. chemical study of textile fibers wool-silk. — i. true silk is destroyed by boiling in a per cent solution of caustic potash as above. to distinguish between silk and wool with this test, apply the following: — wool silk to the alkali solution of the fiber add: — sodium nitroprusside ( per cent solution) violet no color change lead acetate ( per cent solution) . . . black no color change copper sulphate ( per cent solution) . . brown violet although sulphates may be present in the weighting of the silk, these will give no color response; the test depends upon sulphides yielded by the sulphur of the wool. . immerse in per cent hc . silk is destroyed in two minutes. if the test is made quantitative, finishing materials and moisture are removed by the method given above, and a correction of . per cent is made for loss of wool. . to a per cent solution of caustic soda add sufficient lead acetate to form a heavy white precipitate. mix well. heat a white or light-colored sample in the mixture until a brown or black color is developed on the wool fiber. silk is uncolored. remove and wash. . wool is dissolved by treatment with cold per cent caustic soda; silk is undissolved. wool-silk-cotton. — a solution of either ammoniacal nickel oxide or basic zinc chloride dissolves silk with little loss of either cotton or wool. heat a weighed air-dry sample for five minutes in basic zinc chloride, re- move, wash thoroughly in acidulated and fresh water, air dry, and weigh. make a correction of . per cent for loss of cotton; for loss of wool, per cent (matthews). separate wool and cotton residue by the per cent caustic potash method. if ammoniacal nickel oxide is used, the silk in ordinary fabrics will dis- solve in two minutes, in a cold solution. correction for loss of wool, . per cent; for cotton, . per cent. see matthews' textile fibers for analysis of shoddy, plush, etc. matthews (textile fibers) gives the following directions for the preparation of these reagents: — ammoniacal nickel oxide. dissolve gms. of crystallized nickel sulphate in cc. of water, add cc. of a per cent solution of caustic soda, carefully neutral- izing any excess of alkali with dilute sulphuric acid. the precipitate of nickel hy- droxide is then dissolved in cc. of strong ammonia, and the solution diluted to cc. with water. basic zinc chloride. heat together parts of zinc chloride, parts of water, and parts of zinc oxide until complete solution is effected. textiles silk-cotton. —the color tests under wool answer very well for silk-cotton differentiation, or a mixture of silk and cotton may be analyzed quantitatively by using the per cent solution of caustic potash as given above. as the standard of moisture in silk is per cent, the silk found by the exact method will represent per cent of the original weight. an alkaline solution of copper containing glycerol dissolves silk, with little effect upon cotton. cotton may be separated from silk in plush mix- tures by heating the material in the solution for twenty minutes. the cotton residue should be considered to have lost . per cent in weight. a rapid but inaccurate method of separation is by immersing the sample in per cent hydrochloric acid. silk is dissolved in two minutes, cotton is attacked to the extent of per cent of its weight (matthews). silk and wild (tussah) silk.—hot per cent caustic soda dissolves cultivated silk in about ten minutes, tussah silk in about one hour. cold per cent hydrochloric acid dissolves cultivated silk rapidly, but has little effect upon tussah silk. true and artificial silk. —artificial silks have a tendency to become weakened or dissolved by boiling water. true silks turn red with millon's reagent and yellow with nitric acid; artificial silks are not affected. artificial silks gelatinize with cold caustic soda ( per cent) in two minutes; true silks do not succumb so quickly. artificial silk burns rapidly with no odor; and with the exception of gel- atin silk, the fumes turn blue litmus paper red; true silk burns slowly with a characteristic odor, and an alkaline reaction of the fumes on litmus paper. true silk dissolves in two minutes in an alkaline solution of copper sul- phate; lustracelluloses are not affected. this test may be made quantita- tive. to distinguish between the three principal varieties of lustracelluloses, — nitrocelluloses, cuprammonium, and viscose silks, — the following test is made : —• immerse fibers in concentrated sulphuric acid. in the case of the nitro- celluloses no coloration appears for nearly an hour, then a pale yellow color shows. cuprate silks show a yellow color at once, which deepens on stand- ing, and viscose silks turn reddish brown immediately. dyed silks must have their color removed before this test is made. cotton-linen. — the microscope is the only final test for cotton or linen fibers. all color or other tests fail at times, es- copper glycerol solution. dissolve gms. of copper sulphate in cc. of water, with the addition of gms. of glycerol; then gradually add a solution of caustic soda until the precipitate of copper hydroxide which is at first formed just redissolves. chemical study of textile fibers pecially in distinguishing cotton from fine bleached linen, which by the processes of retting and bleaching has become chemically identical with cotton. the tests which follow are the most satisfactory of those found in textile chemistries, and work sufficiently well with the coarser linen and cotton weaves, such as union towelings, where either the bleach is not perfect, or epidermal fragments adhering to the linen cause it to respond differently to the color tests. with practice, however, the sulphuric acid test may be made to give good results, even when the fabric under analysis is a fine quality handkerchief weave. before conclusive tests of any kind are made, the fabric should be freed from dressing by boiling in water, or by the oxalic acid method which follows. the latter is the most convenient method for heavily dressed damask, where the purpose is to discover the real quality of the weave and material. five per cent oxalic acid. using a reflux condenser, boil the sample about fifteen minutes in a per cent solution of oxalic acid. this hydro- lyzes the starch to glucose, soluble in water. remove, wash thoroughly, and test with iodine. if starch is still present, as it may be in heavily dressed table linen, continue the boiling in plain water till starch-free. a longer boiling in acid would have a tendency to weaken the fiber; boiling for fifteen minutes does not show under the microscope any deleterious action. an approximation of the amount of starchy dressing in a fabric can be reached by making this test quantitative. this method requires only one tenth the time of the method of boiling out the starch in water. sulphuric acid. immerse the sample in concentrated sulphuric acid for one and one-half to two minutes, according to the texture of the material. the object of retting is to separate the bast fibers themselves, and to free them from the other parts of the flax stalk — the bark, woody tissue, and pith or marrow. certain substances known as pectin bodies bind the bast fibers to each other and to the surrounding stalk, but in the process of fermentation, while the flax is immersed in water, these are more or less completely removed. this is effected principally by microorganisms which in the absence of air will attack moist pectose and break it down into simpler compounds. these are, as a rule, soluble and wash away, leaving the bast fibers free. some pectic acid may be formed, which being insoluble in water remains on the fiber. full bleaching still further purifies the flax fiber, how- ever, making it nearly pure cellulose. textiles remove, wash thoroughly with water, followed by weak ammonia. cotton fibers are destroyed; linen fibers less affected (eig. ). fifty per cent caustic potash. heat a fringed sample of union material in per cent caustic potash for two minutes. remove and dry between filter paper. linen becomes brownish-yellow; cotton white or straw color. fuchsin. immerse a fringed sample in a per cent solution of fuchsin in alcohol. wash thoroughly, lay in ammonia, then in strong caustic soda. cotton is slightly colored; linen becomes rose-red. cyanin. warm a fringed sample for about three minutes in a per cent alcoholic solution of cyanin. wash in water to which only a drop or two of sulphuric acid has been added. linen fiber is colored blue; cotton not colored. the color may be intensified by further treatment with ammonia water. madder tincture. linen orange-red; cotton lighter. cochineal tincture. linen dull red; cotton bright red. heat the sample fig. . — mixed linen and cotton towel- for fifteen minutes in either ing treated with sulphuric acid. the of these tinctures, using a linen remains in the fringe. water bath or a reflux con- denser, to lessen danger from fire. remove and rinse in a strong solution of sodium chloride. a variation of the ordinary tincture may be made by dissolving gms. of cochineal or madder in cc. of alcohol and cc. of water, and adding gms. of aluminium acetate. rosolic acid. warm the fringed material for five minutes in an alcoholic solution of rosolic acid, wash and dip for a second in strong caustic soda. wash thoroughly. linen becomes rose-red; cotton remains colorless. chemical study of textile fibers for tests to distinguish the minor vegetable fibers, see dodge, useful fiber plants, bulletin no. of the u. s. dept. of agri- culture, and matthews, textile fibers. mercerization. — in the process of mercerization, cotton is made to undergo certain changes by treatment with strong caustic alkalies. john mercer, an english cotton printer, was the first to show that cellulose, treated under given conditions with alkalies, contracted, gained in strength, and in affinity for dyes. his investigations are described under the english patents of . owing to several reasons, chiefly the high price of caustic soda, the discovery had little commercial value for thirty years. since the process has grown to be vastly important, especially since the patent taken out by lowe in , which covers a method of employing tension for prevent- ing shrinkage and producing a lustrous material. there have been several modifications and improvements of the method, credit for some of which is due to thomas and prevost of ger- many, but the essential process consists in immersing the cotton yarn or piece under tension in strong cold caustic soda or potash solutions, and subsequently washing it. to obtain a high degree of luster, the best quality of cotton is required. sea island or egyptian cotton is therefore preferred, and the fiber is generally combed and gassed to remove protrud- ing ends and render it more silky. the yarn or piece may be bleached before or after mercerizing, depending upon the pur- pose for which it is intended. the mercerizing process leaves it brown. the material, suitably prepared, is carried under ten- sion on rollers through the mercerizing solution. this may be caustic soda of a specific gravity of . to . , at a temperature not exceeding c. ( ° f.). under different methods, various chemicals are added to this bath for the sake of better penetra- tion or increased luster. after a few minutes in the alkali solution, the material, still under tension, is washed in fresh and acidified waters. it has been found that the brilliancy and durability of the luster is increased by alternately releasing and textiles taking up the tension on the material while it is in the alkali solution. the chemical change involved consists in the probable for- mation of an alkali cellulose, which breaks up during the wash- ing process, and the cellulose unites with water to form a cellu- lose hydrate to which the composition (cehioos^hso has been assigned. in addition to the chemical change, the cotton fiber undergoes structural modifications. the cell walls are thickened, the lumen is consequently decreased in size, and with complete mercerization under tension the natural twist disappears, giving place to a smooth, rodlike appearance. owing to the fact that the outer and inner fibers of the yarn are not equally influenced by the alkali, some twisting is commonly found in mercerized fiber. the acquired luster is due partly to the better surface for light reflection given by the smooth, rounded fiber, partly to removal of the cuticle, and partly to the translucent effect pro- duced by strong alkalies on cellulose. the mercerized material is found to have gained in weight, in tensile strength, and in affinity for dyestuffs, especially for the direct cotton colors. (see chap. xiii.) it will also take up mordants more readily, as its absorptive capacity is practi- cally doubled. cotton may be made to appear mercerized by giving it the schreiner finish. (see chap. vii.) tests for mercerization. — the microscope is fairly useful in determining not only the presence but the degree of mercer- ization; but if the tension has not been sufficient, or the fiber imperfectly mercerized, the twist which persists may make a definite conclusion impossible. the best chemical test is the hubner method of treatment with a solution of iodine in potas- sium iodide. the material is moistened with water, placed in the solution for a few seconds, then washed thoroughly and laid iodine in potassium iodide: dissolve gms. of iodine in cc. of a saturated solution of potassium iodide. chemical study of textile fibers in water. mercerized cotton remains blue or black; ordinary cotton fades to brown or yellowish. the absolute prerequisite for this test is that the material shall have been boiled free from starchy dressing before testing, otherwise all fibers will give the blue reaction. mercerized wool. — by a method somewhat similar to the mercerization of cotton, german experimenters have produced a "mercerized" wool — a product with luster, handle, fair strength, and no felting power. the wool enters a bath of sodium bisulphite, where it is kept under tension for some minutes at a high temperature. boiling in a weak mineral acid solution, rinsing and drying complete the process, which has not gone far beyond the experimental stage. unshrinkable wool. — when wool is treated under certain conditions with bleaching powder, the fiber loses its felting quality, due to a fusing of the epidermal scales with the cortical region. the luster is increased, and it is claimed that the tensile strength is greater also. since the power of felting is gone, wool so treated cannot shrink, and is being much used for underwear. fireproofing of cotton. — the non-flam process, an english process patented in the united states in , is a method of permanently fireproofing cotton, resulting from the investiga- tions of william henry perkin. it can be applied to any cotton fabric, but is especially valuable in the case of flannelette, which because of its nap and treatment in finishing is exceedingly in- flammable. the process, as described by the originator, is as follows: "the material is run through a solution of sodium stannate of approximately . sp. gr., in such a manner that it becomes thoroughly impregnated. it is then squeezed to re- move the excess of the solution, and passes over heated copper drums in order to thoroughly dry it, after which it is run through a solution of ammonium sulphate of about . sp. gr., and again squeezed and dried. apart from the precipitated stannic oxide, the material now contains sodium sulphate, and this is removed by passage through water. the material is then dried o textiles and subjected to the ordinary processes of finishing." it is probable that the more or less soluble salts used are combined with the fiber in some undisclosed way. the additional cost per yard is trifling, and as the material becomes better known in this country it will probably be much in demand. artificial silks. — nearly all artificial silks are made by treat- ing cellulose of some kind in a way to produce filaments of great luster and beauty, capable of giving brilliant hues with dyestuffs, and of sufficient tensile strength to allow for spinning into textile material. these filaments, however, lack the softness and elasticity of true silk, and are liable to disintegrate on washing. they are coarser than true silk in the approximate ratio of filaments to in a given area, and their tensile strength is as to in favor of natural silk. this comparative weakness of the artificial silk becomes even more serious on wetting. the principal artificial silks on the market are the nitrocellulose, cuprate, and viscose silks. they are known as lustracelluloses, from their cellulose origin. nitrocellulose, or pyroxylin, silks are produced by various methods, the best known, perhaps, being chardonnet's, du vivier's, and lehner's. the idea in each process is the same, — the production of guncotton or nitrated cellulose, which is dis- solved, forced through capillary tubes, and coagulated into a filament. chardonnet's method consists essentially in nitrating the cellulose by treatment with a mixture of fifteen parts fuming nitric acid and eighty-five parts concentrated sulphuric acid. the nitrated cellulose is washed and dissolved in a mixture of alcohol and ether. the clear, filtered, viscous solution, collo- dion, is then forced through glass capillary tubes of . to . mm. in diameter. the outcoming filament rapidly hardens in the air. three or four threads are combined into a single fila- ment, which is passed through a denitrating bath of ammonium hydrosulphide. treatment with a mixture called "antiphlo- gin " corrects the inflammable nature of the fiber. the material is then washed and dried. textiles various designs with which the cylinders may be engraved. the fabric is not strong, having the properties of artificial silk, but it can be employed for hat trimmings and such uses. another artificial fiber is the spinning material "textilose," said to be made from paper, wood pulp, and wool waste. it is manufactured in germany and austria, and lately in new eng- land. it is stronger than jute and cheaper, and has been used for sacking, upholstery, and curtain materials, and even for toweling and coarse clothing. dressing and weighting. — the question of dressing or weighting is an important one from the consumer's standpoint, especially in the purchasing of table linen or silk dress goods. materials of very inferior fiber or weave may be so loaded with starchy or other dressing as to appear of fine quality and firm texture. simply boiling out a sample of toweling or table damask will often reveal an apparently different fabric from the purchased one. a certain amount of dressing or sizing is legitimate and neces- • sary, in order to make the filaments in a spinning yarn more homogeneous, and better able to stand the strain and friction of weaving, especially in the case of warp threads. in cotton or linen goods the sizing is commonly compounded of flours — wheat, rice, potato, etc. — to which glue,- dextrin or other gums are frequently added. mineral substances, principally kaolin or china clay, and chlorides of magnesium and zinc contribute to the weighting. the chloride of magnesium prevents the drying out of the size on the warp threads, keeps them soft and in good condition for the loom, and makes possible an increased amount of dressing. zinc chloride is useful in preventing the growth of mildew, to which linen is particularly subject. dannerth (methods of textile chemistry) recommends the following method of determining the amount of organic finish- ing material in a cotton fabric: — i. the percentage of filling materials. a weighed sample of the fabric is boiled consecutively in distilled water, i per cent caustic soda solution, chemical study of textile fibers and per cent hydrochloric acid; each operation should be continued for about one hour. if the sample be finally washed and dried to constant weight at c, the result will give the amount of absolutely dry fiber present. add per cent to obtain the "normal" air-dry weight. . the percentage of moisture in the air-dry fabric is determined by dry- ing to constant weight at ° c. . the percentage of fats and waxes is determined by extraction with ether in the soxhlet apparatus. . the percentage of starch, etc., is determined by difference as shown in the illustration below : — total filling materials per cent moisture per cent . . the qualitative test for mineral matter in the fabric is the ash which remains after ignition of the fabric in a crucible. the filling material may be soluble in water, e.g., the chlorides of zinc, calcium, magnesium, and sodium. the insoluble portion may consist of china clay, barites, gypsum, chalk, talc, lime,or aluminium soaps. these latter compounds will, of course, be decomposed on heating. weighting of silk. — the practice of weighting silk may- begin with the raw material before it reaches us. hygroscopic mineral salts and fatty and petroleum oils are sometimes used in the process of reeling, in connection with or in place of the weak soap solution which is the only necessary aid in softening the cocoon. conditioning tests do much to reveal the state of the silk, but adulterations go undetected many times through lack of chemical analysis. in the stripping of silk, the removal of the sericin or silk gum involves a loss of weight. this averages per cent; therefore one hundred pounds of raw material will yield about seventy-five pounds of boiled-off silk. as the price of raw silk may be about $ per pound, the loss in these processes is evident. the throw- ster and especially the dyer plan to make this good by allowing the silk to take up weighting from the baths used. the throw- ster may leave an excess of soaps and oils in the silk, but the chief addition to its weight comes in the dyeing operations. fats, etc. starch, etc. per cent s per cent textiles silk readily absorbs the tannic acid and iron, tin, or other salts used in the baths. when properly carried out, this absorption, up to a certain amount, cannot be considered an adulteration, for it is a necessary accompaniment of the mordanting and dye- ing operations, and it adds to the quality and attractive appear- ance of the silk. (see chap. viii.) a weighting of over per cent, however, is often a strain on the fiber, yet organzine may be weighted to the extent of oz. for colors and oz. for blacks, and the tram up to oz. or oz. for colors and to or even oz. for blacks. the substances used in dyeing which give weight to silks vary according to the color and the quality desired. white or light- colored silks do not always contain heavy metallic weighting. when they do, it is often in the form of a tin-phosphate-silicate. successive baths of stannic chloride, sodium phosphate, and sodium silicate are used, and the amount of weighting is accu- rately regulated by the number of dips and the time allowed in each bath. aluminium sulphate is sometimes added to save tin and also give a heavier thread. sugar is often used as a weight- ing agent, and is applied after the silk is dyed. each dip in the sugar solution may add per cent in weight. lead acetate, or more often " pink salt," which is the double salt of stannic and ammonium chlorides, is also used. black silks may be "pure dye," with iron tannate as the mordant, or they may be " dyna- mited," that is, especially heavily loaded. logwood is still preferred to coal-tar colors for black silks. a method for dyeing organzine with logwood is as follows: after boiling off, the silk is steeped in a bath of iron nitrate, and passes into a soap and iron bath, which adds a given weight of iron soap. the skein is then placed in a bath of potassium ferrocyanide, which with the iron present produces prussian blue, and this is followed weighting is generally calculated as ounces per pound of raw silk. if raw silk loses per cent in boiling off, a pound will yield about oz. (generally figured as . oz.) of stripped silk. a -oz. tram, for example, means that . oz. have been brought up to oz., the equivalent of oz. of raw silk, which is a weighting of per cent. see matthews, textile fibers. chemical study of textile fibers by a bath of cutch or catechu. tannin absorbed from the catechu increases the weight per cent to per cent, and here stannous chloride may be added to bring it up to any desired weight. the silk is now mordanted in an iron bath, and the dyeing finished in a logwood solution. black tram weighting is in part tin-phosphate-silicate and in part tannin. piece-dyed goods, such as liberty silks, foulards, chiffons, and shantungs, were formerly little weighted in this country, but the practice of adding some weighting to these is increas- ing here. estimation of weighting. — mineral matter may be estimated approximately by burning a sample in a crucible until the or- ganic matter is entirely consumed. the ash resi- due roughly represents the mineral weighting (fig. ), and if the fibers have been coated to ex- cess, the form of the fab- ric will persist after the animal matter has been burned. this is a guide to the wearing value of a silk, and is the only method of investigation possible in the home. the sample may simply be held by forceps in the flame until nothing but mineral matter remains. the quantitative estimation of weighting is a difficult matter, because of the many different substances used. the most accurate method of finding total weighting seems to be the de- termination by the kjeldahl process of the actual silk present in a given sample. as nitrogenous bodies — gelatin or glue, fig. . — weighting of silk. the bot- tle contains the mineral weighting left after burning a plece of sllk like the sample shown. textiles ammonium phosphate, and prussian blue — may be in the weighting, these must first be removed. matthews gives the following method for this: — "boil a weighed quantity of silk (about gms.) in a per cent solution of sodium carbonate for thirty minutes. wash, heat to o° c. for thirty minutes in water containing per cent of hydrochloric acid, and afterwards wash well in hot water. repeat the treatment with alkali and acid until the sample no longer has a blue color." the kjeldahl process consists in converting the nitrogenous matter of the silk, by the aid of sulphuric acid, into ammonium sulphate. ammonia is liberated from this on addition of caustic soda, is distilled into a known amount of sulphuric acid, and the amount of nitrogen calculated. matthews gives the nitrogen content of silk with per cent hygroscopicity as . per cent, therefore the amount of true silk in the sample is determined by multiplying the percentage of nitrogen found by . . the operation is conducted as follows: place the silk, treated as above, for removal of nitrogenous weighting, in a kjeldahl flask, add cc. of con- centrated sulphuric acid, to gms. of potassium sulphate, and . gm. of copper sulphate. heat gently at first, then increase the heat, and boil till colorless. cool, add about cc. of distilled water, and after the solid matter has dissolved, or drops of rosolic acid. put cc. of tenth- normal sulphuric acid and or drops of congo red in an erlenmeyer re- ceiving flask. place small pieces of zinc and paraffin in the kjeldahl flask to prevent bumping, add cc. or more of strong caustic soda, and con- nect at once. at first distill over a low flame, later with increased heat, until about half the contents of the flask have been distilled over. if the color in the receiving flask becomes red, showing excess of ammonia, add a measured amount of the tenth-normal sulphuric acid. titrate the ex- cess of acid in the receiving flask against tenth-normal caustic soda. (a more detailed description of this process with discussion of precautions and modifications may be found in sherman's methods of organic analysis, revised edition, chap. xiv.) given the weight of the silk sample as . gms., the calcula- tion may be as follows: — chemical study of textile fibers cc. n/ h so used. . cc. n/ naoh used to neutralize excess h so . cc. h so — . cc. = . cc. used to take up ammonia. cc. n/ h so = . gm. nitrogen. . x . gm- n = . gm. n in sample. . x . gm. n. = . gm. actual silk. . + . = . per cent of actual silk in the sample. weighting is calculated in terms of percentage of the amount of pure silk present. therefore a weighting of . gm. on . gm. silk ( . gms. — . gm. = . gm.) would be ( . x ) divided by . = per cent. this amount of weighting means that oz. of raw silk have been brought up to to oz. in the dyeing and finishing operations. (see table, p. , mat- thews' textile fibers.) the hydrofluoric acid method, recommended by matthews, gives results which agree fairly well with the above method. it is based on the fact that the acid destroys mineral weightings without injuring the silk fiber. the process is given as follows: "a portion (about . gm.) of the sample is placed in a weigh- ing bottle and dried in an air bath at c. to constant weight. it is then boiled in a per cent solution of hydrofluoric acid for five minutes, rinsed with water, and boiled for five minutes in a per cent solution of dry sodium carbonate and washed. this alternate treatment with the hydrofluoric acid and sodium car- bonate solutions is repeated three times, after which the sample is finally rinsed, dried at c, and reweighed. the loss in weight will represent weighting materials. the hydrofluoric acid may be prepared by diluting cc. of commercial acid to cc. with water, and the sodium carbonate solution by dis- solving gms. of sodium carbonate in cc. of water. three alternate treatments with these reagents will generally suffice to remove all weighting materials without appreciable injury to the silk fiber, though to be accurate the treatments should be repeated until no further loss in weight is observed." hydro- fluoric acid must be handled very carefully, as it is very corrosive, textiles and serious poisoning has sometimes occurred even from ex- posure to the fumes of this acid. other processes, providing for a separation and identification of the different weightings used, may be found by referring to the works of matthews, herzfeld, and mitchell and prideaux. (see bibliography.) chapter xiii dyeing of textile fibers the chemical nature of dyestuffs, and the technique of dye- ing, are subjects much too extensive and technical to be treated at all fully in a few pages. the aim of this chapter is to indi- cate an introductory course in dyeing, which may be expanded according to the needs of the class. there are several good laboratory manuals of dyeing which may be used as supple- mentary textbooks. (see bibliography.) preparatory processes — scouring and bleaching. — these processes remove natural coloring matter, gums, waxes, oily substances, and the like, which would interfere with dyeing. cotton bleaching. — the cotton fiber contains about per cent of such impurities as pectic acid, brown coloring matter, fatty acids, and waxes. as a result, the spun yarn has a dull, grayish appearance, which does not matter if it is to be dyed a dark color. in this case scouring is generally sufficient, a treat- ment which consists of removing waxy or fatty substances by boiling in solutions of either soap, sodium carbonate, or caustic soda, or mixtures of the three. for light colors, scouring is fol- lowed by bleaching with cold, dilute bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite), followed by an acid bath and washing. when the yarn is to remain white, soap solution and bluing baths complete the process. if bleaching is to be done in the woven fabric, the process is more complicated, for additional matters, such as sizing added to the warp threads in the weaving, have to be considered, and the method varies according to the subsequent treatment of the cloth. three processes are in general use — the market or white bleach; the turkey red bleach; and the textiles printer's bleach, which prepares the material for calico printing. this last process is essentially as follows: — . singeing. . gray wash. the material is allowed to remain in plain water long enough to remove soluble matters. . lime boil. boiling in limewater for several hours converts fatty matter into lime soaps, which deposit as insoluble matter on the fabric. . washing. this removes excess of lime, and any soluble substances. . lime or gray sour. the material is passed through dilute acid, gener- ally hydrochloric, which breaks up the insoluble lime soaps and other salts of lime, forming soluble calcium compounds, and setting fatty acids free. . washing. . . lye boils. boiling with soda ash and with resin soap and caustic soda changes the free fatty acid left in ( ) and ( ) to soluble soaps. . washing. all impurities are now removed, other than natural color- ing matter. . bleaching proper, or chemicking. the material is passed through cold, dilute calcium hypochlorite. . white sour. after a hasty wash, the material passes into dilute hydrochloric, sulphuric, or acetic acid. this sets chlorine free from the bleaching solution, which in the presence of water liberates oxygen, and this removes the coloring matter. (see page .) . washing. linen bleaching. — linen contains more coloring matter and natural impurities than cotton, which make its bleaching a longer and more complicated process. the method is similar to that of cotton, except that the chemicking and souring maybe repeated several times, according to the perfection of bleach desired, and grass bleaching is often combined with the chemical treatment. there are four grades of linen bleaching — quarter, half, three quarter, and full. other terms are sometimes used. full-bleached flax is not as strong as the other grades, due to the severity of the process. in linen yarns the loss of strength is estimated at per cent for full bleach, and per cent for half bleach. wool bleaching. — before bleaching or dyeing, wool must be scoured to remove the oil and grease left on the fiber after spin- textiles of the dyeing operations are now classified among the phenom- ena of " adsorption." materials and yarns for the market may be dyed in the follow- ing ways:— . dyeing in the wool. —what is called raw stock dyeing cor- responds to the " dyeing in the wool " of early days. the wool is dyed after washing and scouring, and before drying. it is recommended for its permanence, and is used principally for dark goods which must stand much wear and friction, and still hold their color. equal parts of black and white wool, so dyed, and mixed in the yarn, make the oxford mixture. . dyeing in the slub. — wool is dyed after being carded and combed, but not twisted; cotton is twisted. the dye sinks in, and later spinning conceals any irregularities. vigoureux yarns are yarns that have been printed on the slub or top by a special machine with regular or irregular designs of color, generally black and white, covering spaces of one quarter inch to several inches. the colors are set by steam. when the printed slub is later drawn and twisted, a more perfectly mixed effect is obtained than if colored wools had been blended. . skein dyeing. — spun yarn, usually two-ply, is dyed in the skein. this penetrates fairly well into the yarn. skein-dyed yarns are used for ginghams, and in wool for plaid and novelty effects. . piece dyeing. — the fabric is dyed after weaving in the natural color, which produces a single uniform color. . cross dyeing. — this is piece dyeing of mixed cotton and wool. cotton will not take wool dyes, consequently when dipped in a wool bath it is merely tinged with a fugitive color easily washed out. plain colored materials, such as mohairs and alpacas, are woven with a cotton warp. the cotton yarn is dyed first in the color desired, and then woven with the worsted filling. the cloth is cross dyed by placing it in a wool bath, in which the cotton is unchanged. cloths are woven dyeing of textile fibers with white or colored hair lines in the warp. when cross dyed in a wool bath and washed, the wool is colored and the cotton hairlines remain as they were. the reduction in price in thus inserting cotton for wool is quite an item. cheap shepherd plaids and other fancy dress goods are woven with cotton for the white effects and with wool for the colored. . resist dyeing. — resist dyeing and cross dyeing are virtually the same process. in resist dyeing some of the woolen or worsted yarn is treated to remain unchanged in the bath which colors the untreated part. for example, a thread of red or green woven into a material to be dyed dark blue or black keeps its original color. resist dyeing is used in the interesting batik work, which originated in java. in this work all of the material which is not to take the dye in the first dip is brushed over with wax. the wax may be removed and again applied to parts which are to resist a second dye, and so on, until the desired pattern is worked out. . discharge dyeing. — by this process the material is piece dyed and the color afterwards removed in certain places by the action of chemicals. flannels with polka dot effects are often dyed in this way. necessary equipment for dyeing. — for each student, the minimum apparatus required is an agate kettle holding a gallon or more; two glass rods at least eight inches long and three eighths of an inch in diameter; one agate pint cup; a tablespoon; a thermometer; a cc. graduated cylinder and some kind of heating apparatus, such as a small gas stove. the laboratory should be equipped with one or two clothes wringers and a clotheshorse or drying rods. use of glass rods — handling of skeins. — the glass rods obviate any handling of the skeins and staining of the hands. holding a rod in each hand, the dyer keeps the skein revolving in the dye bath. when the dyeing is accomplished, the skein is looped evenly on one rod, and with the aid of the other inserted in the loop is twisted and wrung out. subsequent washing, y textiles wringing, and hanging up to dry are accomplished also by using the rods. preparation of dye solutions. — skeins to be dyed are gen- erally in five-gm. weights for wool, ten gms. for cotton, and two gms. for silk. five gms. of wool require sixty times that amount of dye solution, or about cc.; ten gms. of cotton require also cc, and two gms. of silk need cc. of solution. it is the common practice to measure the neces- sary dyestuffs and chemicals in percentage relation to the weight of the material. a recipe for acid dye which calls for gms. of woolen yarn, cc. of dyebath, per cent glau- ber's salt, per cent sulphuric acid, and per cent benzyl violet b would use the following amounts: — per cent of gms. = . gm. glauber's salt. per cent of gms. = . gm. dyestuff. per cent of gms. = . gm. sulphuric acid. in order to obviate individual weighing of these small amounts, solutions may be prepared of such a strength that cc. will contain the proper amount of each ingredient for a skein of wool. for example, . gm. of glauber's salt are required; cc. of solution must contain . gm., therefore dissolve gms. of glauber's salt in about cc. of water and make up to cc. of dyestuff, . gm. are required; therefore one liter is made up in a similar way to contain gms. of sulphuric acid, . gm. in cc. would equal gms. in cc, but as the specific gravity of concentrated sulphuric acid is . , the number of cubic centimeters measured out would be divided by . , or cc. these technicalities are introduced to teach the student how to interpret dye recipes, if necessary. the recipes which are occasionally given in the text may or may not be used. they are given simply with the idea of suggesting possible dye baths, and providing for uniform experimental work in large classes. dyeing formulae are in no sense fixed, but most varied, and the instructor, if he wishes, may readily substitute or add recipes from the larger manuals of dyeing. as soon as the student has studied the properties of a class of dyestuffs, recipes and the dyeing of skeins may be discarded for the working out of experiments in mixing color and in dyeing piece goods. textiles is a strong commercial competitor of the natural product. logwood, however, holds its own. it is much used for producing a good black shade in silk fabrics, often in connection with cutch or fustic. cutch is still employed in cotton dyeing to produce certain shades of brown. based on their nature or properties, dyes fall into certain classes, of which the more important are: — ( ) acid dyes, ( ) basic dyes, ( ) substantive dyes, ( ) sulphur dyes, ( ) adjective or mordant dyes. i. acid dyes. — these are direct dyes for silk and wool, feathers, leather, and other substances of a protein nature. they do not color vegetable fibers to any extent, but may be used in staining wood and straw, where the color does not need to be fast to washing. the following experiment is given to show the comparative action of acid dyes on wool and cotton: — prepare a dye bath of cc. water, per cent naphthol red e. b., per cent glauber's salt, and per cent sulphuric acid. thoroughly wet a five-gm. skein of wool in water, immerse it in the bath at a low temperature, and heat gradually until a good color is obtained. remove, rinse, and dry. dye a skein of cotton in the same manner. acid dyes are salts of color acids. when an acid, in this case sulphuric, is added to the dye bath, the salt is broken up, the color acid is liberated, and this dyes the wool fiber more readily than the salt itself. the sulphuric acid also unites chemically with the wool and increases its affinity for the dye. glauber's salt is generally added to the acid bath with these dyes. its main function is to hold back the dye from too rapid absorption by the fiber, so that a more even, level shade is produced. such substances as glauber's salt, sodium chloride, and sulphuric acid, which aid in the dyeing operation, are called assistants. generally speaking, acid dyes are cheap, easily applied, and give even shades on wool and silk which are fairly fast to light. a few selected colors can be obtained which are entirely satisfactory in this respect. they are not so fast to washing, textiles basic dyes are salts of color bases. the color base unites with the acidic groups of the wool or silk fiber to form an insol- uble dye. silk especially has a great affinity for basic dyes, and care must be taken that the color is not taken up so fast that uneven dyeing results. artificial silks of the nitrocellulose class take these dyes well. basic dyes have greater tinctorial power than acid dyes, and give more brilliant colors. they are used to some extent for silk, but not so generally for wool, being largely superseded with both by the acid dyes. they are use- ful, however, in staining straw and raffia. their defects are a want of fastness to light, and a tendency to crock. with hard water the dye precipitates more or less from solution, and dye spots appear. application to wool.—wool is dyed in a neutral bath, or in one slightly acidified with acetic acid, especially if the water is hard. the acetic acid aids in softening the water by breaking up its carbonates, and also causes the dye to fix on the fiber more slowly and evenly. glauber's salt is used as an assistant. the dye must be carefully dissolved and filtered into the bath through a cloth. experiment. prepare a dye bath containing cc. of water, per cent of acetic acid, per cent of glauber's salt, and per cent of methylene blue. thoroughly wet a -gm. skein, place it in the lukewarm bath, raise the temperature slowly, and dye for half an hour at about o° c. application to silk. — silk is dyed in a neutral, alkaline, or slightly acidified bath, to which in practice soap and boiled-off liquor are usually added. an after treatment with a tannic acid bath, followed by rinsing in a solution of tartar emetic, improves the fastness of the color. experiment. immerse a -gm. skein of silk in a bath containing cc. of water and per cent olive-oil soap, and after working with the rods for a time at lukewarm heat, add gradually per cent of methylene blue. dye for fifteen minutes at o° c, carefully acidulate the bath with acetic acid, and dye fifteen minutes longer. remove, rinse, and dry. dye another skein in a similar manner, wash well, pass into a bath con- dyeing of textile fibers taining cc. of water and i gm. of tannic acid. work for twenty minutes at o° c, then let remain immersed in the cooling bath for a half hour. squeeze out, pass into a fresh bath containing cc. of water and . gm. of tartar emetic, and work at o° c, for twenty minutes. wash well and dry. application to straw. cleanse the piece of straw braid, loosely bound together, or the hat, in soap and water, and thoroughly rinse. prepare the bath by straining a solution of the dye through muslin into sufficient water to well cover the material, and slightly acidify with acetic acid. immerse the wet straw and gently heat until the right shade is obtained. remove and rinse. topping with basic colors. dye a skein of cotton or linen with a direct or salt color, or a sulphur color (as described beyond), and top by passing into a basic dye bath. the direct and sulphur dyes serve as mordants with the basic dyes. dyeing cotton with basic colors. — mordants. — in dyeing cotton with basic colors, a mordant, generally tannic acid, must be used to make the fiber take the dye. mordants are sub- stances which in the dyeing operation unite with both fiber and dye, and fix the dye on the fiber. for the application of mor- dants see adjective or mordant dyes below. experiment. thoroughly wet a skein of cotton and immerse in a luke- warm bath of a dilute solution of tannic acid; slowly raise the temperature to nearly boiling, then let the skein remain in the cooling bath. remove, wash lightly, squeeze, and dye in a one per cent solution of fuchsin, together with a skein of unmordanted cotton, observing the same temperature reg- ulations and dyeing for about one half hour at the maximum temperature. remove, wash, dry. observe the effect of the mordant in fixing the dye. in practice, tannic acid is more effective if combined with certain salts of metals. the metallic tannates formed unite with the dye to produce compounds of greater insolubility. this process, called fixing, follows the tannic acid mordanting. salts of tin, iron, chromium, antimony, etc., are used as fixing agents. applied to the last experiment, the cotton skein is passed from the tannic acid bath into one containing about two grams of tartar emetic in a liter of water. work the skein five minutes, and let remain in the solution while the dye bath textiles is being prepared. then place in the dye and proceed as before. iii. substantive dyes. — this class of dyes bears several names. they dye vegetable fibers directly, requiring no mordant, so are called direct cotton colors. as common salt is usually used in the bath, they are also known as salt colors. the term diamine dyes refers to their chemical constitution. the first direct or substantive dye was discovered in , and named congo red; the dyes belonging to this group are therefore sometimes called congo colors. experiment. thoroughly wet a -gram skein of cotton and immerse in a bath of per cent congo red to which per cent sodium carbonate and per cent glauber's salt have been added. heat to boiling point and boil a few minutes; remove and rinse. vegetable fibers take more brilliant colors than wool. to show this, dye a skein of wool in the same manner. note any differences in the degree of color and in the exhaustion of the bath. certain of the substantive dyes, congo red, for example, have their color changed by the action of acids. if a strand of the skein just dyed be dipped in dilute sulphuric acid, the color will be changed to blue, and the red returns when the acid is replaced by an alkaline reaction. congo red is often used as an indicator, with a reaction opposite to that of litmus. the acids present in the air may be sufficient to dull material dyed with some of these colors. treatment with an alkali, such as sodium carbonate, aids in restoring the original shade. the sodium carbonate used in the above experiment remains to some extent in the fiber and protects the material from color change. substantive dyes furnish bright, clear colors which are fairly fast to light, and with wool and silk withstand washing, especially with the latter when dyed in a boiling bath. they have the disadvantage, with vegetable fibers, of "bleeding" when washed, unless the color is thoroughly boiled into the fabric, and often unless a treatment of copper sulphate and potassium bichromate is given. if even tones are desired dyeing of textile fibers which do not have to be particularly fast to washing, these dyes give them quickly and easily. they are also useful for dyeing evenly mixtures of cotton and wool or cotton and silk. the lower the temperature of the bath, the stronger the affinity of the cotton for the dye, and the more the bath is boiled, the deeper the color produced on animal fibers. in dyeing mixed goods, therefore, the material is first dyed cold until the desired shade is nearly reached in the cotton material, then heated until the wool or silk takes the color. with practice, the same shade can be produced in this way on different fibers. substantive dyes are very soluble in water, and salt has the effect of making them insoluble. used in the bath, it prevents too thorough a solution, and therefore causes more of the dye to go on the fiber. glauber's salt is used for the same purpose. dyeing directions. — cotton and linen. fill the kettle half full of hot water, and bring to boiling point on the fire. mix the dyestuff with a little hot water in a cup, and stir into the kettle. when thoroughly dissolved, add a tablespoonful of salt. thoroughly wet the material, place it in the dye bath, and boil for about thirty minutes. artificial silk. fill the dye kettle half full of lukewarm water, and in this thoroughly wet skeins of artificial silk. wrap in cheesecloth and put through the wringer. dissolve dyestuff in hot water in a cup, stir into the kettle of water without further heating, and add one tablespoonful salt. after dyeing the desired shade, rinse in cold water, wrap in cheesecloth, and put through the wringer. hang to dry. a stronger dye bath is needed for artificial silk than for cotton. the fastness of cotton and linen to light is improved in the following way: — the material is taken out of the dye bath, rinsed slightly in cold water, and soaked for a few minutes in a hot bath containing two teaspoonfuls of copper sulphate, one teaspoonful of potassium bichromate, and one of acetic acid to a gallon of hot water. it is then rinsed free from this and dried. mercerized cotton is generally dyed with these colors in the same way as described for cotton and linen. the colors pro- duced are much faster to washing, and take more easily than with ordinary cotton. dyeing of textile fibers * for instance, the famous logwood black is secured. tin, how- ever, intensifies the natural color of most dyes. mordants are applied in three ways: first, to the fiber before dyeing, the usual method; second, in one bath, the cheap and often practiced method; third, after dyeing, a method sometimes applied to wool. when so applied, the process is called after- chroming, since potassium bichromate is the mordant used. the after-chromed colors are generally fast. application of mordant dyes to cotton. —with alizarin colors, the principal colors produced are the bright and fast turkey red, the maroons, and the violets. for turkey red, different methods are employed, but the color is generally fixed on the fiber by the aid of turkey red oil and aluminium acetate or sulphate. a so-called turkey red, which imitates the color but not its fastness, is now produced by direct dyes. cotton may be dyed black by logwood. experiment. work a skein of cotton yarn in a per cent solution of ferric sulphate until thoroughly impregnated. squeeze, rinse in limewater to remove excess of the salt adhering to the fiber, and boil half an hour in a per cent extract of logwood. application to wool. —wool may be dyed, then mordanted, in the same way that acid dyes are applied. experiment. at about ° c, enter a -gm. skein of wool in a bath containing mg. of chrome fast blue in cc. of water, per cent glauber's salt, and per cent acetic acid. raise slowly to the boiling point, dye for one half to three fourths of an hour. cool, add i| per cent potas- sium bichromate, and boil for thirty minutes. application to silk. — the best black dye on silk is still pro- duced by logwood, with a tannin-iron mordant. (see p. .) mordant dyes are very fast to washing, light, and acids. dyeing in the household. — for home dyeing, such dyes as the diamond, rainbow, or e-z dyes are about the only ones available, because of the small quantity of dyestuff required. directions are given on the packages. before dyeing, the nature of the material should be known, and the dye chosen textiles fibers become plastic and will take and retain the shape desired, without losing their elasticity. acids and alkalies of the household. — the action of acids and alkalies on textile fibers has been treated in detail in chapter xii. the acids of the household, outside of those found in fruits, are hydrochloric (muriatic) and oxalic, used for removing stains and for cleaning purposes. the last two have a " tender- ing" effect on cotton and linen if allowed to dry on the fiber, and should be followed by washing and neutralization with ammonia or other alkali. silk is more susceptible to the action of acids than wool. hydrofluoric acid is an exception to the general rule of fiber destruction, and is used in about per cent strength in some laundries for removing the soil from collars and cuffs. it attacks mineral matter without materially affect- ing the fabric. it is a very corrosive acid and must be handled carefully. since acids and alkalies neutralize each other, color changed in clothing by acids can often be restored by touching the spots with weak ammonia. the common alkalies in household use are ammonia, borax, carbonated alkalies, such as washing soda, and caustic alkalies found in some soaps and washing powders. unless carelessly used, the first two are not injurious to fabrics. the carbonated alkalies have a yellowing effect on silk; good soap usually has no deleterious action. washing soda in strong solution and in an undissolved condition should not come in contact with garments, especially wool, nor should any soap containing free alkali be used for wool. soap should not be rubbed on wool because of the felting effect, and in fact for many cleansing operations, especially washing colored cotton material, a soap solution is better than direct rubbing. the tendency in the average laundry is toward the excessive use of washing soda. as a soap saver, to soften hard water, washing soda is most desirable. for this purpose, one part will do the work of about six parts of soap of per cent purity, but as cheap laundry soaps contain only about per cent actual laundry notes vinegar in a gallon of water may often fix a color that is fugitive to washing. warm the material in the solution for about ten minutes, remove and rinse. some colors are changed by this treatment, so a sample of the fabric should be tried first. materials dyed dark blue are generally successfully treated in this way. to perspiration. — steep portions of dyed material in either of the following solutions for five-minute periods, drying the sample after each immersion. examine fabric day by day for change: — . a solution of gms. of per cent acetic acid and gms. common salt per liter. . a solution of cc. of per cent acetic acid and cc. of butyric acid per liter. to rubbing. — rub dry sample vigorously on white material and observe any crocking. materials bought by the united states government must meet certain requirements (see chap. x), and are tested in part as follows: — washing test. boil for ten minutes in a solution containing gms. of olein soap (army issue) to one pint of water. laundry test. boil for ten minutes in a solution containing gms. of dry sodium carbonate to one pint of water. roof test. expose to weather for thirty days. perspiration test. soak for hours in lactic acid of specific gravity . . bleaching agents calcium or sodium hypochlorite. — the first of these may be taken to illustrate the type of chemical action. calcium hypochlorite, commonly called bleaching powder, is soluble in twenty times its weight of water. when treated with an acid, it gives up chlorine, which unites with water to form hydro- chloric acid and free oxygen. the latter oxidizes organic coloring matter and therefore bleaches. the reactions, using acid, are as follows: — ca(ocl) + hc cacu + hcio hc + hcio h + ci, cl + h hc + o laundry notes stain remover. it is used for vegetable fibers in neutral or acid solution. in acid solution the following reaction takes place: — kmn + h s ->• k s + mnso, + h + o. in neutral solution, manganese dioxide is precipitated on the material, making a brown stain. this may be removed by treatment with sulphurous acid or sulphites: — kmno, + h -> koh + mn + o. mach + h s ->• mnso, + hjo. experiment. use a cold per cent solution of potassium permanganate, applying it to the dye or stain with a stirring rod. the permanganate may be acidified with per cent oxalic acid, or it may be applied in neutral solu- tion, and the resultant brown color removed by rubbing in sodium bisul- phite, sulphurous acid, or a mixture of pulverized oxalic acid crystals and sodium hyposulphite. in the last case sulphur dioxide is generated, which quickly bleaches the fabric. wash thoroughly at the end of the process. this treatment is efficacious in removing almost all kinds of stains from white material. javelle water. — this is similar to bleaching powder, sodium hypochlorite being the bleaching agent. to prepare, dissolve one half of a pound of bleaching powder in two quarts of cold water, and add this to a solution of one pound of washing soda in one quart of hot water. the reaction is: — ca(ocl) + na c naocl + cac . the sodium hypochlorite breaks up as in the case of the hypochlorite of calcium, yielding hydrochloric acid and oxygen. javelle water is a bleach for cotton or linen, and is used in weak solution. zinc dust and acetic acid.—this combination acts as a reducing agent in that it sets free hydrogen, which decolorizes the organic matter. all organic coloring matter can be decolor- ized by the use of suitable reducing agents. in this case the reaction is: — ch cooh + zn ->• zn(cjh, »)i + h . experiment. to the material in cc. of water add cc. of acetic acid of per cent strength, and grams of zinc dust. mix well, heat to boil- ing and boil a few minutes. textiles sulphur fumes. — sulphur fumes are used for bleaching animal fibers, as wool or silk would be turned yellow by the chlorine bleaches. the clean wet article may be hung in a confined space over fumes of burning sulphur, such as the sulphur can- dle furnishes. the sulphur dioxide of the fumes reacts with the coloring matters, withdrawing oxygen from them and so reducing them to colorless substances. oxalic acid.—oxalic acid is a reducing agent. it breaks up as follows: (cooh) ->h , c , co. the carbon monoxide takes up oxygen from the organic coloring matter to form carbon dioxide, and in so doing decolorizes. oxalic acid may be used on vegetable fibers if it is not allowed to dry on the material. removal of stains grease spots. — if soap and water cannot be applied, use a solvent for the fat of which the grease spot is probably com- posed. such solvents are benzine, gasolene, naphtha, ether, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, hot alcohol, and a mixture of equal parts of benzol and acetone. all are inflammable except chloroform and carbon tetrachloride, and must be han- dled accordingly. to apply, place a cloth or several thicknesses of blotting paper under the spot. rub from outside toward the center, using a piece of the same material if possible; if not, a similar fabric of the same color. another measure to prevent the formation of a ring is to mix the solvent with talc, magnesia, starch, or other absorbent material before using, and brushing out the powder when dry. the solvent is gen- erally applied to the wrong side of the material. grease spots which cannot be removed in the above way are treated with absorbents — talc, starch, whiting, or blotting paper. a warm iron on the blotting paper or other absorbent aids by melting and drawing out the grease. vaseline. — vaseline spots should be soaked in kerosene before soap and water are applied. laundry notes coffee, tea. — ordinarily, coffee and tea stains can be removed by pouring boiling water over them from a height, or by treat- ment with warm soap solution and subsequent washing. glyc- erin is a solvent for the coloring matter, and may be used in removing the stain from white or colored fabrics, even of silk or wool. moisten the stained material with diluted glycerin, to which a little ammonia may be added if the color of the fabric will not be affected. let the action continue until the coloring matter has been absorbed, then either wash out the glycerin in warm, soapy water or steam it out. if the stain is old, a bleaching agent may be necessary. spot with hydrogen perox- ide made slightly alkaline with ammonia, follow with dilute acetic acid, and finally with water. chocolate or cocoa.—cover with borax and soak in cold water. fruit stains. — boiling water will generally remove fruit stains when fresh, except peach stains. if a bleach is needed, try hydrogen peroxide with ammonia, or soak in weak javelle water for a few minutes and rinse well in boiling water. a general rule is that hot water is used for colors held in sugary solutions, and cold water for unknown stains and for those of a protein nature. iron rust. — this is often the result of the careless use of bluings having an iron base. an acid is necessary to change the iron hydroxide or oxide into a soluble compound, and as hydrochloric acid acts readily and forms soluble chloride of iron, its use gives the best results. the acid should be repeat- edly applied to the spot with a stirring rod or medicine dropper, and the fabric rinsed after each application. many short applications are better than one long-continued one. when the stain has disappeared, rinse in clear water and in ammonia water. oxalic, citric, or tartaric acid is often efficacious, and salt and lemon juice operate in a way similar to hydrochloric acid. bluing. — use strong ammonia, or boil with dilute acid or alkali. boiling with clear water is often sufficient. laundry notes tions of a solution of bleaching powder and dilute hydrochloric or oxalic acids will serve the same purpose. salt and lemon is as safe and often as adequate in mild cases. another method recommended is the use of fresh crystals of stannous chloride, followed by oxalic acid. stannous chloride reduces iron in ink to the more soluble ferrous form, and also prevents some loss of color in the fabric. blood stains. — cool water, followed by washing in lukewarm soapy water, or water to which ammonia has been added. a lump of starch rubbed into a spot which has been moistened with cool water will absorb the blood. the starch is brushed out when dry, and the treatment repeated if necessary. old stains may be removed by hydrogen peroxide with ammonia, or potassium permanganate. to clean straw hats dissolve one ounce of "salts of lemon" in a pint of hot water, and add one ounce of flowers of sulphur. apply with a brush. rinse quickly but thoroughly. chapter xv hygiene of clothing the hygienic importance of clothing. — the importance of clothing as a means of maintaining a good physical condition has not yet received the consideration it deserves. a con- scious hygiene for the whole body is being emphasized in these days, and it is a most necessary part of this movement that people in general shall recognize that our modern garb, unhy- gienic in many details, is a large factor in the problem of keeping well, and that rational clothing will not only aid in warding off many diseases, such as tuberculosis, but will be greatly effective in bringing about the desired state of perfect health. the body in its ideal condition is maintained at a constant temperature, is dry, clean, well ventilated, and so unrestricted that all its parts can function properly. to meet these needs is the special province of clothing, and that worn next the body must be chosen with reference to its heat conductivity, its capacity for absorbing moisture and affording ventilation, its cleanly qualities, and its weight and fit. the properties of different fibers and textile weaves, the choice of garments hygienic as to fit and fashion, and many other considerations enter into this important study of clothing in its relation to bodily welfare. clothing in its relation to body heat. — the principal object of clothing is to aid in the maintenance of a constant body temperature. no matter what the climatic conditions may be, or what sudden changes in the environment may occur, the healthy body must keep a temperature of about . very slight variations are normal, but a variation of a few degrees in either direction may be fatal to life. in itself, the human hygiene of clothing organism has two ways of maintaining heat equilibrium — by chemical and by physical regulation. an instance of the first method is seen in its adjustment to a falling temperature or to sudden cold. the nerves in the skin respond to the new condition, and cause a constriction of the blood vessels supplying the skin; the flow of blood to the internal organs is now greater, and heat is increased by increased oxidation, just as furnace heat is maintained by the addition of fuel. this is called "chemical regulation " because it involves an increased amount of oxidation in the body. variations in the quantity of blood sent to the skin, affecting the loss of heat by conduction, con- vection, and radiation, and the varying production of per- spiration, affecting the loss of heat by evaporation, are factors in the physical regulation of temperature. the term "physi- cal regulation" implies that the body temperature is main- tained without necessarily changing the rate of oxidation. the unclothed races of men meet the demands of the body by increasing their food supply, when chemical regulation of tem- perature is necessary. primarily, clothing is intended to do away with the necessity for "chemical regulation," and so con- serve body energy and incidentally save fuel. it fulfills this pur- pose when it provides the body with a covering of equal warmth throughout, adapted to the requirement of the day. the present fashion of exposing the chest and ankles in cold weather makes an unnecessary demand upon body energy which the individual can seldom afford, especially if the dietary has been cut to a minimum for the sake of fashion or for other reasons. in that case the margin of energy available for the maintenance of health is being run dangerously low. another practice which should be absolutely condemned is the exposure of a child's legs and knees except in the hottest weather. children require warmer clothing than adults, because of their greater propor- tional surface area and their need of reserve energy for growth; yet, for the sake of " hardening " the child, or sometimes merely following a fashion, the parent often leaves bare some of the textiles parts of the body which are least capable of resistance. the joints are peculiarly susceptible to cold, because they are areas of slight metabolism, and depend upon adjoining parts for their heat supply. an attempt to harden the body by exposure is now more difficult than it was in primitive life. houses, cars, and public buildings are, as a rule, overheated in winter, and the alternation with the cold and dampness out of doors creates a trying con- dition requiring careful adjustment to it in the matter of cloth- ing, else the resistance of the body is weakened. it is not unusual to see people in heated trains or public buildings keep on their furs and heavy wraps, with consequent overheating. in going into the outer air a feeling of chill is indicative of danger. standing in the cold air without extra wraps, with thin stockings and slippers, or in evening dress after a dance, is a menace to health. some hardy people can do these things, but never without an expenditure of energy which could be better employed. in cold weather especially, the requirements for outer and under garments are different. the main requirement for the out- door covering is warmth. most people dwelling in well-heated houses find it best to wear light-weight garments indoors, and depend upon the outer wraps for the extra warmth needed out of doors. some weight is required, yet two light-weight gar- ments will be warmer than one heavier. a close weave on a windy day is better than an open weave, because it prevents a too free passage of air to the body. garments worn next the skin, when chosen on hygienic principles, are open in weave, light in weight, and provide ventilation, yet bring the loss of body heat by conduction and convection to a minimum. the amount of heat conducted by a garment depends very little upon the nature of the fiber in it, but a great deal upon the amount of air held in its meshes. still air (air not in motion) is a poor conductor of heat; furs are especially warm simply because they imprison so much air. no fiber possesses warmth textiles secretions makes more than ordinary care imperative, and the difficulties lie in preventing the felting of such impurities into the garment. loose weaves can be satisfactorily cleansed by expert laundering, but neither strong soaps nor boiling water can be used. bacteria flourish on woolen underwear, and when this is soiled, they multiply upon it more rapidly than upon an equally soiled garment of cotton or linen. the chest protector which is the constant friend of some people during the winter, the abdominal band of flannel which others find advantageous, and the swaddling bands of the babies of some nationalities should obviously be changed as often and laundered as thor- oughly as ordinary underclothing. the textiles which are in contact with the skin are obviously of greatest importance as regards absorptive qualities and cleanliness. outer garments, however, are by no means free from criticism, and the cheaper transitory materials have in this respect a certain advantage over those bought for long wear. the effect of dry cleansing on clothing of better quality as eliminating dangers must be considered. wool outer garments hold large quantities of dust, and need to be brushed frequently, not only for appearance, but for health. the hygiene of the sweatshop and the laundry, and other questions of public health in connection with clothing, are sub- jects too large to be discussed here. a few rules of sanitation for the home laundry, however, may be emphasized. soiled clothing should be kept in absolutely clean hampers. the usual wicker one, which is seldom cleaned, often contains myriads of bacteria; a vulcanized or white metal holder is better than a basket. a washable bag of heavy material kept abso- lutely clean can be used inside wicker hampers and eliminate much of the danger. separate laundry bags should be used for handkerchiefs or especially soiled articles used in colds or dis- ease, and the entire bag soaked in salt and water before washing the articles in it. extremely soiled clothing should not be washed with cleaner articles. steam laundries are usually hygiene of clothing better than the home laundry as regards sterilization of cloth- ing, because of machine processes and factory inspection. cotton is the only textile that can well stand boiling. most bacteria in clothing will be killed, however, by keeping the temperature of the water in which the garments are being washed constant at f. for some time. tests have been made as to the disinfection which occurs from the heat of the flatiron. as yet nothing more definite has been proven than that very great heat on a moist garment, with pressure on both sides, will kill germs. at lower temperatures the result is not so satisfactory. many textiles cannot endure so much heat. alkaline soaps act as sterilizers, but must be used with dis- crimination an unrestricted body. — a body impeded in any of its move- ments or functions can never be highly efficient or perfectly well. tight clothing whether shoes, corsets, or skirts, or cloth- ing so heavy that its weight is a burden, is worn at a sacrifice not only of comfort but of health. poorly fitting, tight corsets lay the foundation for poor health in later life. corsets are not really necessary to a woman who has strong muscles. if they are worn, they should fit well, be adjusted carefully each time they are put on, and should be loose at and above the waist, that plenty of room to breathe may be allowed. garters suspended from the corset may be overtight and very injurious since they bring a pressure downward which may lead to serious displacements. heavy skirts hanging from the waist increase the pressure, and should not be worn. it would be better to have all such weight suspended from the shoulders. collars are frequently too tight, and the method by which they are held in place by wires and bones adds to the pressure. bands about the waist should be loose enough not to cause marking of the body. they should be worn over a waist of some kind and not come directly against the flesh. shoes should be as straight on the inside line as possible, should fit the heel and instep snugly, and leave the toes free. the heel should be broad and a textiles low, and the sole thick enough to be substantial. pointed- toed shoes have a tendency to weaken the arch of the foot. many of those who complain of rheumatism in the feet have broken-down or weakened arches, and are really suffering from the shoes they have worn. orthopedic shoes can be obtained to relieve the pain or even cure the condition if it is not too serious. dangers in textiles. — it should be realized from the above that real dangers may lurk in textile materials and clothing. a large amount of ready-made clothing is made in unsanitary homes, in sweatshops, or tenement rooms, and it is known that disease is carried in this way to the homes of the consumers. poor or fugitive dyes in textiles or in hosiery may cause trouble. bright-colored, striped cotton-flannel shirts have been known to injure those who are working in overheated workrooms or before hot furnaces, and black stockings may poison the skin, especially when it has been broken or scratched. the towel for the general use of the public may be more dangerous to health than the common drinking cup. small individual towels which are kept absolutely clean by repeated laundering should be used in schools or public toilet rooms. if these are too expensive, paper towels may be used, but they are not altogether satisfac- tory. when all is said, personal environment and idiosyncrasy must influence an individual's choice of textile and manner of dress. wool may be the right material for one case because it does not evaporate moisture rapidly; in other cases this property is disadvantageous. the value of a study of the hygiene of clothing lies in the ability it gives to make an intelligent adjust- ment of clothing to one's needs, and further, to see the value of dressing according to good sense rather than fashion. women are flagrant offenders, but not all the efforts of the clothing reformers should be directed at them. as a whole, the clothing for men shows superior good sense to women's, but men's attire chapter xvi some economic and social aspects of textile purchase among the greatest industries in the united states as in other civilized countries is the series of occupations which supply textiles for clothing and household purposes, and here the kind of materials made, the later use of the products, and to some extent the condition of the industries may be said to be chiefly in the hands of the women who are the chief purchasers and consumers. the value of the combined products of the textile industries in the united states in was $ , , , (u. s. census of manufactures, ). according to the bureau of foreign and domestic commerce, the value of the product in the manufacture of clothing in was: — clothing, men's and women's, $ , , corsets, , , hats and caps (other than felt, straw, and wool), , , hats, fur and felt, , , hosiery and knit goods, , , millinery and lace goods, , , $ , , , the imports of textiles including wearing apparel in the united states in , as stated in the bulletin of the bureau of foreign and domestic commerce was: — cotton and manufactures, $ , , . fibers and manufactures, , , . hat materials and manufac- tures, , , . silk and manufactures, , , . wool and manufactures, , , . $ , , . <> textiles home work in sewing and dressmaking and the choice of house- hold linens, including the table linen used in connection with cookery and table service. the increase of individual wealth in the united states has made possible the spending of larger sums than ever before in personal adornment and in the interior decoration of the house. a general tendency is now found among women of all classes to spend an undue amount of their income on dress. this is true not only of the rich women whose extravagance in dress is notorious, but also of vast numbers of those in moderate or even straitened circumstances whose expenditures for dress, though not absolutely large, are out of proportion to the means avail- able for other necessities. the market has been affected by the demand for large supplies of material for garments, and consequently the prices for textiles and the cost of making them up have risen greatly and caused much hardship among the very poor. it has been argued that the large sums spent for cloth- ing by many women have been an advantage to the poor in that money has been placed in circulation and therefore the workers are benefited. this argument is especially un- sound as affecting the production of woman's wear, for the workers are often overworked at extra hours without pay to supply the demand. there are many reasons why extrav- agance in clothing is not advantageous, such as (i) the money which is spent in such dress is badly invested and is failing to obtain, either for the individual or for the community, the good returns of well-invested money; ( ) it is having a dete- riorating effect on the spenders by increasing their selfishness; ( ) it is setting a pace which is followed by those of less means in the use of flimsy, showy fabrics which not only do not endure, but often have a degrading moral effect on the wearers; ( ) from the standpoint of the community there is an irreparable waste when human energy which should be directed to the production of the necessities of life is diverted to the elaboration of superfluous things. economic and social aspects irritation is caused in those who desire but cannot afford such gratification; ( ) and it increases a general tendency on the part of the young wage earner to sacrifice housing and food in order to spend too much of her wages on display in dress. the need of an economics of consumption. — the ability to use money wisely has not increased as rapidly as wealth. the importance of woman's part in economics has not been understood and has been underestimated. the production of wealth has heretofore occupied mankind's attention to the exclusion of the best way to use it. it is principally as women have appreciated their responsibility for the right use of the money intrusted to them that attention has been given to the laws which should govern consumption. many women have turned for help to economics only to find the emphasis on pro- duction and commercial relations rather than on choice and purchase, and are urging a consideration of the latter phases of the subject also. there are some difficulties in the way, however, for those versed in general economics need informa- tion on the household use of wealth before they can feel compe- tent to speak on laws which should govern selection and pur- chase and prevent waste. it seems necessary, therefore, to consider the various fields in which woman's influence as a consumer is preeminent in order to provide the required information. the textile field is one in which to begin such study. before the industrial revolu- tion women were the home producers of all cloth. they not only decided what should be made and how to make it, but judged the worth of it afterward. they later used the woven material to make the needed clothing and household articles for their homes. in years from that time women have become principally consumers, with little ability to judge of the value of the materials they buy. it is true that many of them still remain producers in textile mills, though in the ca- pacity of hands rather than of heads. we also find some women producers of a higher type as forewomen in the great clothing textiles industries where textiles are manufactured into garments, as dressmakers and as makers of clothing in the homes, but at the same time they also are apt to be consumers without sufficient knowledge of the use of money. a large class of influential women, however, are consumers only. as a class, women neither choose materials wisely nor indicate satisfactorily what shall be produced from the manufactured goods — hence are not efficient as planners or users of wealth for textiles. their demand is, however, having its effect on the quality of the output, for the goods and clothing produced are made to satisfy them. the consumer's influence on the manufacturer. — the present efficiency of the textile factory is often in the skill it can show in satisfying the demand for effective goods at a low price, in the management, in the patents, and in methods by which wealth is accumulated rather than in producing an enduring fabric. for various causes, of which the influence of the consumer is a large one, there is on the market at present a flood of unenduring yet attractive-looking textiles which frequently are worth less than they cost the purchaser and which are so cleverly constructed that even the textile expert finds difficulty in determining their value. it is almost impossible to find the strong, enduring, hand-spun, hand-woven materials of the past. the economic question to be answered is: do we wish only the purest and best materials to be manufactured, or do we also need the cheaper materials, and that each consumer shall be able to know or be informed of the imitations, the adulterated and union goods, and thus rot only distinguish them from the better and purer materials, but be asked to pay only for the values really received? the ability of the manu- facturer to make a cheap fiber, like cotton, give warmth in such articles as blankets, sweaters, underwear, and bedding, is indeed of inestimable value to the poor and is to be encouraged, but an undue price should not be charged nor properties claimed which are not present. the rapidity with which fashions in dress economic and social aspects change is a factor in the customer's desire for the well-appear- ing yet inexpensive materials and naturally has its consequent reaction on the manufacturer. the latter's risk is great if he makes goods ahead of the demand, for he must expect that broadcloth may suddenly be desired in place of a heretofore fashionable worsted suiting, or pin stripes may be called for when he is stocked in plain-colored materials. entire mills may be thrown out of work or expensive machinery may be rendered useless by these rapid alterations of fashion. sudden changes from fancy suiting to plain cloth will often leave a factory overstocked with no resource except selling at a loss, redyeing and selling the material as plain cloth, or tearing up the cloth into shoddy. moreover, changing fashion often causes clothing to be discarded before it is half worn. such garments are torn up to supply wool for new cloth, as there is not enough wool in the world to make so many fabrics entirely of pure fiber. the amount of material required for garments has also its effect on the factory production, for fashion causes varia- tions, and it is not an unusual condition for twice as much goods to be used in a gown one season as in the next. every textile mill has men in the field trying to determine, months ahead, what the fashion will be, or endeavoring to create a demand for some specialty which they wish to sell. the strain upon the manu- facturer is often great, and much of it could be lessened if women realized their influence and would endeavor to exert it wisely. most of the american-made cloth compares favorably with that of great britain and the continent of europe, but public demand for some of the finest material is made upon foreign countries; consequently american factories are obliged to spe- cialize on medium-grade fabrics. domestic goods when equal in quality should have the preference with american consumers. if the experience in making the better goods were given to the home factories, they would soon overcome any difficulties with texture and color, of which we now sometimes complain, and be able to supply the best. we have already many firms textiles which make the highest class goods. a movement toward the use of domestic goods would be of benefit, therefore, not only in developing the work of some of our factories, but also in removing foreign labels from many of our domestic goods. a law for honest labeling. — in order to help women to obtain honest materials there are now before the house of representatives in washington several bills for the honest label- ing of textile goods. few women yet realize the need of such labels or would be apt at present to profit by the passage of such a measure. a practical consideration of the values and con- ditions of the materials they buy, and their effect upon the economics of the household, must come first to open their eyes to the value of a government labeling system and to the work of supervision which must accompany it, which would be an expense reacting again perhaps on the price of cloth. dress has its economic significance, for people well dressed in the style of the period are generally regarded as successful. this may be a recognition of the success of the individual or of the head of the family. the women of a family are selected as a means of showing wealth, and a well-dressed family reflects distinction upon the one who is responsible for its support. this has been undoubtedly one reason for excessive dress in women. the extent to which they have been physically han- dicapped in their clothes has been another means of showing that sufficient wealth is possessed by the head of the family to free the woman from work; and that therefore her activity may be interfered with by tight clothing, trailing gowns, lacy trimmings without endurance, shoes in which it is impossible to walk easily, and other evidences of her uselessness. economy in clothes.—there are justifiable differences of opinion on the subject of economy in clothes. some women prefer a number of inexpensive garments to a few high priced ones. in many homes the clothing for the mother and daugh- ters is made principally in the house, this being considered an economy. a visiting dressmaker comes at each season to help economic and social aspects the family with the work of remodeling old and making new garments. the wisdom of this plan is questioned by other women somewhat as follows: are the results really satisfactory? is the time taken justified or could the mother and daughters use it to better advantage? is not the family under a nervous strain which reacts on the home life and is the dressmaker amply paid for the class of work which she is doing? another plan used by many is to rely almost entirely on the department stores. up-to-date, transitory garments are bought and discarded as soon as the newness has worn off. the time taken for home manufacture, the making over, repairs, and the nervous strain of personal construction or several fittings at a dressmaking establishment are superseded by one fitting at the store. many business women find this method satisfactory and not overextravagant, but much depends on the conformity of the purchaser to the regulation sizes of such garments, since much refitting is both expensive and unsatisfactory. the gar- ments offered in the stores, however, are not suited in style to all women. some professional women prefer another plan, i.e., they order two or three gowns each year at the higher class cus- tom tailors or dressmakers. the best material is purchased and the styles used are "exclusive" but not extreme. each gar- ment can be used for two or more years with almost no alterations or repairs. many who are occupied with social or civic matters are adopting this plan also. they state that they can thus preserve the dignity and individuality of dress without spending too much time upon it. there are other well-dressed women of this type, however, who feel that it does not pay to spend much time at an expensive dressmaker's or tailor's and who are de- manding with much success the best kind of exclusive ready- made garments from the department stores. there is still another class which combines all of these methods and insists that innumerable changes of clothing are necessary. they give their personal time to shopping for ready-made garments or for materials, to being fitted at home or at a dressmaker's, and to textiles personal attention to remodeling unless they can afford to pay workers to do everything for them. consideration is needed of the best plan for women to for- ward in the future. many feel that they will have to adopt an easier and more professional dress, as men have. the tailored suit and shirt waist are valuable steps in this direction. other women, who accept the business dress as necessary, hold stren- uously to the need of preserving the attractive individual dress for its influence in the home and in society. they argue that a still greater study of art in dress is needed in order that beau- tiful garments may result, and they justify their expense by a willingness on the part of the women to wear them several years. the press is urging the introduction of american fashions for american women rather than the reliance upon paris. this can.be done if women will see to it that in schools of all classes there is given a study of art as applied to dress and home decora- tion that shall result in our having among us, as there is among all classes in france, the general knowledge of industrial and applied art. dress as an ethical influence. — the home is the greatest factor in the happiness of the race, and in it woman's part is supreme. as she becomes wiser in selection and purchase, the home will increase in value. training for economy in con- sumption should lead, therefore, to higher levels of social life; art should be a part of the background, and social betterment should be a necessary accompaniment. little is often made of large wealth in ministering to the higher pleasures of home and social life, and the future study of the economics of spending must include a consideration of the highest service that can be given through wise consumption. dress has undoubtedly an objective and also a subjective influence. it is recognized that character is shown through it and is itself acted upon by the kind of clothing worn. it is difficult to be self-respecting when dressed in dirty rags, or to win the respect of others when overdressed. one who is con- textiles a white list of manufacturers would aid the housekeeper in the same way as the white list of department stores of the consumer's league has shown them where saleswomen receive fair treat- ment. other data should be entered as it is obtained, such as the class of weave in any piece of cloth and its relation to strength, the condition of the warp and filling, and a personal judgment as to the reliability of the sample. the card even with simple information, should be a valuable aid to the housekeeper or student and a help toward the formulation of economic laws regarding purchase. second, the properties of each fiber should be studied comparatively and confirmed by personal experience. the result of unions and adulterations as altering the properties should be noted. the knowledge of the qualities inherent in any textile is an aid in choice, and the hygiene of the material should be considered also as a factor in keeping the body in good physical condition. third, in order fully to comprehend the present status of the making of textiles, the conditions of growth and manufacture should be studied that a fuller under- standing may be gained of the varied state in which even pure material reaches us, of the possible combination of different fibers in any one piece of cloth, of the strain on the fiber which comes in the processes of manufacture, and also of possible injuries from carelessness, haste, poor or strong chemicals, hasty clean- ing or bleaching, and cheap dyeing, and of the effect of beauty and solidity which can be given by surface dressing and finishing. the necessary cost for pure and enduring goods becomes appar- ent when the processes of manufacture are known and also the methods by which cottons are made to look like linen or like wool, sleazy cottons are finished with size and made to look solid and strong, light weight silks are increased in solidity or cotton or artificial silk is mixed with pure silk. fourth, physical tests (see chap. x) of the materials should be made to aid in forming judgments and as a means of accumulating information on the market conditions. chemical and microscopical tests (see chaps. xi and xii) are the surest, but can be satisfactorily economic and social aspects conducted only in the laboratory by the most exact and careful methods; hence homes cannot use them freely. the result of any test should be noted on the card with the sample. such a study as indicated above should aid a woman to under- stand the textile field and help her to determine what she wishes to accomplish in the future. labels and guarantees. — there are still reliable standard materials which are made by mills whose guarantee can be trusted among the many materials made for show. the entire labeling and guaranteeing of materials, however, is at present unsatisfactory as misleading statements are constant. it is quite a common thing to see " heavy all wool " men's suits ad- vertised at $ , "pure silk stockings" at cents a pair, "strong, heavy, pure silk shoe ribbons" at cents a pair, "pure linen " handkerchiefs at cents apiece, and " all linen" towels at cents apiece. labels on goods are often equally untrustworthy. foreign labels are placed on domestic goods; "pure linen" is stamped on cotton mixtures, and names are used for inferior goods which suggest the better textile and attract the public unduly; for instance, near-silk, silkaline, flannel, india linen, linon, and flaxon, are all names for cotton goods. duplex printed cottons at times masquerade as ging- hams. the work of embroidery machines is often labeled "hand work" and purchased as such at prices above the real value. mercerized cotton is sold for silk, and unions of cotton and linen for pure linen. states which have laws against dis- honest advertising allow misleading or untrue statements to appear on textiles or clothing without prosecution, so little heed is given to this class of deception. honesty of statement is requisite if a good economic situation is to be brought about. such a time will come when women know enough to contradict the false assertion and insist on having the truth. at present a clerk telling the truth usually loses a sale. saleswomen do not always know the content of the stock, and if they do know, natu- rally desire to sell their goods, realize that the public is unable to textiles bear the truth, and hence govern their assertions as the customer seems to desire. the situation which thoughtful women wish to combat is the lack of truthful statement which at present is prejudicial to honest purchase and does not assure the consumer a fair return for money spent, since paying for pure goods does not of neces- sity procure them. experiments in shopping for "all wool" flannel have proved beyond doubt that material called "all wool flannel" may have varying percentages of cotton from to per cent. chemical tests tried on such flannel have shown that a majority of the samples were not "all wool." the price charged varied, and in general was not suffi- cient for pure all wool, but was higher than was necessary for so large a proportion of cotton. the economical housekeeper frequently wishes as dependable cloth as the government demands (see chap. x), but at present cannot get it. men's suitings, in general, are more relia- ble than those for women, as the former demand material which will give longer service. the beginning of textile analysis and testing in some of the best department stores in some of our large cities, the marking of the result of such tests on the bolts of cloth, and the truthful labeling of doubtful commodities in these stores, show the temper of the time and the effort of the retailer to meet the growing desire of the customer to know the content of the cloth she is about to purchase and to have some guarantee that her money is well spent. the time has now come to give the textile and clothing subjects publicity. this can be done through the public press, educational institutions, the department stores, the women's clubs, and the individual housekeeper. the managers of department stores stand ready to cooperate. there are laws in some states requiring honest ad- vertising, and bills are before the federal congress demanding honest labeling of textiles. the consumer could bring about the desired economic reform in a short time by organized action. shopping. — each woman must decide for herself or her economic and social aspfxts family whether enduring or temporary fabrics are ultimately the cheapest for her. there is no objection to materials which appear to be better than they are if they are purchased for tran- sient use, but misstatement should not be made about them, and they should be sold at an honest price for cheap goods. inex- pensive materials certainly have their economic place, for the easy soiling of light colors, the tendency to fade, which cannot be prevented in some fabrics, passing whims of fashion, and the out- growing of clothing make it desirable to have materials which are not too high in price. there are occasions, therefore, when it pays to buy the best materials and other times when cheap, presentable materials may be more economical. if a child will soon outgrow garments and there is no one to whom they can descend the cheaper goods may be more desirable. when a consumer decides on pure, well-made, enduring fabrics, she must pay the price and expect the materials to wear if care is taken of them. if she concludes to buy cheap, ready-made garments, she must not complain if they soon look shabby. it is true that ready-made clothing, such as one-piece lingerie gowns, lace waists, and underwear, are sometimes cheaper than if made at home, but the materials are not apt to be so good as those which one would buy, and conse- quently they do not usually wear as well. cheap materials cannot be expected to endure whether they are in ready-made or in homemade clothing. when a gown is made at an expen- sive dressmaker's, the cost is more in the making than in the materials. the difference in cost between enduring and tem- porary material is usually relatively small in the total price paid for a gown, and economy in this case is in purchasing the best goods of the kind. even the most careless purchaser usually wishes such articles to endure as petticoats, linings, um- brella covers, toweling, table linen, handkerchiefs, sewing silk, sheets, pillow cases, rugs, and other household articles. a fre- quent cause of unnecessary expense is on account of the lack of knowledge in many consumers of the amount of material re b ° textiles quired for a garment and the reliance placed on the sales person for the information. unless there is a special reason for pur- chasing an extra amount of goods it is usually an economic loss to have more than is needed. price is an indication of worth on many occasions, especially at the best stores. it cannot always be relied upon, however, for chemical tests have frequently shown that even the very highly priced dress goods, upholstery goods, blankets, and table linen are not as pure or enduring as the price would indicate. the consumer who desires to be economical should not make a practice of wandering about the shops to get ideas, for in that way her desires increase and are apt to become confused in her mind with her needs. when garments are really required in a family, the mother should consider the various sides of the ques- tion before she does any shopping at all: first, the amount of money she has to spend for them; second, the purpose for which they are needed; third, how long they are expected to wear; fourth, where to buy them, and the best material for the pur- pose, or ready-made; and fifth, the least amount of cloth which will make them and keep them in good condition. the materials or garments which will be most satisfactory for her need may be, on the one hand, something which will endure for years, or, on the other, a passing fancy only, but she should decide the best course for her to pursue before she is ready to shop. samples should be obtained of materials whenever there is a question of endurance and tested at home before purchasing, that mistakes may not be made. bargain sales, as usually conducted, are a doubtful advantage for the ordinary shopper; for poor materials, good materials with defects in the making, silk which is sold because it is doubtful if it will long endure on the shelves, and a few good values are often combined on the counters, and con- fuse the purchaser. it is really the expert only who is able to judge whether it really pays to buy any of the materials offered in the ordinary bargain sale. there are honest bargain sales which are of the greatest service to the economic consumer who economic and social aspects knows what she wants and recognizes good material, but the thoughtless shopper is apt to buy more than she needs. goods are often offered at these sales in lengths, and in general there is either more material or less than the shopper wishes, conse- quently she pays for more than she wants or has not enough and thus any profit from the bargain is apt to be lost. buying the past season's clothing between seasons when the prices are lowered is wise if the purchaser knows exactly what she wants, the amount to spend, and can herself make such changes as will bring the garments up to date. the mothers who make money go the farthest usually set aside a certain sum for clothing each year and carefully plan all of their purchases that the amount they are allowed to spend may certainly buy the necessities for each member of the family. (see the chapter on clothing budgets which follows.) if there is any money left, it can be used for the little odds and ends which "run away with money." careless buyers often take the bulk of the money for attractive notions when it should have gone for shoes, stockings, underclothing, and everyday dresses. care- ful buyers never purchase washable outer and underclothing without considering the laundry, for time is taken in ironing frills and insertions and in mending torn lace and lacy muslins, and the expense is high for having lace-trimmed garments laundered. clothing otherwise good is made useless and unat- tractive by torn trimming, while simple clothing continues to look well after much wear. making clothing at home in simple style by members of the family has many advantages, if the time of the worker is not of greater value in some other direction. ready-made clothing is not always constructed of the most substantial material; there- fore, homemade garments of good cloth are usually better after repeated laundering and continued wear than those which are ready made. if the latter are purchased, the selection should be made of as simple designs and as good material as possible, in neutral color and with substantial trimming. elaborate textiles trimming adds greatly to the constant as well as initial expense of dress. belts, collars, and ties, which wear well, but can be laundered, repaired, and renewed, can be made at home by mothers and daughters whereby a simple garmentis made attrac- tive. knowing how to renovate materials and trim hats is also a help in saving money. the economic household thinks it wiser to buy plain than figured materials and standard rather than ultrafashionable fabrics. it is considered better for each individual to keep to one scheme of color that old waists, skirts, and coats may be kept in use and look well with new garments until they are worn out. evening and party gowns for young girls can readily be made of mercerized or other cotton materials and wear much better than cheap silks, but must be carefully laundered and frequently pressed. rompers and overalls for the little children are easily made at home and thus save money as well as prevent the spoiling of other clothing. cotton crepe has been lately used much by economical business women for shirt waists, nightgowns, petticoats, and underclothing. the garments can be laundered easily in the room and do not require ironing. when these garments are made from a good pattern and trimmed with narrow linen lace, an attractive result follows. in the care of clothing brushing, folding, hanging up, washing out stains, and pressing are factors in the length of service. mending stockings, blacking and repairing shoes, keeping but- tons, hooks, and eyes on clothing and wearing aprons when at work, are necessary for people who wish to be economical. the responsibility of the consumer for the present state of the textiles manufactured for her is closely related to her respon- sibility for the working conditions of women and children wage earners in these industries. the federal census of shows the employment of children in the manufacture of textiles to be , in cotton goods, ,i in hosiery and knitting mills, in the woolen and felt industries, and in silk factories. large numbers of women and children are employed also in the textiles entire subject is now under serious discussion. it is a question whether laws absolutely prohibiting home work are the desirable outcome, for many wage-earning occupations are still carried on in homes under the best conditions by craft workers, by those who are too handicapped by orthopedic or other physical defor- mities to go regularly to trade, or by women who have cares at home requiring constant supervision, such as looking after little children or old people. the line is, therefore, difficult to draw between the classes of employment which are usually carried on satisfactorily at home and those which are generally unsanitary and underpaid, and the inspection of private homes offers some difficulties. nevertheless, in some of the states laws are being made to regulate such work in the homes as is injurious both to the worker and the consumer. at present the majority of the states have laws prohibiting child labor at night, forbidding children under fourteen to work (this law is not yet applied to all occupations), keeping women and children out of dangerous trades, regulating moral and sani- tary conditions, and demanding inspection of factories and work- rooms. in some states those under sixteen are limited to an eight-hour day; the minimum wage and payment for overtime are also being considered. in order to fit children to make a living wage, vocational education of several kinds is being pro- vided for them. guidance plans are also being forwarded by public education that each child may be directed into the work best fitted for his or her ability. the working women them- selves are fighting bravely in the trade union league and in other ways for improved conditions, but are handicapped by the pressure of poverty and the need of the wage. they have been greatly helped by women who are not under such stress for daily bread. a large number of women are consumers and users of wealth, rather than producers, and they owe the women workers their intelligent consideration of this entire situation and their assistance in further betterment. the consumers' league began its work by an effort to im- economic and social aspects prove the conditions of employment in the department stores. the investigations made resulted in a series of recommendations as to the fairness of treatment of women employees by employers, sanitary conditions in the stores, and the necessary training of the consumer to her responsibility toward the saleswoman. the names of firms which lived up to the ideal of a fair house were placed on the "white list" of the consumers' league, and the members of the association dealt as far as possible with such firms. the investigations of the league have gradually been directed also toward the manufacture of garments and the con- ditions under which they are being made. the result is a label placed on garments which satisfy the demand. all classes of articles in women's wear are not yet bearing the label, but the number is increasing. the work of the consumers' league has thus been a factor in improving working conditions. the woman's trade union league also has been of service as an educative as well as helpful medium in the influence of many devoted working girls united in an effort to better condi- tions. the consumers' league and trade union league have worked together to establish the label. by it they are calling the consumer's attention to the ready-made clothing she buys, to its sanitary condition and the standard of work in the factory instead of to whether it is cheap and attractive. as a result of the work of the woman's trade union league the "white" protocol was first brought forward in the cloak, suit, and skirt trade in september, , and the shirt-waist trade has now adopted it. the joint board of sanitary control in the cloak industry came from a suggestion of the employers in settling the strike in . it took into account three parties to the controversy — the employers, the workers, and the public. an important part of the work is the education of the workers themselves to respect the value of sanitary control. the need for education was met in cooperation with the board of education for lectures to be held in the public schools. the subjects included: fac- textiles tory legislation, factory education, industrial poisons, and fac- tory sanitation. many factory owners and heads of department stores are also earnestly forwarding betterment plans among their em- ployees. the result has been the providing of suitable seats, good toilet rooms, lunch rooms, recreation rooms, medical and dental attention, good ventilation and cleanliness in the work- room, and other advantages. in many places a social secretary is employed to look after the employees and their welfare. courses of education for the young worker have been organized to make up for inferior elementary education, to train for better salesmanship or for specific processes of manufacture. these schools are found within the factory or store and also as con- tinuation schools under public instruction. employees' associa- tions are being organized for the discussion and regulation of conditions affecting the working girls. the home seamstress and dressmaker have not as yet had sufficient attention given to their labor conditions and the amount of work demanded of them in a given time. the need of such home workers still continues, but the uncertainties and lack of adequate remuneration do not encourage any serious preparation for such positions or their holding by a skilled and businesslike class of workers. the work of the custom dressmaker is influenced also by the unintelligent attitude of her clientele and her own deficiencies in business training. the price of a garment should be based on the actual cost of materials, the hours of work and consequent wages of the expert and unskilled workers who have constructed it, the time taken by the designer, draper, and fitter, overhead expenses of the shop, and the percentage of profit. overhours which are required in changing a gown or hastening the completion (when the demand comes from the consumer) should be paid for as an addition to the bill. hours set for fitting should be kept by the customer or she should notify the dressmaker of the purposed change. the garment should economic and social aspects be delivered at the time specified. all laws concerning workers and sanitary condition of workrooms should be kept as carefully as in the factory. the pay for garments should be prompt. many custom dressmakers desire to be absolutely businesslike, but have been prevented by the irritation felt at such changes by many of their clients. those who have been able to organize their workrooms with efficient business methods are finding the benefit for themselves and their employees. women can now help greatly by considering and urging forward a better system. the making of ready-made clothing has become a large busi- ness in the united states. the manufacture of cloth for this specific purpose is the work of many factories, and is known in the market as the " cutting up " trade. new york city leads the world in the production of men's clothing, the output of which in was $ , , out of $ , , for the whole country. the work included coats, suits, overcoats, overalls, blouses, shirts, aprons, bathing suits, hats, caps, collars, cuffs, gymnasium and sporting goods. the making of women's clothing is also one of new york's great industries, the output in being $ , , made by , employees, the majority of whom were women. the condition under which much of this clothing was made has been a question of concern to those interested in social better- ment, and as before stated has brought forth much legislation. a large up-to-date ready-made clothing factory, under an em- ployer interested in the best conditions for his employees, offers a very satisfactory employment for women who have the kind of health to allow them to work at electric power machines or to sit sewing all day. the system of organization and division of labor in these large clothing factories is similar, whether expensive or inexpensive clothing is made. the inspection of the factories helps to keep the workrooms in safe and sanitary condition, while home work- shops are often run under conditions which are not only a men- ace to the workers, but also to those who wear the clothing. chapter xvii clothing budgets the family budget. — apportionment for clothing. — the investigation of textiles from the many standpoints connected with the home leads naturally to a consideration of the best selection of fabrics for garments and to the part of the income to be devoted to clothing in any well-organized family. the division of the income into definite items and the percentages usually devoted to these purposes have been dealt with by many economists and social workers. in these budgets the amount allowed for clothing varies from one sixth to one eighth of the income, i.e., from to per cent of the money received. on account of the need for adequate clothing in some business positions a larger proportion of a small income is sometimes given to dress, whereas in small family incomes the greater per- centage is usually devoted to food and shelter and less to clothing. it is evident, therefore, that the mode of life has a large influence over the amount to be spent. for instance, the sub- urbanite has to allow a large share for traveling expenses and consequently must cut this off from other items, but the lower cost of shelter in the suburbs than in the city sometimes balances this. the late mrs. ellen h. richards gave a scientific study to budget making on small incomes and published as repre- sentative the following estimates: — yearly food rent clothing operating expenses higher life $ to $ $ to $ $ to $ per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent clothing budgets l miss grace w. pitman of east orange has worked out and published a working basis for a family budget. she states, in the ideal home expense guide, that the following percentages are averages taken from the expense accounts of different families in various parts of the united states and which cover a period of twenty years. average income, $ ; average family, ; rent, per cent; heat, per cent; light, i\ per cent; food, per cent; wages, per cent; incidentals, per cent; personal expenses (including clothing), per cent; operating, per cent; intellectual life and investment, per cent (reli- gion, per cent; education, per cent; investment, per cent). mrs. more, in wage earners' budgets, published in , gave from a study of families the following itemized statement: — per cent of total expenditures $ - . ft . . . . - - - h - i . $ . . - $ - a professional woman living in a large city on a fair income and trained in both domestic art and domestic science studied a number of standard budgets and made her own calcu- lations. she reduced the percentage of some expenses, yet obtained good results. her family consisted of three adults (including herself) and a servant. the budget was in use for ten years and was slightly readjusted at the beginning of each year. the average yearly percentage was: ( ) household the higher cost of living would now require a larger income than was then used, but the percentages remain approximately the same. textiles expenses, per cent, covering rent, food, and operating, which in- cluded service; ( ) clothing, varying from per cent to per cent, and including large and small articles and repairing materi- als; ( ) personal items, about per cent, for doctor and dentist charges, clubs, medicine, toilet articles, and laundry; ( ) travel, per cent; ( ) education, higher living, and pleasure, per cent; ( ) gifts and charities, per cent; ( ) investment and in- surance, per cent. it must be understood that any budget must be elastic enough to change from month to month, so that if one item is increased, another can be lessened. the great variety of demands upon women makes it almost impossible to form a single budget of clothing expenditure suitable for all conditions. the mother living at home needs a very different wardrobe from a professional woman, and a society girl in a large city requires altogether different clothing than if she were at college in a small town. each individual or each mother for her family must decide the special needs. the climatic conditions to be expected have much influence on the clothing required, and city life differs in its demands from country life. in the clothing budget for a moderate income the following matters must be considered before making final plans: is it well to spend the money on a few garments made at the best places, for which a large amount must be spent; on good material made up at home; or on ready-made clothing? the probable laundry costs should be considered, especially if there are to be many lingerie gowns. the hygiene of clothing (see chap. xv) should also influence the selection of materials. the usual divisions of the clothing budget are: ( ) coats, skirts, suits, and gowns; ( ) underclothing and lingerie; ( ) boots, shoes, stockings, slippers, and rubbers; ( ) hats, caps, and gloves; ( ) sundries. it is advisable first to set aside money for the most important articles and afterward to use any re- maining money for minor articles and for luxuries. the under- clothing should not be slighted, as health demands many changes, clothing budgets and simply-made garments of good material last a long time. there is sometimes a tendency to give little attention to the undergarment and lay stress on the outer ones. when the mother of the family must plan the budget for a number of children as well as for her husband and herself, she should first roughly divide the sum at her disposal among the members of the family. when the children are very young, her problem is not great, even if the income is small. if, however, they are of school age, very careful planning of a small income is needed. in addition the handing down and making over of her own and husband's clothing and the care of all garments must contribute to the length of her purse. it is only when fortified with definite ideas of the way to spend the money that she is ready to begin to purchase. it has been proved by experience that a woman trained to a knowledge of textile buying and to budget making can make an income go twice as far as the one who buys without careful planning. typical budgets. — the following budgets represent various phases of the use of the income for clothing. the majority have been or are in actual use. estimates and plans for small incomes have in most cases been selected as requiring more close calculation than larger incomes. they include: — i. the study of a family living on an $ income. ii. the budgets of clothing used in demonstration at the child welfare exhibit in new york city in ,—$ being allowed on clothing for three children. iii. a representative budget of $ per year taken from a number made by a group of young working girls. iv. a budget of a business girl whose family helps her by making some of her clothing at home. expense $ a year. v. a budget of $ a year worked out by a group of college girls. vi. a professional woman's budget of $ a year. vii. a clothing budget for two children : the girl's, $ . , and the boy's, $ - - » textiles clothing budget of a family the following is a budget of a family of five living on an income of $ , spending per cent, or $ . , on clothing. the student who obtained the information lived in a settlement and made her report from discussions with the families of the neigh- borhood. the budget that follows was a typical one selected from those collected. the division of the clothing money was as follows: — man $ . woman . girl of . boy of . girl of - total $ . the remaining $ . was used for sundries: thread, tape, buttons, and other items. the mother made her own and most of the children's clothing at home. many of the garments were expected to wear more than one year. the items were as follows: — man suit $ . overcoat trousers flannel shirts yds. flannel at ^ . shirt (percale) , ° overalls ° winter underwear . summer underwear - ° winter hat summer hat - ° socks, pairs - ° shoes, pairs suspenders - neckties, collars, - ° handkerchiefs, . $ . clothing budgets s woman suit, j yds. serge at ?! , $ yds. mercerized poplin at f! for lining ° dress, yds. gingham at j£ - dress, $ yds. calico at ^ - skirt, ^ yds. serge at f . shirt waist, yds. madras at ig£ shirt waist, yds. lawn at ^ - yds. val. lace at ^ petticoat, yds. gingham at yii - petticoat, yds. muslin at ^ - petticoat, j yds. outing flannel at ^ -i drawers, yds. muslin at f , pairs . corset covers, if yds. muslin at f!, . nightdress, sf yds. muslin at ^, . corset ° winter underwear summer underwear - ° winter hat i s° summer hat . shoes, pairs °° stockings, pairs bo handkerchiefs, - ° $ . girl of dress, yds. wool material at ^ $ . dress, yds. gingham at je - dress, yds. gingham at yff - dress, yds. percale at git dress, yds. lawn at i f! bloomers, ? yds. gingham at j f!, pairs to match dresses .... . petticoats, j yds. muslinat y^, . drawers, ij yds. muslin at ^, pairs . underwaist, i yd. muslin at f!, nightdress, yds. muslin at ff, - coat, yds. material at ^ i- yds. lining at ^ - winter underwear i.oo summer underwear - ° winter hat summer hat shoes, pairs stockings, pairs . . i o handkerchiefs, - ° gloves - rubbers '• • - ° ribbons - ° c s . textiles boy of suits, ! yds. material at ^, $ . trousers, yds. serge at ^, . blouses, yds. calico at i^, . blouses, if yds. gingham at !*!, . overcoat -°° winter underwear i-oo summer underwear - ° caps, - ° shoes, pairs - ° rubbers ° stockings, pairs i- ° ties gloves - handkerchiefs, - ° pajamas, yds. flannel at ji, pairs - $ . girl of dress, § yds. material at ^ $ - dress, yds. gingham at i^, . dress, § yds. calico at $	 - dress, yds. lawn at j! - coat, yds. material at ^ - yds. lining at - bloomers, i| yds. gingham at sh, pairs to match dresses ... . underwaist, i yd. muslin at fs, . drawers, yd. muslin ^, - petticoats, \ yds. muslin at ji, . nightdress, yds. muslin at ji, - winter underwear . summer underwear - ° winter hat i °° summer hat - shoes, pairs °° rubbers ° stockings, pairs - gloves handkerchiefs, - ° $ . textiles be $ , whereas that is above the average. the full division of this income would be about as follows: rent, $ per month, or $ annually; food would take about one half of the income, say $ ; light and heat, $ annually; clothing, $ ; insurance, $ ; carfare, f per week, $ a year; all other expenses for doctors, dentists, repairs, and pleasures, $ . the plan for making the homemade clothing began with a careful search for the best materials to use. those were pur- chased at the regular prices of the time and not at bargain counters. a fair-sized sample of cloth was always obtained first and subjected to tests for laundering, fading, and endurance. if the material stood the tests, it was purchased. large num- bers of samples were tested before the right fabrics could be found. the highest qualities were not expected in the material as the price which could be paid was too low, but simply the best for the money. it was indeed a sad showing of the small range of worthy textiles which the poor can buy. wool was almost entirely excluded, being too expensive; cotton cloths had to be used in place of wool. dyes proved so defective that the choice of color narrowed principally to grays, whites, and blacks. the clothing was discussed, designed, and made by girls in the various schools of new york city. simple, attractive, though plain, garments were made that any mother might construct at home. the ready-made clothing cost about the same as the homemade. it was purchased at stores on the white list of the consumers' league, and when possible, the garments which had on them the consumers' league label were selected. at first the public preferred the ready-made clothing as it looked more attractive, the garments having been made primarily to please the taste. after many days of exhibi- tion almost all of the clothing had to be laundered and the advantage was then seen to be with the homemade garments. some of the budgets are as follows: — clothing budgets of the wage per week which they decided upon was as follows: clothing and recreation, $ . ; lunch, ^; carfare, ^ ; savings bank, ^, and family support, $ . . they had been taught at the school to sew, repair, and consider the small economies necessary to make money go as far as possible, and hence were able to dress well on the $ a year, more or less, which was set apart for clothing and recreation. the plans for clothing differed considerably; some girls spending more in pleasure and incidentals and other girls de- siring better clothing. those who put aside the largest amount for recreation usually cut down on the dress skirt, winter underwear, millinery, and odds and ends. they decided that they must have a good lunch, even though they could not get a stylish hat. they also agreed that they themselves could make corset covers, nightgowns, summer clothes, and jabots, and even at times might be able to make some of their winter clothes. they all felt that homemade clothing wore better than the cheap, ready-made kinds and that by taking good care of their old clothes and by making the old dress skirts into petticoats, they could save money. each girl planned to give a regular amount of her wage to her mother, as she washed her clothing and cooked her meals, which the girl wage earner could not get time to do. one budget is given below; it is the one in which the smallest amount was allowed for recreation; — this latter item ranged in the various calculations from $ . to $ . annually. all of the girls agreed that when a new coat or suit was needed, they should be careful to put money aside weekly for a long time or they would not have enough to get a good one. textiles clothing budget of a working girl winter outfit (much of the simpler clothing made by the wearer) woolen undersuits, at $ . $ . flannelette petticoats, at . . black petticoat, corset, - ° corset covers, at . . flannelette nightgowns, at . . pr. stockings, at . . pr. shoes, at . . pr. rubbers, - shirtwaists, at . . skirt, °° coat suit, . plain hat, i- ° fancy hat, . pr. kid gloves, pr. woolen gloves, - ° $ . summer outfit (much of the simpler clothing made by the wearer) vests, at . . pr. drawers, at . . plain petticoat, - fancy petticoat, . corset covers, at . . corset cover, - ° muslin nightgowns, at . . pr. stockings, at . . pr. shoes, at . . shirt waists, at . - skirt, -oo dress, -oo hat for business, - fancy hat, -°° $ . clothing budgets miscellaneous ribbons, , $ . ties, . belts, . collars, . handkerchiefs, . purse, . umbrella, . hairpins, etc., . $ . summary: — $ . spent for winter clothes. . spent for summer clothes. . spent for miscellaneous. $ . spent for clothing for year. $ . year's allowance for clothing and recreation. $ . spent for clothing. $ . left for recreation. the following suggestions were also made by these working girls: — the care of clothes mend your clothes as soon as they tear. air your clothes before putting them away. hang your clothes up so they will not become wrinkled. sponge and press woolen dresses, skirts, and coats. launder shirt waists at home if you can. keep all buttons and hooks and eyes carefully sewed on. when skirt bands wear out, put on new ones. keep skirt braids sewed on. the skirt of an old dress can be ripped and washed and made into a petticoat. put new ruffles and facings on old petticoats. make your own corset covers at home; corset covers that will wear a year can be made for cents. clean your own corsets; remove the bones, wash and dry the corset, replace the bones, and bind the top with a piece of ribbon. an old sheet or nightgown can be made into a bag to keep the best dress in. darn your stockings. keep your shoes clean and nicely polished. keep your gloves clean, always mended, and buttons sewed on. textiles put your gloves away neatly when not in use. wash your own ties and jabots. make jabots from pieces of lawn and lace left over from waists and dresses. keep your hats well brushed. keep your best hat in a box or pillow slip when not in use. on a stormy day wear a veil over your hat. when your hat becomes shabby and dusty, take off the trimming, brush and steam it thoroughly, and retrim the hat. keep your coat on hanger. a coat keeps its shape longer when kept on a hanger. what a well-dressed girl wears to business neat gloves and shoes — old gloves and shoes are neat when they are clean and carefully mended, neat tailor-made shirt waists, neatly made suits and coats, neat, well-made hats, clean, neat underwear, clean collars and jabots, hair neatly dressed, clean hands and finger nails. what a well-dressed girl does not wear to business fancy shirt waists, too much jewelry, very big or conspicuous hats, low shoes and thin stockings in winter, bright, gay colors, many colors at one time, dresses cut too low, short sleeves and low-cut waists on a cold day. petticoats that are longer than the dress, dusty clothes, fussy neckwear, dirty shirt waists and collars, coats, dresses, skirts, or waists on which buttons or hooks and eyes are lacking. textiles brought forward . . dresses: —ginghams (in washable colors) yds. in. at . . dressmaker batiste, etc. yds. in. at . . dressmaker separatewaists (made at home) :— cotton yds. in. at . . trimming (av. for ) . scotch flannel yds. at . • • • silk yds. at . (average) dress skirts (made at home) wool (panama) yds. in. at $ . cotton yds. ( - in.) at . petticoats: — sateen, yds. at . colored cotton, yds. at white cotton, yds. at . embroidery or lace . corset covers: — ij yds. at . lace or embroidery (average) nightdresses: —, yds. at . . trimming . drawers: — if yds. at . trimming (average) hats: — winter .... summer carried forward $ . . . . - •i .os - . - i- - . . . • ° number . . . - yearsof wearaverage yearlycost (omitting total cost small fractions) - - o - ° - o - - . i . i os i ° - o . . . - - i- . • • . . . . . . . . . . . textiles also the sum available for sundries was increased by savings effected in the purchase of the larger items. the above schedule is therefore a budget in the stricter sense of an advance estimate and allowance rather than an absolute record of actual detailed expenditure. clothing budget for two children this budget is a suggestion for an economical method of dressing two children — a boy and a girl who are between the ages of four and eight. the children for whom it was origi- nally intended were one and a half years apart in age, and the plan was used for several years. the following statements give the mother's ideas on the selection of clothing. a fair price should be given for children's clothes, as very cheap garments are not only badly made, but soon look shabby and wear out very quickly. many articles can be made at home with great saving of money, and give better satisfaction than those bought ready made. at the same time there are many garments that it is foolish to try to make at home, for they can be bought for almost the retail price of the material and are better made; as, for instance, boys' clothes, suits and pajamas, and girls' drawers and underwaists. extremes of fashion, materials that tear easily, that are not of fast color or of close weave are to be avoided; above all, material should be bought that washes well, for ability to launder is a requisite in a child's outfit. in carrying out the general scheme for dressing these two children the wardrobe of one was made to dovetail into the wardrobe of the other. not only do children look well when dressed somewhat alike; but for economical reasons the younger can wear the outgrown garments of the older, and with a little repairing — as the materials used are all of good quality — look quite as well as ever. the boy's white galatea sailor suit, for instance, can be handed down to his sister, and by the addition of a new skirt to match gives her a blouse dress, with the trousers as bloomers. the latter save wear and tear on clothing budgets petticoats and are warm and comfortable. the winter over- coats and hats were exactly alike; dark blue chinchilla coats were chosen and hats which could withstand all conditions of weather. knitted worsted caps were used for playing out of doors. in summer tan coats and dark hats of a good sub- stantial straw that would not chip or break were selected. in addition to these hats the little girl can have a white lingerie hat to go with her summer dresses, and the boy a hat of white duck. the girl's gingham dresses had bloomers to match, thus eliminating the frequently soiled white petticoat, and in fact keeping all of the underclothes clean. the mixture of cotton and wool for underwear for the ordinary healthy child is pref- erable to all wool, which not only is very expensive, as it is quickly outgrown, but must be so often washed that it is apt to shrink. the active body of the normal child does not require such heavy covering as all wool. this budget is good for three to four years, with now and then a few additions made to it. the growing boy requires many of the new things, and yet the little girl's needs are well provided for if she has an additional new white muslin dress, a gingham dress, and a dress or two of tan linen made with ample allow- ances for growth. the simple box-plaited dress, belted in at the waist with a leather belt, can be let out under each box plait for width, and the length can be regulated by the allowance in the hem. between the ages of five and eight years the same dress can be worn each succeeding season. tucks should always be put into drawers and petticoats, as well as a tuck around the underwaist of the blouse dress skirts, so that they can be let down from that point. by the time these children reach the age of nine years an entirely new order of budget will be required. the amount spent on the boy was $ . and on the girl $ . . the esti- mates given were the following : — bibliography economics and budgets: — abbott: women and industry. bosworth: living wage of women workers. brookman: family expense accounts. butler: women and the trades. chapin: standard of living. dyer: evolution of industry. ely: evolution of industrial society. ely: general economics. journal of home economics. june, . kinne and cooley: shelter and clothing. maclean: wage-earning women. mcvey: modern industrialism. more: wage-earners' budgets. academy of political science, columbia university: economic position of women. report on condition of woman and child wage earners in the united states. vols. streightoff: standard of living. glossary (the index should be used in connection with the glossary, as terms which are unfamiliar when first encountered may be fully explained elsewhere in the book.) battening. the driving up in close order of the filling threads in weaving. beetling. a special finish of cotton and linen cloth in which the threads are beaten flat. boiled-off silk. silk which has had the sericin or gum removed. breaking. the crushing and first separation of the woody portion from the flax or hemp fibers after the retting process. calendering. a finish for cotton cloth particularly, which gives smoothness, luster, and special effects by pressure under rollers. carbonizing. removing vegetable matter from wool by acids. chlorinated wool. wool treated with bleaching powder to give luster, destroy its felting property, and increase its affinity for dyestuffs. conditioning. all moisture held in the fiber is removed by this process, and the legal amount restored. cosmos, peat and wood wool. vegetable fibers treated to look like wool. cotted wool or cotts. matted wool from sick sheep which it is hard to open up. — inferior wool. denier. a measure of weight used in silk counting. as recently quoted by the united states silk conditioning company, a denier is a skein of silk meters long, weighed by a unit of . gm. (called denier); to is written / , etc. extract wool. see remanufactured wool. felting wools. clips of mexico, texas, and california sheep. there are two clips annually, hence the wool is short stapled. filatures. machines for silk reeling which supplement hand work. flocks. soft, fluffy fibers thrown off by different processes in woolen and worsted manufacture, such as raising and cropping. frame. an upright machine for twisting or spinning. fulling or milling. processes of shrinking or felting woolen cloth for the purpose of making a close, firm material such as broadcloth. garnetting. the garnett machine converts thread waste into loose fiber. gassing. burning off fuzzy protruding ends from cloth to produce a smooth surface. ginning. separating seed hairs of cotton from the seed. glossary hackling. a combing process which separates woody particles and tow from the line or long flax fibers. harness. a collection of healds or heddles. healds or heddles. cords or sticks having openings or eyes in their centers, through which the warp threads pass in the loom. kemps. dead wool which will not dye. white, shiny hairs in the wool of sheep that have not had good care. lathe or sley. the stick or lath used for battening in weaving. lease. the crossing made in the warp threads in preparing the loom for weaving. line. long flax fibers. lint. cotton fibers after removal from seed. linters. the short seed hairs left attached to the cotton seeds after first ginning. mercerized cotton. cotton treated with strong caustic alkali under certain conditions, resulting in the formation of cellulose hydrate. the mate- rial is stronger and, as commercially made, more lustrous. mungo. see remanufactured wool. neps. small knots in cotton due to poor ginning or to immature or dis- eased bolls. noils. short fibers remaining in the comb after the long stapled ones have been removed. many grades are valuable. organzine. silk thread used for warp. for the sake of strength it is of good quality and has a special twist. picking. putting in the filling threads in weaving. pulled wool. also called skin wool and dead wool. it is pulled from dead pelts treated with chemicals. raddle. a device through which the warp threads pass in order to wind smoothly on the warp beam. reed. an attachment of the lathe consisting of fine cords or wires between which the warp threads are carried. reeled silk. silk filaments unwound from the cocoon but not yet twisted. remanufactured or recovered wool. wool recovered from old clothes, rags, and such sources, and rewoven. three principal grades are recog- nized: ( ) shoddy or softs. from unfelted clothing such as blankets and stockings. ( ) mungo or hard wool. from felted or milled cloth. usually ground fine to mix with wools and make a cheap mate- rial. ( ) extract. wool left from mixtures with cotton, after the cot- ton has been removed by carbonizing. retting. rotting the flax stalks to effect the removal by decomposition of the pectin and resinous substances which hold the bast fibers to the woody portion. glossary tow. short flax fibers separated from the line in the hackling process. tram silk thread used for filling. warp or ends. the threads running lengthwise of a weave. waste. ends broken off from processes of manufacture. it may be from spinning processes, such as ring waste, or from yarn waste. much of the waste is put through the garnett machine. weft, woof, picks, or filling. the threads running across the warp in a weave. woolens. made from fibers which have not been combed and laid parallel. worsteds. made from combed and parallel-fibered yarns. yolk or suint. secretions of the skin of sheep which coat the wool, keep it waterproof, and prevent matting. index abaca, . absorbent cotton, . acid dyes, classification of, . list of, . on cotton, . on silk, . on wool, , . properties of, , . acids, action of, on cotton and linen, - , , . on silk, - , . on wool, - , . household, . adjective or mordant dyes, application of, to cotton, . to silk, . to wool, . classification of, . list of, . properties of, , . alkali-cellulose, , . alkalies, action of, on cotton and linen, - , , , , . on silk, - , , , . on wool, - , , , , , household, , . alkaline soaps, , . american wool, - . ammoniacal copper oxide, action of, on cellulose, . on cotton, . on flax, . on mercerized cotton, . ammoniacal nickel oxide, action of, on silk, . preparation of, . analysis, differentiation tests in, - . general directions for, , . microscopic, . of cotton-linen fabrics, - . of cultivated and wild silk fabrics, . of silk-cotton fabrics, . of true and artificial silk fabrics, . e analysis — continued. of wool-silk fabrics, . of wool-silk-cotton fabrics, practical investigations in, - . aniline bluings, use of, in laundries, . aniline dyes, , . animal fibers, classification of, . ignition test for, . reaction with acids, - . reaction with alkalies, - . animalized cotton, . antiphlogin, . arkwright, , , , , , , , artificial fibers, classification of, . uses of, . artificial silk, action of water on, . chemical reactions of, . classification of, , . comparison of, with natural, , cuprate or cuprammonium, . dyeing of, . effect of burning, , , . gelatin or vanduara, . in tulle, . manufacture of, - microscopy of, . nitrocellulose, . pyroxylin, . reactions of, . tensile strength of, . viscose, . artificial tulle or maline, . asbestos, . asiatic wool, . assistants, in dyeing, . australian wool, , . bales, cotton, - , , . silk, , , , . barbadoes cotton, . bark clothing, . basic dyes, classification of, . list of, . on cotton, , . r i index basic dyes — continued. on silk, . on wool, . properties of, . topping with, . basic zinc chloride, action of, on silk, . preparation of, . basketry, , . basket weave, , . bast fibers, , , , , . batik work, . batten, , , . battening, , , . beam, breast, . warp, , . web, cloth, goods or merchandise, . beard-hairs of sheep, . bedford cord, , . beetling, - , . bessonette press, . bleach, market, . printer's, . turkey red, . bleached linen, endurance of, , , . bleaching, loss of weight in, . of cotton, , , . of linen, , , . of silk, . of wool, . bleaching action of calcium hypochlorite, q. °- of hydrochloric acid, . of hydrogen peroxide, . of javelle water, . of oxalic acid, . of potassium permanganate, , . of sodium hypochlorite, , . of sodium peroxide, . of sulphur, . of zinc dust and acetic acid, . blues, aniline, . prussian, . ultramarine, . board of sanitary control, work of, . bobbin, , . bobbin frame, , , . body, ideal condition of, . body heat, chemical and physical reg- ulation of, . relation of clothing to, - . boiled-off liquor, , . borax, use of, in household, , . brake, flax, . breaking, flax, , . british wool, , . budgets, clothing, apportionments for, - . considerations in making, , . typical, child welfare, - . for business girl, - . for business or professional woman, - . for college girl, , . for family, - . for trade school students, - . for two children, - . by-products of wool, . calcium hypochlorite, bleaching action of, , , , , . calendering, , , , , , . camel's hair, . cams, . canadian wool, . cap spinning, , , . carbonization, , , , , . card, first breaker, , . hand, . revolving flat, , . card clothing, , . carding, cotton, , . machine, - . primitive, , , , , . wool, - . carpet looms, . carpets, - . cartwright, , , . cashmere wool, . caustic potash, action of, on animal fibers, , , . on vegetable fibers, . cellulose, action of caustic alkalies on, ° . - chemical elements in, . in vegetable fibers, , . nitrated, . chardonnet silk, . chenille, . chilcat blanket, , . china grass, , , . cholesterin, . "chrome" mordant for wool, , . index clock reel, . - cloth, analysis of, - . clothes, economy in, - . suggestions for care of, , . suitable, for business, . unsuitable, for business, . clothing, bark, . budgets for, - . dangers in, . division of labor in making, , . hygiene of, - - importations of, . making of, - - manufactured, value of product, . relation of, to body heat, - . to absorption, - . to an unrestricted body, , . to cleanliness, _ - statistics of, . cochineal tincture, effect of, on cotton and linen, . cocoanut, coir or coco fiber, , , , . colonial days, implements in, - . textile activities in, . colors, fugitive, fixing of in laundry, , - comb, noble, - . combing, cotton, , , . wool, - . conditioning, , , . congo dyes, . congo red as an indicator, . consumers, women as, - . duty of, as to practical investigations, - . in relation to textile laws, , , . influence of, on economic conditions, . , - on ethical conditions, , . on market conditions, . on social conditions, , . on the manufacturer, - . tendency of, to extravagance, . consumers' league, work of, , . copper sulphate, action of, on wool and silk, . cotton, - . absorbent, . acid dyes on, . action of acids on, - , , . cotton — continued. action of alkalies on, - , , , , . action of calcium hypochlorite on, , - action of cuprammonia on, . action of heat on, , . action of javelle water on, . american, . baling of, - . barbadoes, . basic dyes on, , . bleaching of, , . botany of, - . by-products and wastes of, . chinese, . classification of, , . cleanliness of, . cross-sections of, . cultivation of, - . east indian, , . egyptian, , . export centers for, . fireproofing of, , . gallini egyptian, . ginning of, - - hygroscopicity of, , . ignition tests for, , . in antiquity, . industry in united states, - . materials, , . mercerization of, , , - . microscopy of, , . mordant dyes on, , . peruvian, . picking of, , . printing of, - . properties of, - . roller gin for, . saw gin for, , . scouring of, . sea island, , , . seeds, . south american, . structure of, , . substantive dyes on, . sulphur dyes on, . upland, . cotton fabrics, hygiene of, , , laundering of, , . removal of dressing from, . cotton gin, whitney's, , . index loom, of british guiana, , . carpet, . cartwright's, . draw, . hand, - . horizontal, , . jacquard, - . lace curtain, . navajo, , , - . power, , - . primitive, , , - . slanting, . tapestry, . vaucanson's, . vertical, . zuni, . lustra-celluloses, , . lye, action of, on animal fibers, . machine carding, - . madder tincture, effect of, on cotton and linen, . maguey, . marquisette weave, , . materials, cotton, , . linen, . silk, , . wool and worsted, , . mat making, . mercer, john, . mercerization, - . chemical changes in, . physical changes in, . process of, , . tests for, , . mercerized cotton, cross sections of, . dyeing of, . in cuprammonia, . microscopy of, , . properties of, . merino wool, , . methods of dyeing, , . cross dyeing, . discharge dyeing, . in the wool, . in the slub, . piece dyeing, . resist dyeing, . skein dyeing, . microscope, directions for use of, . parts of, . millon's reagent, action of, on fibers, , . preparation of, . minor fibers, - . mixing, blending, topping, . mohair, , . moire, . molds or mildew, . mordant dyes. see adjective dyes. mordants, , , . morris, william, . muckle whjel, - . mule, modern, - . roberts' self-acting, . wool, , . worsted, . multiple cloths, , . mungo, , , , . navajo carding, . loom, , , - . rugs, - . spinning, , . weaving, - . new zealand flax, , . wool, . niddy noddy, , , . nitrated cellulose, . nitrocellulose silks, . nitrogen content of silk, . noble comb, - . noils, , , , . non-flam process, , . organzine, , , , . oxalic acid, action of, on fibers, , . uses of, , , , - oxford mixture, dyeing of, . panama weave, , . paper, design or point, , . paul, lewis, , , , . pectic acid, . pectin bodies, . picking, , , . - picking stick, , . piece dyeing, . pile fabrics, , , . pifia fiber, , , . cloth, , . pineapple fiber. see pifia. plush fabrics. , . index spinning —• continued. of wool and worsted, , , . principles underlying, . spinning frame, arkwright's, , , . cap, , . crompton's, . modern, - . ring, , , . spinning jenny, , . spinning wheel, flax, saxony, or leipsic, - , - gharka or teakwood, . great, wool, or muckle, - . spun silk, - . stains, removal of, - . blood, . bluing, . chocolate, cocoa, . coffee, tea, . fruit, . grass, . grease, . ink, , . iron rust, . molds or mildew, . paint or varnish, . scorch, . vaseline, . sterilization of clothing, temperature for, . straw, dyeing of, . substantive dyes, action of acids and alkalies on, . classification of, . list of, . on artificial silk, . on cotton and linen, , . on wool, . properties of, , . suint, , . sulphur dyes, classification of, . list of, . on cotton and linen, . properties of, . sulphur fumes, bleaching action of, , - sulphuric acid, action of, on cotton- linen fabrics, . effect of, on fibers, - . sweat glands, secretion of, in human body, . in sheep, . swift, , . swivel weaving, . sword, , , . tabby weave, . tannic acid, as a mordant, . tapestry looms, . weaving, . tappet shaft, . teazle, . temple or tenterhook, , , , . testing of materials at home, - . differentiation tests, , . for endurance, , , . for fastness of dye, , , , . for finishes and weighting, , . for quality of yarn, , , . for weave, , , . for weight, . textile industries, value of, in united states, . textile manufacture, betterment of con- ditions relating to, - . employment of children in, . factory evils attending, . legislation in relation to, , . textile printing, . textile producers, working conditions of, - - textiles, economics of, - . relation of women to, - . study of, by women, . textiles, standardization of, , , - textiles, value of importation of, . textiles, women as consumers of, - - advice to, in making clothing, , . in shopping, - . responsibility of, - . textilose, . thomas and prevost, . throstle frame, , . tops, , , , . tow, appearance of, in fabrics, , . scutching, , . spinning, , . trade union league, woman's, . tram, , . treadle, , . true and artificial silk, tests for, . index wool — continued. industry, value of, . marketing of, , . mercerizing of, . mordant dyes on, . mungo, , , . new zealand, . of great britain, , , . overheated, . properties of, , . regenerated or remanufactured, , u- russian, . scouring of, - , . serrations of, , , - , . shoddy, , , , . shrinkage in, . south african, . staple, . substantive dyes on, . sulphur in, , . unshrinkable, . varieties of, in united states, , . wastes and substitutes, , , , . wheel, - . world's supply of, - . yarn, , , , , . yolk, , , . wool and hair fibers, microscopy of, - . physiology of, . secretions adhering to, , , . similarity of, , . structure of, - . tabular comparison of, . wool-cotton fabrics, analysis of, , . wool-silk fabrics, analysis of, . woolen and worsted manufacture, - . by-products of, countries interested in, . counts or sizes of yarn in, , . position of sorts in, , . sorter's terms in, . woolen and worsted manufacture, pro- cesses in, - . back washing, . blending, . burling and mending, . burr extracting, , . carbonizing, . woolen and worsted manufacture — continued. carding for wool, - . carding for worsted, , . combing, - . drawing and doubling, , . dusting, . drying, . feeding, , . finishing, - . finishing gilling, . fulling, milling, or felting, , . general finishing, - . inspection or perching, . mule spinning, . napping, gigging, or raising, - , - oiling, , . picking, teasing, opening, willowing, fearnaught, . preparing gilling, . raw stock dyeing, ;. scouring, - , . shearing, cutting, and brushing, , - sizing, . skein dyeing, . sorting, , . special finishing, , . spinning, - , , . tentering, . weaving, , . worsted yarn, , , , , , , , - wyatt, , , . xanthoproteic reaction, . yarns, analysis of, . cotton, , , . knitting, , . lisle thread, . sewing cotton, , . woolen, , , , , . worsted, , , , , , . yolk, , , , . zinc dust and acetic acid, bleaching action of, . zuni healds or heddles, , , . looms, . method of weaving, . 'i 'he following pages contain advertisements of a few of the macmillan books on kindred subjects household bacteriology by estelle d. buchanan, m.s. recently assistant professor of botany, iowa state college and robert earle buchanan, ph.d. professor of bacteriology, iowa state college, and bacteriologist of the iowa agricultural experiment station cloth, vo, xv+ pp., index, $ . net the word household is used as an extension rather than a limitation of the title. in a thoroughly scientific manner the authors treat the subject-matter of general as well as of household bacteriology and include, therefore, the true bacteria as well as the yeasts, molds, and protozoa. the volume is, therefore, a general textbook of micro-biology in which special attention is given to those problems which are of particular interest to the student of household science. the main divisions of the book treat (i) the micro- organisms themselves, ( ) fermentations with special reference to those affecting foods, ( ) the relations of bacteria and other micro-organisms to health. a fully illustrated key (comprising pages) to the families and genera of common molds, supplements the unusually extended discussion of the morphology and classification of yeasts and molds, and makes possible the satisfactory identification of all forms ordinarily encountered by the student. the work embodies the results of the most recent researches. the book is exceptionally well written, the different topics are treated con- sistently and with a good sense of proportion. while concise in statement, it is thorough in method and scope. it is, therefore, well adapted for use as a text not only for students of household science, but also for those to whom it is desired to present the science of bacteriology from an economic and sanitary rather than from a strictly medical point of view. "the book is a concisely written work on micro-biology, a branch of economic science that the public is beginning gradually to understand, has important relationship to the total welfare and prosperity of the community. . . . the manual can be recommended as a very good elementary bacteri- ology. it comprises about all there is of practical domestic value." — boston advertiser. the macmillan company publishers - fifth avenue hew york by henry c. sherman, ph.d. professor in columbia university chemistry of food and nutrition cloth, i mo, viii + pages, $ . net the purpose of this volume is to present the principles of the chemistry of food and nutrition with special reference to the food requirements of man and the considerations which should underlie our judgment of the nutritive values of food. the food is here considered chiefly in its nutritive relations. it is hoped that the more detailed description of individual foods and the chemical and legal control of the food indus- try may be treated in a companion volume later. the present work is the outgrowth of several years' experi- ence in teaching the subject to collegiate and technical students who have represented a considerable diversity of previous training and points of view, and, while published primarily to meet the needs of the author's classes, it is hoped that it may also be of service to students and teachers elsewhere and to general readers whose main interest may lie in other fields, but who appreciate the importance of food and nutrition as factors in hygiene and preventive medicine. while neither the size nor the purpose of this book would permit an historical or technically critical treatment, a limited number of historical investigations and controverted views have been mentioned in order to give an idea of the nature and validity of the evidence on which our present beliefs are based, and in some cases to put the reader on his guard against theories which, while now outgrown, are still some- times encountered. published by the macmillan company - fifth avenue, new york bureau of standards technologic paper no. upper thread upper thread fig. .—double-locked stitch seam fig. .—shuttle stitch seam technologic papers of the bureau of standards an examination of the test specimens having no. under thread showed that this finer and weaker thread had been pulled up into the hole formed by the needle. for this reason it is very probable that with the freedom of movement, which is a charac- teristic of the under thread of the double-locked stitch, the ten- sions on the upper and under threads of the seam are more uni- formly distributed, thereby causing a higher breaking strength of the seam than when a stronger under thread is used. the relative values of the two types of stitching may be largely dependent upon the extent to which the strength of a seam is affected by the breaking of a thread. table shows that cut- ting one stitching thread at the middle of the seam weakened the double-locked stitch less than it weakened the shuttle stitch. previous results of tests have shown, all other things being equal, that the resulting tensile strength of the seam is the same when either the upper or the under thread is cut. the weakening appeared to depend somewhat upon the kind of fabric used, which may have been due to the extreme narrowness of the test speci- mens. it is interesting to note that even though the double- locked seam was cut or broken it was still stronger than the uncut seam of the shuttle stitch. another series of tests was made on cotton bunting and awning cloth, using somewhat wider specimens than before and both single and double rows of stitching. preliminary experiments had shown that equal test strengths were obtained when specimens ]/ inches and wider were used in the testing machine with -inch jaws. for these experiments specimens if£ inches wide were chosen. the results of these tests are given in tables and , which show as before a greater tensile strength for the seams sewed by the double-locked stitch. it was observed that when the tension was applied several stitches pulled out in the seams sewed by the .shuttle stitch, but this did not happen in the case of the double-locked stitch. each result is the mean of three observations. comparative tests were also made with specimens in which one stitching thread of each row was cut at the middle. it was found that the shuttle-stitch seam was weakened much more than the double-locked stitch and that the pulling out of the threads in the former stitch caused the seam to give way before the fabric was torn. photographs of two of these test specimens are shown, figs. and . these illustrate how the threads of the shuttle stitch pulled out while the double-locked stitches remain intact film according . to target sequence vonb- ^ qomplete seiuiny instructions the new york public library astor, lenox ilden foundations maude w. russell inventor russell system of garment cutting and author "complete sewing instructions—the russell way" complete sewing instructions-- the russell way the newest, simplest, and most perfect method of sewing ever offered women copyrighted, , by maude w. russell kansas city, missouri all rights reserved, including the right to translate into any and all foreign languages published by the russell company grand avenue kansas city, mo. - complete sewing instructions—the russell way n the year maude w. russell established herself as a dressmaker and ladies' tailor and continued this line of work until . during these years of experience she realized how essen- tial it was to the success of her work to have a system of pattern cutting that would simplify the methods of dressmaking then in use. in she began to teach dressmaking and then realized more than ever the necessity of having some system of pattern cutting which all could readily understand. with the idea of solving this problem she continued her work and finally brought all of the knowledge and principles which she had acquired from her practical experience into use in perfecting the model of the maude russell system of garment cutting. after much experimenting and careful tests, she perfected this wonderful, adjustable pattern cutting system. this she offered to the public believing that its use would prove a great blessing not only to those who are compelled to earn their liveli- hood by sewing but to every woman who desires to be well dressed at the least possible expenditure of time, trouble and money. the russell system has proved its worth by every practical test made by it and we are pleased to say that the approval which it has received from the public more than justifies the faith of the inventor in the superiority of her system over any other method of pattern cutting. and by placing this book of complete sewing instructions before the people she knows that every woman can make her own clothes. the russell co. kansas city, mo., complete sewing instructions—the russell way important points on practical dressmaking first — do not rush while learning to sew, as you are very apt to overlook some of the most important things, as well as to become nervous and impatient. it is natural for you to progress very rapidly after you have familiarized yourself with the details of dressmaking. second — too much attention cannot be paid to the little points of charm that give to your clothes an air of distinction; for example: fancy pockets, bound buttonholes, ties, jabots, fichus, fancy belts, or even button-trimmings, give smart effects to the ordinary garment. these are the items that make ready-to-wear expensive, as well as permit dressmakers to charge such exorbitant prices for the knowl- edge they claim to possess. descriptions on how to make all the above, as well as a great many more, are contained in this book. third — in the making of the first garment, great care should be given to finishing of inside seams, snaps, hooks and eyes, buttons and buttonholes. by doing this you will never acquire that slovenly habit of having to pin your garments, thereby shortening the wear as well as attractiveness. it is well to keep in mind in the closing of belts and plackets, where there is any pressure on them, you should al- ways use hooks and eyes, or hooks and bars, as the strain unfastens them. fourth — a moment's time devoted to the removing of all bastings, tying and clipping of all threads left by machine stitching, and the placing of knots where they can not be seen, will place you in a position where your work can not be criticized even by experts. fifth — from the most exquisite gown to the plainest underwear, should be pressed before considering the garment finished; every precaution should be used so as not to scorch or spot, and never place an iron on the right side of the material without first having tried a sample to see if it affects the finish. sixth — a good seamstress always cuts the material instead of tearing—also just a moment of time given to the pulling of a thread, complete sewing instructions—the russell way for a line to cut on will save you a lot of trouble—as torn goods have a tendency to ravel and it is impossible to use with the hemmers, gatherers, and other attachments of your sewing machine. seventh—before placing your pattern (either a russell or a commer- cial) see that the material is folded—folded evenly; this is determined by the selvage, stripes or the grain of the material. eighth — where you have stripes, plaids, or floral designs, too much care cannot be exercised in the matching of them—in some cases it will be necessary to change your pattern; for instance, you might have to trim one gore of your skirt and add it to the other gore or you might have to raise one gore at the waist line in order to start the matching even, but at the same time it is much better to do this, as the trimming of the gore that extends upward will not affect the garment nearly so much as the unmatched lines. ninth — in the cutting of goods having a nap such as broadcloths, velvets, etc., they should be cut with nap running the same way; for example, where your material is narrow and your gores wide, it will be necessary to cut one at a time—then place the right side of the gore to the right side of the material, taking care that the weave and nap are carefully matched. tenth — to make sewing a real pleasure as well as a great saver of time, you should have a small room or a space in a room, as well as the following equipment: one maude russell cutting device, which can be adjusted to any size or form, and cuts to individual measure; with it you can select any kind of a picture and duplicate it into a per- fect-fitting pattern, thereby giving you clothes that are different from those worn by your friends, and at a very small cost; you will also need a few of the following—a good sewing machine, a pair of ten-inch shears, a pair of buttonhole shears, ironing board, also a sleeve board, a bolt of tape, featherbone, hooks and eyes, snaps, pins, bodkin needles, sewing thread, and an assortment of needles. with this outlay you will be enabled to either conduct a dressmaking business, or do any kind of sewing in your home. complete sewing instructions—the russell way advice on needles and thread for neat work in sewing it is necesary to have definite ideas as to the sizes of needles and thread to be used in the different varieties of sewing. there are several different kinds of needles, of which the follow- ing are the most common and most frequently used: sharps, be- tweens, milliner's, embroidery, and darning or worsted needles. sharps are long, slender needles, used for basting, gathering, darning or any other practical work, while the fine, short needle is used for hemstitching, hemming, felling and overcasting. embroidery needles are different lengths and sizes, have long eyes, and are used according to the size of thread and material. darning needles are similar to embroidery needles, only larger. milliner's needles are very long and are only used in the making of millinery. bodkin needles are long and flat with large eyes and are used for running tape, cords, ribbons, etc. a good seamstress should always have a bodkin needle handy, as she will need it frequently while doing fancy or high-class sewing. if you should buy a package of needles labeled nos. to —in the middle you will find no. , which is used for heavy sewing or for sew- ing on buttons; next on each side comes no. and no. , which are used for medium coarse work, such as hemming towels or heavy stitching; on each side at the edge are no. , to be used for fine sewing. the thread must always correspond with the size of the needle; for example, when doing fine sewing, hemming and tucking for which needles nos. or should be used, the thread should range in num- ber from to , depending upon the fineness of the texture or material; needle no. , for stitching and overcasting, should carry thread no. to ; for working buttonholes in gingham or other materials of medium weight use needles nos. and and thread no. . complete sewing instructions—the russell way the length of thread to be used in the beginner's lessons should be at least inches, which will allow sufficient length to pull through the edge of material and tie a knot without tangling. where a loopstitch, tailor's tack, or long basting stitch, is de- sired, would advise a thread inches long. never cut thread, as that causes a square or blunt end and makes it difficult to thread a needle. if you would become proficient in your sewing lessons—always remember to use your thimble at the beginning. i would also advise the closed-end thimble for the beginner as it is much easier, though you will find a great many of the best dressmakers and tailors using the open-end kind. the first and simplest stitches are those known as "basting stitches" which are three in number: first, even basting; second, uneven basting; third, a sort of combination stitch. if you want to be a good seamstress, you should make a very careful study of basting; but be careful not to overdo it, as a great many dressmaking schools and dressmakers do—so many of them try to carry out the ideas of the old-fashioned tailors who cannot get away from the lined, boned and tight-fitting garments. of course, tailoring demands more basting than dressmaking, but one should be careful not to overdo it. the russell cutting device of individual measure eliminates a great deal of basting, as the garment is cut to fit the form and does not have to be basted into shape—it also allows all seams, thereby as- suring you of no alterations, and every seam matches so perfectly, each and every part of the garment fits together so nicely, that bast- ing is not necessary. will add, though, that where basting is neces- sary one cannot give it too much attention. before removing the basting threads be sure that all knots have been removed, as the drawing of them through the material is liable to break the thread of the material, thereby causing holes. complete sewing instructions—the russell way running stitch—this stitch is just the same as the even-basting stitch, except as to length. for the running stitch the stitches and spaces between should be of equal length, depending upon the fineness of the material upon which you sew. sizes of needles and thread should correspond with fineness of materials also. the illustration above will give a correct idea of how your work should look. in the running stitch we use no knot, but instead fasten the beginning of the seam-to-be, also fastening the thread in the same way at the end to prevent ripping. back stitching — this stitch is the one our grandmothers em- ployed, which so closely resembled machine stitching and was made in the following manner: use no knot, but fasten the thread in the manner suggested for the running stitch. take up twice the amount of material on the needle from the wrong side that you wish your stitch length to be, draw needle thru and insert in material at the point of one-half the length of the stitch just taken. again take up and repeat as before—see illustration above. this stitch is used where it is necessary to have strength and security in the seam. complete sewing instructions—the russell way overhanding stitch — this stitch is used when we wish to fas- ten edges of material together in a secured seam. place edges together, pin and baste. this is an over-and- over stitch and is made by inserting the needle from the under side and passing the thread over the edges of the material to be sewed. if the thread should be of insufficient length to finish the seam, fasten thread by allowing it to run along with the edge un- der the first five or six stitches made by the new thread—see illustration above. overcasting — this is also an over-and-over stitch and is used to prevent materials from raveling at the edge; it is used on the edges of seams to be pressed open, or may be used on flat seams where tailoring work is desired; place the knot on the wrong side and insert the needle from the under side. complete sewing instructions—the russell way in appearance this stitch is much like overhanding, but the stitches are longer and farther apart. care should be exercised that stitches be of equal length and distance apart. this is used mostly in finishing inside seams of heavy wool- ens or crash, and is especially good on materials that show a ten- dency to ravel. blanket stitch — like overcasting, it is used for finishing edges or to prevent raveling. these stitches may be of even length or they may be a short and a long stitch alternating; this stitch is some- times called the loopstitch. make a knot in the end of the thread to fasten it and insert the needle the desired length of the stitch from the edge of the ma- terial; next insert the needle on the right side, holding thread with the thumb of left hand so that it will form a loop as shown in the ill list rat ion; to turn a corner, work three stitches from the same place with the middle one running diagonally from the point where the nee- dle was inserted over the corner of material. complete sewing instructions—the russell way the same rule applies to all materials. the strictly tailored but- tonhole has the round opening on front; this has to be made with a buttonhole punch. after you have learned to cut and serge the buttonhole, you are now ready to finish. on cotton or linen material use cotton and linen thread, always using coarse thread, no. being the standard size. on woolens and silk material, the silk buttonhole twist is used. first make a knot in your thread—using a thread about thirty inches in length, as this will complete the buttonhole without hav- ing to renew thread, which would make a bad looking place in the buttonhole. begin at the rear of the buttonhole by placing your knot be- tween the two materials, and use the regular but- tonhole stitch as shown. great care should be exercised in having your stitches the same length and not to show any ma- terial between stitches, as the closer your stitches are together the neater your buttonhole. after buttonholes have been worked the edges should be felled together and pressed; this is the final finish and should never be neglected. complete sewing instructions—the russell way hemming muslin—first pull your thread to determine a straight line and then cut the material, turn over one-fourth of an inch to take care of raw edge (this may be reduced to one-eighth on fine material) then turn again the width of hem desired and baste to position, using even basting stitches. after the hem has been basted (using the long basting stitch) pull thread from needle without fastening, so as to make it easy to remove basting thread; then stitch on sewing machine. hand hemming — determine width of hem, turn and baste, fol- lowing same rule as for stitching on machine. now thread your needle with thread to be used for hem and insert between the fold of material; this will place the knot where it cannot be seen from either side of hem—use the hemming stitch, which looks very much like overhanding, but is made by inserting the needle in the opposite manner. care should be taken to prevent the thread from being too noticeable on the right side of material. this result may be secured by inserting the needle under only one or two of the threads of the material before entering the hem edge. complete sewing instructions—the russell way fore starting the work. you should be very careful to roll the hem as small as possible and very even, using the overhand stitch, taking as small stitches as you can in order to take care of the roll hem. where laces and insertions are used, only one stitch is taken to secure the roll hem at the same time. patching patching may be done in several ways. we have the hemmed patch, the darned patch, and patching on flannel. hemmed patch—cut the worn or torn place square; then cut patch square, about one inch larger than hole, and match the weave of the two materials. to form the hem square at each corner, the cloth must be cut diagonally from the corner to the depth of one- fourth of an inch, which will give you a sufficient amount to fasten patch underneath. where stripes, plaids or floral designs are used, great care should be used in the matching. while this patch is used principally for wearing apparel, yet it is excellent for bed linens, towels, or any cotton or linen gar- ments that must bear frequent laundering. in the patching of good or expensive garments the hemming stitch should always be used, but on coarse, ordinary garments the running stitch is used, as it is a great saver of time. complete sewing instructions—the russell way patching on flannel may be done by cutting out the worn place and inserting a hem patch, but this gives rather a heavy edge to the patch; so it is better to leave the patch flat and sew around both the inside and the outside with a catch stitch which is described on page ; this stitch is used also for finishing seams in flannel. the darn patch is used on table linens, woolen materials and the like. it is best in this style of patching to use a thread of the same kind as material, if possible. any worn place is, as a rule, more easily mended'by darning than in any other way and is also less noticeable. complete sewing instructions—the russell way cut out a patch of sufficient size, place it and baste securely under worn spot, weave the thread back and forth, using the run- ning stitch, following the weave each way. in this manner the loose worn ends are fastened down—then press well. be careful to not draw the thread too tight, as that gives the entire patch a drawn look. darning stockings and underwear.—either baste the material to a piece of cardboard, or hold securely over some other smooth sur- face. as the garment or stocking is usually worn rather thin around the hole, it is necessary to darn it well back from the open- ing to prevent the strain of new threads tearing a new hole. to darn, use the running stitch and cover as much space as seems worn, bringing the thread under and over, alternating each time, as shown in illustration. these new threads must not be drawn tight, but must be left loose enough to allow for shrinkage when laundered. complete sewing instructions—the russell way sewing on lace—lace is commonly sewed to the edge of the ma- terial. the lace should be placed with the right side facing the right side of the goods, with the edges even. the stitch used is overhanding. the needle should catch just the edge of the lace and the edge of the material and the stitches should be close together. when sewing on lace that is not gathered the lace should be held a little full. this may be done by pushing it slightly with the thumb of the left hand. if the lace is to be gathered, it may be done by pulling the heavy thread at the top. sew on as directed, using a fine, short needle with fine thread. insertions may be put in by overhanding to the rolled or hemmed edges of the material. complete sewing instructions—the russell way insertions may be put in by using the overhand stitch. the nicest way is to roll the hem in as small a roll as is possible according to the material you are using (per illustration, page ); in this way the one overhand stitch takes care of the insertion and roll. you should be very careful to hold the insertion a little full when putting on, as lace shrinks more than material, otherwise it will appear drawn when washed. in the use of insertion on plain materials or ruffles, where speed is desired, would suggest the use of the hemming attachment on machine; then hold insertion a little full and stitch by machine or overhand as preferred. an easier and more rapid way of putting in insertion is to place the right side of the insertion on the right side of the material and baste the insertion to place, carefully basting both edges. stitch on the sewing machine, being careful to keep about one-sixteenth of an inch in from the edge of the insertion. now turn to the wrong complete sewing instructions—the russell way finished seams with binding—this is the only satisfactory way of finishing seams that ravel. on linen or cotton goods would advise the regular bias binding that may be purchased in all depart- ment stores, but on fine materials such as vel- vets, serges, etc., you may use any of the follow- ing materials: nets, chiffons, china silks, organdy or india linen. by using these you will be able to match any color or shade. by referring to page you will see how to cut these materials on the true bias before using. these bias strips should be cut from three-quar- ters to one inch in width—that is determined by the thickness of material you are using; then overhand the strips together or stitch them in a flat seam on the machine—being very careful to always place the right side of the bias material to the right side of material of seam; then stitch one-fourth of an inch, or width of presser foot, and turn bias binding over this seam, allowing the raw edges of bias to extend flat underneath; this is fastened down either by a running stitch, by hand or machine stitching. complete sewing instructions—the russell way tailored seams—these are made by stitching the seams and press- ing them flat, per illustration. then on the right side of the material stitch any width de- sired, although one-fourth inch is standard and is usually the best. this seam applies only to tai- lored coats and skirts. on light weight materials, the edges may be turned under as per illustration; but on heavy materials, such as linens, and woolens the seams should be left raw, and then finished by overcasting. in coats or jack- ets, where lining is to be used it is not necessary to finish them at all. complete sewing instructions—the russell way slot seam—this is a seam that never goes out of style, because it is one that is always practical and attractive. it can be used in dresses, coats, skirts, etc., where slot seams are used on skirts; it enables you to make an invisible placket as well as the opening of a waist, either front or back; this is exceptionally good for some styles. this seam is made by basting your seams, using the small even basting stitch. the half-inch seam is plenty wide; the standard three-eighth seam is good, unless you want wide slots. after this has been basted and fitted, press seam open, then cut straight piece of material, as wide as your seam is after being pressed open, and baste it flat, using the long basting stitch on both edges, as per illus- tration. now press again and stitch from the right side the desired width, as per illustration on following page; should you be stitching wider than the presser foot of the machine, would advise the use of the quilter attachment. complete sewing instructions—the russell way you will find on some materials it is very necessary to stitch downward on each side; in doing this it is impossible to use the quilter on both sides, as it throws the stitching opposite, but on stitch- ing the right hand side of your seam, the quickest and most accurate way to accomplish this is to commence at the bottom of the skirt, using your quilter or presser foot to gauge, but remove thread from the machine needle; run full length of the seam. this makes a mark to stitch on. now remove your quilter and thread your machine needle, and you can stitch the downward seam without any trouble; when the bastings are removed, that leaves an opening exposing the under- neath strip slightly. a great many times this strip is of a different color which makes a very pretty finish. seams may be finished by binding or overcasting. complete sewing instructions—the russell way chain stitch—this is a very simple embroidery stitch used in out- lining and trimming. insert needle from under side of material, leaving the knot on the wrong side of material. hold the thread down with the left thumb to form a loop. insert needle from right side at the point where it came through and take a stitch toward you, bring- ing the needle through. release hold on loop and draw to posi- tion. repeat. cross stitch—this stitch is used to work out de- signs on canvas and is fre- quently used as trimming for aprons, house dresses and the like that are made of checkered material. it may be done with an over-and-over stitch much like overcasting, and com- ing back cross all the first stitches made, or may be done separately a cross at a time as in illus- tration. complete sewing instructions—the russell way . .wmmmmmmmmmmmmmm outline stitch —this stitch may be made in any one of the three illustra- ted ways. the thread should have no knot on the end, but should be fas- tened by taking three or four running stitch- es in the oppo- s i t e direction in which the outline is worked. these are also known as stemming stitches in embroidery. feather stitching is used for trimming and finishing and may have any number of feather edges or branches. this is occasion- ally called briar stitch. insert needle from wrong side to place the knot. hold thread to po- sition with thumb of left hand and take a stitch, allow- ing needle to come over loop. repeat for the desired number of "briars" and transfer thread to the left to make stem. repeat stitch- es, transfer thread to right, etc. i ii complete sewing instructions—the russell way it gives a good finish and insures strength. hooks and eyes as well as buttons should be sewed with cotton or linen thread when possible. sometimes it is necessary to use eyelets made of thread in- stead of the ordinary "eye." make them by sewing back and forth over a space of one-fourth of an inch long. this produces a loop and should have four or five threads. these threads should now be covered with loop or buttonhole stitches, working from the right side to the left. crowd these stitches close together and fas- ten thread securely on the wrong side of material when finished. middy blouses, and similar garments wherein a lacing and cord is used, must have eyelets worked; run a thread in a circle the size the eyelet must be and open to this size with a stiletto or orangewood stick. to give added strength to the eyelet the edge may be button- holed. if the eyelet is to be very large, it is well to run in the outline thread and to slash with a sharp knife, or scissors, across the diam- eter of the circle both ways, forming four right angles at center. open with stiletto, turning corners back on the wrong or under side of the work. proceed as suggested above. tape to be used for hangers should be sewed on in the following man- ner: turn under ends of tape one-half inch, place flat on material and pin to position; beginning at the side at the point where the turn-under ends, sew around to same point, using hemming stitch; sew across tape to the beginning point, using back stitching. tape may be sewed to the edge of towels and the like. (see illustration on page .) cut tape required length, turn tape under one-fourth inch at each end. place ends even, one on each side of the towel, and sew with hemming stitch. complete sewing instructions—the russell way same rules apply to coat lapels and collars, as well as all corners on the lower edges of coats or jackets, and cuffs of any designs. on any seam that has to be turned and left inside you will find that pressing wide open before turning will aid you greatly in get- ting a smooth edge, while the material will be much easier to stitch or press. it is a great saving of time to make a small roll or pad and keep for this purpose. tucks may be put in with fine hand sewing or may be made with the tucker attachment on the sew- ing machine. if they are run in by hand the run- ning stitch, a very fine one, is used. the tucks must be marked to insure the spaces between be- ing even. complete sewing instructions—the russell way bias facings are cut on the bias or diagonal of the material. a true bias is a true diagonal and may be found in any material by turning the straight cross-wise thread parallel with the straight length-wise thread of the ma- terial; cut on the fold. the facing may be cut any width desired. complete sewing instructions—the russell way facings may be either shaped or bias. shaped facings are cut as the garment to be faced is, though they are narrow. when an edge, curved as the one in the illustration, is to be faced, it is well to use a shaped facing. the seam must be slashed, as per illustration above, to admit of the spreading of the edge. necks, sleeves and all curved edges should be treated in this manner. complete sewing instructions—the russell way on square or v-shaped fitted fac- ings, the corners should be cut diag- onally about one- fourth of an inch, as per illustration on square collar. this allows your facing to turn un- der without that drawn, puckered look that is often seen in poorly made garments. complete sewing instructions—the russell way the bottom may be hemmed and a narrow elastic inserted to hold it to position, or the desired edge may be gathered into a band. where fullness is desired in the front of corset cover: after you have hemmed the fronts and placed the two edges together ready for cutting, set your pattern back / inches on material; this allows five inches in all, but will give a good lap and the ex- act amount of fullness. where band is desired, cut a length-wise strip two inches longer than the waist measure, and two inches wide, turn under one-half inch at each end, sew on the corset cover with the right side of the band to the wrong side of the garment, turn the re- maining edge under one-fourth inch, turn the band down as you would a hem on the right side of the garment; baste and stitch, or put down by hand as desired. in the making of fancy corset covers, stitching lace or embroid- ery beading around the lower edge and drawing in to fit waist line with ribbon is especially pretty, and very easily done. underwear of all kinds, including teddy-bears, princess slips, com- bination suits, petticoats, etc., should be finished with french seams, the neck and arm-eyes should be faced or bound and trimmed with lace or embroidery in any desired manner. materials used may be crepe de chines, combination silks and linen, linen or fine cot- ton. instructions for cutting these will be found in the maude russell text-book on garment cutting. complete sewing instructions—the russell way x drop shoulder waist—this style of waist is very popular at this time. the pattern is shown in illustration no. , page , of maude russell text-book on cutting, and the design may be made of any kind of material. if the opening is to be made in the front, the front is laid on the straight edge of the material; fold the goods so that both fronts may be cut at once. mark the material with all the markings that appear in the maude russell pattern. also, when using a commercial pat- tern of any kind, as this will aid you greatly in putting same to- gether. the back should be laid with the center back on a length- wise fold of the goods. always pin the pattern to the material to prevent slipping. mark the back of material to correspond with the markings on the pat- tern. for light weight materials french seams should be used. run a gathering thread in each of the fronts at the shoulder seam line between markings. this fullness should riot be nearer than one and one-half inches to the arm-eye. if the fullness is allowed too close to the arm-eye the waist has a tendency to drag or fall over the shoulder, making it uncomfort- able and unsightly. draw the thread to give the seam the required length and baste the front to the back at shoulder point with the wrong side of the material together. turn the hem down the front the width allowed for, and baste in the proper place. if the pattern has been cut to the proper meas- urements and the seams taken the proper width, there will be no ques- tion as to fit. complete sewing instructions—the russell way the waist may be cut long enough to allow for a hem at the bottom or cut off for band; in the former case turn, baste and stitch and insert a narrow rubber to keep waist to position. if a band is used, run a strong gathering thread one-fourth of an inch from the bottom of the waist, cut a length-wise strip two inches in width, turn under one-half inch at each end and baste to lower edge of waist, with the ends even with the front hemmed edge; adjust gathers properly, pin at intervals, baste and stitch; turn over edge of strip one-fourth of an inch, turn up on seam just sewed, as for hem; pin, baste and stitch to position. this forms a band three-fourths of an inch in width, with a lap at the front of one inch. any becoming style of collar may be used with this waist. just one-half the collar pattern is used. lay the center back on lengthwise fold of the material the neck line of the collar must correspond with the neck line of the waist. the collar may have a picot outer edge, or may be bound or faced as you desire. pin the collar with center back to center back of waist at neck line. do not stretch the collar, as it fits over the waist and should be held loosely. pin to position and baste. cut a true bias facing the length required and baste it in with the collar seam. this facing should be one inch in width, but can be narrower, according to the material used. clip or slash the seam as directed for putting on a shaped facing, turn over the edge of bias strip and turn down on waist, basting flat as for hem. stitch or put down by hand as desired—the latter being the better. complete sewing instructions—the russell way butterfly waist—pattern directions on page of the russell text- book on cutting. but this same rule applies to any commercial pat- tern and will aid you greatly in joining seams properly. if front clos- ing is desired, lay the pattern on the material with the center back on a lengthwise fold—allowance must be made for hem at front clos- ing; pin front and back together, folding material so that two meets two, three meets three and one meets one. any fullness found in sleeve at back should be evenly adjusted, as it prevents the sleeve from straining. baste and stitch. in sheer materials the french seam should be used. use any collar you may wish. sleeve may have extra fullness taken up in a dart, as shown in the illustration, or gathered into a cuff. collars may be made in any plain or fancy design. care must be taken that the neck of waist and neck of collar shall correspond in size and shaping. the outer edge of the collar may be picoted, faced, bound or trimmed with braiding or lace edging. this pattern is used as the foundation for waists with the large arm-eyes, for raglan lines, and in many instances for fancy blouses of different styles. it is finished around waist same as drop-shoulder waist. the finishing of all waists is the same. complete sewing instructions—the russell way plain two-piece sleeve—measure up from hand the number of inches necessary to locate the elbow point, on the outside seam of under-arm section; see illustration. place a mark two inches above and one two inches below the elbow point, pin upper and lower sleeve sections together for in- side seam, beginning at the top; pin outside seam edges together, beginning at the top and pinning down to first mark above elbow point, then commence at the hand or lower part of the sleeve, and pin upward to first mark; that will give you a distance of four inches, which provides for the entire curve of the elbow. on woolen materials this should be taken out by shrinking (shrinking is done by dampening fullness or gathers, and placing a heavy cloth over same and using a hot iron parallel to gathers) the same method be- complete sewing instructions—the russell way ing used in shaping top of sleeve for arm-eye; in silks or wash materials, where two-piece sleeves are desired, the fullness is taken care of by very fine gathers for this same distance. this space is properly regulated by the maude russell system, but this same rule applies to commercial patterns. putting in sleeves — one of the most important things found in dressmaking and tailoring is making of sleeves and properly adjusting same. since having previously learned all the details in the making of sleeves, it is now necessary to know how to put them in properly. the following rule applies to all sizes and styles: place the front seam of sleeve to the proper place of arm-eye in front of waist; this is found in all sizes by commencing at the under-arm seam and extending forward to the first turn upward. now place your front seam of sleeve, then pin upward within four inches of shoulder seam; now pin backward all the way around within two inches of the shoulder seam at the back of the waist; hold all gathers or fullness between these two markings—always keeping in mind that the fullness in front of shoulder seam should be twice as much as in back. on extremely large arm-eyes the gathers or fullness may be placed a greater distance than specified to give comfort at arm-eyes. complete sewing instructions—the russell way making of girdles—a skirt cut by the russell system will always fit perfectly at the waist and hips, but to retain its shape depends en- tirely upon the way in which you finish and mount same. no. no. a properly made girdle is a great aid in both the fit and comfort of your skirt, and one made in the following manner will never fail to give entire satisfaction. for wool or silk, take linen crash or canvas; for any colored material, would suggest the linen color; in delicate colors or white would suggest white; for wash materials take indian-head muslin or plain linen, (would advise either white or linen color in this case, as it will not fade in washing). use one-third or one-half yard, according to width, for large waists; you will have to piece it once, but by stitching the selvages together, as it will naturally come in cutting true bias, it does not affect the wear or appearance. now fold it on the true bias, as per illustra- tion for cutting true bias, and cut about two inches larger than your natural waist around, and about four inches in width—for extremely high waist lines you may cut wider; now crease this through the center and stitch a piece of straight tape, or if you should not have handy the straight tape you may use a straight piece of complete sewing instructions—the russell way muslin one inch wide, turned under on both edges; this se- cures your waist line from stretching; take featherbone and cut it in the same lengths your girdle is in width, stitch it five inches apart, full length of girdle; the better way is to start at center of girdle, ex- tending within five or six inches of the end (see illus- tration no. ), then place the girdle around your waist, and pin tight; that shapes it and fits it; mark where your pins are placed and cut off any surplus goods, now stitch featherbone to each edge of this after you have turned the edges back covering raw seams with featherbone at openings. (see illustration no. .) you will find on all feather- bone that there is a soft edge allowed for the stitching down with the machine; take bias tape or thin material cut on a true bias and bind both edges, exercising great care not to draw the edges, as that will make it tight; sew hooks and round eyes and allow them to extend out the distance of the eye, which makes it very easy to hook. (see illustration no. .) no. no. complete sewing instructions—the russell way mounting skirts—to mount the skirt, should you not want a belt, turn the top of skirt under and put it down by hand; where heading is de- sired make it any width that is becoming, according to prevailing style, and stitch to top of girdle, then put skirt down by hand, covering seam where heading has been stitched. complete sewing instructions—the russell way where belt is to be used in any width, first stitch skirt to girdle with raw seam, have the belt completely finished and pressed, baste to the girdle, covering the seam on right side, then put it down by hand, using the feather-stitch on wrong side and blind stitch on the right side; see illustrations below. for fancy gowns you may us silk or ribbon, by taking small darts at waist line and stitching featherbone over them. this gives a very pretty inside finish but should not be as tight as the bias-fitted girdles. use this girdle for all one-piece dresses, and your dress will wear much better and have the appearance of first-class workman- ship. (see illustration on page .) complete sewing instructions—the russell way when a dress has been cut by the russell system and mounted on the russell girdle, it will always hold the shape and lines when either sitting or standing. another great advantage is, the skirt will not wrinkle when sitting or form wrinkles like a skirt cut to standard measure or by commercial patterns. see illustration above. complete sewing instructions—the russell way one-piece dresses. by using the russell girdle in any one-piece dress, from a plain house dress to the most exquisite gown, you will find three great advantages: st. it gives more comfort to the wearer, as well as prevents slipping and pulling out of shape, especially at the arm-eyes and under the arms, where one-piece dresses have a tendency to always pull out of shape. nd. the girdle protects all the strain on the dress regardless of the weight of material, thereby giving twice the service usually obtained in dresses not fitted with girdles or ready-to-wear. rd. it gives a beautiful waist line finish—the girdle takes care of all raw seams on the wrong side of the dress, and by using any of the following outside finishing: belts, plain, either wide or narrow, crushed or pleated, beaded or draped girdle effects, you will have a pretty and substantial finish on the right side. this will aid espe- cially the stout figures in obtaining a neat and stylish waist line. making skirts—the most important thing in skirt making is to have good lines and in order to get these, the goods must, be cut on the right grain, or "on the right weave" as some would say. you can always feel that you are right and that you will get good lines if you use the russell cutting device, as it cuts to perfect lines and elimi- nates the worry of hanging the skirt, and watching the weaves. it puts every style to your individual measurement, marking the exact length for hem as well as allowing all seams; but in using commercial patterns great care must be exercised as they are cut to standard measurements and it depends entirely upon your knowledge of placing them on the ma- terial as to what the results will be. in sewing up skirts be very careful to get the correct gores together. this can be done by num- bering them as you cut, being sure to place corre- sponding numbers before basting or stitching. by following instructions on pages and you will eliminate all difficulty in getting seams together properly. baste the edges, taking care neither to stretch or full either edge. i complete sewing instructions—the russell way cutting skirts—when cutting skirts by the russell system, or any commercial pattern, on skirts from three-piece to seven gores, you will find giving a gradual slope of four inches on the side and back gores you will have a perfect line as well as the right grain of material and both seams will be almost on the same weave. this is determined by marking the exact length you wish skirt to be and placing that point on the straight or selvage of the material, then mark four inches back at top of pattern and cut on the straight line as per illustra- tion above. complete sewing instructions—the russell way this should also be followed on petticoats, or princess slips, to prevent sagging when laundered. front gore should always be cut on fold of the material. on seven gores and upward to the extent of fifteen gores the slope of two and one-half inches is sufficient; same is determined by following the same rule given for three to seven-gore skirts. complete sewing instructions—the russell way hemming of skirts—nothing adds more to the attractiveness of a skirt or dress than an even, well-finished hem. this can be accom- plished very easily if the russell cutting device is used, as it properly marks in and allows the standard three-inch hem, thereby eliminating all the worry of trying to get the hem even. but if you wish to use a standard or commercial pattern i would suggest that you do as follows: after the skirt has been properly finished and pressed, put it on and adjust to girdle as you will wear it, take a straight ruler and mark as many inches from floor, according to the prevailing style and the length that will look best on a figure of your height. for marking, either crayon or pins may be used. after this has been done, baste with a long basting stitch along lines of marking, press the hem in and mark three and one-fourth inches and trim even. as the skirt is wider at the bottom than at the place where turn is made, you will have some surplus material; the seam of hem should correspond exactly with seam of skirt and all full- ness must be placed between. this extra fullness in all silks, wash- goods, and satins can be taken care of by small pleats, or fine gathers. hemmed by hand complete sewing instructions—the russell way shrinking fullness of hems—in woolen materials it should be shrunk out by running fine gathers and placing damp cloth and pressing par- allel with gathers. stitched by machine in materials where it is necessary to put the hem in by hand would suggest the use of the overhand or the catch stitch, being very careful not to allow the thread to show on the right side of material—the catch stitch being the better one for heavy materials and velvet; where machine stitching is used for hems, would sug- gest stitching on the wrong side and very close to the edge of turn- under. complete sewing instructions—the russell way making of plackets is highly important, and by adhering strictly to the fol- lowing rule, you will al- ways have a smooth well- finished placket. the placket should be twelve inches in depth (for me- dium hip size, which ranges from forty to forty-six and over. where hip meas- ure is under forty, use eleven inches for placket). after the skirt has been fitted, take off and stitch the seams, except seam where placket is to be; this you stitch within twelve inches (or eleven, which- ever you may use), then tie machine thread; now baste, starting even with machine stitching to the waist line, press all seams flat— pressing the basted seam as well as the stitched ones; this establishes an exact line for the placket, pull out the basting thread to open the placket—care- ful attention should be paid to the pulling of bastings as given elsewhere in this book. basted for pressing to mark exact line for placket. complete sewing instructions—the russell way cut a straight piece of the material two and one-half inches wide, and a fraction longer than placket is to be; this is to be the binding for the left or under edge of the placket; baste to the placket edge, plac- ing the right side of the strip to the right side of the skirt, and stitch. be sure that your basting and stitching comes exactly on the crease made by former pressing, press seam open, turn the edge of the strip under one-fourth an inch, turn the new edge over to meet the stitching line, us- ing overhand-stitch for fin- ishing. for the right or upper edge cut a strip one and one-half inches wide and the length of placket, baste and stitch it to upper side of placket edge with right sides together; care should be taken here to follow crease made by pressing; remove basting threads and press open, turn edge or facing down one-fourth inch, turn facing on the line of stitching and baste to position, fasten to place by careful blind-stitching and press; finish at the lower end by catch-stitch- ing the binding to the fac- ing, on the wrong side, overcasting ends to keep them from raveling. complete sewing instructions—the russell way be at least five inches in length and not to exceed six inches. baste pleating on the lining exactly where the pocket is to be and now take two pieces of materials—would suggest same as lining, hav- ing them about one-half inch wider than pleating is—baste one piece with corresponding edges of pleating, with about one-half inch seam; the other piece should be basted just opposite, with edges meeting; stitch with sewing machine, on both edges, just the width of pleating, then slash between. complete sewing instructions—the russell way have your pleating extend downward for first basting on the coat, and then when slash and turn is made, it turns the pleating upward as per illustration. now turn both pieces for pocket lining through this slash, and stitch any shape desired un- derneath; the round finish is better. press nicely and finish each corner with an arrow- head, or straight bar, made with buttonhole twist. complete sewing instructions—the russell way coat pocket with flap — for making flaps, cut a piece of material six inches long by three and one- half inches wide, then sew a seam one- fourth inch wide, turn, baste close and press, then stitch down one-fourth inch from the edge—take another piece six and one-half inches long by two and one- fourth inches wide, baste this with your complete sewing instructions—the russell way flap on the right side of coat and stitch one- fourth inch and the length of flap, tie your thread on the wrong side and cut your material be- tween stitching, turn your lower facing in and baste firmly with one-eighth inch ex- tending; turn your flaps down and baste at upper edge, then press with a damp cloth on the wrong side of coat, sew your pocket lining in place and finish pocket on wrong side. the top or bust pocket is made in the same manner, only flap is five and one- half inches long and two inches wide and reversed, the flap is sewed on the lower side of pocket and turned up—the ends being blind stitched in place. the wrong side for bust pockets with flap or without are stitched in the same manner as illus- tration shown for pockets with flaps. complete sewing instructions—the russell way gether, press firmly and proceed to make pocket on the other side. bound buttonholes are made in a similar way— the ends being fastened with an arrow-head or a straight bar. the secret of making pockets and buttonholes lies in the pressing. complete sewing instructions—the russell way coatmaking place the pattern for front section with the center front on the lengthwise edge of the material. as in all other cutting, the cloth should be doubled and both front sections cut at once, being very care- ful to place the straight edges of the goods together, seeing that the grain of the material is placed exactly the same the nap (when using material with nap) extending downwards. the front side body is placed on the goods with the straight line of the material running parallel with the center of the section. pin pattern to the material to prevent slipping and cut. place the center back section with center back on the lengthwise fold of the material, and cut; the back side body should be placed the same as the front side body, seeing that the straight line of the material runs parallel with the center of section. should you be using the maud russell cutting device keep in mind that you only have three-eighths of an inch seam allowance, which is standard; should you want more you will have to make your own allowance. it is well to always know the size seam the pattern allows before starting to make the coat. the above pertains only to the outer part of the coat or to the coat without lining; but on strictly tailored coat, where a lining is required, the following suggestions should be adhered to very closely. cut the fronts and front side body from tailor's canvas. the can- vas should first be shrunken. side front of canvas should be cut to extend only about two or three inches down, on the under-arm seam, and should be sloped gradually toward the front seam, extending two inches below the waist line—per illustration next page. complete sewing instructions—the russell way seam should be used, as per illustra- tion on tailored seams, always hav- ing the seam extend toward them- eyes, both from back and front. if the coat is to be soft finish, the same should be pressed flat. in the making of all coats and jackets, the seams should be slashed. if the coat is to have pockets, lay the coat fronts to- g e t h e r, matching them very care- fully, and mark the desired places for pockets with chalk; then tailor tack as per illustration on making tailor tacks or loop-stitching. any style pocket may be used, ac- cording to prevail- ing style, full de- tails being given for pocket making i n this book. after pockets are finished, press and baste complete sewing instructions—the russell way your coat to canvas, being very careful to not have any wrinkles either in canvas or material. if bust forms are used they should be pressed into shape and inserted at this time, before pro- ceeding any farther with the coat. complete sewing instructions—the russell way basting and pressing two things of great importance in tailoring are basting and pressing. now the front of coat and lapel should be made. com- mence by trimming one-half inch from edge of coat front, baste your stay-tape (or straight edge) on and fell it to canvas. mark your lapel where turn is desired and pad, using padding-stitch —the padding-stitch is made by keeping the thread on canvas and just catching enough to hold, without exposing the thread on the outside of the material. stitch back of coat and canvas the same as the front and baste shoulder seams—the front seam should be stretched on to the back of coat one-half inch (as every one is inclined to be slightly sunken on front shoulder seam and round on the back of shoulder seam.) stitch on the machine, remove bastings and press. by stitching on both sides of seam the width of presser foot makes a pretty and substantial seam. now stitch under-arm seam, slash and press. the collar should be made next, and is done by cutting your canvas exactly the same and trimming all the way around three- eighths of an inch, as per illustration; now stitch on the sew- ing machine as per illustration for the break collar, and pad the re- mainder of collar as lapel. sew into position and press. a good suggestion is to determine the center of collar and center back of coat and place two corresponding notches together and baste outward; this insures both sides being even. next, determine where you wish the buttonholes to be and space them, cut canvas out as per illustration and fell a piece of lining over canvas to work buttonhole through, as per illustration on buttonhole work. complete sewing instructions—the russell way sew your front facing and collar facing in place, the facing to the right side of the coat side, being very careful to baste even; stitch on sewing machine and remove bastings; now trim half of remaining seam of coat front away, turn, baste around edge of collar and coat firmly with two rows of basting, then press as per illustration on pressing of woolen materials. turn coat even around bottom with hem about one inch and fell to the coat and press. baste your lining in the coat after making a neat pocket as per illustration on inside coat pockets—page . seams of lining should be slashed the same as coat and basted very carefully, leaving it a fraction looser than outside of material; this allows the lining to wear longer and gives a better appear- ance to the garment; fell all seams, using a fine, short needle and a fine silk thread, taking every precaution to not let stitches catch the coat material—short, even stitches should always be taken in the felling of coat linings. #####o star: £university: £heraries: - --- d -- - - - - - -- - - simplified selling chairman: sedgwick r. ryno, store manager the fair chicago, illinois chairman ryno: the topic of this afternoon's session is "easier buying for more sales." many of us, both in management and in merchandising, are try- ing to get additional volume to offset the greatly increased costs and ex- penses we are up against right now. i don't think that anyone is enjoying too great a gross margin, so that we in the management end of retailing cer- tainly have a job to do to make our store performance and our sales a little better than the federal reserve figures which we all use as a yard- stick. our first speaker today will discuss an approach which is of interest to all of us as offering one solution to the problem of more sales at less expense, and that is exposed selling. mr. howard cowee, vice president of w. l. stensgaard and associates, inc., chicago, will talk to us on the subject of "how the manufacturer can help simplify your selling." mr. cowee. how the manufacturer can help simplify your selling howard m. cowee, vice president w. l. stensgaard & associates, inc. chicago, illinois "how the manufacturer can help simplify your selling" is a topic that could be approached on a very broad basis and could take us into the exploration of any number of fields. i would like, however, to approach it and concentrate on it from just one or two points. primarily, i think the retailer and the manufacturer have a joint problem and a joint opportunity "at the last three feet--where the sale is made or lost" and where the customer, the money, and the merchandise are brought together for the first time in the whole cycle of distribution. this is the first physical meeting of those very important players at the point of sale. the nature of the joint retailer-manufacturer problem is best shown by the figures just released in harvard university's annual study on operating re- - - sults of department and specialty stores. a very few lines summarize that story: - profits of department stores in l. declined % and reached the lowest level since the year . the cost of doing business was the highest since l. payrolls as a percentage to sales were the highest since . the gross margin rate was only one-tenth of one per cent above the lowest spread since . the merchandise turnover rate fell below four turns per year for the first time since , an occurrence that has been marked only twice in the history of the harvard studies. now i don't need to sound like a controller, but i think those few facts show us the operating problem that faces us today, which can become imore severe in the months aheade when we reach back to and to for comparisons with present operations, our problem becomes clear. low turnover, poor gross margins, high personnel costs, and higher costs of doing business, all of which result in dangerous declines in profits, clearly call for attention to simplified selling. "simplified selling" is an easy name for a difficult job. if simplified selling is done well, it increases merchandise turnover, maintains good gross margins, increases personnel productivity, cuts costs of doing business, and thereby contributes to profits. however, if simplified selling were easy, we should have it now employed in more departments of more of our stores today. because simplified selling frequently requires long, difficult, and demanding study to achieve, it is a job of research and analysis, design and development, testing and improvement that your manufacturers can help you to perform, where perhaps your own budgets will niht permit you to undertake the job. if you were to run an analysis on the job of simplified selling, the job des- cription or specification would have as its objective increased sales at re- duced selling cost, and would call broadly för at least the following five factors? l. simplified selling should identify and expose more goods to more people in less time. . simplified selling should improve item and departmental display for better service and ease of selection. - . simplified selling should maintain inventories for less out-of-stock on best sellers. - - in supermarkets and wherever else they have had the opportunity that they like to serve themselves or start to serve themselves. now contrast the casket selling of buttons with bailey, green & elger's simpli- fied "sales slant" method of showmanship (photograph no. , page ). it enables the customer to match fabric to color, style and size of button with great ease and accuracy without the help of the salesperson. a visual slant panel, the buttons wired through perforated masonite, for the first time com- pletely exposes the button inventory so the customer can touch and compare the piece of fabric for size, color and style. when the customer's selection has been made, the salesperson reads the price and stock number, and finds in one of the several compartments of the front-facing, illuminated stock drawers the exact button that the customer has sold herself. simplified selling, indeed! in six lineal feet as many as buttons are openly exposed to store traffic in all of their jewel-like color and brill- iance, while as many as lo, buttons are stocked in the drawers in back of the fixture. this method of simplified selling replaces in six lineal feet at least two of the obsolescent caskets still in use in many stores. more sales in less space, at lower cost, result from the cubic content of the square foot area being utilized to better advantage. now in some stores we are told that this kind of simplified selling develop- ment is against store policy. we wonder what kind of stores have policies against simplifying their selling and increasing their profits. less out-of-stock of best sellers we also find that bookkeeping controls sometimes are old-fashioned. new selling methods tend to rewrite old stock-keeping and re-order records. visual inventory control is important to busy buyers today who want to be sure that they are never out of stock on best sellers. ekco cutlery has found that selling not only simplifies itself for house- wares departments when visual merchandising methods are employed, but also that exposure of goods better enables customers to sell and to serve them- selves (photograph no. , page ). one of the important advantages gained is that the buyer can easily see that old-fashioned stockkeeping becomes new-fashioned sales-keeping. the tops of the fixtures are always kept full. the exposed goods sell faster, in greater quantity, and sometimes re-write the plan book for ratios and for re-order periods. related item selling the typical towel department displays stacks of towels on top of tables. martex towels is now in the process of helping retailers to simplify the show- ing and selling of towels with fixtures that provide for related selling. - - a new illuminated floor fixture (photograph no. , page ) relates items and leads to higher unit sales. wash cloths, hand-towels, and bath towels are color-coordinated and displayed together in very little space. decorative schemes help suggestion selling. good light lets color reach out to fashion-conscious, color-conscious shop- pers. a companion tufted bath mat and lid cover floor stand completes the relationship to help the sale. lower cost of selling one more example. after long study, spool cotton company came to the aid of notion departments with simplified selling for one of the most complex departments in retail stores. hundreds of retailers have found that stock turnover increases substan- tially after conversion to simplified selling the spool cotton way (photo- graph no. , page ). exposed merchandise arranged in orderly fashion by color and by style, gravity feed for customer self-selection and self-service, adequate inven- tory control, and adequate provision for forward stock--all permit the customer to take what she wants, hand it to a salesperson, and conclude the sale quickly. these examples could be multiplied many times, and you can see actual proof and examples of excellent adaptations shown here in the exhibits at this convention. these few examples, however, should enable us to see that simplified selling is available and working in many departments of many stores. more of this philosophy should be applied, but we don't know of any store that has as much as a thousand dollars in its budget today for the appli- cation of visual merchandising studies to simplified selling. -retailers, however, in cooperation with the manufacturers who serve them, can and should seek the benefits of simplified selling to stem the dim performances shown in the current operating comparisons revealed by the harvard university study. finally, i think we face today, retailers and manufacturers alike, the problems that can be overcome by us and opportunities that we can capit- alize upon if we will cooperate with one another and learn to put simpli- fied selling to work at "the last three feet where the sale is made or lost," where it really counts. * * * * * chairman ryn thank you, mr. cowee, for a very constructive talk. i am sure you have given us all something to think about. the next person we are to hear from is a man who has a message from three stores with a lot of experience with exposed selling. it is a pleasure to introduce to you mr. morris moss, store manager of the hecht company in washington. mr. moss! motion section-"seas a ses.…. . spool cotton company fixture -l - exposed selling morris moss, store manager the hecht company washington, d. c. first, let's get the record clear. i am not a seller of fixtures. i come here with open, white hands; i have no particular ox to gore, but i think basically i have a message for retailing. i am not one of those people who think retailing is finished, but i am of the opinion that a lot of it is suffering from dry-rot and that a lot of our thinking is neither broad nor deep. i think it is about time that retailing stopped talking and did a little thinking. by talking to you as a retailer, i hope to leave in your minds facts that must make an impression. in any pictures i show you, i am not trying to sell you the fixtures that the hecht company is using. i am not trying to sell you anything except a philosophy, and that i can only sell you with facts. if you will open your minds to the philosophy i want to leave with you today, then i think you will take home a constructive message to the managements of your stores. as indivi- dual store managers we cannot achieve what i am going to talk about-it takes top management philosophy and understanding to accomplish that. are stores giving service? we in department stores for years have liked to brag that we are service stores. it is our greatest cause for pride, and truly it is part of our ex- istence. but let's stop and do a little analyzing. what is "service"? as store manager of a business that will now approximate seventy million dollars, let me trace a little history for you which will help to clarify the hecht company philosophy. we opened our first branch store six years ago. prior to that, in , when the hecht company had previously operated with salespeople in the down- town store only, we reached a point where the best we could do was to maintain a total force of salespeople, supplemented by checkwriters and cashiers. and yet we did % more business. from our experience during that period came the development of what i am talking about-actually giving service in a department store. the hecht company, washington, carries a complement of about salespeople. on a saturday, when we do % to % of our business under tremendous pressure, we bring into our store up to approximately salespeople, checkwriters, and cashiers. now let's go a step further. by actual count we have in our store on a saturday , customers. again by actual count at the peak of the lunch- eon period, which is our busiest time, we have l, salespeople, check- writers and cashiers available, and we have lo, customers. that gives us a ratio of one salesperson to every ten customers. -l.- of course you will have a battle on your hands. you will have to fight the tradition that has been built up in retailing for years that depart- ment store goods must be concealed-not only making it tough for your regular salespeople, but also making it almost impossible for the contin- gents you bring in to find the goods. so long as you adhere to that tra- dition, you will give bad service. when you expose goods, you provide a chance for the customer, your contingent, and your regular salesperson to produce more. effect on shortages your management may ask you some of the questions which have been asked of me. what about the effect on shortages? it is a good question, and you will laugh at the answer i make. the only thing the hecht company has done is to make it easier for the people who want to steal to steal by the right size. in other words, our shortage is no greater. even in a store which has case selling, if people want to steal there are quantities of dresses, coats, suits, and other merchandise which is ex- posed. so why are we unduly concerned about the possibility that the customer will steal? if she wants to steal, she is going to steal, and all we have done is to make it easier to pick out the right size. other points questioned let's take a second point often raised. the general managers of many stores have asked me, "what has happened to your average sale?" that also sounds like a good question, but what significance has an average sale as against the achievement of selling more customers? what has one got to do with the other? * * * the only thing the hecht company is trying to do, since we can't get enough salespeople for that hourly peak, is to sell one-and-a-half trans- actions to every customer against the one transaction we sold before. the next point they make is: "but the buyers won't like it because it will cause markdowns. the only answer i can give you is this: by actual facts and studies, if you sell more goods to more customers, while you will take more dollar markdown by exposing goods, the percentage of mark- downs will be more or less the same. why do we let our thinking get twisted when we hear general managers say- ing, "i don't want to be sears roebuck." my answer to that is, "but you pride yourself on giving service--and what is wrong with sears roebuck anyway? do it your own way, with the fixtures you want. but let the customer find the goods if there isn't a salesperson available." i could give you our figures on selling costs and increased productivity, but i don't think that is the point. i think the basic philosophy to take back is that you are not talking self-service, but service. here is what the general manager of a big store has to say on the subject? - - "the factors of salesmanship and pleasure shopping refute the notion that department stores of the future will fully employ supermarket techniques." that is a widely-quoted opinion. this man pointed out that in contrast to department stores, supermarket operations are unconcerned with the skill of salesmanship. i agree with him, but neither you nor i can get enough money to secure the necessary amount of salespeople to handle our peak hours and really provide salesmanship. is it better, therefore, to bring thousands of customers into the store and have them walk out without buying, or to give them the opportunity to buy, get more dollars from what they buy, and put more salespeople back on? the latter makes sense, doesn't it? examples of hecht approach we have at the hecht company a large book of blown-up photographs which shows some of the factors of our exposed selling program. it is used to promote understanding by every supervisor and every new salesperson of the development of new approaches and new techniques in this type of sell- ing. several photographs, for example, illustrate the problem of taking care of as many customers as possible. one is a shot of our downstairs store jammed with customers on one of our "dollar days." we point out that mere- ly from the point of view of the mechanics involved in the handling of so many transactions, all that business could never be done with the normal way of selling goods. exposure of goods, together with the removal from salespeople of the mechanics of handling sales by means of check-writers, cashiers, and our "help-yourself" technique, is one answer. another photograph which we use is an actual shot of a glove department in our store, showing five salespeople and two customers. in other words, it emphasizes the handicap of "chinese walls," with one department over- staffed and another unable to handle its customers. a companion photo- graph shows one salesperson with seven customers, which means lost sales. by actual count, five customers dropped out and walked away. there is no way you can move fast enough to get bodies to take care of such business, and yet the selling of goods is our business. how can you solve this problem? through exposed selling. incidentally, there has been no decision by our management as yet to touch the first floor at most of our places, although at the virginia branch we have made inroads into the same problem. even though we don't approve of the self-service type of operation, we do have a "help-yourself" record department. the reason we put it in was that we had a big shortage of eight to ten percent. we wanted to beat that problem, so we decided to install turnstiles in that section. - - i don't recommend this type of set-up either for you or for ourselves. the department store has not yet reached the point where goods are pack- aged right, where they are made up and identified by national brands so that they are uniform, like a bottle of ketchup with a selling story on it. consequently, you need salespeople to provide merchandise informa- tion. if you get more dollars of sales, you can have more salespeople to sell more goods and provide the merchandise information. when somebody tells you that self-service is the only answer for depart- ment stores today, don't believe it. even though we have it in our record department, as i have said, we don't like it. however, it has broken the shortage problem, so it answers its purpose. one type of merchandise on which we have used exposed selling success- fully is place mats. another spot is in children's hosiery. many stores still sell children's hosiery behind cases. why? the basic factor in purchasing is size, so we display from left to right every size, regard- less of price, and two girls have sold as much as $ worth of children's hosiery in a day. with an average sale of or %, we couldn't afford to have enough salespeople to handle that volume of sales with case sell- ing. (photograph , page , shows a typical hosiery fixture.) i am not advising you to take your fine ready-to-wear and put it out on racks. i am telling you to analyze department after department and see what you have to offer. as a further example, we were loaded with cases in children's wear. the only thing that has happened following our change-over is that sales per square foot--or cubic foot, if you want to call it that-are greater, and sales productivity has increased fifty per- cent. branch stores used for testing fixtures some of the further developments we have worked out in the virginia branch have not yet been adopted in our main store, but will eventually be uti- lized in both the washington and silver spring stores. we have a fixture specially designed to sell one-price hosiery (photograph no. , page ). the idea came to us from the girl shown behind the fix- ture, so that's why we put her in the picture. she thought of using this approach for stationery by asking, "why do you sell stationery behind cases?" following her suggestion, we designed this fixture, and the amount of business is fifty percent more since we put the merchandise out and exposed it. (photograph no. , page , shows stationery fixture.) what you can't see in these photographs are the signs reading: "please help yourself and take your goods to the help-yourself desk." all through the store, on every floor and in every part of the hecht company, signs read "help yourself." we say, in effect, "it is okay with us if there isn't a salesperson to go ahead and help yourself." we have of course provided the mechanics to handle such sales, but i won't talk about that today. . exposed selling of cosmetics . exposed selling of cosmetics - - . self-selection of waxes and cleaners - l- have a concept that means more dollars in the till? if they are giving better service to their customers, who are we to sit back and decide that they are "typical hecht's"?" remember that i have not advised you to copy what we have, but only to adopt our philosophy. we are thinking of our customers, and when we get a peak of , customers in our store, we realize that they didn't come down to look at us, but to buy. we propose to move forward along our present lines until somebody proves that we are wrong--and it's going to take a lot of proof to convince us that it's wrong to get as many dol- lars as possible in the till so that we can use the extra dollars to go out and hire more salespeople! * * * * * * discussion chairman ryno: thanks, morris, for a grand job. if anyone has questions to ask, i am sure that mr. moss will be glad to try to answer them. mr. w. w. johnson (h. c. prange company, sheboygan, wis.): are all price lines of hosiery exposed, or do you have some where the customer can't handle them? mr. moss: at the washington store everything is still case selling. at the silver spring store we are moving to the exposed selling technique now in effect at the virginia store. in other words, we test out these developments because we want to find out if we are right. we start out by taking one fast-selling brand of our own, and that is what we are doing at the present time. in most of the other departments--to answer a question which is usually raised--we expose goods and mix national brands and everything else under the three categories i mentioned-size, color, or purpose. if we are sell- ing by size, the size ranges run from left to right. that is the way we try to sell goods, because we have found out that the customer in most cases does not come in to buy by price, but by size. we have made mistakes, of course, in trying to sell higher-priced goods when it turned out that the customers wanted the lower-priced items. house furnishings experiment i have one additional experience to tell you which i think will be of in- terest. when we were studying our house furnishings department to decide whether to go to self-service or to adhere to our basic philosophy, we first concluded that the principal thing we had to do was to get more and better salespeople into that department, and more experienced demonstra- tors. - - however, as we studied one classification which we called the "gadgets"-- items selling for a nickel to a dollar-we found out that the percentage of the total department sales done in this category was extremely low. so we said to the buyer, "we are going to take two salespeople, take them off commission and pay them a straight salary. we'll put "hostess" rib- bons on them, and you let them help you buy the goods. you set yourself up a help-yourself desk with them, and see if we can stay in business with all these thousands of items." we doubled the business the first year, moved up to % of the total de- partment transactions, and really gave service we had never given before to , customers. with , items in your house furnishings de- partment, go back and see how you take care of gadgets. you will find that either by assortment, display or something else you are out of stock because the buyer is too busy to bother with them. policy on price lines display mr. w. e. rice (pfeifer bros., little rock, ark.) : in a basement opera- tion, how far do you go in the separation of price lines, and how do you break down something like lingerie, for instance? mr. moss: we leave a lot up to the buyer. originally, in trying to arrive at break-downs, we had a great deal of difficulty in getting the merchandise division to understand what we were talking about, and the management of the hecht company actually gave me what i would call gen- eral rights and powers, so that anything i wanted was law. however, i didn't use that authority arbitrarily. even today, if a buyer doesn't want a mixed price display, i don't force it. we have some buyers who prefer to stay with individual price lines, but at christmas time, when they sense the mass of the traffic, they mix price lines. we give them that much fluidity and flexibility to work with us. i would say that most buyers in the store today are using the left-to- right principle for size, mixing all price lines. we will stay out of the ready-to-wear field because there we go up to a certain price and then break. i am talking of exposing goods not normally exposed. i would say in men's shirts, for example, prices might range from $ . to $ . and $ . . in other lines it might be different. member: how does mixing price lines affect trading-up possibilities? it has been a basic principle in the development of salesmanship that suggestive selling is necessary for a trading-up job. mr. mcss perhaps i can answer you this way. we had one buyer who was very cooperative, but wanted to sell shower curtains by the various price lines. against his wishes, we finally decided that we would sell shower curtains by color. but then we told him that if he could produce an item which would sell in large quantities, we realized that it is our business to sell in mass quantities and therefore we would mass display that one item and give him extra salespeople to help him. in that way we got what we wanted, and we gave him what he wanted. - - frankly, that is the way we operate. if we notice in a price line-- underwear or some other merchandise--an item which is particularly hot and is moving fast, we pull it out and give it the type of mass dis- play which is needed to promote impulse buying from the traffic in the departments. in other words, we merchandise. member: have you converted your boys' furnishings department complete- ly to exposed selling in the main store? mr. moss: in the whole boys' department it used to be % cases, and i would say it is now % cases. in the virginia store, our most re- cent development, i would say that we have % exposed selling outside of the first floor. removal of sales handling mechanics i haven't taken time to dwell on what i call "mechanics removal"--the removal from salespeople of at least some of the mechanics of writing up a sale. it is a problem, but once you've taken the major step of exposing your merchandise, you can do anything you want with the mechanics. the use of the sales desk, the use of the help-yourself desk--each is a trick of its own. we have learned tricks to make life easier for the regular salesperson who is put on a help-yourself desk and becomes a check-writer, a cashier. where we used to write out big saleschecks, listing two ties, four shirts and so on, we now use a check which simply says "men's furnishings." we have eliminated some of the former complexity which prevented us from giving our customers service. i realize that we are still not % perfect, but we are going to be right because the more we work at it and talk about it and the more ideas come back from our people, the better it is getting to be. everybody is imbued with the importance today of getting as many dol- lars as possible out of the mass of customers we have in our store. we want the customer to pre-select, and if she wants to by-pass our salespeople, we provide facilities so that she can do so. i might add that most of our salespeople soon become adept at writing up person- ally the maximum number of sales possible. they approach customers who have decided what they want, and persuade them to wait a few min- utes until the salesperson is free to write up the check. that is all right with us, too, so long as the customer is willing. peak hour coverage member: have you done anything with respect to reduction of lunch hour? the average store gives employees a one-hour lunch period during peak hours. have you reduced the lunch hour to minutes to get that much more coverage? mr. moss; we have -minute lunch periods in our store, but i think it is an hour in our branch stores. i'm not sure of that, though, as their people may come in at ten or thereabouts and work late. - - member: is that a helpful method? mr. moss: anything that gets you more salespeople when you need them is helpful. the same thing holds true with regard to supervision. when we have the customer peak, we don't have enough supervisors, either, since they must have luncheon periods, also. so we take con- tingents, teach them four tables, and put a blue ribbon on them which says "hostess." it is their job then to see that customers are moved along to the help-yourself desk. pre-printed saleschecks member: you mentioned that instead of itemizing "two shirts, four ties," etc., you now merely write "men's furnishings." just how does that work? mr. moss: when we set up a sales desk, we did it to relieve salespeople of the mechanics of writing up the sale. we figure one check-writer comple- ments four salespeople. the customer brings over a card from the salesper- son on which is listed "four shirts, two ties," etc. the saleschecks are pre-stamped "men's furnishings," so the check-writer puts down the proper total amount on the salescheck, gets the customer to sign it, and that is all that is necessary. even before we used the pre-printed check our statements sent out to custom- ers were not given in detail, but merely read "men's furnishings" or "house furnishings," so not itemizing the salescheck makes no difference, as far as i can see. whether the customer claims that she didn't get an itemized list of merchandise, or that she didn't sign a salescheck reading "men's furnish- ings--$ . , " we give her back her money in either case. selling gloves member: how do you keep the customer from ruining hosiery and gloves? do you let people try on gloves themselves and handle the hosiery? mr. moss: in our store the better gloves are sold behind cases, but the cotton gloves, starting at about a dollar and running up to $ . , are ex- posed. some stores at least put the gloves out on tables, but they don't arrange them by size from left to right. i think you all know what happens when gloves are sold in that fashion. you end up with a mixed mass of all sizes, so that neither customers nor salespeople can find what they want. when that has happened in our store, actual timing proved that it takes six to seven minutes to find a sized pair of gloves. that kind of situation can be avoided simply by arranging the gloves properly and doing a sizing job for the customer. please note that i didn't tell you to take the fine leather gloves out of cases. each store must make its own decision, by department. then if you have an open mind you will find hundreds of items which can be exposed to the customer and help you to do business when you haven't got salespeople. - - my presentation today, "reducing selling costs through planning," refers basically to the process of departmental analysis. i am not going to hes- itate to tell you our selling costs--chiefly because while, right now, we haven't anything to be particularly proud of, we are studying and analyzing our costs and trying to arrive at the lowest possible selling cost and other operating cost which will still permit us to render reasonable service and run well-managed stores. as we see it, there are two major approaches to the problem. one is space allocation and planning the sales department, and the other is what we call "area" selling. over-spaced departments mean high costs one of the great contributors to high selling costs is over-spaced depart- ments planned for dramatic effects. along with this condition is another factor--poorly planned elements of the department which waste the steps of salespeople--and every step costs you money. in my discussion of this subject, i am approaching it from the standpoint f a store which has some form of incentive plan for salespeople--bonus or straight commission, and what i have to say therefore may not be quite so applicable to those stores where salespeople are on straight salary. what has the area of the department got to do with selling costs? this can best be illustrated by reviewing some actual examples, and for that purpose i will use the broadway-hale stores with which i am most familiar. i am also going to quote some square footage figures to provide an opportunity for comparison with the store i may be using as an example. some facts about the broadway stores the broadway downtown store, located at fourth and broadway in los angeles, has , square feet of selling space, with $ per square foot produc- tion and a selling payroll percent of . . the n. r. d.g.a. comparative fig- ures are $ , and an average selling cost of . % against our . %. it doesn't require much astuteness to realize that we are over-spaced. we have % more space than we need in our downtown store when we measure it against our volume. it is our great problem from the standpoint of control- ling expense. our department managers never feel that they have too much space, but rather that they never have enough help, even though we are con- stantly confronted by a high selling cost percentage in relation to sales. the broadway-pasadena has , square feet of selling space, $ per square foot production, and a selling payroll percentage of . . that com- pares with a $ per square foot volume and a . % selling cost in the n. r. d.g.a. figures for that volume group. as you undoubtedly know, the n. r. d.g.a. figures include stores with furni- ture departments and basement operations, which pasadena does not have, which tends to lower selling payroll percentages. we are sure that pasadena's high production per square foot is a substantial contributor to its low sell- ing costs. - - the point i want to make here is that we must not be satisfied with meeting the n. r. d.g.a. figures. it seems to me that most of our notions departments are poorly planned. if we really get in and do a job, using morris moss's advice about getting the merchandise out so that the cus- tomer can pre-select before the salesperson gets to her, then instead of having an average of . %, very likely it could be %. we must keep in mind constantly the fact that the performance of many de- partments in a number of stores, because of improper planning and over- spacing, affect the n. r. d.g.a.'s average figures. in using them for com- parison purposes against our own performance, therefore, merely meeting the average figure is not a cause for self-satisfaction, since we may not be doing anything like as good a job as can be done. i am sure we are all aware that the variance in percent of selling costs in comparison to the n. r. d.g.a. figures also can be caused by higher sal- aries or a particular type of compensation plan. a lower average book is another reason, which undoubtedly again is caused by over-spaced areas, hoarded salespeople, and poorly planned departments. i repeat that if a good job were being accomplished, selling costs would be substantially lower than the n. r. d.g.a. present averages. ready-to-wear floor at broadway-cre w i should like to show you now some actual examples of what i have been talking about. exhibit a (page ) shows a portion of the broadway-cren- shaw's second floor. the chart has been marked to indicate the respect- ive areas devoted to forward stock, perimeter or reserve stock, fitting rooms, and the service areas--wrapping desks, cash registers, and so forth. the contributing factors here to ease of selling and the possibility of low selling costs are perimeter stockrooms, close proximity of fitting rooms, fitters and alteration service, and centralized service units. we have found that this plan results in fewer steps for our sales person- nel in order to complete the sales and it is working out quite satisfact- orily. men's furnishings-broadway main floor now let's take a look at the main floor shown in exhibit b (page ). the main floor is a bugaboo for any planner, and i was interested to hear morris moss tell us that even hecht's is a little bit worried about starting to cut into the traditional street floor pattern. exhibit b happens to be the men's furnishings department of our downtown store. it is laid out in the grid-iron pattern, and there are many things wrong with it. in the first place, street floor departments need more stock in close proximity to the salesperson than in the past we have been able to provide. many sales are lost on our street floors because we don't have sufficient stock close at hand for the salesperson. - - # . -"l- - : - |- || § - - || | - - || § - - the aisle at the top of the chart is our main aisle. literally thousands of people go down that main aisle every day, and in the process have to pass the ends of those oblongs. it is next to impossible to keep a sales- person stationed in those end areas because there isn't enough merchandise immediately adjacent. if a salesperson does approach a customer at the end of one of these fixtures, it is then necessary to walk the customer back towards the broad side, where there is stock to show. we have found that salespeople are just as human as you and i. i am sure that we, too, would rather wait for the sale and let the customer come to us instead of going over to get the customer and then bringing him around to where there is stock available. that is the reason that so many stores, particularly those which are over-spaceds have great difficulty getting salespeople into the ends of those oblongs. other disadvantages of this layout are full depth showcases, and loose stock space-all adding to high selling costs. "split-ledge"-plan at broadway=crenshaw our next chart, exhibit c (page ) represents a portion of the street floor of the broadway-crenshaw. this also has been laid out in a grid-iron pattern, but is an improvement over exhibit b because it is what we call a "split ledge" plan. we do increase the amount of stock that is available for the salesperson, but again we have that great evil of a short end on a main aisle without sufficient stock to keep a salesperson interested. the aisle shown at the top of the chart is the main one, and the aisle lower down is a secondary crossing. again, a great many people pass those ends but, as in the previous case, it is almost impossible for us to keep salespeople in those ends. on low volume days, which occur in suburban stores, we couldn't afford to keep people stationed in the ends, even if they would stay there. one thing in which we believe very firmly is partially exemplified in this layout. we believe that every effort, should be made to have departments laid out to permit cross aisle selling, so that salespeople will not have to go around a back or center stock fixture. the hosiery department on chart c illustrates this principle. we find that salespeople will cross an aisle back and forth to wait on cus- tomers where they wouldn't go through or around a high back ledge. if you will watch your salespeople you will find that this is true-and i think again, that it is just human nature. where it is possible, therefore, to have cross aisle selling, you will get better service with less sales help. remodeling-improves street floor exhibit d (page ) is the recently remodeled street floor of weinstock- lubin, and shows a men's furnishings and men's sportswear department, sta- tionery, and toiletries. we feel that this represents progress along the es i underwear s & accessor hosiery i | hosiery kerchier t] [ | * # hand shirts # ––– | | | _] [[ | | shirts | | _| d. shirts # | le=r-h | | | i | e | |f --|-= " £| hosiery | | e. = y hosiery hosier e. |- | tti–|| ||- |==. - - - area selling in practice let's look back again at exhibit a (page ), which you will recall is the second floor of broadway-crenshaw. it includes junior sportswear; junior dresses and coats; women's and misses' dresses; gown shop; and women's and misses' coat and suit department. this entire area is cov- ered by three area salespeople, which would be the equivalent of about bays in the average store. area selling has proven very successful in crenshaw, for several rea- sons. first, the business is growing into the space provided for in- creased volume. secondly, there are three low-volume days and three high-volume days each week, due to monday and friday night openings and a heavy saturday shopping. tuesdays and wednesdays are low-volume days, and thursday was added only recently to our night openings, so that it is now helping to level out our daily volume. we have extended area selling into a number of areas in crenshaw, and results to date have indicated that we are on the right track. we are giving improved customer service with fewer regular departmental sales- persons. area salespersons run an average book of about $ against a depart- mental average of $ . on a street floor, however, the area salesper- son averages $ against a floor average of $ . this is because the area salespeople are selling more small units or lower-priced units on the street floor than the regular salespeople. effect of store planning on area selling planning is a very important part of the theory of area selling. if you will refer back to exhibit c (page ), you will find that the gren- shaw street floor does not lend itself very well to area selling. we have the floor split up into six areas in there at the present time, but we are only getting selling across the aisles where the openings exist in the fixtures. because there are no aisle openings in the ends of the fixtures, we don't get any opportunity of area selling between the end of one fix- ture and the end of the opposite fixture across the aisle. i am point- ing this out so that you can see what happens unless at the point of planning you check very carefully salesperson usage and operation. ideal layout provides flexibility one more backward glance, and this time at exhibit e (page ). this plan provides a great deal of flexibility in providing opportunities of selling back and forth across the aisles. the location of the aisle openings has been carefully planned for this purpose. you will notice again that we firmly believe in having departments across an aisle from each other, as is evidenced by the layout of the - - handbag and the hosiery departments. if the department is deserving of main aisle space, we believe in the set-up shown here and not in using a complete square or oblong. the section along the main aisle provides promotional space, and the two sections facing each other across the aisle serve as regular selling space. with this arrangement it is possible to operate a department with two salespeople when the store opens in the morning and traffic is light. one girl would be located at the point marked "x" and the other at the point marked "y". salesgirl "x" could cover the main aisle section and part of the side section, if necessary, while salesgirl "y" could sell back and forth across the aisle. in closing, i cannot stress too emphatically the importance of care- fully studied planning of selling departments to reduce selling costs, and the value of area selling both in leveling our selling costs between high and low volume days and in controlling those costs during a period when a department is growing into an area planned for larger volume growth. * * * * * chairman rin thank you, mr. brewer, for a very stimulating talk. you and morris moss have both brought us an interesting message about doing a better job in our stores. mr. brewer stresses the importance of sound planning and using what he calls "area" selling to reduce selling costs, and mr. moss advocates exposing merchandise wherever practicable so that the customer can do some pre-selection when she can't find a salesperson to wait, on here i am sure you must have some questions to ask. who wants to start the ball rolling? member: i would like to add just one thing to what these gentlemen have said. in addition to having a well-planned store and having your mer- chandise exposed, there is still a lot to be done with the people them- selves. we have had newcomers in straight commission departments greeted by the old-timers in the department with the statement, "i don't know what you're coming down here for--you can't make any money here." i think it is important to avoid creating unfavorable impressions like that which make it difficult for us to hold new people, and that both the department manager and the section manager should be required to do a job in orienting the newcomer. ratio–of area to regular salespeople mr. read jenkins (the j. l. hudson company, detroit, mich.) : i would like to a sk jim brewer if they have worked out any ratio of area sales- people to regular departmental salespeople. mr. brewer it is based on the average book principle. we have taken and worked out an average book based on periodic six-week studies of the production of departments over one or two heavy selling periods. the ohio state univers. || || || simplified selling | | e pos item c. * boo the | | d aisle sect shlf. s. sitory d -cu . . svi vilivy library of the ohio · state, university ovy vivvv this plate the gift of the class op t.e french dal . an macdonald sa vacational fuchu inaering home economics department ohio state university a handbook of elementary sewing fan tttttttttt fig. . doilies, page . fig. . sewing case, page . fig. . bookmarker, page . fig. . towel with swedish weaving, page . frontispiece. fg. i. doilies, pa' fig. . sewing cast. page . fig. . bookmarkir, page . f'. . towel with swedish weaving, page . frontspife. ΤΙ τιο f copyright, , by little, brown, and company, all rights reserved c preface this course has been arranged for the elementary schools of los angeles, california. it has been worked out to meet the conditions that exist in that city and may be taught satisfactorily by the grade teachers as far as the seventh grade. a few of the suggestions have already been printed in the school arts magazine and are reprinted through the courtesy of the publishers. my assistants in the department have given me many valuable sugges- tions, and i am also indebted to the art department for assistance in simple designs. m table of contents page preface v part i general directions stitches used in the fourth grade. stitches used in the fifth grade utensils and materials part ii outline of work. . fourth grade . fifth grade sixth grade seventh and eighth grades . supplementary work list of illustrations doilies, sewing case, bookmarker, towel with swedish weaving. full page : frontispiece page . . hemming stitch as it looks on the right side . hemming stitch as it looks on the wrong side, and how to join the thread top sewing-needle in position buttonhole. felled seam pinwheel, needle case, sewing bag, laundry bag, holder, towel. full page doll's sunbonnet showing squares cut out and one side overcast stocking darning draft of sewing apron cooking apron fifth and sixth grade bags. full page diagram of cross stitch bag draft for cap dusting cap supplementary work. designs in cross stitch and em- broidery for underwear. full page : inside of magazine cover laundry bag rubber bag showing feather-stitching with needle in position pattern for apron, one-eighth size fancy apron, one-eighth size . pattern for front and side gore of skirt . . . . . . . a handbook of elementary sewing part i general directions the pupil should provide herself with the following articles : a bag or box in which to keep everything. one paper of milward's needles nos. to . one paper of crewel needles no. . a pair of small scissors. a tape measure. a spool of white thread, clark's or coats's, no. . a steel or silver thimble. the thread should be marked with the name of the owner, and the scissors should have a tag with the owner's name written upon it. see that the hands are perfectly clean. let the light come from behind and over the left shoulder if possible. always work with a thimble that fits the finger. when obliged to take out stitches, use the eye-end of the needle and pick out one stitch at a time. a handbook of elementary sewing if left-handed, work with the left hand, unless the parents are unwilling. be sure that nothing is left unfinished at the end of the term. stitches used in the fourth grade basting. there are two kinds of basting that are commonly used: the even and the uneven. for both the work should be held in the same way. place the work over the forefinger of the left hand and work from right to left. uneven basting. tie a knot in the thread. take a small stitch one eighth of an inch long, carry the needle on half an inch, take another eighth-inch stitch. continue in the same manner. fasten with two small stitches taken over each other. this is used for simple decoration and for a tempo- rary fastening for seams or hems where no strain comes. even basting. thread as before; make the stitches all one fourth of an inch in length; fasten as before. this is used for seams where any strain may come, and also by very young children for simple decoration. overcasting. hold work over the left forefinger, working from right to left. fasten thread with two small stitches on the wrong side of the cloth. place the needle one eighth of an inch below the edge or fold; point the needle to the left shoulder; take the next stitch one fourth of an inch to the left; continue to the end of the seam; fasten with two small stitches. a handbook of elementary sewing running stitch. fasten the thread with two small stitches. carry the needle forward one sixteenth of an inch and take one sixteenth of an inch stitch through the cloth. continue these even stitches. in gathering, use the running stitch but tie a small, firm knot in the thread before beginning. in running, hold the work in both hands and take several stitches before drawing the needle through the cloth. blanket stitch. the blanket stitch is used for finishing raw edges, for working the loop and the bar used in buttonholes, and for simple embroidery. it is worked from left to right; the buttonhole stitch from right to left. the depth of the stitch and the space between the stitches may be varied and will depend upon its use. great care must be taken in joining and in fastening the thread, or the edge will be uneven. to fasten the thread used in blanket stitching, turn to the wrong side, take a couple of running stitches under the last blanket stitch, draw the needle through, and cut off the thread. to join the thread, run the needle in under the last stitch, as in the beginning of the work, and draw it out over the thread that lies along the edge. for canvas or heavy cloth. insert the needle on the wrong side at a point the desired depth of the blanket stitch and take two or three running stitches to the edge of the cloth; this will bring the thread in position for the first stitch. make the first blanket stitch over a handbook of elementary sewing if left-handed, work with the left hand, unless the parents are unwilling. be sure that nothing is left unfinished at the end of the term. stitches used in the fourth grade basting. there are two kinds of basting that are commonly used: the even and the uneven. for both the work should be held in the same way. place the work over the forefinger of the left hand and work from right to left. uneven basting. tie a knot in the thread. take a small stitch one eighth of an inch long, carry the needle on half an inch, take another eighth-inch stitch. continue in the same manner. fasten with two small stitches taken over each other. this is used for simple decoration and for a tempo- rary fastening for seams or hems where no strain comes. even basting. thread as before; make the stitches all one fourth of an inch in length; fasten as before. this is used for seams where any strain may come, and also by very young children for simple decoration. overcasting. hold work over the left forefinger, working from right to left. fasten thread with two small stitches on the wrong side of the cloth. place the needle one eighth of an inch below the edge or fold; point the needle to the left shoulder; take take the next stitch one fourth of an inch to the left; continue to the end of the seam; fasten with two small stitches. a handbook of elementary sewing small stitches. hold the work over the left forefinger and work from right to left. half-back stitching is the same as stitching, except that the needle is put only half way back, thus leaving a small space between the stitches. both of these stitches may be used where strength is required, or on garments too small to be stitched easily on the machine. hemming. a hem is a fold made by turning the edge of the cloth over twice and then sewing it down. the first fold must be very carefully turned; if that is even, there will be very little trouble with the second turning. trim the edge of the cloth before turning the hem. make the first turning very narrow, about one fourth of an inch, or, better still, one eighth of an inch, unless the material is very difficult to turn. use a measure for all hems except the very narrow. baste near the edge of the fold with uneven basting stitches. have no knot in the thread; hold the cloth across the cushion of the left forefinger ; pointing the needle from you, insert it at the edge of the fold, one fourth of an inch from the right end, and bring it out close to the end. draw the needle through very carefully and leave half an inch of the thread to be tucked under the edge of the hem with the point of the needle. take up two threads of the cloth and set the needle into the edge of the hem, keeping the needle in a line with the hem and pointing to the left shoulder. be sure that all stitches slant. to join the thread. if there is no end left, pick out a few stitches. with the needle draw the end under the a handbook of elementary sewing fold and toward the thumb. begin with a new needle- ful, as when commencing the work, and put the needle into the last hole from which the short end came out, sewing both ends down with the next few stitches. featherstitching. the featherstitch is an ornamen- tal stitch; it must be evenly done or it is worse than no stitch at all. this stitch consists of two parallel rows of alternating stitches, or groups of stitches, slanting toward the center. keep the same length of stitch and the same slant. single featherstitching. work toward you, holding the work over the left forefinger. insert the needle from the under side a short distance to the right or left of the line to be followed and draw the thread through. place the left thumb over the thread to hold it down, and on the opposite side of the center line, take up a slanting stitch; the top of the stitch is as far from the center line as the length of the stitch, and the bottom touches the center line. draw the needle out over the thread, which will in this way form a loop of the thread from the first stitch. on the opposite side, take up another slanting stitch, the top of which is an equal distance from the center line and even with the bottom of the last stitch. repeat for successive stitches. at the end of a thread, fasten by passing the needle down where the thread last came through the cloth, thus holding the loop from the last stitch in place. fasten the thread on the wrong side by taking a few running stitches through one thickness of cloth. begin a new a handbook of elementary sewing thread by passing the needle up through the loop from the last stitch. double featherstitching. this is made by doubling the number of stitches on either side, or by using groups of three stitches alternately. be very careful that the stitches of each group are placed exactly under each other. outline stitch. fasten with two back stitches, keeping the thread above the needle, – that is, to the left; then take up with the needle an eighth of an inch of cloth and bring the needle out through the hole made in starting the stitch. be careful not to pierce the thread. proceed in the same manner. on the wrong side the stitch should look like back stitch. hemstitching. several different methods of hem- stitching are used, and any one of them will prove satisfactory if well done. showing the work with the hemming stitch as it looks on the right side. a handbook of elementary sewing a second method. pointing the needle toward you, and holding the thread under the left thumb, take up three or four cross threads on the needle. draw the needle out over the thread, thus forming a loop, and tight enough to separate the cross threads. insert the needle under the edge of the hem only and take an ordinary hemming stitch. continue along the hem in the same manner. seed stitch. this stitch is used for finishing hems in an ornamental manner or where a simple, effective touch is desired. take three short stitches (an eighth of an inch) over each other; one back stitch going forward one fourth of an inch beyond the last stitch; back one eighth of an inch; sew over twice; forward as before. use embroidery cotton to develop this stitch. sewing on lace. when sewing lace to an edge, always hold the lace next to you. lace may be sewed on straight, or it may be gathered. at the top of most laces a coarse thread may be found woven into the lace for the purpose of gathering. before drawing up this thread, divide the lace into fourths; pin, with right sides together, at point of division. draw up the thread, arranging the gathers evenly, and top sew to the edge with fine, even stitches. if the lace is to be put on plain, hold it loosely to the edge and top sew. sewing lace around a corner. when sewing lace on plain, to sew around the corner, top sew to a point as far from the corner as the width of the lace. measure a handbook of elementary sewing from this point on the lace twice the width of the lace and pin to the corner. measure an equal distance from the corner on the lace and pin to the other side. continue top sewing from this point and leave the corner until later. when the rest is all done, run a gathering thread into the corners, arrange the gathers evenly, and top sew as usual. sewing lace around a corner (gathered). when sew- ing lace around a corner, proceed as before, with this exception: the same fullness must be allowed on the corner that is allowed on the straight edge, in addition to that required for rounding the corner without draw- ing; allow two and one half times the width of the lace instead of twice the width. sewing two 'ends of lace together. if the lace has a pattern, cut it with the pattern; lay one edge over the other and buttonhole over each raw edge with fine thread, or place the right sides of the lace together and in a narrow seam; lay the seam flat and buttonhole over the raw edge and at the same time down on the lace. if desired, turn a narrow fold in one piece of the lace to the right side and in the other piece to the wrong side; slip one under the other and hem down the two edges. herringbone or catch stitch. “ the herringbone stitch is a cross-stitch used as a finish on flannel edges or on heavy material. the stitch consists of single, alternating, running stitches, made first to the left and then to the right, from you instead of toward you as in sew a handbook of elementary sewing ordinary sewing. the thread, being carried across from one stitch to another, gives the appearance of a cross-stitch. the stitches on each side must be in straight rows, with the outer row just over the edge of the material. point the needle toward you in making the stitch, but work from you. in catch stitching a small knot may be used, if it can be concealed. fasten the thread by running it in and out and under the last stitch.” top sewing. “top sewing is used for joining two folded edges or two selvages. hold the work between top sewing-needle in position. the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, the seam parallel with the finger. leave one half an inch of thread after making a shallow stitch through one edge of the cloth, the needle pointing toward the chest. lay this end of thread on top of the seam so that it may be sewed down by the next few stitches. pointing the needle toward the chest, put it through both edges, taking up as little cloth as possible. the stitches should be slanting on the upper side and straight on the under side of the cloth. work from right to left. to finish a handbook of elementary sewing the seam, sew back over the last few stitches. to join the thread, leave half an inch of the old thread and half an inch of the new thread, place both together on the seam, and sew over them as you go on in the work.” selvage edges are sewed together in making pillow and bolster cases. when one edge has become stretched and is longer than the other, baste with the long edge toward the sewer, the seam held around the forefinger of the left hand. combination stitch. the combination stitch con- sists of three little running stitches and a back stitch over the last running stitch. take three running stitches on the needle and pull it through. take up the last running stitch for the first of the next group of three stitches. this is a little stronger than the running stitch. couching stitch. place a coarse thread on the line desired and sew it in place with six or seven stitches to the inch, so that the over-seam may lie at right angles to the couching thread. use either an overcasting or a simple blanket stitch. chain stitch. bring the needle out from underneath, hold the thread down with the left thumb, put the needle down again in the hole through which you brought it out, take up one fourth of an inch of the goods, and draw the needle through, over the loop of thread. this gives the first link in the chain. put the needle down at the end of this first loop and continue as before. a handbook of elementary sewing as widely as possible over your finger and work around the corner as if it were a straight edge. make second side like first. at the end place three cross-stitches, each as long as the threads of the button- hole are deep, and buttonhole over these, bringing each stitch through the cloth. if desired, the buttonholes may be made with a bar at either end, or both ends may be rounded. buttons. in sewing on flat buttons, insert the needle from the right side and back in order to hide the knot under the button. place the button in position and hold a large pin or needle across the button to lengthen the stitches. put in five or six stitches diagonally across the button and over the pin, keeping the stitches as even as possible. place the pin in the opposite direction and take five or six stitches as before. slip the pin out, pass the needle through the cloth only, and wind the thread around the threads five or six times between the button and the cloth. pass the needle through the cloth and fasten securely. two-hole buttons. place the buttons so that the stitches will come at right angles to the edge of the cloth, with the pin across the button. proceed as before. loop buttons. place the button in position with the loop at right angles to the edge of the cloth. hold the button with the left hand and top sew the loop to the cloth. pass the thread to the under side and fasten securely. a handbook of elementary sewing felled seam. place two edges of cloth right sides together, one edge being one fourth of an inch above the other, and baste. fold the upper edge over the lower edge one fourth of an inch and baste one eighth स ą felled seam. of an inch from edge. sew on upper side just below the basting with a fine combination or back stitch. take out the basting thread and lay the seam over so that the raw edge is covered, press carefully with the a handbook of elementary sewing finger exactly at the sewing of the seam, baste on the right side one sixteenth inch from seam. hem the folded edge to the cloth underneath. french seam. baste the two pieces together on the right side; stitch; trim to one sixteenth of an inch; turn to the wrong side; crease firmly; baste just below the raw edges; stitch again. the finished seam should not measure over one eighth of an inch. the seam may be used on nearly all underwear and in simple wash dresses. mitered corners. two hems crossing each other at right angles may be finished with either the square or the mitered corner. all hems more than half an inch in width should be mitered. fold and crease the hem carefully. fold the outer corner of this hem diagonally across to the inner corner of the hem and crease very firmly. open the hem wide and cut off the corner of the cloth one fourth of an inch outside of this crease. fold the hem as before, first being careful to turn in the upper edge of the mitered corner so that it will come exactly to the corner of the hem. hem this diagonal portion so that no stitches will show on the right side. utensils and materials thimbles. the thimble is worn upon the second finger of the right hand to protect the finger from the eye of the needle. it should be worn always when a handbook of elementary sewing sewing. if possible, learn to push the needle from the side of the thimble instead of from the top. the first thimbles were made from iron and brass, but now gold, silver, aluminum, celluloid, and steel are used. most of the aluminum thimbles prove unsatis- factory in wearing qualities, and the brass ones dis- color the finger; for general home wear the silver thimble will prove the best. scissors. scissors should be in every work-box or bag. select a good pair in the beginning, and they will last through the entire course. any reliable hardware store will carry one or two satisfactory makes. the boker, the wiss, and the keen kutter are all good, and there are many others. be sure that you have a pair joined just tightly enough; if too loose, the blades will slip past each other; if too tight, they will be hard to open. keep your scissors well sharpened at all times. shears with blades less than six inches long are usually called scissors. needles. a needle is a small, pointed instrument used for carrying thread through material. it has been used since the earliest times. the present ones are made from steel wire, but in ancient times they were made from fish-bones, ivory, and bronze. the regular sewing needle is made in several different styles called “ground-downs," " betweens," and "sharps.” the sharps are slender and long with a small eye. the betweens are slender and short with a small eye. a handbook of elementary sewing earliest history speaks of an indian plant “which pro- duces wool of a finer and better quality than that of sheep,” and we know that in india, persia, egypt, and china, cotton garments have been used for thousands of years. the plant seems to grow in the warm regions of both continents. when columbus landed in south america, he found the shrub growing wild and the natives making garments and fishing-nets from the fibers. the lint was used for making beds, and in mexico, in the six- teenth century, garments, tapestries, and bedspreads were made from the cotton. in the united states, cotton was first discovered in the section which is now the states of louisiana and texas. as soon as the colonists arrived in virginia they began to plant the seeds of the cotton plant. for a number of years cotton was raised as a garden plant only, but by the southern people began to plant it in larger quantities, and soon it was beginning to take the place of that imported. the trustees of the col- onies did not encourage the manufacture of the home- grown cotton for fear that it would interfere with the english manufacturing, but when the revolutionary war cut off the imports of european manufacture, the americans began to make their own cotton goods. the cotton, at first, was difficult to clean; the clean- ing was all done by hand, and the result of a whole day's work was only one pound of cotton. often the whole family worked at it in the evening. later, a handbook of elementary sewing machinery came into use, and then the raising of cotton for commercial purposes increased rapidly. at first all the cotton was short staple, or upland cot- ton. after the revolutionary war, some sea-island cotton was. planted in the tide-water section of georgia. this cotton has a longer, stronger, more silky fiber and can be spun into long, silky threads. it is used in making fine cotton goods and in lace and thread. of all the kinds of cloth, cotton cloth is the most common and the least expensive. bed linen, so called, window draperies, underwear, light-weight dresses, and indeed many dresses of heavier weight, may be made satisfactorily from cotton materials. the best materials for underwear are long cloth of average weight, cambric, fine muslin, and, for very fine material, nainsook of good quality. of all these, bleached muslin is the least expensive and will wear well, but it is harder to work upon, coarser in texture, and less pleasing to wear. english long cloth of medium cost, or a good grade of cambric, make the most satisfactory garments. batiste and nainsook are too sheer to wear well and are often too sheer to look well. if nainsook is purchased, get that made from sea- island cotton, if possible, as this is stronger and will wear longer. the makes of cotton cloth vary in dif- ferent sections of the country, and each person should learn to know those in her own town or city. i have found the imperial and princess makes of english long a handbook of elementary sewing cloth to be perfectly satisfactory for fine use; the glasgow has given good satisfaction for common wear; the berkeley cambric has worn very well, and the imperial sea-island nainsook has been unusually good. do not buy a cheap nainsook or long cloth, for it will be so much money thrown away. instead, get the best grade of muslin you can afford. for long cloth to wear at all well, you must pay at least fifteen to seventeen cents per yard and for the nainsook not less than twenty-five cents. study your muslin until you can recognize a good, soft grade. when it is at all stiff, rub between your fingers and see if it is full of starch; if it is, the starch will fall out. this grade of muslin you should avoid, for there is no body to it. percale and domestic ginghams will prove very satisfactory for everyday wash dresses. the percale is really a firm, bleached muslin with a pattern stamped upon it. this cloth comes from thirty-two to thirty- six inches wide, costs from twelve and one half to fifteen cents per yard and, because of its width, cuts to good advantage. the price is higher than calico, but the firmer weave and greater width make it less expen- sive for many purposes. avoid the dark blue, the so- called indigo, with the white spots, if you wish good wearing material. the white spots or stripes are made, usually, by first dyeing the cloth blue and then bleach- ing the design. by this method the strength of the cloth is eaten up by the bleaching process. a handbook of elementary sewing gingham is a material with the pattern woven into the cloth. the domestic grades, those made in the united states, come in widths varying from twenty- seven to thirty-two inches. the grade that corre- sponds to percale in price is usually twenty-seven inches wide. all ginghams will cut to better advantage if the material is shrunk before making into garments. wash in clear, warm water and dry. colored wash goods should be tested for fast colors before buying. take a sample home, wash with soap and warm water, and hang in the sun to dry. wool. wool comes from the sheep. when the fleece is removed by a skillful person, it holds together and looks like the skin of an animal. it is sent to the factory thus and there sorted into the different grades of wool. the best grade of wool comes from the shoulders and sides of the sheep. the natural wool contains a greasy matter which helps to preserve it. this is washed out after the fleece is sorted. after this thorough washing, the wool is made into woolens and worsteds. woolens are made usually from short staple wool, and the fibers are frequently crossed and mixed. the worsteds are made from the long staple wool, and the fibers usually lie parallel. the worsteds are dressier fabrics, and the patterns seem clearly woven with threads easily seen; serge is an example of this style. woolens have threads less easily distinguished, and the a handbook of elementary sewing result is softer and more indistinct; flannel, tweed, and eiderdown are woolens. the simplest test for wool is that of burning. the odor of the animal fiber is like that of hair, and the fibers burn much more slowly than do the cotton ones. more ash is always formed from the wool than from the cotton. woolen material is used for baby's underwear and where much warmth is desired. it is expensive and must remain so, because of the cost of raising the sheep. a little of the best quality of wool is raised in the united states, but the greater part of it has to be im- ported. of this australia sends us the larger portion. linen. linen is made from the fibers of the flax plant. it has been used for thousands of years, and nothing has yet been found that will give the same satisfaction for use where high luster and good wearing qualities are desired. linen is used largely for table linen, handkerchiefs, dress material, and toweling. it absorbs moisture more readily and keeps white under constant washing more easily than cotton, hence should be used for hand and dish towels. in the rich damask weaves used in table linen, its high luster makes it not only very beautiful, but also causes it to shed the soil much more readily. its tendency to wrinkle makes it rather unsatisfactory for common dresses, but it remains popular because of its coolness and its fine wearing qualities. linen is always expensive and must remain so, be- a handbook of elementary sewing cause of the cost of raising it and preparing it for weav- ing. a small amount of flax is raised in the united states, but the greater part of it comes from abroad. mercerized cotton is often mixed with the linen, and the result is sold for pure linen. experts in linen tell me that the adulteration is so skillfully done that the ordinary person cannot detect it. we must depend very largely upon the honesty of our dealers; however, a few tests may be used with fair success: linen threads break unevenly with a pointed end. rub a linen fabric between your fingers, and the surface will feel much smoother than a cotton surface. linen fibers lie parallel when untwisted; cotton show many directions. burn linen threads, and they remain compact and even; cotton will spread apart. linen washed, dried, immersed in concentrated sul- phuric acid for two minutes, then washed again and dried between filter paper, will remain practically the cotton will be dissolved. butcher's linen is a very coarse, heavy weave used for aprons and dress skirts. linen cambric is much used for handkerchiefs. damask is used for fine towels, tablecloths, and napkins. same. a handbook of elementary sewing pinwheel materials. cardboard; cretonne or brown linen; colored crochet cotton; no. sewing needle; no. or white thread. directions. cut two circles of cardboard each two and a half inches in diameter. cut two circles of the cloth each half an inch larger than the cardboard. using the white thread and the sewing needle, gather the cloth one fourth of an inch from the edge; place each piece of cardboard upon each piece of cloth and draw the thread up as firmly as possible; with long stitches from side to side fasten the cloth firmly in place. place the two pieces together, raw edges inside, and sew with top-sewing stitches all around the edge. if desired, the edge may be finished with double over- casting as in the sewing bag. baby ribbon may be added as a further decoration. doll's comfortable materials. two pieces of fine cheesecloth eight inches by ten inches; one piece of sheet wadding nine by seven; white or colored crochet cotton; white thread no. or ; sewing needle no. ; crewel needle no. ; white darning cotton or germantown. directions. arrange half the wadding (which will easily split) upon each piece of the cheesecloth, leaving the edge of the cloth even upon each side. baste in position, using the uneven basting stitch. turn the a handbook of elementary sewing cheesecloth over to the edge of the wadding and baste down; place the two raw edges (that is, the sides having raw edges) together evenly, the cotton inside, and pin in place; baste close to the edge with even basting stitches. thread the crewel needle with the crochet cotton and blanket stitch around the entire edge, as in the needle case. one inch from the side and one and one half inches from the end place the needle through the comfortable, taking up an eighth of an inch stitch; cut off the thread, leaving the ends about one and one half inches long; tie once. fold darning cotton or germantown four times; cut into inch lengths; place one length (fourfold) across the knot of the crochet cotton; which then tie securely with a double knot; trim off the ends evenly, leaving them about three eighths of an inch long. repeat every one and a half inches. there should be four of these tackings, as they are called, in a row and five rows. fifth grade doll's sunbonnet materials. gingham. size twelve inches wide by seven inches long; white thread no. ; no. needle; twenty inches white tape, fourth of an inch wide. directions. fold the goods lengthwise, edges to- gether; from the folded edges measure across three and inches inches inches inches (fold) inches inches doll's sunbonnet showing squares cut out and ond side overcast. one half inches; cut out a three and one half inch square; overcast the cut edges; turn an eighth of an inch seam and top sew these two edges together on each a handbook of elementary sewing turn bag on right side and press out the corners. find the place where the hoop is joined together: notch on both sides of this place; place the hoop in hot water, and it will come apart; then run the hoop through the hems and tie it together again with a thread or string. make a bow at each end of the ribbon. sew these two bows at the ends of the bag; arrange the gathers evenly and sew a tassel to each corner of the bag. to make the tassels. cut the skein of d. m. c.; remove two long threads; cut the remainder into fourths; fold the fourths evenly; thread one long strand into a crewel needle and tie the middle of one folded fourth with it: fold again evenly; bring the needle up from below through the knot and put back close to where it came out, leaving a loop half an inch long. bring the needle out three eighths of an inch from the loop and wind the thread firmly around all the threads six times; slip the needle under and up through the middle of the tassel and draw firmly; cut. holder materials. gingham or calico seven inches square. two squares. no. needle. no. white thread, piece of narrow tape six inches long; white darning cotton. directions. ask the children to bring some old, soft cloth from home and use this for filling. take three thicknesses, if thin, and cut to a six-inch square. a handbook of elementary sewing directions. turn a half-inch hem on all four sides of the scrim. (be sure to turn the opposite sides first.) baste with even basting stitches. on the right side outline stitch the hem, being careful to keep on the edge of the hem. find the middle of the scrim, and mark with a pencil. measure out, making a rectangle half an inch wide by one inch long, the longer side of the rectangle parallel with the longer side of the scrim. half an inch out from the edge of the shorter side of the rectangle bring the crewel needle threaded with the cotton up from the wrong side, pass over one thread and take a half-inch stitch on the wrong side of the scrim, bring the needle through the scrim and take an inch stitch on the right side, pass the needle under half an inch on the wrong side, and bring again to the right; pass over one thread and go back in the same manner. continue in this way until the rectangle is covered with these long threads. threading the needle with the other color of embroidery or crochet cotton, bring it up at right angles with the long threads and half an inch from the edge of them and take one tiny stitch; pass over half an inch on the wrong side, bring the needle through to the right, and weave in and out, over and under the long threads; then pass the needle into the scrim, bring it out on the wrong side, take a half-inch stitch, pass over two threads, and go back in the same manner; continue until the entire space has been woven over. be careful in weaving the second time to pass over the threads that you passed a handbook of elementary sewing under the first time. fasten with two small stitches on the wrong side. over the tiny stitches that you made half an inch beyond the weaving, make three rows of outline stitch, using the two colors of em- broidery cotton. make a cushion to fit this cover, or bring a cushion from home and make the cover to fit it. stocking darning bring stockings from home. place a darning-ball or a piece of firm cardboard under the hole to be darned. match the darning cotton to the color of the stocking. if the stocking is fine, use one strand of the cotton; if coarse, use two strands. on a line with the center of the hole, and half an inch from its edge, place the needle in the cloth and run with very fine stitches to the edge of the hole. pass the needle stocking darning. across the hole, under the raw edge on the opposite side, and make one fourth of an inch of fine running stitches. start back close to this row and repeat the same thing, being careful that you pass over the raw edge that you passed under before. continue until half the hole is covered and then run the fine stitches one fourth of an inch beyond into the stocking. this a handbook of elementary sewing makes the darn firmer and less likely to pull out. do the other half in the same manner. when the warp threads are all in, begin in the middle with the woof threads. use fine running stitches to the edge of the hole as before. then weave under and over as in the cushion-top, keeping the stitches near enough to make a firm, close weave. fasten as with the fasten as with the warp threads by running into the stocking one fourth of an inch. directions for drafting use firm brown paper if possible; if nothing else is available, buy some from the grocer. begin in the upper, right-hand corner. down means toward the bottom of the paper. out means toward the left-hand side of the paper. upmeans from the bottom toward the top of the paper. make all measurements very carefully. yardsticks will be of great assistance if they can be obtained. be very careful when making the free- hand curves. sewing apron draft. measure down on straight edge of paper inches and mark at top and at bottom. down from measure inch and mark out inches . . $ . a handbook of elementary sewing connect and with a straight line. down from on line - measure inches and mark up from on line - connect and , and , and , and , and , by straight lines. connect and by a down curve. draft of sewing apron. . . measure up on line – inch and mark - inches “ - - inch draw a curved line from through , , , , to . cut on the curved line - , then down through , , , , , , to . if a larger apron is desired, make the following changes when drafting the pattern. a handbook of elementary sewing . lengthen the line – inches and mark a - b connect a and b with a straight line. lengthen lines - , - , and - to the line a-b. mark these lines a, a, and a. measure up from a inch and mark С a inches d a e f draw a downward curve from through f, e, d, c, to a. . . . . when drafting for a stout girl, measure out five inches instead of six at the top of the draft and carry the line - down one inch lower, as shown in the dotted lines in the illustration. cut on the dotted lines. to cut the apron. fold the goods lengthwise, making the fold just wide enough to fit the widest part of the pattern. be sure that the warp threads are perfectly straight. pin the pattern with the straight edge exactly on the fold and the top to the edge of the goods. pin firmly along the edges. cut exactly to the pattern. leave the fold uncut. remove the pattern, open the cloth, and the apron is ready to be made. materials. three fourths of a yard of lawn, , dimity, or batiste. one and three fourths or two yards of narrow lace. (the imitation armenian is the most satisfactory.) one skein of embroidery cotton, a handbook of elementary sewing o. n. t. or d. m. c., no. , one strand. number white thread. sewing needles, about nos. and . directions. turn a very narrow hem, three six- teenths of an inch, all around the apron. baste with even basting stitches. with the embroidery cotton, featherstitch over this hem. (be sure that this feather- stitching is very fine, for it must take the place of the usual hemming.) top sew the lace around the finished edge, holding the lace next to you and taking very fine, close stitches. cut a piece of cloth lengthwise, making it two inches wide and two inches longer than the waist measure taken loosely. find the middle of the apron at the top and mark with a pin; find the middle of the band; pin the middle of the apron to the middle of the band, keeping the band on the right side of the apron. baste with even basting stitches. stitch. turn the band over, crease a fourth of an inch fold on the edge, and baste this down firmly on the wrong side just over the stitching, and hem. top sew the edges that extend beyond the apron. a button and buttonhole may be used to finish it, if the pupils are able to make them well. - sixth grade book marker materials. linen-colored chambray or gingham; red or brown ribbon; brown twist, red d. m. c. em- broidery or red tambo cotton; no. needle; no. crewel needle; linen-colored thread. directions. cut linen about three inches by six inches. fold in one eighth of an inch on all sides. fold the edges together lengthwise and baste with even basting stitches. top sew fine, using linen- colored thread. one inch from the top cut a button- hole across the marker, in the center, three fourths of an inch long. make a buttonhole, following the directions given, using either the twist or the cotton. half an inch below cut another buttonhole parallel, and work as before. one inch from the bottom cut another but- tonhole and work in the same way. half an inch above, cut and make one more. through these buttonholes run twelve inches of half-inch ribbon the same color that the buttonholes are worked in. a handbook of elementary sewing cooking apron. medium size draft. find waist measure and skirt length. mark upper, right-hand corner of paper. out from measure one third of waist measure and mark down from measure inches and mark connect and with a down curved line. cooking apron. . . down from measure skirt length and mark out inches on line - measure inches from measure inches and mark . or a handbook of elementary sewing out from measure inches and mark connect and by a straight line. up from on line – measure inches and mark find one third of line – , and add inches to this length. measure down this length from on line - and mark connect and by a straight line. do the same with and , and , and , and . up from on line - measure i inch and mark - inches - - - draw a free-hand curve from through , , , , , to . so mark upper, draft for the bib. upper, right-hand corner down from measure inches and mark out up from on line - measure inches and mark so co a handbook of elementary sewing . so . os so . . • co . . co . up from on line – measure inches and mark out from measure inches and mark draw a curving line from through , , , , , to . draw a second curving line from through , , , , , , , , . cut on the line - , and then on the curving lines, – , - . if a longer bib is needed, lengthen at the bottom from one to two inches. co . directions for cutting the aprons. use per- cale that is thirty-six inches wide and has a small figure on a white ground. the directions show you how to cut two aprons at the same time.) fold the fifth and sixth grade bags. a handbook of elementary sewing half inches on the selvage. make the checked gingham the width the design requires and twenty inches long. baste the checked gingham upon the plain at such a distance from top as to have the pattern come about two inches from lower edges. work out a design pre- viously made in the drawing department. cut the lining exactly the same width and length as the outside; from the remainder cut a piece three inches long by five and a half inches wide; turn in the edges a fourth of an inch; place this evenly on one side of the lining and fasten with firm couching stitches, using the d. m. c.; use three strands to couch over. for position see diagram given. divide this piece into two pockets with the couching. join the lining and the outside with the machine stitching, raw edges together, first the top and then the sides. cut from tag board or cardboard two circles three and a half inches in diameter. (if cardboard is used, four thicknesses will be required.) cover each piece of cardboard with the cloth, cutting the covering one inch larger than the board. place these circular pieces together, raw edges inside, and baste. gather the bottom of the bag and top sew on to the circular pieces on the inside of the bag. make a half-inch casing one inch from the top of the bag by running two rows of fine combination stitch half an inch apart. make two cords from the d. m. c. and run them into the casing. if d. m. c. no. is used, take three strands for cross-stitching, and six strands for cord. a handbook of elementary sewing work apron materials. chambray, gingham, or dark calico. bias binding no. or no. a simple butterick or ladies home journal pattern having no sleeves, a round neck, and shoulder and under-arm seams only. directions. select the pattern and then buy the amount of goods required. cut by pattern, allowing a two-inch seam. make a french seam at all seams. finish neck and armhole with the bias binding or facing. make a one-inch hem up the back and a two-inch hem at the bottom. if a more decorative apron is desired, a simple embroidery stitch may be used on the hems. seed stitch, outline stitch, or chain stitch would be satisfactory. if the top is thus finished, let the hem be done by hand. a still daintier apron may be made from white dimity or a fine, delicate gingham or batiste. princess slip materials. ladies home journal pattern no. or any style that is simple and unfitted. long cloth of good grade, from two and one half yards to three yards, according to the size of the girl. white thread no. and no. . needles no. and no. . white d. m. c. or . n. t. no. . narrow lace edge at neck and sleeves, either hand or machine made. for flounce one and one third times the width of skirt, - long cloth or embroidery. a handbook of elementary sewing directions. cut according to pattern. finish with french seams. turn an eighth-inch hem at neck; one-inch hems at back. set in sleeve with french seam, and finish with an eighth-inch hem. divide the flounce into fourths; use a separate thread to gather each fourth and knot the thread at both ends. (use the coarser thread.) place one row of gathers an eighth of an inch from the edge of the goods, the second row an eighth of an inch below the first. be careful that the second row of stitches is exactly under the first. draw each fourth up as close as possible and pull the gathers gently until they are even and smooth. for directions for placket, see under “skirt.” carry the placket nine inches below the normal waist line. divide the slip in fourths at the bottom. bring the edge of the flounce to the edge of the slip wrong sides together. pin at the divisions in fourths. arrange the gathers evenly and baste to slip with even basting between the rows of gathers. stitch. place the lower edge of the bias fold exactly over the lower row of gathering; baste with even basting; baste the upper side of bias fold down. stitch both sides close to the edge. the edge of the flounce, if made of the goods, may be just a plain hem with a narrow lace trimming, or it may be finished with a simple decorative stitch such as feather, chain, or seed stitch. let the same stitch be used at neck and sleeves. finish the back with buttons and buttonholes. a handbook of elementary sewing one-piece dress materials. gingham or percale; preferably ging- ham, because it is softer to work upon. choose a very simple pattern from a butterick fashion book and give individuality by the style of trimming. provide thread, needles, pins, buttons, as for the princess slip. use colored o. n. t. or d. m. c. no. or the six strand no, to harmonize with the material. directions. cut according to directions on pattern. finish with french seams. if sleeves are set in, bind with bias folds. try on before sewing in sleeves or turning hem. if made up without shrinking, allow one to two inches for shrinking. finish with buttons and buttonholes like the princess slip. if a round neck is desired, face on right side with a narrow fold of the goods and finish with some simple embroidery stitch. place on lengthwise fold dusting cap draft for cap. draw a rectangle eight inches by thirteen inches. mark the corners in order , , , . draft for cap. divide the long sides into halves. mark the point between and , and the one between and , . - - a handbook of elementary sewing draw a line diagonally from corner to point . from on this line - measure three inches and mark . gathers ra in hem hem hет. way in. in. straight piece dusting cap. draw a curved line from corner to point , passing through the diagonal - at . starting at , cut through the curving line to , from through down to , from across to , from back to . write on the long straight edge the words “ place on lengthwise fold.” materials for cap. one piece of gingham or crêpe fourteen inches long by sixteen inches wide. one piece of gingham or crêpe twenty inches long by five inches wide. white or colored d. m. c. no. or no. . no. needle, no. crewel needle, no. white thread. a handbook of elementary sewing directions. fold the larger piece of gingham so that it will be eight inches wide by fourteen inches long. place the long straight edge of the pattern on this fold; pin firmly; cut to the pattern around the curving edge. leave the fold uncut. place two rows of gathers along the curving edge and down the straight sides. on the lower edge turn a half-inch hem and hem fine. on the ends and down one long side of the piece that is twenty inches long, place a half-inch hem. featherstitch with the em- broidery cotton. join the crown and this with a french seam, being careful that the featherstitching is on the outside of the car and that the gathers are evenly distributed. make an eyelet in the middle of the hem at the back of the cap; run the tape in from the seams on the sides, sewing it on firmly, and tie it at the eyelet. seventh and eighth grades in the seventh and eighth grades the pupils may make a full set of underwear for themselves and finish with a simple wash dress. every article made should have a touch of hand decoration, and each one should be a little more difficult than the preceding one. the patterns for the dress and for the combination suit may be selected according to the prevailing style. the skirt may be drafted, and the nightdress decoration should be easily worked on the cloth itself. make a plain kimono style. buy twice the length of cloth, measuring from the neck, at the shoulder, to the floor, allowing two inches extra for hem and shrinkage. supplementary work small size skirt for doll materials. two pieces of flannel or outing flannel nine inches long by seven and one half inches wide. white sewing silk, pink or white twist, white thread no. , no. needle, two pieces of tape six inches long by one fourth of an inch wide. directions. sew the two breadths of flannel to- gether with combination stitch, one edge overlapping the other by an eighth of an inch. make seam a little less than one fourth of an inch deep. turn longer edge over flat and cross or catch stitch with fine, close stitch. cut down the middle of one breadth two and one half inches. from the right-hand side of the skirt turn over a half-inch hem. from the left-hand side turn over an eighth-inch hem. catch stitch with fine, close stitch. at the bottom of this placket fold the half-inch hem over flat and catch stitch or place two rows of fine stitching across. turn an inch hem at bottom; baste and catch stitch. one fourth of an inch from top, double gather fine, each half by itself. fold band lengthwise and place - dit chei . supplementary work. designs in cross-stitch and embroidery for underwear; page . a handbook of elementary sewing center to the center of the skirt at the top. arrange the gathers evenly and baste. stitch just below gather- ing thread. fold over one fourth of an inch of the band, then turn down over the gathers and baste. hem fine. insert the tape one fourth of an inch into the ends of the band and hem down on both sides. finish the ends of tape with a fourth-inch hem. around the upper edge of the hem, place a row of featherstitching worked in twist. lawn apron. doll's size materials. white lawn or muslin five inches long by seven inches wide; white thread no. ; no. needle. directions. turn an eighth-inch hem on sides and a half-inch hem on bottom of apron; hem. place a row of fine running stitches one eighth inch from top of cloth; then one eighth inch below. mark the middle of top with a cross stitch. straighten the gathers carefully by gently pulling them while on the needle or by pushing them along the thread and under the thumb and finger. cut a band one and one half inches wide and seven inches long. fold evenly and pin the middle of the band to the middle of the gathers on the right side of the apron. carry the gathers to within two inches of the end of the band; baste with even basting and stitch on the gathers. a handbook of elementary sewing across fold over and baste down over the stitching, turning in the raw edge one fourth inch. hem the apron and top sew the ends. this apron may be trimmed with lace or it may be hemstitched, as the pupil may desire. magazine cover materials. brown linen, half-inch binding ribbon, brown thread, no. needle. directions. cut the size desired; draw threads until even. miter the corners; making the hem about two inches wide. find the center of the folded sides and measure out, on the edge of the hem, one half to one inch from this center (according to the thickness of the magazine). cut to the center line, leav- ing one fourth inch from the folded edge uncut. bind with the ribbon. decorate with a stenciled design or with a bit of simple inside of magazine cover. embroidery. laundry bag materials. fine checked gingham (blue and white) thirty inches long and eleven or twelve inches a handbook of elementary sewing wide. no. white thread. peri lusta embroidery cotton. size d. color, shade . directions. overcast long sides. fold the ends over two and three fourths inches. stitch these over- cast edges together to within three fourths inch of bottom of folded end; turn this seam under and finish with a two and one half inch hem. one half inch above edge of hem place a row of fine running stitches. vivunt, , ） : : : ) bl.an . koursos laundry bag. about six inches down from the hem work a cross- stitch design, using the peri lusta cotton. (allow each child to work from her own original design, placing this design on one or both sides of the ..) bring the sides together and baste from hem to fold of cloth: stitch, making a fourth inch seam. a handbook of elementary sewing the bag. pin carefully and baste a fourth-inch seam; backstitch seam; trim and overcast. arrange the second circle at the other end of bag, and baste and sew in the same way. finish ends of bag by featherstitching the circles on the right side a fourth of an inch from circumference. if desired, the word “rubbers” may be stamped and outlined upon the upper part of bag. if lettering is to be done, it must be stamped before bag is made. fasten bag with three hooks and eyes placed at intervals of three inches. the hooks should be placed on the under and further edge of featherstitched hem and sewed on by means of buttonhole stitches worked around the wider base of the hook, then securely fastened either at front end of hook, or under the hump,” by means of four straight stitches. the straight metal eyes may be used and placed at corre- sponding intervals on the upper side of under hem. for featherstitching, d. m. c. embroidery cotton (no. ) may be used. sewing case materials. outing flannel or wool flannel eight and one half inches by five and one half inches, blue outing flannel or ribbon five inches by twelve inches, two small pieces of flannel two inches by three inches, colored crochet cotton or d. m. c., blue and yellow or white; crewel needles; three fourths yard of half-inch ribbon. a handbook of elementary sewing directions. turn a fourth-inch fold around the flannel or white daisy cloth; catch stitch this with the crochet cotton. measure up from one end four inches, and run in three squares of darning in contrasting color. fold back two inches at the same end and baste; top sew the ends, catch stitch through the center to make two small pockets; blanket stitch around three sides of the small pieces; arrange them evenly half an inch from the other end and blanket stitch them firmly in place. if ribbon is used, arrange case evenly on the ribbon and pin in position; turn half-inch hems at the ends of ribbon and catch stitch; place this on the narrow ribbon evenly and catch stitch together. if the blue daisy cloth is used, blanket stitch around the edge, then fasten to the inner piece and place the whole upon the narrow ribbon (which may be blue or white) and fasten as in the earlier case. sewing apron materials. one and one half yards of lawn, dimity, or organdie; wash embroidery silk or embroidery cotton (d. m. c. no. , or peri lusta e. fine). no. white thread. directions. cut apron according to pattern given in illustration. cut band two inches wide and two inches longer than waist measure. if strings are de- sired, cut band width of apron and cut the strings twenty-four inches long by three and one half wide. gather a ruffle from middle to ends; place first row a handbook of elementary sewing of apron, baste with even basting; featherstitch. place middle of band to middle of apron on the right side; baste to apron, making a fourth-inch seam; stitch. towel materials. huckaback linen or cotton. d. m.c. no. - . directions. even ends of goods by a thread. prepare a one and one half inch hem and draw four threads. hemstitch. two inches above the hem embroider the monogram or initials. to embroider the initials. select a simple style of letter and transfer to the towel by tracing over transfer paper. (this method is the simplest and, where only a very little is to be done, may be used satisfactorily.) pad the letter by filling the space with rows of running stitches done with the four-fold darning cotton. chain stitch may be used, but the result is less even. the embroidery stitch used is the simplest form of satin stitch. where the initial runs parallel with the threads of the cloth, make over and over stitches close together. let the needle enter the cloth exactly at one edge of the pattern and come out exactly at the other. you must have a perfectly even edge if the result is to be good. as the pattern curves, slant the stitches, being careful that the stitches are close together so that no padding shows. a handbook of elementary sewing towel with swedish weaving materials. one yard or three fourths of a yard of linen toweling, huck preferred. two or more skeins of no. , d. m. c. or o. n. t. to correspond in number. no. white thread. no. crewel needles and no. sewing needles. directions. measure in three and one fourth inches at each end and draw threads until you have about one inch of space drawn. turn in one fourth of an inch at the edge, bring this to the edge of the drawn space, and baste with even basting. hemstitch, taking up about five threads each time. use the no. thread for this work. with the embroidery cotton, begin and weave in and out through the drawn space, taking up the same number of threads that were used in hemstitching and passing over the same number. the illustration (see frontispiece) gives one simple pattern easily worked out. if desired, one end of the towel may be finished with plain hemstitching and the other with the weaving. damask hemming materials. white linen six or six and one half inches square. no. needle. no. white thread. directions. draw threads in the linen, making as large a square as possible. on opposite sides turn and baste an eighth-inch hem. holding the wrong side toward you, fold and crease the cloth back, so as to a handbook of elementary sewing make it even with the first fold of the hem. top sew very fine. turn hems on two remaining sides, baste, top sew ends, and then sides as before. finish with lace, – torchon or any variety that is suitable to the linen; follow the directions given for sewing on of lace. doily materials. heavy white linen. no. needle. embroidery cotton no. , strand, white. directions. with a spool, mark simple scallops around the linen, making it the size desired. pad slightly with long outline stitches, using white darning cotton. blanket stitch over these stitches, but keep the stitches close together and the edges perfectly even. when finished, trim the cloth to the edge of the em- broidery and then buttonhole around the entire edge with ordinary cotton thread. this buttonholing will keep the linen from fraying and give a smoother edge. corset cover materials. one yard of cambric, dimity, or long cloth. two and three fourths yards of lace. one and three fourths yards of beading. d. m. c. or o. n. t. no. , single strand, white. no. white thread. nos. and needles. directions. select a pattern having shoulder and under-arm seams. make flat fell seams. turn an eight-inch hem around the top. turn one-inch hems a handbook of elementary sewing down the front. face armholes with fourth-inch face ings. gather the bottom from about two inches in front of the under-arm seam to front hem, using two rows of gathers, the first one eighth of an inch from the bottom, the second one eighth of an inch above the first. finish the bottom with a band three fourths of an inch wide when finished. (this band should be torn two inches wide and two inches longer than the waist measure taken loosely.) featherstitch the top and the front hems with the embroidery cotton. finish with the lace and beading, and run lingerie tape into the beading, or crochet a tiny cord and run this through. if preferred, seed stitch or outline stitch may be sub- stituted for the featherstitching. waist protector materials. one and one half yards of fine cheese- cloth, silkolene, or batiste; wash embroidery silk to match material. no. thread. one half yard nar- row ribbon to match goods. directions. even ends by a thread. fold one selvage edge together evenly. baste; find the middle of this seam, measure out from the center along the seam one and one half inches. from this point sew to edge with the combination stitch, making an eighth- inch seam. bind the open part with the ribbon and featherstitch along the edge of the ribbon. if wished, more ribbon may be used and a rosette or bow placed at one side or in the middle. a handbook of elementary sewing turn a fourth-inch hem down the open side and a one-inch hem at the bottom. baste with even basting and featherstitch along the edge of the hem. use either single or double featherstitching. table cover or table runner materials. linen or gingham. one yard or one and one fourth yards. linen-colored thread. directions. if square cover is desired, use one yard of thirty-six inch linen (natural color) or a square of the narrower kind. finish with a two-inch hem, making mitered corners. place a stenciled design at the corner inside the hem, working out the design as part of the regular art work. to make a runner, use one and one fourth yards of linen or linen-colored gingham; finish with one and one half inch hems on the sides and a three-inch hem at the bottom; miter the corners as before. place stenciled design above the three-inch hems. if desired, both of these covers may be hemstitched. kimono materials. japanese crêpe or ripplette. simple, narrow lace not over one inch in width. embroidery cotton to harmonize with the materials. a simple pattern for a short kimono. white thread no. . sewing needles no. . crewel needle no. . directions. buy the pattern first. buy the amount of material required by the pattern, and cut care- a handbook of elementary sewing ends to the insertion and top sewing the portion that extends beyond the gores. sew the lace around the top entire apron, following the general direc- tions for sew- ing on lace. place lace on the ends of the strings only. . fancy apron, one-eighth size. underskirt take the waist and skirt measure of each girl and add five inches to the skirt length. pattern of skirt. place paper on desk. make measurements out and down from upper corner of paper. directions. . front gore. out from corner measure - of waist measure and mark a ● a handbook of elementary sewing b down from corner on outer edge of paper measure inch and mark down from b, measure skirt length plus inches and mark out from c, measure inches and mark connect a and d with a straight line. с d w waist * waist b half of front gore side gore skirt length plus in. skirt length plus sin skirt length plus in skirt length plus sin. in, in. pattern for front and side gore of skirt. . down from a on this straight line measure skirt length plus inches and mark e connect a and b with a free-hand curve. connect c and e with a free-hand curve. cut on curve a and b. straight line a and e and curve e and c. a handbook of elementary sewing mark straight edge of length of paper with these words: “ place on lengthwise fold of cloth.” mark “half front gore.” side gore. . measure out from corner waist measure and mark a measure down from corner of an inch and mark b measure down from b skirt length plus inches and mark С measure out from c inches and mark d connect a and d with a straight line. measure from a down this straight line skirt length plus inches and mark . connect c and e with a free-hand curve. connect a and b with a free-hand curve. cut on curves and line a-d. notch gored side twice and mark“ side gore.” notch straight edge once. e back breadth. draft as you did the side breadth but take one third of waist measure at top and eighteen inches at the bottom. materials for skirt. long cloth, cambric, or muslin; three lengths should be sufficient, if you add to each the extra five inches. the flounce may be of the cloth or of edging. allow one third more than the width of the skirt. no. white thread; no. needles. if desired make the skirt of flannel, or flannelette, or outing flannel. in this case buy more material, as the outing flannel is not so wide. a handbook of elementary sewing note. if made of flannel, finish the seams with a flat fell and simply featherstitch around the edge of the hem. make the placket and also the band of long cloth. directions for cutting the underskirt. fold one piece lengthwise. on this fold place the straight edge of the front gore. pin securely in place and cut, leaving the fold untouched. on the straight selvage edge, place the straight side of the side gore. pin in place and cut. turn upside down and fit in the other side. cut. arrange the back breadths in the same way and pin and cut. lay the entire pattern on and try it before cutting any, so as to use the cloth to the best advantage. directions for making. finish with french make a continuous placket. finish the top with a band one inch wide when made. place a button and buttonhole in the ends. turn an inch and one half hem. for the flounce see directions for princess slip. to make the placket. leave nine inches at the top of the back seam unfinished. cut a lengthwise strip of cloth eighteen inches long by two and one half inches wide. beginning at the top, on the right side, place the placket strip against the skirt, edge to edge, and baste, one eighth inch from the edge, with even basting stitches; when at the bottom of the opening, turn and baste up the other side. stitch just below the basting. turn one fourth inch on the raw edge; crease; fold over the first stitching and pin in place. seams. a handbook of elementary sewing baste. hem down the left-hand side and half an inch up the right-hand side. crease this side firmly. remove the basting. cut out the under portion to within a fourth of an inch of the crease. turn the remaining portion of the cloth to the wrong side, make the edge even with the seam, so that none shows on the right side, baste and sew like any hem. at the bottom of the hem, place two rows of stitching an eighth of an inch apart, just the width of the hem. this strengthens the placket at the bottom. the end pres dept econ- home econ ps s? the ohio state university tt f a handbook of elementary sewing the ohio state university book depository d aisle sect shlf side pos item c im widodonil o itih fontatoudutodiuue lixxx-xx izlivia allallatala . letihti e bich goodwin's course in sewing emma e. goodwin i - author's preface during many years' experience in the dressmaking trade, and in teaching the more advanced technical work of designing, cutting and fitting clothes, i have realized the need of a more thorough training for the workers in the first principles of needlework. this resulted in an observation, extending over the past six years, of the teaching of sewing in the public schools of our larger cities. from a careful study of what is given in the domestic arts courses of the most efficient of these schools, i have formulated a definite, practical outline of the work that should give a foundation for an advanced technical training, fitting for the trades, or enable the pupil to do all necessary household sewing. correlated subjects have been purposely omitted, the course con- cisely given and fully illustrated. the drawings have been made from such articles as are actually produced in the sewing classes of the graded schools, and represent first the object completed, then details of each step not previously given in its construction. these illustrations in the hands of the pupils give them a clear conception of the article to be made, and the method of making, and should prove a valuable aid to those teachers who have not had the advantage of a technical training in domestic arts. the increasing interest in the vastly important subject of indus- trial education leads me to hope that the work i have done may be of some assistance to those who are striving to place the teaching of sewing upon a systematic, practical basis. i have selected mccall patterns for use in this course as being, in my judgment, the most reliable and easy to understand and use. emma e. goodwin. i. needle-book fig. .—needle-book cover. materials.—burlap canvas % x inches, flannel |x inches, crewel needle and colored worsted thread. knot the thread. begin each line of stitches in a different corner of the canvas so that the joining of the thread shall not be all in one place. fig. .—overcasting. i overcasting.—begin at the upper right-hand corner and work to- ward the left. bring the thread from underneath through the first hole from the edge. bring the thread over the edge and up through the third hole. take the stitches in the same way through every other hole around the edges of the canvas. draw the thread even, but do not make the stitches tight. take the last two stitches over the first two and cut off the end of the thread close to the canvas. / fig. .—running. running.—begin in the second row from the edge and bring the thread up from underneath through the first hole. bring the thread back through the second hole and up through the third hole. take one stitch in the same way, back and forth through every hole in the second row. take the last two stitches over the first two and cut the thread. even basting.—begin in the third row from the edge and bring the thread up from underneath, through the first hole, and back through the third hole. bring the thread up through the fifth hole and back through the seventh hole, skipping one hole with each stitch. j put the needle back through the second hole and up through the fourth, making small stitches that meet on top, and longer stitches that overlap on the under side. take the last two stitches over the first two before cutting off the thread. fig. .—cross-stitch. cross-stitch.—begin in an upper right-hand corner and use the next two rows of holes for the design of cross-stitches. bring the thread up through the first hole in the lower row. put the thread back through the second hole in the upper row, and up through the first hole in upper row. put the thread back through the second hole in lower row, and up through the third hole in lower row. this will cross the threads on the upper side and make two parallel lines, like running-stitches, on the under side. take two small stitches over the last stitch on the under side to fasten the thread. blanket-stitch, different form.—begin as for blanket-stitch, fig . take one short stitch and one long stitch, then another short stitch. leave one hole between and repeat the three stitches in the same way, around the edges of the mat. fig. .— outline-stitch. outline-stitch.—begin at a lower right-hand corner and work up- ward. bring the needle up through the first hole at the bottom, drawing the thread to the right side. put the needle back through the third hole and up through the second. fig. .—catch-stitch. iv. practice pieces v. bag fig. .—finished bag. materials.—striped or checked gingham x inches, tapes inches, no. needle and no. white cotton thread. fold the cloth across the width and pin the sides of the bag evenly together. knot the thread for basting. uneven basting.—allow \ inch seams and begin with a short stitch taken through to the under side, leaving the knot on top. take stitches \ inch long on the upper side and about \ inch long on the under side. baste the side seams of the bag. vi. pencil case fig. .—pencil case, finished. materials.—gingham x inches, cut lengthwise of the cloth; tape inches, no. needle and no. cotton thread. turn i inch fold on the long edges. turn ^ inch fold across one end. fold the piece crosswise and crease the middle of it. right, take the first stitch through the fold only. leave \ inch of the thread to be sewed under the fold with the first three or four stitches. • take two stitches over and over at beginning to secure the end. take small stitches of uniform slant and size through to the right side and up through the folded edge. joining the hemming.—when half way through the hem, cut the thread off to within \ inch of the last stitch and draw this end under the fold with the point of the needle. take the next stitch with a fresh thread through the hole in the fold where the last stitch came out. leave j inch of this thread to be placed under the fold and fastened with the other loose end by the next few stitches. finishing.—take two or three stitches over and over through the fold to secure the end of the hemming before cutting the thread. (note.—in folding hems be careful that the warp and woof threads are parallel with each other on the right and wrong sides. this is necessary to prevent twisting of the cloth.) wide hems or those in soft fabrics that do not hold a crease should always be basted carefully before hemming. xi. kitchen towel materials.—linen crash or glass toweling f yard and tape for loop inches. cut the ends of the towel straight with the woof thread. fold under \ inch across the ends. fold again, \ inch, baste and hem. sew a loop of tape at the middle of one end, as taught on tape and button model, fig. . university of california library this book is due on the last date stamped below feb feb *jul aug sep * ""gig | aug i« loan dppt. idepl rirculattonj received by jul f^euution dept. m- ,' fo enas goodwin's course in sewing uc-nrlf b color va glo latinitate hensis s ifornia sacal raduz crsitatis fiat on ex libris ir irena unived w sigili cs copyright, by emma e. goodwin cm v.in vo jjli! winter illet bomber ee introductory note book more the model articles given in this, the second book of “good- win's course in sewing,” are designed to be of practical utility and to introduce various materials and methods leading systematically to the construction of completed garments. while the materials suitable for the articles shown are designated, a choice of color or fabric may afford an exercise for the taste and judgment of the pupils. the drafting of garments properly belongs to a more advanced technical course, and will be much more readily and intelligently acquired when the method of putting the garments together has been thoroughly mastered. the miniature patterns accompanying this book were designed especially by the mccall company of new york, and are uniform with full-sized patterns. this makes it possible for the work to progress from grade to grade and prove essential to the completion of the course, at the same time giving by diagram and description the directions for cutting out and putting together of garments applicable to those the pupils may make for their own wear. accuracy in the preparation of the work is of prime importance. the frequent use of the tape-measure is insisted upon, as all dimen- sions for the articles made are to be measured by the pupils. the correct position for sewing should never be forgotten. the tools used in the handicraft should have continued attention, and scissors, thimbles, needles, pins, thread, tape-measure, etc., should be kept in proper order in work-box or bag. each article should be completed in the best manner possible before the next is undertaken. thoroughness and order should characterize the practice, which in the end bring a pleasing facility in the work. e. e. g. i. stocking darning materials.—stockinet x inches; square of cardboard x inches, long-eyed darning needles and darning cotton of con- trasting colors, for practice. baste the stockinet firmly to the cardboard, with the wrong side out. use darning cotton without knotting. darning for thin place.- begin at the lower right side and work upward, running the stitches in the direction of the ribs of the stockinet. take six or seven stitches, the first one under and the next one over the threads of the stockinet. turn at the top and run parallel stitches back, taking up the threads of the stockinet that were passed over in the first row of stitches. run one more stitch at top and bottom in this second row,.. fig. .-darning for thin place. and continue to increase - the length of the rows at top and bottom until near the center of the darn. run three or four rows of the same length and then decrease to the length of the rows at beginning. be mi mi mic ht iii. work-bag meme fig. .-work-bag, finished. materials.-dark-colored gingham or print, two pieces x inches, cut crosswise of the warp; one piece x inches, for pocket, cut lengthwise of the warp; one piece x inches, for bottom of bag; two tapes yards each. (note: pin all edges evenly together before sewing. from to inch seams are usually taken in wash goods. to cut lengthwise of the cloth, follow the warp threads. to cut crosswise, follow the woof threads. to cut bias, follow across both warp and woof threads, a diag- onal line, which is found by laying the warp threads parallel with the woof and creasing the fold.) ii . making.–baste the shorter edges of the first two pieces together. measure inches from the end which is to be the top of the bag. sew with half back-stitches and overcast the seams. finish the four short edges above the side seams with narrow hems. finish the two top edges with į inch hems. place a line of run- ning-stitches ] inch above the hemming to form casings for the tapes. baste į inch fold around the edges of the pocket. finish one of the shorter sides with inch hem. find the place for the pocket in the center of one side of the top portion of the bag by folding across the length and width of the bag. pin and baste the pocket with wrong side against the inside of the bag portion, and with the hemmed edge toward the finished top of the bag. oversew the sides and bottom of the pocket to the bag. the pocket is to be used for the thimble, needle-book, emery- bag, etc. fold the bottom portion of the bag and mark the middle of each side. fold and mark each side of the top portion in four divisions. place the right sides of these portions together with the seams of the top in the middle of opposite sides of the bottom. place the quarter divisions of the top at the corners of the bottom, and the middle divi- sions of the top at the middle of the sides of the bottom. baste together, back-stitch and overcast the seam. remove bastings and turn bag right side out. initials for marking bag.–draw an outline of the required letters. place this outline over the center of that portion of the bag opposite the pocket, with a piece of tracing paper next to the cloth. baste around the design to hold in place. trace the outline of the letters. work in chain-stitch with marking cotton of suitable color. run tapes both ways through the casing in the top, bringing the ends out at the opposite sides. be had. the floss should be split as fine as can be used and should match the cloth as closely as possible. follow the previous in- structions for pressing. when darning a tear in heavy cloth, stitches should be taken from the wrong side with fine silk thread. pass the needle halfway between the surfaces of the cloth to about inch each side of the edges of the tear. draw the edges close together. brush up the nap on the right side of the cloth and press. fig. .-interlaced seam for darning tear or joining edges of heavy cloth. the edges of very closely woven heavy cloth may be joined, or a tear may be mended, by taking stitches up through first one edge and then the other, making an interlaced seam. be careful to take fine, even stitches and draw the edges close together. ix. buttonholes, loops and hooks materials.—white muslin prac- tice piece x inches, no. needle and no. colored thread. turn inch fold around the edges of the muslin. fold length- wise, with the raw edges inside, and run the edges together. mono maal vnd cause practice in making buttonhole- stitch.-knot the thread and begin at a lower right corner of one of the short edges. take one stitch through the edge to secure the thread. put the needle halfway through from the under side, inch from the edge and tinch to the left of the first stitch. bring the double thread from the eye of the needle, toward the left, under the point of the needle. pull the needle through, bring- ing the thread out through the loop, at right angles to the edge. mate fig. .- model of buttonholes and loops. fig. .- model of buttonholes and loops. work across both ends of the muslin piece, taking care to keep the stitches even. draw the thread smooth. m to make buttonhole.—begin į inch from the straight edge of the muslin piece and cut an opening inch long, following the threads of the cloth. . use no. needle and no. cotton thread for overcasting. begin at the end farther from the edge, which will be called the lower end of the buttonhole. overcast around the edges of the opening with small, even -stitches f inch apart, taking up about four threads of the muslin. take three stitches in fan shape around the upper end of the buttonhole. (the end nearest the edge of practice piece.) when the other side is overcast, return the opposite way, making cross-stitches over the first stitches to the point of beginning. (see buttonhole a in fig. .) for working the buttonhole, use no. needle and no. colored thread. without a knot, run the thread for the space of inch between the edges of the muslin on one side of the buttonhole, back to the lower end, and bring it out at the edge of the buttonhole. always work from right to left. draw the thread through until the end is under the cloth. take the first stitch for the buttonhole to a depth covering the overcasting stitches. continue with buttonhole-stitches taken about two threads apart and at exact right angles to the edge. take five stitches in circular or fan shape around the upper end. when the second side is finished, take three stitches over and over to make a bar across the lower end. this bar should be equal in length to the buttonhole-stitches on both sides, as shown on buttonhole b in fig. . er take four stitches over and over on each side of the loop of the eye, near the edge of the cloth. sew back part way around one of the circles before cutting the thread. place the point of the hook about } inch from the finished edge and where it will bring the two edges together even when it is caught into the eye. sew over and over around the circles of the hook and over the point to the turning, if hook is straight. if a “hump” hook, do not take stitches over the curved part. take four stitches over and over at the point of the hook. pass the thread back between the folds of the cloth. fasten it securely with three or four over and over stitches through each circle of the hook. the thread should never be broken or cut off at the point of the hook, as it would then pull out. mark for position and sew on metal loops in similar manner, fastening the thread on under side. cut a bias strip į inch wide and finish the neck, shoulder and outside edges of the jumper with ] inch facing. finish the back pieces with hems turned according to the notches. gather the lower edges of the jumper. place the middle of the front in the middle of the belt, right sides together and each outside edge i inch from the center front. place the back pieces in the same way, with the hemmed edges even with the finished edges of the placket and each outside edge i inch from the end of the belt. back-stitch the gathers to the belt. face the belt with the inside, or lining portion, seamed to the top of the belt, across the gathered edges of the jumper, and hemmed down in the usual way. close the shoulders by lapping the front over the back, to the width of the facing, and fasten by sewing two buttons on each one, as indicated by the single perforation ( ). close the back with four buttons and four buttonholes, one at the belt, one at the top and two equally spaced between. memoranda goodwin's vourse in sewing fo ergs uc-nrlf b blo Воок и l he ta nk d. beattys company iii. towel, hemstitched and marked with initial materials.-huckaback toweling, preferably of linen; mercerized marking cotton of same color. hemstitch in any form preferred, and mark with initial, as shown in fig. . ag to mark with initial.- fig. .— marking initials. draw outline of let- ter required and fill the center with catch-stitching, as shown in letter a, fig. . with each stitch the point of the needle comes out where it went in for the preceding stitch. finish the edge with outline-stitch, as shown in letter g, fig. . choice may be made of other forms of marking initials, such as cross-stitching to form the letters, or chain or rope-stitching for outline, with darning-stitches for filling in. the ruffles may be left plainly hemmed or finished with narrow hems and an edging of lace if preferred. about three yards of lace is required for the two ruffles. fig. .-sewing on ruffle, using edge of garment to finish seam. gather the ruffles and sew to the drawers portions, allowing the edge of these portions to extend j inch beyond the edge of the ruffles. fold the extended edge over and hem down in line with the seam. i fig. .-sewing on ruffle under a tuck. to set in embroidery.—trim the edges of the inserting even, allowing sufficient material to form a narrow french felled seam. about inch is sufficient in fine materials. the seaming may be done by hand with fine running or combination stitches, or by machine. the same method is employed to set in the narrow seam bead- ings, or veinings, with which seams are joined in fine white work. in the case of gathered edges, the plain material at the edge of the embroidery is left wide enough to form a binding over the seam, as in sewing on ruffle, shown in fig. . fig. .—bias band with piping at edges. bias bands.—trimmings for linens, ginghams and other washable fabrics may be made effectively from bias bands, plain or with pipings of contrasting color. cut the bands exactly even, and cut twice the length for the pip- ing, also bias, from to inch in width, according to the width of edge shown. fold the piping double, and baste on the right side of the band with the raw edges even with the edge of the band. turn the seam to the wrong side and baste the band carefully to the garment, as shown in fig. . use a card marker for spacing the bands, as in folding tucks or hems.. word (note: in marking notches, etc., a cross-stitch or a short line of run- ning-stitches will be found to repay the trouble, as it is much easier to put the markings in when cutting out than to measure up the half-made garment to find the correct positions.) cut a strip inches wide and inches long, lengthwise of the cloth, for the binding of the placket. if the petticoat is to be made with flounce, as shown in fig. , cut the upper portion to the line of perforations inches from the bottom of the pattern. if to be made plain, cut the full length of the pattern, which allows inches for hemming, indi- cated by the line of perforations inches from the bottom. cut the flounce crosswise of the cloth, inches deep and fig. .-flounce attached with bias band. yards in width. cut the bias band to finish the top of the flounce, i inches wide and yards long. cro to make the petticoat.— join the gores of the skirt according to the notches and finish with flat felled seams. close the center back seam to the double perforation (..), which indicates the placket opening, as shown in fig. . to make the sacque.—baste together the under-arm and shoulder seams and try on the sacque. pin the front edges together in a straight line and cut off the material which extends beyond this center front line. make any necessary alteration at shoulder or under-arm seams. sew the seams by hand with combination stitch or by machine. trim off to inch in width and overcast the edges together. if lawn or dimity is used, the seams may be french felled. place the two portions of the collar together, right sides out, and baste around the edges and through the middle. sew the right side of the collar to the inside of the neck edge of the sacque with the front edges even. hem the underfacing of the collar over this seam on the right side. fold the ribbon double and crease through the middle. begin at a corner where the joining will not show and baste to the sacque with the raw edge of the cloth even with the crease in the ribbon. continue the ribbon up the front and around the edge of the collar. attach the ribbon for ties at the neck, slipping the end under the edge of the binding ribbon. catch-stitch the ribbon to the sacque, taking one stitch through both edges of the ribbon and one above the edge of the ribbon through the material. the plain band of material may be catch-stitched in same man- ner as the ribbon, or the turned-in edges stitched by machine. finish the seams of the sleeves, and gather between the perfora- tions (..), at top and bottom edges. baste the cuff portions to- gether in same manner as the collar, and bind the turned-over edge and the ends with the ribbon. place the cuff with the right side to the right side of the sleeve and the notch in the upper edge of the cuff at the seam inside of the sleeve. allow the ends of the cuff to meet at the notch in the back of the sleeve. sew to the sleeve and hem the inside edge of the cuff over the seam. turn the cuff back at the line of perforations and oversew the ends together on the in- side to the point of turning. practical sewing and dressmaking by sara may allington illustrated by elizabeth cleves banks boston the page company publishers copyright, b y dana estes &'company. all rights reserved third impression, november, the colonial press c. h. simonds co., boston, u. s. a. contents page introduction v lesson i. stitches used in sewing and dressmaking basting e v e n basting uneven basting slanting or padding stitch running stitch blind stitch back stitch overcasting overhanding hemming cat - stitching french knots buttonholes to work buttonholes on lace eyelets loops finishing seams double stitch seams french seam strap seam raw lapped seam cord seam fell seam bias bands milliners' fold girdles. shirring plain shirring tucked shirring lesson . utensils needed for sewing and dressmaking . . . . how to m a k e a papier - mache bust form for one's own dressmaking lesson . planning the gown lesson . t h e chart with which the drafting is done lesson . how to take measures . waist measure ; bust measure contents page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . neck measure armhole measure under arm measure upper front measure back length measure back width measure front length measure arm length measure elbow measure . inside arm measure from armhole to bend of arm hand measure front length of skirt side length of skirt back length of skirt take h i p measure . lesson . drafting the shirt - waist lesson . drafting the s h i r t - w a i s t sleeve . . . . . . . lesson . drafting the blouse - waist lesson . how to cut the sailor collar, or any large collar . lesson . how to draft the kimono waist lesson . t h e making and finishing of the shirt - waist . . . . lesson . drafting the tight waist with back forms lesson . drafting the waist without back forms lesson . drafting the waist with french forms lesson . how to cut, f i t , and m a k e the waist lesson . drafting the coat or lining sleeve lesson . t h e o n e - p i e c e tight sleeve lesson . t h e flowing sleeve lesson . drafting the sleeve with the tight elbow and large t o p lesson . drafting the leg o' mutton sleeve . contents page lesson . how to cut, m a k e , and finish the sleeve to make the mousquetaire sleeve lesson . drafting the circular skirt lesson . drafting the three - gored circular skirt lesson . drafting the seven - gored skirt lesson . drafting the n i n e - g o r e d skirt lesson . drafting the fifteen - gored skirt lesson . t h e full plaited skirt, made from the fifteen - gored draft lesson . to cut, m a k e , and finish the drop skirt and outside skirt t h e outside skirt . lesson . women's muslin underwear — petticoats t h e petticoat with a yoke lesson . t h e night - gown lesson . t h e chemise t h e chemise without. gathers lesson . women's corset covers corset cover fulled at neck and waist l i n e . . . . lesson . seamless corset cover made from the shirt - waist draft . . . lesson . women's circular drawers . . . to make the different sizes how to cut, m a k e , and finish the circular drawers lesson . drafting the princess gown lesson . drafting the single - breasted, tight - fitting tailored coat to form skirt of coat to draft the collar . . lesson . loose - fitting, unlined coat contents page lesson . t h e slightly fitted coat to draft the collar lesson . how to m a k e and finish the tailored coat lesson . t h e child's draft lesson . child's sleeve draft lesson . child's coat sleeve lesson . child's rompers lesson . how to cut, and. finish the rompers to draft the different sizes . lesson boy's russian blouse suit t h e blouse t h e knickerbockers lesson . how to m a k e a boy's russian blouse, and knickerbockers . lesson . child's pajama suit lesson . child's drawers lesson how to m a k e little girls' clothing child's blouse waist little girls' underclothing little girl's skirt child's drawers child's night-gown lesson . infant's first outfit t h e pinning blanket for the skirt t h e waist t h e infant's skirt infant's slip or night-gown how to m a k e the slip or night-gown for the infant's dress lesson . how to m a k e u s e of your knowledge . . . . . . introduction woman, no matter how she may be situated at the present time, should have at her command some knowledge which, if circumstances demand it suddenly, would bring her in a good income. there is no business in the world, for which women are fitted, which brings in a greater income for so little expenditure of capital and time as dressmaking. there is no woman who will not wish some time in her life that she knew something of this art. if she has children she will wish to make many things for them. if she is not a woman of wealth, she can dress herself for less than half what it will cost her to hire, if she can make her own clothing. even should she be able to hire her work done, if she understands the work herself, how much easier it is for her to be suited with the work of others. there are none so hard to please as those who do not know how a thing should be done. oftentimes a financial crisis comes suddenly into one's life, when there is no time to wait for positions and hardly time to think what to do. with the knowledge of sewing and dressmaking, one can turn to it and earn a good income, at almost a moment's notice. almost every day we hear of women who are thrown out into the world to earn their own living. with the thorough knowledge of sewing and dressmaking we have tried to give in these pages, she can make a success wherever she may wish to put her knowledge to the test. in almost any line of work the competition is so great that it is difficult to find a position, and in almost every line the woman is forced to work in competition with men, under the nervous every introduction strain of business methods and at much smaller pay than that of the man working beside her. this is not so with sewing and dressmaking. the field is hers, and it is so large that there is still room for many more workers. we have tried to give in this course a method so simple and a course so thorough and broad that it will meet the needs of all women, no matter for what purpose they may wish to use their knowledge. practical sewing and dressmaking blind stitch. — this is used to fasten on trimming or bias bands where the stitch must not show on the right side. run the needle between the foundation goods and the trimming with a running stitch. take the stitch through the foundation, but only through the under side of the trimming or into the turned in edge of the bias band. back stitch. — make a stitch as in the running stitch. instead of taking the next stitch beyond the first, place the needle way back in the next stitch and take one twice as long. take each one way back to the one preceding it. this stitch is used to take the place of machine sewing. it is much stronger than the running stitch. when finished it should resemble machine stitching. overcasting is a slanting stitch taken over and over the raw edge of the goods. this is used on seams or wherever there is a raw edge exposed, to keep it from raveling. the work is done from right to left. overhanding. — the two selvages of goods are held evenly together and are sewed over and over together with very small slanting stitches. where two raw edges are to be sewed together, the raw edges should be turned down a small seam and the edges thus formed held together the same as if they were selvages. the stitches should be very small and even. the work is done from right to left. hemming. — the hem is used to finish the edge and is turned down twice. the first turn is always as narrow as possible, and the second whatever width the hem is to be when finished. if the hem is to be put in on the machine it can be done with the foot attachment, unless too wide, but if it is to be hand work, it must always be basted. take the stitch first in the cloth, then in the edge of the hem, and so on, making the stitches slanting and as small as possible. the stitch which is taken in the cloth should only take up one or two threads, so that it will not show on the right side. on skirts where thehem is too full to turn up, a piece of the goods cut just the sameycurve of the skirt and the practical sewing an& dressmaking same way of the cloth is sewed to the bottom of the skirt, having the facing the width the hem is to be and on the right side of the skirt. stitch and turn on the wrong side and fasten in place. cat-stitching. — this is used where the goods is too heavy to turn in twice. turn the hem up the desired width without having turned in the edge. hold the work so that the hem will run away from you. take a stitch first in the hem and then in the goods, in the hem again and again in the goods, holding the point of the needle towards you and making the stitches cross each other so that they resemble a rail fence. french knots. — these are little knots used for decorative purposes. put the needle up through the goods from the wrong side. before pulling it through the goods, wind the thread about it three or four times. hold the thread down to the needle with the left thumb. put the needle down through as near the same place where it came up as possible. draw down, so that the knot looks smooth. button-holes. — button-holes should always be cut very evenly. they should be a little longer than the diameter of the button. it is a good plan to use button-hole scissors for cutting them. more than one thickness of goods should be used and it should be firmly basted together. if the material frays easily, it is a good plan to stitch around the button-hole before it is cut. button-holes should always be stayed before they a,re worked. one way is to overcast the button-hole. another is to form stitches about the button-hole. put the needle through from the under side, a few threads from the inside end of the buttonhole. draw it through. put it through again at the outside end of the button-hole very near the end and so the long stitch thus formed will lie close along the side of the button-hole. repeat this a second time. this will form a bar of stitches about the button-hole. when it is worked, begin at the right end and work towards the left. to make the button-hole stitch, put the needle up through the goods a few threads from the inner end practical sewing and dressmaking of the button-hole. before pulling it through, take hold of the thread near the needle, throw it over the needle and pull through. repeat this for each stitch until you have been around the button-hole. the beauty of the button-hole is to have the stitches all one length and perfectly even. to work button-holes on lace. — place a piece of thin goods underneath where the button-hole is to be worked. baste into place. cut the button-hole through the lace and goods. after it has been worked, cut away the goods so that it will not show. eyelets are small round holes punched in the goods with a stiletto and worked around over and over. they are used largely on shirt-waists, where one wishes to put buttons through the goods so they can be easily removed. loops. — take three or four stitches about of an inch long on top of each other. button-hole-stitch them all together, covering the entire length. this makes a strong loop which is used to take the place of the metal eye where the metal would show. finishing seams. — seams are finished in various ways. the plain seam is simply stitched up and pressed open, after each side has been thoroughly overcast. double stitch seam is stitched the same as the plain seam. instead of pressing it open, press it all one way and stitch on the outside about of an inch from the first stitching. french seam. — stitch the seam on the right side. trim off close to the stitching. turn and stitch on the wrong side. the last stitching should come just where the seam in the garment should be. strap seam. — make a bias band of the goods, turning in each edge. the band should be on a true bias. stitch the seam up on the right side, press open and place the bias band over it. baste carefully and stitch very near each edge. this is used on coats, coat suits and skirts. i t makes a very neat trimming. the bias band may be used any desired width. practical sewing and dressmaking raw lapped seam. — place one edge of the goods flat on the other and stitch very near each raw edge. this is good for very heavy wool goods. cord seam. — cover a small cord with the goods. turn in one side of the seam and baste the cord along the seam. lay flat on the other side of the seam and stitch on the right side very near the cord. fell seam. — stitch the seam as for a plain seam. turn both edges one way. trim off the under edge quite narrow. turn in the raw edge of the one not trimmed and stitch down flat, stitching as near the edge as possible. bias bands. — to cut bias bands, fold the corner of the goods up so that the two straight edges of the triangle are the same length. make a crease. measure off the width the bands are to be and draw lines with a yardstick and tailors' chalk. mark off as many bands as needed before cutting. cut on the marks carefully, as the least change will throw the bands off the true bias. bias bands of thin material, like silk, should be made over crinoline before being used. milliners' fold. — this is used as a trimming. make a bias band. turn down one edge about y% the width of the band. turn down the other about }/i of an inch. turn the narrow edge half way up on the broad edge and blind stitch. girdles. — a girdle should always be made on linen canvas. it may be cut by a pattern to fit, or cut on a true bias and stretched to the figure. the goods may be put on full, plain, or in even folds, just as the style demands. the girdle should be boned to hold up stiff and smooth. shirring. — shirring may be done in two ways: plain shirring. — run the thread through the goods with very small and even stitches. push the goods up on the thread until it is the desired fullness. be careful not to get it too full or it will lose its beauty. put in as many threads as you wish, at an equal distance apart. put all the threads in before shoving the goods up, and keep the fullness the same on each thread. practical sewing and dressmaking tuck shirring. — instead of just running the thread in, as in plain shirring, take up a tuck each time about - of an inch wide. shove up on the thread the same as in plain shirring. make as many tucks as desired, equally distant from each other. lesson ii utensils needed for sewing and dressmaking for your work in sewing and dressmaking you will need a large smooth table, large enough to cut a skirt on, a good sewing-machine, an ironing-board and an ironing-cushion. the latter you cannot buy but will have to make for yourself. cut a piece of heavy bed ticking inches long and inches wide. make it into a bag by folding together and stitching along the two long sides. cut old wool and cotton goods into small pieces until you have about four pounds. soak them in water until thoroughly wet and then squeeze as much of the water out as possible. fill the bag, making it very solid. sew up the end and soak the whole pillow in water. while it is wet, pound it into shape (about like a loaf of bread). when dry cover with a piece of white cloth, and it is ready for use in pressing all seams of the waist and coat. by using this cushion you will not lose the curve of the seams. aside from the utensils mentioned you should have good pins and needles, a tracing-wheel and some tailors' chalk (you can buy this at a book store), a yardstick, a good pair of shears and a pair of button-hole scissors. you should also have a good papier-mache bust form. how to make a papier-mache bust eorm for one's own dressmaking if you wish to do your own dressmaking you should fit up a bust form so that it will represent your own form exactly. to do this buy a good bust form your own bust measure. draft practical sewing and dressmaking a tight waist to your measure and have some one fit it to you very tightly, tighter than you could possibly wear it. fit it down about the hips about inches below the waist line and be sure it is perfect at every point. use a very heavy lining material. sew hooks and eyes quite close together down the back. place this lining on your bust form, and by taking it off and on fill in all places where it does not fit the form, with layers of cotton put on very smoothly. fill out until the lining is hard to hook on. i t should be as hard as possible, as you will wish to use it to fit your waists on. if it were left soft you might get your waist too tight. by placing a petticoat on this form you can hang your skirts on this form as well as fit your waists. of course for the skirt the form will have to be on a standard. any carpenter can easily make you one. have him make a board just the size and shape of the bottom of the form. place four legs on this board a little longer than your skirt measure. on the bottom of these legs fasten another board, large enough so that the standard will not tip over easily. sew four tape loops to the sides of your bust form and put four brass-headed tacks in the edge of the top of the standard, leaving them out just enough to slip the tape over. this will keep the form from slipping off while you are working on it; at the same time you can remove it from the standard whenever you wish. you will find a bust form of this kind the most convenient thing you ever possessed. lesson iii planning the gown you have learned the stitches and utensils used in sewing and dressmaking. we will now take up the actual work of making the gown. dressmaking is divided into four parts: . planning the gown. . drafting the gown. . cutting the gown. . finishing the gown. we will take up the first: planning the gown the first thing to be thought of in planning the gown is the figure of the person for whom the gown is to be made. is she tall and slender or short and stout? is she light or dark? after settling these points, we must decide what sort of a gown would be best. for a small person the gown should have long straight lines to make her look tall. the tall slender person should have broken lines, lines running around, cutting up the length of the garment. for a short, stout person the back width should be broken so that it will look narrower. we must also think of the coloring of the patron. all persons cannot wear the same colors. the complexion, color of the hair and eyes must be considered. for a fair complexion, lighter shades may be used. for the sallow complexion, brown, dark blue, olive green and black. we must also consider the time when the gown is to be worn. the garment for winter should be heavier than for summer. for those who cannot afford a practical sewing and dressmaking variety, dark colors should be worn. for those who can afford it, cream, tan or light grey is good. the garment for winter should be more severe in lines than the fluffy thin garment for summer wear. we must also know for what occasion the dress is to be worn. whether for a wedding, party, street wear or house. having considered these points, we must now resort to the best fashion books to find our styles. it is never best to use extreme styles, as you will find that, if you do not, your gowns will stay in style much longer. sometimes you will have a patron who will choose from your books just the thing she should not wear. you must learn, if you wish to be a successful dressmaker, to influence her, in a tactful way, to choose some other style more suited to her form and coloring. in planning the two-piece street gowns, no rule can be given, except that they are always planned on more severe lines than any other garment except the long coat. both of these must be planned according to the prevailing style. a party gown must be planned very differently from a street suit. for a very formal party gown, low neck and short sleeves should be used, except for young girls. silks of delicate colors will be found the most suitable. these goods change nearly every year but a few standard ones may be found on the market, such as chiffons, nets, crepe-de-chine, taffeta, satin, etc. velvet may always be used. for young girls, thin, soft wool or cotton goods are always good, such as batiste, crepe, lawn, taffeta and china silk may also be used. a party gown will permit of more trimming than any other kind of a gown. plaiting, shirring and tucking may be used to good advantage on light materials. on the heavy materials like velvet, poplin or brocade, heavy laces, appliques, jet trimmings or embroideries should be used. a gown for house wear, but for less formal wear than the party gown, used for afternoon receptions, dinners, etc., may be made practical sewing and dressmaking quality of taffeta. we do not recommend silk for waist linings. in deciding on the quantity of goods required for a gown, experience is the best teacher. you must think of three things. width of goods, whether single or double fold, and the style of the gown. the measures of the patron must be considered, but unless of unusual size this is not important. it usually takes from ^ to yards of double width goods and from to yards of single width. the amount depends on how full the gowns are being made. do not trust too much to what the clerk tells you. they are apt to give small measure. for the cotton lining i}^ for the waist, ^ for the sleeves and /^ yds. for the drop skirt will be all that is required. this varies with the style. the chart closed lesson v how to take measures the taking of measures is the most important part of drafting. if the measures are not taken correctly one can never hope to make a draft that will fit. the drafting of a garment is no different from the drafting of a house, a bridge, or a machine. if one line is inaccurate the entire draft will come wrong. you cannot be too careful in taking your measures. above all things do not hurry and do not get excited when taking measures. if the person for whom the garment is being made does not wish to give time for you to take her measures you should not try to make the garment for her. before you begin to take the measures, be sure that the patron is standing squarely on both feet. the measures taken are: — i. waist measure. . bust measure. . neck measure. . armhole measure. . under arm measure. . upper front measure. . back length measure. . back width measure. . front length measure. . arm length measure. . elbow measure. . inside arm measure from armhole to bend of arm. . hand measure. . front length of skirt. practical sewing and dressmaking tight, tighter than the armhole can be worn. the armhole can be cut out later, but if it comes too large in the draft and all the seams have to be taken in to make it right, the good lines which gave the waist style will be lost. be sure to take it tight and be sure the patron's sleeve is not bunched up under the tape-line, under the arm. before taking the next measure, place a piece of tape or cord about the patron so that it comes close up under the arms. be very sure that it runs just straight around the body. it must not be allowed to dip down anywhere. draw it rather tight. do nqt pay any attention to the prominent part of the bust. just have it perfectly straight about the body, close up under the arms. under arm measure. — take this measure directly under the arm, from the top of this line, straight down to the bottom of the line at the bottom of the waist. have the patron raise her arm just enough to take this measure. she must not raise it way up. upper front measure. — place the end of the tape-line exactly on the prominent bone at the back of the neck. bring the tape-line around the side of the neck close up to the neck and straight down in front to the top of the line which was placed around the body under the arms. be sure that you bring the line down exactly straight from the side of the neck. it must not slant towards the back or front. back length measure. — place the end of the tape-line on the prominent bone at the back of the neck and measure straight down the back to the bottom of the line about the smallest part of the waist. be sure to take this measure straight down. it must not slant to right or left. stand directly back of the patron to take this measure. back width measure. — this measure is taken across the back about the middle of the armholes. be sure to get the measure wide enough. do not pay any attention to the garment the patron has on. measure out to where the arms join the body. practical sewing and dressmaking both arms should be straight down at the sides, when this measure is taken. front length measure. — place the end of the tape-line just where the neck should finish in front and measure straight down the front to the bottom of the line about the smallest part of the waist. do not draw this measure tight. make it just as you want the waist to set when finished. arm length measure. — place the end of the tape-line at the front of the arm where the arm joins the body about on a straight line with the thumb. measure straight down the arm to the creases about the wrist joint. when taking this measure have the patron stretch the arm out at right angles to the body. elbow measure. — take this measure around the arm at the elbow with the arm bent at right angle. be sure the tape-line is over the point of the elbow. inside arm measure from armhole to bend of arm. — take this measure from the same point you did the arm length measure down to the inside of the elbow. have the patron bend her arm so that you can locate the exact stopping-place. hand measure. — this measure is taken about the hand with the fingers held straight out and the thumb close against the hand. take this measure just snug, not tight. front length of skirt. — take this measure from the lower edge of the tape about the waist line at the exact middle of the front of the skirt, straight down the front of the skirt to the floor. when you cut your pattern you can take off what you wish from this length. i t is best to take this measure to the floor, for it is difficult to tell just where to stop in taking it any other way. side length of skirt. — take this measure from the lower edge of the tape about the waist line, half way between the middle of the back and the middle of the front, straight down the side of the skirt to the floor. back length of skirt. — take this measure from a point at the middle of the back, at the lower edge of the tape about practical sewing and dressmaking the waist line, straight down .the middle of the back to the floor. take hip measure. — take this measure about or inches below the waist line, straight around the prominent part of the hips. if the skirts are being worn very tight this measure should be taken snug. if the skirts are full take the measure just easy. if you are careful in taking these measures, your garments will need very little fitting, perhaps not any. few of us, however, have perfect forms. the method of drafting is worked out in inches, so it is bound to come right if the measures are taken correctly. lesson vi drafting the shirt-waist measures used for draft given:—• waist measure neck measure armhole measure bust measure back width measure upper front measure front length measure under arm measure inches i >£ inches inches inches .^ inches ^ inches inches ^ inches i. draw line a-b length of back length measure. . from a measure on line a-b under arm measure. mark this point c. . at c square a line with line a-b. . from c measure on this line }/& of bust measure. mark this point d. . from c on line c-d measure ^ of back width measure. mark this point e. . at e square line with line c-d. . from e on this line measure - of armhole measure. mark this point f. . measure y inch above point b. mark this point g. . at g square a line with line g-a. . from g on this line measure ^/ inches. mark this point h. . place point on the chart at point b and draw curve through h. . with curve d-c on the chart draw a curve through h and f. practical sewing and dressmaking . extend this curve beyond point f } inch. mark this point i. . from e measure on line c-d x/± of armhole measure. mark this point j. . find a point half way between j and e. mark this point k. . at point j square a line with line d-c. . from j on this line measure ^ inches. mark this point l. . place point g on the chart at point i and draw curve through k. . place point on the chart at point l and draw curve through k. . extend line e-f up % inches. mark this point m. . at point m square a line with line e-m. . from m on this line measure inches. mark this point n. . place point f on the chart at l and draw curve through n. . measure curve i-h. . from n measure the length of line i-h. mark this point o. . square a line with d-c so that it will pass through point . . measure from line d-c on this line, the upper front measure less what is used in the back neck. mark this point p. . from point p measure down ^ of neck measure. mark this point q. . from q measure up x/i inch. mark this point r. . at r square a line with line q-r. . on this line from r measure - of neck measure, and add }/i inch. mark this point s. . place point j on the chart at s and draw curve through p. shirt waist draft. practical sewing and dressmaking . from e on line drawn measure y inch to the right. mark this point j. . from j measure the elbow measure. mark this point k. . from k to the right measure y inch. mark this point l. . connect points l and i by straight line. . from a measure on line drawn the armhole measure. mark this point m. . from m measure to the right inches. mark this point n. . extend line a-b above a ^ inches. mark this point o. . square a line with line a-b at point . . from a on line a-n measure ^ inches. mark this point p. . from m measure inches to the left. mark this point q. . at p square a line with line a-n and mark the point r where this line touches the line from point , . at q square a line with line a-n and mark the point s where this line touches the line from o. . place point d on the chart at l and draw curve through n. y p^ce point g on the chart at point r and draw curve thrcugh point f. . place point f on the chart at point s and draw a curve through point m. continue the curve to point n. . find the point half way between p and q. mark this point t. . using t as a center and t-r as a radius draw an arc from r to s. . find a point half way between g and h. . from this point square a line with line b-i and draw % of an inch long. mark this point u. . connect u with i and d using curve c-d on the chart. shirt waist sleeve. practical sewing and dressmaking . the cuff is drafted straight. two inches longer than the hand measure and inches wide. the lower corner may be curved if desired. in cutting pattern allow all seams. lesson viii drafting the blouse-waist the only changes made in the blouse-waist are shirt-waist to make the — i. change the under arm seam from t to k. . draw both the under arm seam for the back and the front, a straight slant from k through v and w. . the one through v is the under arm seam for the front and the one through w is the under arm of the back. . slant the middle back out i j ^ inches. . add inches to the bottom of the waist for blouse. . hem the bottom with a narrow hem and run an elastic in it. . cut away the front to a v shaped opening, line b, and finish neck with a large sailor collar. lesson ix how to cut the sailor collar, or any large collar many people draft the sailor collar but it takes considerable time, so we will teach you a much quicker and simpler way and one which will not fail to fit the garment for which it is intended. after the draft of the waist has been made and the pattern cut from paper, pin the shoulder seam together. be sure to pin right on the line of each part. spread the pattern out flat on the table and place the center back on a straight edge of the paper, and pin in place. measure from the neck down the back the depth the collar is desired and square a line with the back line of the waist. draw this line out as wide as the collar is to be across the back. now decide how far you wish the collar to extend down the front and draw a line from the end of the line just drawn to the point in front. the best way to shape the outer edge of the collar is to cut the neck portion and then pin the pattern to the bust form and cut the edge any shape desired. you can see in this way just how the collar will look when finished. any lay down collar may be cut in this way. how to cut \ the s&uorcoluv * or a in u / l a r ^ e colli v. /- / / / / lesson x how to draft the kimono waist to make the kimono waist. trace off the draft of the shirtwaist on another piece of paper. cut out, allowing seams everywhere. pin the back pattern to the front at the shoulder seam and spread out flat on the table. take a large sheet of paper and place the pattern on it having the front line on a straight edge of the paper. this will bring the back bias. draw a line from the neck out so that it will divide the armhole into two very nearly equal parts. the back part will be a little smaller than the front. draw two lines beginning about i j ^ inches below the armhole on the under arm seam almost parallel to the line just drawn. they should come together very slightly towards the ends. draw these lines as long as you wish the sleeve to be and connect them with a straight line. this forms the sleeve of the waist. it is never best to try to make the sleeves much more than elbow length, as it is difficult to raise the arm if they are much longer. in basting up the kimono waist, it should always be basted with seams on the right side until after it is tried on and fitted. after it has been thoroughly fitted, french seam with a very narrow seam so that it will turn well. these waists may be as fancy as one wishes, having tucks or shirring over the shoulder. for a dress waist they are often made with a lining having a sewed in sleeve. this gives more freedom in raising the arm, and the sleeve is not so liable to tear out under the arm. for the kimono shirt-waist the sleeve should be quite loose. si kimono waist practical sewing and dressmaking mark the goods slanting. to put in the tucks, fold the cloth lengthwise just where you want the tucks to come. measure the width you want the tucks and put in with a running stitch or on the machine. press the tucks before you try to cut the waist. when you fold the goods together to cut the fronts, be sure that the tucks for each piece lie exactly on top of each other. cut from the goods, marking all seams with the tracing wheel. baste up and try on. baste on the collar band, after stitching the seams of the waist. to cut the collar band: use your tapeline to draw a circle. take a radius of inches. use the corner of the paper for the center of the circle and draw parts of two circles i inch apart. measure off enough length, from the edge of the paper on the lower circle, for j^ the neck measure. cut out the pattern and allow seams on both sides when you cut it from the cloth. to finish the bottom of the shirt-waist sleeve, if tailor made. make a cuff of three thicknesses of goods, if cotton, or with an interlining of cotton, if wool, ^ inches wide and ^ inches long, straight of the goods lengthwise. slash the sleeves up on line w-v about inches. baste on the under edge of this opening a strip of goods about ^ inches wide, having turned in the edges (see . ) so that it projects from the opening. lay the sleeve on the table right side up, and place over this piece just sewed on a piece about ^ inches wide which has been folded in the middle lengthwise and both edges turned in. place the lengthwise fold of this piece so that it just covers the under seam. the upper turned in edge of the piece will come on the right side of the sleeve and the under edge on the wrong side of the sleeve just opposite the other. baste into place and stitch. i t looks best to finish the upper end of this piece, which comes on the right side of the sleeve, to a point. stitch about the point on the machine. (see ills. and .) stitch up the sleeve. gather the bottom, leaving ^ inches each side of the seam plain. baste the pieces of the cuff together wrong side out, leaving one long side open. turn and baste the edge on practical sewing and dressmaking the right side, having the edge very smooth and even. notch the open side of the cuff about inch from the center. baste to the bottom of the sleeve, having the shortest part come on the under side of the sleeve. in basting to the sleeve have the right side of the cuff against the right side of the sleeve. only baste two of the three pieces of which the cuff is made, at the first basting, leaving the third, or lining, loose. turn the cuff down and turn in the edge of the lining and baste in place. stitch all four sides of the cuff on the right side very near the edge. gather the top of the sleeve from about inches from the seam on the upper side, and }^ inches from the seam on the under side. sew in and bind the armhole, after having tried on the waist for the last time. work a buttonhole in each end of the neck band, one in the center of the back and one at each end of the cuffs. they may also be worked down the front if desired. finish the bottom of the waist as the patron wishes. some like the fullness stitched in, while others want it left loose so that they can place it where they wish when the waist is worn. the fancy shirt-waist should fasten in the back instead of the front. the same draft is used. i t may be tucked yoke deep across the front and down the back, tucked in clusters with insertion of lace or embroidery between or any sort of ornaments placed on the front. in making collars and yokes of lace insertion, cut a correct pattern from white paper. baste the rows of lace on this and stitch together on the machine. tear the paper away and you have your yoke and collar just the desired shape. all tucks must be placed in the goods before it is cut. for the fancy waist the sleeves may be made as fancy as one wishes. they may be short or long as the style demands. for the short sleeve, the draft given may be used by laying a plait lengthwise in the pattern thus taking out the gathers, leaving only a few at the armhole. a leg o'mutton sleeve may be made from this same draft by laying a plait lengthwise beginning at practical sewing and dressmaking the bottom and letting it out gradually towards the top. the shirt-waist draft is used to make the shirt-waist dress. combined with the seven gored skirt it makes a fine shirt-waist suit. lesson xii drafting the tight waist with back forms measures used for draft given — waist measure neck measure armhole measure bust measure back width measure under arm measure front length measure upper front measure back length measure inches k inches inches inches k inches ^ inches x inches io$ inches inches i. draw line a-b length of back. . from a measure the under arm measure. mark this point c. . measure up from b y% inch. mark this point d. . square line d-e with line d-c at point d. . d to e is i ^ inches. . place point o on the chart at point b and draw curve through point e. . at c square a line with line a-b. . from c on this line measure y of bust measure. mark this point f. . from c on line c-f measure ^ of back width. mark this point g. . at g square a line with line c-f. . from point g measure on this line - of armhole measure. mark this point h. . place i half way between g and h. practical sewing and dressmaking . measure on line r-f the front length measure. mark this point s. . square a line with line c-f at point n. . measure down on this line the under arm measure. mark this point t. . draw a line from t to a. . measure from a on line a-t % of an inch. mark this point u. . draw line b-u. . find a point half way between t and u. mark this point w. . from point w measure to the right % inches. mark this point v. . place point f on the chart at a point % of an inch below i and draw with curve f-c on the chart, a curve through v. . place point d on the chart at the point where curve i-v crosses line c-f and draw curve through point w. . measure towards the right from t on line a-t inch. mark this point x. . with curve d-c on the chart draw a curve through points n and x. . from point t measure towards the left \i inches. mark this point y. . place point b on the chart at point n and draw curve through points n and y, holding the chart to the left. . place point c on the chart at s and draw curve through y. . from point s measure towards the right inch. mark this point z. . place point b on the chart at point f and draw curve through z. . from z towards the right measure \% inches. mark this point a. . to find out how much to take out in the darts, — find on the tape-line x/i of waist measure. place this point at u. now practical sewing and dressmaking measure from u to v, w to x and z to a. place the point which falls at a, at point y and with what is left measure towards point z. mark this point. the distance from this point to a is what must be taken out in darts, less the space we leave between the darts (b to d), which should be about i inch. the front dart is always made larger than the back one. . from a to b is width of front dart. in this case inches. . from d to e is width of back dart. in this case inches. . c is half way between a and b and f is half way between d and e. . from c through a point on the shoulder line inch from p, draw a line. . measure up on this line, from point c, inches for a tall person and inches for a short person. mark this point g. ( ins. is used in this draft.) . from point g measure towards the right inches exactly parallel with line c-f. mark this point h. . with curve c-d on the chart, draw curves a-g, b-g, h-d, e-h. . measure down from points u, t, f, c, and z, inches. . connect points u and i. . from a point half way between v and w, square a line with line a-t and draw inches long. mark this point j . . connect point j with v and j with w, with straight lines. . extend line n-t down inches. mark this point k. . connect point k with x. . measure to the right of k, inch, mark this point . . place point f on the chart at y and draw curve through . . make the distance from m to n and o to p about y less than from e to d and a to b. . connect a and e with a straight line. . draw line z-q straight down inches. . connect m and e, n and d, o and b, p and a. note — in drafting any of the waists below the waist line, tight waist draft with back form. v practical sewing and dressmaking it will be found necessary to change the measures for different persons. some who have very small waist measure will have large hips, while some with large waist measure will have small hips. use the hip measure and change each measure a little so that the draft inches below the waist line will be the exact hip measure. in cutting out the armhole of any waist, remember that you took the measure tighter than it could be worn, so it must be cut out more than the draft. see dotted line on draft. in cutting the pattern from the draft allow seams everywhere. lesson xiii drafting the waist without back forms measures used in draft given — waist measure neck measure armhole measure . . . . bust measure back width measure. under arm measure. . front length measure upper front measure. back length measure. inches x inches inches inches k inches inches i >£ inches io^ inches inches . draw line a-b length of back. . from b to d is y% inch. . at d square a line with line a-b. . on this line measure from point d i j ^ inches. mark this point e. . place point on the chart at point b and draw curve through e. . at point c square a line with a-b. . on this line measure from point c }/ the bust measure. mark this point f. . from point c on line c-f measure y of back width. mark this point g. . at point g square a line with line c-f. . on this line measure from g, - of armhole measure. mark this point h. . place point d on the chart at e and draw curve through h and extend curve j^> inch beyond h. practical sewing and dressmaking . measure on line g-h, from point h, i - inches. mark this point i. . from g on line c-f measure }/£ armhole measure. mark this point j. . find a point half way between j and g. mark this point l. . at point j square a line with line c-f. . measure on this line from j, ^ inches. mark this point m. . place point g on the chart at the end of curve e-h and draw a curve through point l. . place point o on the chart at m and draw a curve through l. . place point f on the chart at m and draw a curve through k. . extend line i-k to the left of k. . on this line measure from k the same length as the curve from e extended through h. mark this point n. . square a line with line c-f so that it will pass through n. . measure on this line from line c-f the upper front measure, less the back neck measure. mark this point o. . with curve d-c draw a curve through k and o. . from o measure down % the neck measure. mark this point p. . at p square a line with line o-p. . on this line measure from p, - of the neck measure and add inch. mark this point q. . place point j on the chart at q and draw curve through point . . draw a straight line from q through f. . on this line measure from q, the front length measure. mark this point r. . find a point half way between j and l. mark this point s. practical sewing and dressmaking . at point s, square a line with line c-f. . measure on this line from line c-f the under arm measure. mark this point t. . connect t and a with a straight line. . from a measure on this line inch. mark this point u. . connect u and b. . find a point half way between u and t and measure ^ inch to the right of this point. mark this point v. . place point c on the chart at v and with curve c-f on the chart, draw a curve through point g. . from v measure inch to the left. mark this point w. . place point b on the chart at g and draw a curve through w. . measure inch to the right of t. mark this point x. . with curve d-c on the chart draw a curve from x to s. . measure i] , inches to the left of t. . place point c on the chart at x, and draw curve to s. . measure from u to v and from w to x. this shows how much of the waist measure has been used in the back. . from r measure to the right j^ inch. mark this point z. . place point a on the chart at z and draw curve touching line f-r. . from point y measure towards point z what is left of the waist measure after taking out what is used in the back. mark this point. . measure the distance from this point to z. this gives what must be taken out in darts to bring the garment in to the proper waist measure, in this case % inches. . we will make the front dart % inches and the back one inches. . place point c on the chart at r and draw curve c-f through y. . from z measure inches. mark this point a. practical sewing and dressmaking . from a measure % inches (front dart). mark this point b. . from b, measure inch. mark this point c. . from c measure inches (back dart). mark this point d. . find a point half way between a and b. mark this point e. . from a point inch to the right of o draw a straight line through e. . from e measure up on this line inches for a tall person and for a short person (we use inches in this draft). mark this point f. . with curve d-c on the chart draw a curve from f to a and from f to b. . find a point half way between c and d. mark this point g . measure from f, inches to the right and parallel to line c-f. mark this point h. . draw a straight line connecting h and g. . with curve d-c on the chart connect h and d and h and c. . to form the bottom of the waist. — measure down inches from a. mark this point i. connect u and i with a straight line. . find a point half way between v and w. at this point square a line with line a-t. . measure down on this line inches. mark this point j . connect j and v, and j and w with straight lines. . extend line s-t down inches. mark this point k. connect k and x with a straight line. . measure inch to the right of k. mark this point . . place point f on the chart at y, and draw curve to . . extend line h-g down inches. mark this point m. . using y the distance from c to d as a measure and placing the middle of this distance at m, mark points either side of m — o and n. . connect n with d and o with c by straight lines. extend line e-f down inches. mark this point p. tight waist draft w i t h o u t back form practical sewing and dressmaking . with p as a center, using ^ the distance from a to b, mark points r and q. . connect r and a, and q and b with straight lines. . extend curve z straight down inches. . connect a and d with a straight line. note — for a person with a very large waist measure it is best to make the distance from b to c a little more, say i j ^ inches, or even inches. this waist is the best one to use for linings as the back form seam is apt to show especially where the goods is thin. practical sewing and dressmaking . measure on this line from l the under arm measure. mark this point s. . connect s and a with a straight line. . from a on this line measure % of an inch. mark this point t. . connect t and b with a straight line. . measure on the shoulder curve inches from the armhole. mark this point u. . find a point half way between t and s and measure % inch to the left of this point. mark this point v. . from v measure \x/i inches to the right. mark this point w. . connect u and w with a straight line. . place point c on the chart at v and let point d touch line u-w. draw curve. . measure to the right of s, inch. mark this point x. . place point d on the chart at l and draw curve through x. . measure to the left of s % inches. mark this point y. . place point a on the chart at y and draw curve through l. . measure from t to w and from v to x. this shows how much of the waist measure has been used in the back. . measure from y towards r what is left of the waist measure, after taking out what was used in the back. mark this point. . measure the distance from this point to point r. this gives the amount to be taken out in the dart to bring the waist into the correct waist measure. in this case it is ^ inches. . place point c on the chart at r and draw curve through y, using curve c-f on the chart. . measure from j on curve j- inches. mark this point z. . measure from r ^ inches. mark this point a. . connect a and z with a straight line. practical sewing and dressmaking . measure from a on line a-z inches for a tall person and inches for a short person. mark this point aa. . with curve d-c on the chart connect a with aa. . measure to right of a ^ inches (dart). mark this point b. . place point b on the chart at aa and draw curve through b. . find a point half way between a and b. mark this point c. . connect a and b with a straight line. . at c square a line with line a-b, and measure from c, inches. mark this point d. . find y% the distance from a to b and with d as a center, mark points e and f. . connect e and b with a straight line. . connect a and f with a straight line. . extend line q-r below r inches. . connect b and y with a straight line. . extend line a-b below a inches. mark this point h. . connect h and t with a straight line. . find a point half way between v and w. mark this point g. . square a line at g, with line a-s and measure down from g, inches. mark this point i. . connect w and i with a straight line, also connect v and i. . extend line l-s below s inches. mark this point j . . measure to the right of j inch. mark this point k. . place point f at y and draw curve through k. . connect x and j with a straight line. in cutting pattern allow all seams. lesson xv how to cut, fit and make the waist w e have finished planning the gown, and have learned to draft the different kinds of waists. we will now take up the cutting, fitting and making of the waist. after making the draft you should trace, with the tracing wheel each piece of the draft off on another piece of paper, and cut out each part allowing seams everywhere. y% inch seam should be allowed at the armhole, neck and back form pieces, i inch at the shoulder and i ^ inches at the under arm seams, down the back and at the front. this much need not be allowed at the back unless the waist is to be open there. b e very careful to mark the true waist line on each piece. after the correct pattern has been cut from the paper, spread the lining out on a table. lay the different parts of the pattern on the lining to the best advantage to save cloth. b e very careful that the true waist line of each piece is on the straight of the cloth crosswise, off on the bias when finished. so that they will not stretch b e sure to trace the true waist line of each piece before you pick up the pattern, also trace all seams. we now have our waist, lining all cut out and are ready to baste it up. begin by basting up the back seam, if the waist is to open in front, if not this seam will not be basted. next baste the side forms next to the back, taking care not to stretch the seam where it is circling. last of all the second form seams. in basting all seams the pieces must always be pinned together at the waist line before you begin to baste and they should always be made to come out even at the armhole. i t is always best to pin the seam the full length before you begin to baste. practical sewing and dressmaking baste the darts in the front pieces, pinning the waist line first. after these are basted, baste the under arm seams and shoulder seams. be very careful not to lose the little curves in the shoulder seams. in basting the lining, do not crush or soil it. it will never fit well if you do. now the waist is all basted and we are ready to have our patron come for a first fitting. if you have learned to take your measures correctly there should be very few, if any changes to make. i have put many linings on persons where there were no changes to make at all. of course if a person is out of shape in any way, their lining must be fitted. your patron has come to be fitted. place the lining on her and pin up very carefully, following the tracing either in front or in the back as the case may be. to fit the waist. — if the neck is a little tight, cut out a small seam. if very tight, open the shoulder seam a little way and let out. if the lining is too tight or too loose at the bust, it should be taken in or let out at the under arm seam. if the waist draws from the neck to the armhole, open the shoulder seam at the neck and let out in front. be sure the waist is loose enough between the shoulders and that it is not too loose at the armhole. if it is, take in the form seams a little. after the lining has been thoroughly fitted, all the seams should be stitched and pressed open on the pressing cushion, after they have all been trimmed to about y inch. clip each seam y inch below and above the waist line. be very careful not to stretch the seams or lose any of the curves in pressing. it is the curve which gives style to the waist. we are ready now to bone the lining. use the best quality of featherbone. sometimes real whalebone is used, but it has grown very expensive and most dressmakers now substitute featherbone. it will take about or yards of the bone. use silk thread for stitching it in, and the longest stitch your machine will make. you can get the featherbone in either silk or cotton. the quality of the gown will determine which to use. the style of the gown will determine just how far below the waist line o practical sewing and dressmaking the hooks are sewed on the right-hand side of the front when the waist opens in front. if in the back they are placed on the left-hand side. pin the two sides of the lining together, being sure that the true waist lines are even. mark with pins the place where each hook and each eye should go, making them about i j inches apart. both the hooks and eyes must be sewed on the wrong side of the lining, the eyes coming out just far enough to let the hooks slide in. if the gown is to have a fancy yoke, do not sew hooks and eyes where this will come, as the lining will be cut away here, after we get the outside ready to place on it. we are ready now to cut the outside. if this is to follow rather closely the shape of the lining, we can use the same pattern for cutting. however, if it is to be very different, we must cut a new pattern, always leaving the shoulder and armhole the same as the lining. pin the pattern to your bust form and shape the front or back so that it looks just as you wish it to look in the finished waist. in making this pattern for the outside, all fullness of every kind must be put in the paper pattern. when the pattern for the outside has been prepared, spread the goods out on the table and lay all the pieces of the pattern on, being careful to have the true waist line on the straight of the goods crosswise. sometimes, however, small checks and plaids are cut on the bias. in this case the true waist line should be on a true bias of the goods. in cutting the outside back the form pieces are not used. the back is cut all in one piece, if the waist opens in front, if not, then it is cut in two pieces. it is best to pin all the pieces of the back pattern, which are used to cut the lining, together just as you sewed them for the lining, and use this for a pattern for cutting the outside back. cut the goods from the wrong side, and before lifting the pattern mark all seams with tailor's chalk. if two pieces are cut at once, follow the lines made on one side with pins. turn over and follow the pins with the chalk. run a thread in each piece marking the true waist line before taking up the pattern. when practical sewing and dressmaking l the outside is all cut, pin the under arm seams together, beginning with the true waist line, and baste. do the same with the shoulder seams. these are all the seams we have in the outside. these seams should be just like the lining, as, if we made any changes in fitting the lining we should have made the same in the outside pattern. we can therefore stitch these seams. trim the seams to about y inch and overcast each side. press open on the pressing cushion. the under arm seams should be clipped above and below the waist line. now place the lining on the bust form and fill out with soft paper wherever it is larger than the form. place the outside on it. pin the shoulder seams in the outside to the shoulder seams of the lining, and the under arm seams at the armhole to the under arm seam of the lining. pin securely all about the armhole, being sure that the outside is smooth. if the outside is cut kimono, it will not fasten anywhere to the lining, except at the bottom of the waist. of course all waists fasten to the lining where the collar sews on or at the bottom of a fancy yoke. when the outside is kimono it should be left to blouse a little under the arms to give freedom in raising the arms. arrange fullness in the outside just as you wish it to be when finished. pin it, leaving the basting until you have had another fitting. put all trimming in place while it is on the form. a very good way when a fancy waist is being made is to cut the pattern out of old cloth. pin it to the lining on the bust form and keep changing it a little here and there until it looks just as you wish it to when finished. use this cloth as a pattern to cut from the goods. with a little practice you will get so you can cut any waist you see. if the dress is being made of thin wash goods, of course it will not have a lining, unless your patron wishes one. some people wish their summer gowns made on a lining. for this purpose we use a thin lining lawn. when no lining is used it is nearly always best to use the shirt-waist pattern instead of the tight lining pattern. in this case arrange all tucks and fullness of every kind in your pattern. cut from practical sewing and dressmaking the goods. stitch up the seams and place on the bust form to arrange fullness as it should be when finished. these waists must be made with a kind of fullness that can be stitched in, such as shirring, tucking, etc. our waist is ready for a second fitting, but we will lay it away while we prepare the rest of the gown, before we ask our patron to come again. lesson xvi drafting the coat or lining sleeve measures used for draft given — arm length measure arm length to bend of elbow armhole measure elbow measure hand measure inches ^ inches inches x inches inches i. draw line a-b length of arm measure. . from point a measure on line a-b length of arm to bend of elbow. mark this point c. . at c square a line with line a-b. . from c measure on this line inches. mark this point d. . place point d on the chart at d and draw curve through a. . place point d on the chart at d and draw curve through b. . from d measure % elbow measure. mark this point e. . measure ]^ inches to right of e. mark this point g. . measure }^ inches to left of e. mark this point f. . measure j^ inch to right of points f and g. mark these points h and i. . at point b square a line with line a-b. . measure from b on this line y% of hand measure. mark this point j. . measure \i inch to the right of j. mark this point k. . at k square a line with line b-k and measure inch from k. mark this point l. . connect points l and b with a straight line. practical sewing and dressmaking in cutting pattern allow / inch seams everywhere except on inside seam. one inch or more should be allowed here until after the sleeve has been fitted. gather top of sleeve from / inches from a to xl lesson xvii the one-piece tight sleeve to make the one-piece tight sleeve, trace off on another piece of paper the upper piece of coat or lining sleeve. lay line t-f of the under piece on line u-g of the upper piece and trace the under piece. this makes a sleeve which fits exactly like the coat or lining sleeve, but it has no seam at the back from the elbow up. it is used for the lining of fancy sleeves and often for the outside. where one wishes to put tucks around the arm it will be found useful. it is good for the lining of sleeves made of thin material where the seam would not look well. it makes a fine lining for the mousquetaire sleeve. one piece tight sleeve lesson xviii the flowing sleeve the flowing sleeve is made from the coat or lining sleeve as the one-piece sleeve was. trace off on another piece of paper the upper sleeve. lay line t-f of the under on line u-g of the upper and trace off the under piece of the sleeve. i. measure up from point b of the upper ^ inches. mark this point f. . measure from point n inches. mark this point e. . draw a straight line through e and f and extend it inches beyond f. mark this point i. . measure from l on the under piece up inches. mark this point g. . measure from b up ^ inches. mark this point h. . draw a line through g and h and extend inches beyond h. mark this point j. . mark the point where these lines cross k. . place point c on the chart at i and hold chart so that curve c-f touches line d-a. draw curve. . place point c on the chart at j and hold chart so that curve c-f touches line d-a. draw curve. . hold curve o-j on the chart so that it touches lines j-k and i-k. draw curve. in cutting pattern allow seams everywhere. the flowing sleeve is sometimes used in dresses but more often in dressing sacks and kimonos. flowing sleeve. lesson xix drafting the sleeve with the tight elbow and large top measures used in draft given — arm length arm length to bend of elbow armhole measure elbow measure hand measure inches o>£ inches inches i >£ inches inches i. draw line a-b length of arm measure. . from a measure length of arm to bend of elbow. mark this point c. . at c square a line with line a-b. . from c on this line measure inches. mark this point d. . from d measure j^ of elbow measure. mark this point e. . measure to the left of e % inches. mark this point f. . measure to the right of e i j ^ inches. mark this point g. . measure to the right of f x/i inch. mark this point h. . measure to the right of g % i nc h- mark this point i. . square a line at b with line a-b. . on this line measure from b y% of hand measure. mark this point j. . to the right of j measure ^ inch. mark this point k. . at k square a line with line b-k. . measure on this line from k inch. mark this point l. . connect points l and b with a straight line. . measure on this line from l inch. mark this point m. . connect points m and h with a straight line, also points l and i. practical sewing and dressmaking . place point d on the chart at point d and draw a curve to b. . place point d on the chart at d and draw a curve to a. . place point f on the chart at f and hold so that point j touches line h-m and draw curve. . place point f on the chart at g and hold so that point j just touches line i-l and draw curve. . measure line g-l and extend line f-m below m to make it the same length. mark this point n. . connect n and b with a straight line. . at a square a line with line a-b. . from a on this line measure y% the armhole measure. mark this point o. . measure to the right of times the distance from e to g. mark this point p. . measure to the left of o inches. mark this point q. . extend line a-b above a ^ inches. mark this point r. . at r square a line with line r-b. . on this line measure from r i j ^ inches. mark this point s. . place point g on the chart at s and draw a curve through a. . at point q square a line with line a-p. mark the point t where this line touches the line from s. . at p square a line with line a-p and mark the point u where this line touches the line from s. . connect points f and t with a straight line. . place point g on the chart at t and hold the chart so that the curve touches line a-p; draw curve and continue to a. . measure inch to the right of u. mark this point v. . place point d on the chart at g and draw curve towards v. extend curve to v. . find a point on line r-v half way between s and v. mark this point w. sleeve with and large top. tight elbow lesson xx drafting the leg o' mutton sleeve measures used in draft given — arm length measure arm length to bend of elbow armhole measure elbow measure hand measure inches g} inches inches i >£ inches inches i. draw line a-b length of arm measure. . measure from a length of arm to bend of elbow. mark this point c. . at c square a line with line a-b. . on this line measure from c, inches. mark this point d. . from d measure ^ the elbow measure. mark this point e. . measure to the left of e, \x/i inches. mark this point f. . measure to the right of e, j^ inches. mark this point g. . measure to the right of f, j^ inch. mark this point h. . measure to the right of g, }/i inch. mark this point i. . at b square a line with line a-b. . on this line measure from b, y the hand measure. mark this point j. . measure to the right of j, ^ inch. mark this point k. . at k square a line with line b-k. . on this line measure from k, inch. mark this point l. . connect l and b with a straight line. . measure on this line from l, inch. mark this point m. . connect points m and h with a straight line, also points l and i. practical sewing and dressmaking . place point d on the chart at d and draw a curve to point b. . place point d on the chart at d and draw a curve to point a. . place point f on the chart at f and hold chart so that point j touches line h-m. draw curve. . place point f on the chart at g and hold chart so that point j touches line i-l. draw curve. . measure line g-l and extend line f-m below m, to make it the length of g-l. mark this point n. . connect n and b with a straight line. . at a square a line with line a-b. . from a on this line measure ^ the armhole measure. mark this point . . measure to the right of twice the distance from e to g. mark this point p. . measure to the left of , inches. mark this point q. . extend line a-b above a, ^ inches. mark this point r. . at r square a line with line r-b. . on this line measure from r? % inches. mark this point s. . place point g on the chart at s, and draw curve through a. . at point q square a line with line a-p. mark the point t, where this line touches the line from s. . at p square a line with line a-p and mark the point u where this line touches the line from s. . connect points f and t with a straight line. . place point g on the chart at point t and hold chart so that the curve touches line a-p. draw curve and continue it to a. . measure inch to the right of u. mark this point v. . draw a straight line from g to a point half way between u and v. practical sewing and dressmaking the waist lining is on your patron. pull up the gathers at the top and pin the sleeve to the armhole under the arm. have your patron bend her arm and bring her arm forward at the shoulder to be sure the sleeve does not draw at the elbow. if it should draw a little, see if the elbow is located just right and that you have not pinned it in too far to the waist in the back, at the back seam. after the sleeve is thoroughly fitted turn it up at the hand to just the right length. before removing from your patron, mark where the front seam comes, on the waist. remove the waist and sleeve from your patron and you are ready to proceed with the outside of the sleeve. if your sleeve is to be a plain one with the trimming placed on the outside, the outside goods will be cut just like the lining. if, however, the outside is to be very different, a pattern must be cut for the outside. there are sleeve forms which may be bought, like the bust forms. if one is going to work for others it always pays to have one of these forms. the best way to learn to cut the fancy outside is to take an old piece of cloth. cut what you think will make what you want and keep changing it until you get it just right. with a little practice, you can make just what you want the first time. most sleeves conform quite closely to the lining, so you will not have much trouble. if there are to be tucks in the sleeve they must be put in the goods before it is cut out. to make the mousquetaire sleeve. this is the sleeve which is fulled on the lining from the shoulder to the hand. for this sleeve use the tight lining sleeve. cut out the lining and sew up the elbow seam. gather the goods on to the lining at the inside seam, allowing about once and a half the length of the sleeve. be sure that the outside is the same size as the fining crosswise. sew up the inside seam and tack the fullness to the lining all along the outside seam, or where it would be, so that it cannot drop down out of place. be careful to make the fastenings so that they do not show. when large sleeves are being worn, a very pretty sleeve is made by putting small length- coax .sleeve or li'ntnp «s!eev< sleeve flowing sleeme practical sewing and dressmaking wise tucks from the hand to the elbow, allowing the sleeve to puff from the elbow to the shoulder. in cutting this sleeve the tucks must be placed in the goods and all the fullness left by the tucks must be left in the sleeve. for this sleeve use the one-piece lining. after sewing up the outside seam to the elbow, fasten the tucks in place on the lining. baste the goods on the lining. cut out the sleeve and baste up. gather the outside at the top in to the size of the lining, and then gather both the lining and outside in to the size of the armhole. a little of the fullness left by the tucks may be shoved off at the sides but not enough to make it look drawn at the top of the tucks. a bias band or a fancy shaped cuff may be placed at the hand or it may be simply faced with a bias facing. if you wish a sleeve to be sewed in at the armhole without gathers, take the sleeve off at the highest part of the top about i inch, and take it in enough at point a to make it the exact size of the armhole. the one-piece sleeve is the best one to use for this sleeve. after the sleeve is all stitched and pressed, lay it away with the waist until the skirt and drop skirt are prepared. all that is left to do to the sleeve is to face it about the hand with a bias facing, of silk if the goods is very heavy; if not, of the goods itself. circular skirt. t >h ££$•& »\ fiyev practical sewing and dressmaking . place point j on the chart at g and with curve j-f draw curve towards h. continue curve to h. . measure from a on circle a-f ^ of waist measure. mark this point i. . measure from c on circle c-h, ^ of hip measure. mark this point j. . draw a straight line through i and j and continue down the length of the back skirt measure. this line is the center back line. . measure from a down the edge of the paper, which is the front center line of the skirt, the front length measure of the skirt. point k. . measure down from i the back length of skirt. point l. . measure from e the side length of skirt. point m. . the curve for the bottom of the skirt is found by measuring down every few inches the length measures of the skirt. this skirt draft should never be used for narrow goods. it should always be cut from very heavy goods. in cutting pattern allow seams down the back and at the waist line. three gored circular skirt practical sewing and dressmaking in i i . measure from a on circle a-f, ^ of waist measure. mark this point i. . measure from c on circle c-h, j^ of hip measure. mark this point j. . draw a straight line through i-j and continue down the length of the back skirt measure. this line is the center back line. . measure from a down the edge of the paper, which is the front center line of the skirt, the front skirt length. point k. . measure down from i the back length of skirt. point l. . on circle a-f measure inch to the left of point e. mark this point m. . on circle c-h measure inch to the left of g. mark this point n. . draw a line through m and n and continue down the length of side skirt measure. mark this point o. . measure to the right and left of on the bottom curve of skirt, inches. mark these points p and q. . connect n and p, and n and q with straight lines. . a-k-m-p is the front gore. m-q-i-l is the back gore. in cutting out the pattern allow seams everywhere. note — the three-gored circular skirt draft is the same as the full circular skirt, except that a half-yard is taken out at the sides. this gives less fullness, and the seam down the side keeps the skirt from sagging. lesson xxiv drafting the seven-gored skirt measures used in this draft — waist measure hip measure front length of skirt side length of skirt back length of skirt measure about bottom inches inches inches x inches ^ inches yards take a piece of paper having one square corner and a straight edge, large enough to hold the draft. . a represents the corner of the paper. . with a as a center and a radius of inches, draw a circle b-d, beginning at the edge of the paper, a-p. . with a as a center and a radius of inches, draw another circle, c-e. . from c on circle c-e, measure - of one half the hip measure. mark this point f. . from point c on circle c-e measure i j ^ inches more than from c to f. mark this point g. . measure from c to f and c to g. subtract this amount from yi the hip measure. . use what is left of the hip measure for the distance from c to h and c to i, making c to h }/% inch less than c to i. . from b on circle b-d measure inch less than from c to f. mark this point k. . from b on circle b-d measure % inch more than from b to k. mark this point l. . measure from b to k and b to l and subtract this sum from yi the waist measure. practical sewing and dressmaking . use what is left of the waist measure for the distance from b to m and b to n, making b to m % inch less than b to n. . place point c on the chart at point f and draw curve through k. . place point d on the chart at g and draw curve through l. . place point d on the chart at h and draw curve through m. . place point d on the chart at i and draw curve through n. . to form the inverted plait — measure on a straight line from g, touching the circle c-e, inches. mark this point j. . from l measure on a straight line touching the circle b-d, $l/ inches. mark this point . . measure up from , % of an inch. mark this point . . place point f on the chart at and draw curve through l. . connect and j with a straight line. . to form the bottom of the gores — measure down from b on the edge of the paper the front length of skirt. mark this point p. . with a as a center and a-p as a radius, draw a circle, beginning at the edge of the paper. circle p-v. . from p on circle p-v measure ^ inches more than from c to f. mark this point q. . decide how wide you wish your skirt about the bottom. this will be determined by the style being worn. . subtract from y the bottom measure the distance from p toq. . divide what is left of the bottom measure into three equal parts. use one of these parts as a measure for the three other gores. . make the distance from p to r inches less than this - measure. . now find out how much of the j^ bottom measure you ii practical sewing and dressmaking have used, by measuring from p to q and from p to r. subtract this sum from y the bottom measure. . divide what is left into two equal parts. use this measure for the two side gores, making p to s inches less than p to t. . measure from point r, inches, point u, for the bottom of inverted plait. . connect with straight lines points f and q, g and r, h and s, i and t, j and u. . to find the true bottom curve of each gore, measure down from waist curve, on each line, the skirt lengths. . the front gore is represented by b-p-k-q. . the back gore is represented by b-p-l-r, with inverted plait l-r-o-u. . front side gore is represented by b-p-m-s. . back side gore is represented by b-p-n-t. . to lay the inverted plait, place line l-r over on line o-u. in putting the skirt together the straight side of each gore b-p will come against the bias side of the gore next to it. in cutting the pattern allow seams everywhere. lesson xxv drafting the nine-gored skirt measures used for draft given — waist measure hip measure front length measure side length measure back length measure measure about bottom inches inches inches ^ inches x inches yards take a piece of paper having a square corner and one straight side. . a represents the corner. . with a as a center and a radius of inches, draw a circle, b-d. . with a as a center and inches as a radius, draw a circle, c-e. . from c on circle c-e measure - of half the hip measure. mark this point f. . from b on circle b-d measure % inch less than from c to f. mark this point i. . measure down from b the skirt length measure. mark this point m. . from m, measure ^ inches more than from c to f. mafk this point n. . connect i and f, and f and n with straight lines. this forms the front gore. . from y the hip measure subtract the distance from c to f. . divide what is left into equal parts. this gives the nine gored skirt. mn practical sewing and dressmaking hip measure for each of the other gores, or the distance from c to g. . subtract from y the waist measure the distance from b to i. . divide what is left into equal parts. this gives the measure for the waist line of all the other gores, or distance from b to j. . subtract from y the bottom measure the distance from mton. . divide what is left into equal parts. this gives the measure for the bottom of all the gores, or the distance from m to . . after cutting the front gore, b-m-i-n, cut gores like the gore represented by b-m-j-o. . to make the back gores — add the inverted plait. . measure from g on a straight line touching curve c-h, ^ inches. mark this point h. . measure from j on a straight line touching curve c-e, ^ inches. mark this point k. . measure on a straight line from o, inches. mark this point p. . measure up from k, y inch. mark this point l. place point f on the chart at l, and draw curve through j. connect l and h, and h and p with straight lines. . b-m-l-p represents the back gore with inverted plait. cut two of these gores. you will have gores in all. notch each gore as it is cut out, to show just where each one goes. always put the straight side b-m against the bias side of the next gore. get the true bottom curve as you did the sevengored skirt. to lay inverted plait, place line j- on line l-p. in cutting pattern allow seams everywhere. practical sewing and dressmaking i i . divide what is left into equal parts. . measure from d on circle d-e one of these parts. mark this point j. . subtract from / the waist measure the distance from b to g. . divide what is left into equal parts. . measure from b on circle b-c one of these parts. mark this point k. . place point d on the chart at j and draw curve through k. . connect j and l with a straight line. this finishes the side gore. twelve of these should be cut. . to form the back gore — add to the side gore the inverted plait. . measure on a straight line from k touching the curve, y inches. mark this point m. . measure up from m / inch. mark this point n. . measure from j on a straight line touching curve, inches. mark this point . . measure from l, inches. mark this point p. . connect n- and v with a straight line. the entire back gore is represented by b-h-n-p. the side gores by b-h-k-l. the front gore by b-h-g-i. to lay the inverted plait, lay line l-k over on line n-p. in cutting pattern allow all seams. lesson xxvii the full plaited skirt, made from the fifteen-gored draft for this skirt make the bottom measure ^ yards, when you make your draft. . trace off on another piece of paper the front gore. . measure out inch from g. . measure out i j ^ inches from f. . measure out ^ inches from i. . connect these two points with straight lines, and cut on this line. this amount added to the gore is for the plait. . turn the plait under, turning on line g-f-i. . trace off the side gore. . measure out from b, inch. . measure out from d, i j ^ inches. . measure out from h, y inches. . connect these points with straight lines. this amount added is for a lap to run under the plait of the front gore. . measure out from k, inch. . measure out from j, i^i inches. . measure out from l, x/ inches. this forms the plait to be turned under on the side gore. this forms the entire skirt except the two back gores. . to form the back gores — trace off the back gore, having added the inverted plait. . measure out from b, inch. . measure out from d, ^ inches. . measure out from h, ^ inches. . connect these points with straight lines. this forms full plaited fifteen gore. skirt. practical sewing and dressmaking the lap to run under the plait of the gore next to the back. lay the inverted plait by placing line k-j-l over on n-o-p. cut the same number of gores of each kind as directed in the plain fifteen-gored skirt. in cutting from the goods, the line marked b-h on the illustration must be marked with a thread before the pattern is raised from the goods. after each plait has been turned in, baste it flat to the next gore. have the edge of the plait follow the line b-h each time. stitch on the edge of each plait from the waist down about inches. turn the skirt wrong side out and stitch the raw edge of the plaits to the raw edge of the laps in a flat seam about y m c n wide. before removing the bastings which hold the plaits in place, give each plait a dead press by placing a wet cloth on it and pressing until dry. use a rather heavy iron. the skirt should be placed on a band at the waist and hung about the bottom, before removing the bastings. after the skirt is hung even about the bottom, run a thread where it is to turn up and then remove the bastings. turn up the hem and stitch it in. press the hem and then press the plaits back in where they were pressed out in pressing the hem. lesson x x v i i i to cut, make and finish the drop skirt and outside skirt we will take up the drop skirt. the amount of material for the drop skirt must depend on the style of the outside skirt. if the skirts worn are very scant the drop skirt must be made to correspond. if very full, it must be made with a full ruffle or plaiting. five and one half yards of cotton lining or yards of taffeta will make a full drop skirt. you have of course decided whether your outside skirt is to be scant or full and we take it for granted that you have drafted your pattern. you should do all the drafting before you begin the gown, waist, sleeve and skirt. use the draft you have made for the skirt. trace off each gore on another piece of paper and allow seams everywhere. of course a seam will not be allowed down the front of the draft, as only j^ the front is drafted. allow j^ i n c h seam at the waist line and % inch on all sides of the gores. the pattern should be made just the length the skirt is to be when finished. in using the seven-gored skirt, if the skirts worn are a little full, slant the lines from the hips down out a little. if they are worn very tight, draw the lines just a little slanting. notch each gore as it is cut from the paper, beginning with the front, which has one notch. the side of the second gore which comes next to the front has one notch, and the other side of this gore two notches. so on until all the gores are notched. turn each gore up inches from the bottom and pin. use this for a pattern for the drop skirt. spread the lining out on the table. i t will be double fold, if cotton. lay the middle of the front gore on the lengthwise fold of the goods and arrange the first practical sewing and dressmaking with a narrow hem. a silk drop skirt is cut the same except that there is no fold to cut the front gore on. fold the goods together to cut the front, and proceed as in the cotton skirt. the outside skirt — turn the bottom of the pattern down again, where you turned it up to use it for the drop skirt. this leaves the pattern just the length the finished skirt is to be. we will make a perfectly plain skirt. spread the goods on the table, if possible wrong side up. never cut the front gore of the outside skirt on the fold that is in the goods, if it is double-fold goods. this used always to be done, but it is no longer considered proper. make a fresh fold just far enough from the edge of the goods to cut the gore. after this gore is cut, lay all others on, to the best advantage possible. n e v e r lay the front side of the gores exactly on the straight of the goods lengthwise. always lay the top of the gore back at least i ^ inches. always allow about inches at the bottom of each gore for hem. if you are short of goods only allow two inches, and then the skirt may be faced. i t is never best to cut a skirt the exact length it is to be, for it always takes up in making. before raising the pattern from the goods, turn back all seams on the pattern and mark on the goods with tailor's chalk. also mark where the bottom of the pattern comes on each gore. be sure to notch each gore to correspond with the pattern. pin the front gore to the second ones, one at a time, and baste. pin every few inches and be careful not to stretch either side. when all the seams have been basted in this way, turn the skirt up about the bottom, on the wrong side, on the line you made with the chalk. the chalk rubs off easily so it is best to trace on the line with thread before handling the skirt. pin every few inches and high enough up so that the hem will not drop down. run a strong thread along the waist line to keep it from stretching when it is tried on. we are ready now for the first fitting. when the patron comes, if the waist and skirt are to be separate, put the skirt on first, over the drop skirt. examine very carefully to see if it is a perfect fit about the hips and waist and notice whether the seams practical sewing and dressmaking all look straight. do not try to hang the skirt around the bottom until the seams are stitched and pressed. while the skirt is on the patron lay the inverted plait in the back, if there is to be one. nowadays there are so many different styles of skirts, that you will have to use your ingenuity. some open on the side, some at the side of the back and some at the side of the front. all we can do is to tell you how to make the plain skirt. after the skirt is thoroughly fitted, put on the waist. be sure the outside looks just as it should when finished. make any changes necessary. pin the sleeve into the armhole, taking care that the inside seam comes just where it should to hang right. cut a collar just as you were taught to cut the neck band for the shirt waist, only wider, of whatever material the collar is to be and i inch wider than when finished. pin it in place on the patron, shape the top and get the exact length. remove the gown carefully so as not to lose any pins, and it is ready to finish. there should be one more fitting, after the gown is all finished except the hem in the bottom. if you do this your work will never have to be brought back for changes. finish up the drop skirt, which, if it needs no changes, is all finished but sewing on the band. turn down the edge of the band, which is not basted, and baste on the wrong side just opposite the first basting. stitch on the right side. this will make a band about }/ inch wide at the top of the skirt. sew a good large hook and eye on the band and press the entire skirt. this finishes the drop skirt. finish up the waist according to the style it is to be. if a separate waist is worn outside the skirt, the bottom of the waist should be finished with a bias band about i ^ inches wide. stitch the band on the right side, turn up on the wrong side and hem. stitch it the first time just a seam below the ends of the bones, so that when it is finished the bones will come clear to the bottom of the waist. finish all other parts neatly and fasten all trimmings where they should be. baste in the sleeves and stitch. bind the armholes with a bias band wide enough to cover the seam. finish the sleeves at the bottom practical sewing and dressmaking with a hem or facing. place no. hooks and peet or thread loops, whichever seem best, wherever necessary. after the waist is al] finished we must finish the skirt. stitch all seams. if the skirt has been fastened to the waist, this is hard to do, but it can be accomplished. turn the skirt wrong side out. cut a stitch at the waist line near the seam and fasten with a pin so that it cannot ravel but so you can get at the seam. stitch all seams. trim off to about ^ i n c n ? a n d overcast. press open. if the skirt is separate from the waist we must put a band on at the waist line, just as we did on the drop skirt. a waist band may be bought ready made or one may be made as we did for the drop skirt. i t is best if you are sewing for others to buy the ready made band. before putting on this band, the placket should be finished. put a facing about % inches wide down the left side of the placket, made of goods like the skirt, and perfectly straight of the goods lengthwise. stitch on the right side, turn on the wrong side and hem. to the other side of the placket, sew a straight piece of the goods, inches wide, which has been folded together lengthwise. sew one edge to the unfinished side of the placket, having the piece on the right side of the skirt. turn in the other edge, baste along the stitching just made and stitch again on the right side. be sure to catch the last basting. this will form a flap inches wide to run under the hem on the other side of the placket. you laid your inverted plait so that the edge of the plait came just to the edge of the placket. stitch each plait in place on the machine about i n c n back from the edge. place hooks on the hem side and peet eyes on the flap. now sew the band to the top of the skirt, and it is finished, all but the hem in the bottom. if the skirt is fastened to the waist the placket is finished in the same way. the skirt we have given is a perfectly plain skirt. if a fancy one is to be made, the pattern must be prepared before it is cut from the goods. if you wish a skirt with a circular flounce, pin all the gores together and cut a piece from the bottom of lesson xxix women's muslin underwear — petticoats for the petticoat to be placed on a band, use the draft given for the seven-gored skirt. pin the front gore to the second, and cut together as one gore. this will make a wide front gore. the dart at the top where the front gore rounds in to the waist should be put in. cut the back side gore just as it is. cut the back gore without the inverted plait. add inches to the back seam at the top but not at the bottom. this will straighten the back seam and leave a few gathers at the waist in the back. make the skirt a little less around the bottom than you would make an outside skirt. if very full dress skirts are being worn, a -yard skirt will be found a good width for a petticoat. the width must depend on the dress skirts being worn. cut the skirt as much shorter than it is to be as the width of embroidery edge, lace or ruffle of the goods you wish to put on the bottom. this should be about inches. sew this ruffle (which should not be very full, less than once and a half the width of the skirt) to the bottom of the skirt, having the seam on the inside. before stitching the ruffle on, place a straight band *^ inches wide so that the edge comes just even with the edge of the ruffle where it is to be stitched on. turn this band up on the skirt, having turned in the raw edge, and stitch in place. this covers the seam and forms the hem of the skirt. make a flounce from to inches wide of embroidery, or of muslin with embroidery or lace sewed on the edge. this flounce should measure once and a half the width of the skirt. put the flounce on the bottom of the skirt, so that the lower edge of the flounce comes just even with the lower edge of the narrow ruffle which forms the bottom of the skirt. place a narrow s lesson xxx the night-gown for the night-gown the shirt-waist draft is used. after deciding how deep the yoke is to be, trace off the pattern on a piece of paper, using the neck, shoulder and as much of the armhole as needed. for the skirt of the night-gown use the rest of the armhole which was not used in the yoke. for the under arm seam draw slanting lines from point t so that the skirt will be about - or ^ yards around the bottom. allow a two-inch hem at the bottom of the gown, and at the front, where the skirt gathers on the yoke, inches for gathers and inches at the back. gather the skirt to the yoke, having the seam on the right side, and cover the seam with finishing braid, which can be bought at any dry goods store. the yoke may be made any depth, and as fancy as one wishes, using tucks, lace or embroidery. a very pretty gown may be made by using all-over embroidery for the yoke. the yoke may be buttoned down the front from the neck, or it may be cut away, leaving a v-shaped opening in front. there should be no seam down the front or back of the gown. if the goods is not wide enough to cut it, put gores on at the sides to make it wide enough. open the skirt of the gown from the yoke down the front about inches. put hem % of an inch wide down the right side and a narrow hem down the left side of the opening. at the lower end lay the right side over on the left and stitch across to keep it from tearing down. for the sleeve use the shirt-waist draft. gather the bottom into a band, or use a narrow band and sew a ruffle of lace or embroidery to the lower edge. the sleeve may be cut off short, the lower edge trimmed and left to hang loose. nightgown made from shirt-waist draft. practical sewing and dressmaking tween points x and y into this band, placing one edge on the right and one on the wrong side. stitch in place, as near the edge as possible. face the armhole with a bias facing cut i inch wide. sew this facing to the garment on the right side. turn back on the wrong side and after turning in the raw edge stitch in place, stitching as near the edge as possible. sew about the neck and armholes a narrow lace, fulled on. these chemise may be made very fancy, if one wishes, by putting in little yokes of insertion or embroidery. the chemise without gathers. — another way these garments are often made is without any gathers at the neck to cut one this way, simply do not add the inches to the front and back, but draw the front and back lines slanting out inches at the bottom. (see .) this will take out the fullness at the yoke but will not narrow up the skirt. the chemise made this way is often embroidered in scallops about the neck and armholes. lesson x x x i i women's corset covers for the tight-fitting corset cover, use the tight waist draft without back forms. cut the pattern from paper, allowing seams everywhere. cut the neck out as low as desired. in making this corset cover, sew up the seams on the wrong side, and after it has been fitted trim off one side of the seam, leaving it about ]/i inch wide. turn in the edge of the other side of the seam and baste down flat over the trimmed edge. (fell seam.) stitch as near the edge as possible. the seams should all be turned towards the back. a hem ijk£ inches wide should be made down each side of the front. turn down this hem, having turned in the raw edge, and stitch. sew buttons on the left hand hem and work buttonholes on the right hem. trim the neck and armholes with lace or embroidery. i t makes the corset cover stronger to face the armholes and neck with a narrow bias binding, instead of just hemming them with a narrow hem. corset cover fulled at neck and waist line. — use the shirt-waist draft. cut out the neck as much as desired. add inches on the front and nothing on the back. do not add anything to the bottom of the waist. hem the neck and armholes with a narrow hem and sew on beading and lace edge. run a ribbon through the beading. gather the waist in at the bottom of the waist, beginning at about inches from the under arm seam on the front and about inches from this seam on the back. sew to the bottom of the waist a circular piece of muslin. to draft this piece, take a radius of inches and draw a part of a circle just ^ of the waist measure. measure from this circle inches. draw another arc. slant the end out just a little. cut f r om the cloth, laying the straight end on the fold of the corset cover with underarm seam made from shirt-waist draft. practical sewing and dressmaking goods lengthwise. sew the top of this piece to the bottom of the waist, having the seam on the wrong side. before stitching, baste a straight band about % of an inch wide so that it may be turned up over the seam. stitch and turn the band up, having turned in the raw edge. work about buttonholes down the right-hand hem and place buttons on the left hem. have one at the top, one at the waist line, and one half way between. seamless corset-cover made from shirt-waist draft. lesson xxxiv women's circular drawers to take the measures — take waist measure, as for dress. measure down the side of the leg from the waist line to just above the bend of the knee. measures used in draft given — waist measure measure to knee inches inches take a piece of paper having a square corner and one straight edge. . measure from the corner of the paper inches. point a. . with a as a center and a radius of inches, draw a circle, beginning at the edge of the paper. mark this circle b-c. . from b on this circle measure inch. mark this point d. . from b, down the edge of the paper, measure inches. mark this point e. . connect d and e with a straight line. . measure from point d on circle b-c inch more than x/i the waist measure. mark this point f. . from f on circle b-c measure inches. mark this point g. . measure from point d, down the edge of the paper, the length of leg from waist to knee. mark this point h. . with the corner of the paper as a center and the distance from the corner to h as a radius, draw a circle from h. . point . . practical sewing and dressmaking on this circle from h measure inches. mark this i. connect i and g with a straight line. from g on line i-g measure ^ inches. mark this point j . measure from i on circle h-i % inches. mark this point k. . connect points k and f with a straight line. . at j square a line with line g-i. . place point j on the chart at j on the draft so that the curve just touches line f-k. draw curve. this finishes the front portion of the drawers. to draft the back — . measure from the corner of the paper inches. mark this point a. . with a as a center and a radius of inches, draw a circle beginning at the edge of the paper. mark this circle b-c. . from b on circle b-c measure inch. mark this point d. . from b, down the edge of the paper, measure inches. mark this point e. . connect d and e with a straight line. . measure from d on circle b-c }/^ the waist measure. mark this point f. . measure from f towards b on circle b-c, inch. mark this point g. . measure from d, down the edge of the paper, the length of leg from waist to knee. mark this point h. . measure from point a, ^ inches. mark this point i. . with i as a center and i-h as a radius, draw a circle from h. . measure from h, on this circle, inches. mark this point j. . connect j and g with a straight line. . measure from g on line g-j, inches. mark this point k. practical sewing and dressmaking . at point k square a line with line j-g. . measure from k on this line i}^ inches. mark this point l. . continue line l-k past k. . measure on this line from k, inches. mark this point m. . connect m and f with a straight line. . place point j on the chart at l and hold chart so that the curve just touches line m-f. draw curve. . connect j and l with a straight line. . place point d on the chart at point g and hold so that c on the chart just touches line f-m. draw curve. this finishes the back portion of the drawers. in cutting the pattern from the draft lay line e-h of the front on line e-h of the back as there should only be one piece for each leg of the drawers. there should be no seam at the side. to make the different sizes for every inch added to the waist, add inch to curve h-i of the front and curve h-j of the back. also add y i n c n to g-j of the front and g-k of the back. how to cut, make and finish the circular drawers cut out two pieces of the material, one for each side. sew line j-i to line j,-j of each leg, making a fell seam. sew line f-j of one front to line f-j of the other, beginning at point f and sewing for about inches. this seam should be made a fell seam. (see lesson i.) cut a bias band about inch wide and sew to the rest of this line f-j, placing the bias band on the right side of the garment. stitch in a seam about }/i inch from the edge. turn the band over on the wrong side of the garment, and after turning in the raw edge, stitch into place. put a bias facing on lines g-l of both backs just as you have just been practical sewing and dressmaking taught to do on the fronts. sew line d-e to line d-e at each side, making a fell seam. finish about the top with a bias facing, put on just as you did the other facings. the lower edge of this one will have to be stretched, as it is put on a circle. this finishes the drawers except the bottoms of the legs. these may be finished just with a little lace edge, or they may have a ruffle ^/ or inches wide. the draft was made full length, so it must be cut off as much at the bottom as the trimming is wide. sew one edge of the facing about the bottom at the same time you sew the ruffle, turn in the raw edge, and turn the facing up to form a narrow hem. three buttons and buttonholes should be placed down the back, beginning at g, about inches apart. rather large buttons are best. practical sewing and dressmaking . place point d on the chart at point e, and draw curve through h. extend curve }/£ inch beyond h. . extend line g-h above h % inches. mark this point i. . at i square a line with line g-i. . on this line measure from i inches. mark this point j . from g on line c-f measure ^ of armhole measure. mark this point k. . find a point half way between k and g. mark this point l. . at k square a line with c-f. . measure on this line ^ inches from k. mark this point m. . measure full length of curve e-h, and measure the same length from j on line i-j, extended. mark this point n. . place point g on the chart at h and draw curve through l. . place point on the chart at m and draw curve through l. ^. place point f on the chart at m and draw a curve through . square a line with line c-f so that it will pass through n. . measure on this line from c-f the upper front measure, less what is used in the back neck. mark this point . . place point d on the chart at and draw curve through j . from o measure on this line % of neck measure. mark this point p. . at p square a line with line -p. . measure on this line from p - of the neck measure and add x/i inch. mark this point q. . place point j on the chart at q and draw curve through o. . from q draw line through f. practical sewing and dressmaking . from q on this line measure the front length measure. mark this point r. . at l square a line with line c-f. . measure on this line from l the under arm measure. mark this point s. . connect s and a with a straight line. . from a on this line measure % oi an inch. mark this point t. . connect t and b with a straight line. . measure on the shoulder curve inches from the armhole. mark this point u. . find a point half way between t and s. measure j^ inch to the left of this point. mark this point v. . from v measure i} inches to the right. mark this point w. . connect u and w with a straight line. . place point c on the chart at v and let point d touch line u-w. draw curve. . measure to the right of s, inch. mark this point x. . place point d on the chart at l and draw curve through x. . measure to the left of s, % inches. mark this point y. . place point a on the chart at y and draw curve through l. . measure from t to w and from v to x. this shows how much of the }"£ waist measure has been used in the back. . from point y towards r measure what is left of the } waist measure after taking out what is used in the back. mark this point. . measure the distance from this point to point r. this gives what must be taken out in the dart to bring the waist in to the desired measure. in this case it is ^ inches. . place point c on the chart at r and with curve c-f draw curve to s. ^ practical sewing and dressmaking . continue line a-b inches below a. mark this point k. . from t draw straight line through k. continue down length of back measure. the slant of all the lines to inches below the waist measure will depend on the hip measure. from this point down it depends entirely on the fullness of the skirts being worn. the back lines should always slant more than the front, to fit over the large part of the hips. the draft given makes a medium width skirt. practical sewing and dressmaking i i . measure on this line - of the armhole measure. mark this point h. . place point d on the chart at e and draw curve through h. extend curve y inch beyond h. . extend line g-h above h % inches. mark this point i. . at i square a line with line g-i. . measure from i on this line inches. mark this point j . measure to left of g on line c-f the armhole measure. mark this point k. . find a point half way between g and k. mark this point l. . at k square a line with c-f. . from k measure on this line % inches. mark this point m. . place point g on the chart at the end of curve e-h and draw curve through l. . place point o on the chart at m and draw curve through l. . place point f on the chart at m and draw curve through j. . extend line i-j. . measure the full length of curve e-h and measure the same distance from j. mark this point n. . square a line with line c-f so that it will pass through n. . measure on this line from line c-f the upper front measure, less what is used in the back neck. mark point o. . place point d on the chart at and draw curve through j. . measure from o on line o-n y% the neck measure. mark this point p. . at p square a line with line o-n. . from p on this line, measure - the neck measure plus j inch. mark this point q. practical sewing and dressmaking . place point n on the chart at and draw curve through q . draw a straight line from q through f. . measure on this line from q the front length measure. mark this point r. . find a point half way between k and l. mark this point s. . at s square a line with line c-f. . measure from s on this line the under arm measure. mark this point t. . connect t and a with a straight line. . measure on this line from a, ^ °f a n ^ch. mark this point u. . connect u and b with a straight line. . measure from u, i} inches. mark this point v. . find a point half way between e and the other end of curve e-h. mark this point w. . connect w and v with a straight line. . measure from v, i inches. mark this point x. . place point c on the chart at x and allow point d to touch line w-v. draw curve. . measure to the right of t, inch. mark this point y. . place point d on the chart at s and draw curve through y. . find a point half way between y and x. mark this point z. . measure to the right of z? j^t °f a n inch. mark this point a. . measure to the right of a, inch. mark this point b. . place point c on the chart at b, and with curve c-f draw curve through g and continue to armhole line. . place point c on the chart at a and allow d to touch curve g-b. draw curve. . measure to the left of t ^ inches. mark this point c. . place point a on the chart at c and draw curve through s. practical sewing and dressmaking - place point c on the chart at r and with curve c-f draw curve through c. . from r measure to the right inches. mark this point d. . measure from on curve j - the same distance as e to w. mark point e. . connect e and d with a straight line. . measure up from d on line d-e, inches for slender form, and for full form. mark this point f. . find on the tape-line, ^ of the waist measure. place this point at u and measure from u to v, then from x to b, then from a to y. place the point on the tape-line which falls at y, at point c and with the rest of the waist measure, measure towards r. mark where the end of the tape-line falls. . from this point to r is the amount which must be taken out in the dart to bring the coat in to the desired measure. in this case it is inches. . measure from d on curve r-c the amount to be taken out in the dart. mark this point g. . place point b on the chart at f and draw curve through g. to form skirt of coat . continue line a-b below a inches. mark this point h. . connect u and h with a straight line. continue line down as long as the coat is to be. . find a point half way between v and x. mark this point i. . at i square a line with line a-t. . measure from i on this line inches. mark this point j . . connect j with v and with x by straight lines. continue lines down to bottom of coat. . find a point half way between a and b. mark this point k. . at k square a line with line a-t. . measure from k on this line inches. mark this point . practical sewing and dressmaking . connect with a and with b by a straight line. continue line down the length of the coat. . continue line s-t below t inches. mark this point m. . connect y with m by a straight line and continue line down the length of coat. . measure to the right of m, inch. mark this point n. . place point f on the chart at c and draw curve through n. . square a line at g with the straight line from d to g. draw line the length of the coat. . measure down from r, inches. mark this point o. . square a line with line q-r at o. . measure from o on this line ^ of an inch more than from r to d. mark this point p. . draw a straight line from d through p and continue down the length of the coat. this forms the skirt of the coat, making a coat of medium fullness. the fullness must be governed by the coats being worn. draw the lines from the hips down, more or less slanting as desired. the coat, as it is, just comes together in front. we must add something for lap for buttons and buttonholes. . at f square a line with line q-r and measure from f inches. mark this point q. . at r square a line with line q-r and measure from r, inches. mark this point r. . draw a line through q and r the full length of coat. . continue line p-q out to q-r. mark this point s. . measure down from s, }/i of an inch. mark this point t. . connect q and t with a straight line. . measure from t on line t-q, inches, or any desired distance. mark this point u. . continue line j-n until it touches the neck curve. mark this point v. single breasted tight-titting coat. practical sewing and dressmaking . measure down from v on the neck curve, ^ inch. mark this point w. . connect w and u with a straight line. this forms the lapel. to draft the collar . measure from on the shoulder curve, j^ inch. mark this point x. . place point d on the chart at v and draw curve through x. . extend this curve beyond x as much as the back neck measures. mark this point y. . connect y and x with a straight line. . square a line with this line at y. . measure on this line from y, ^ inches. mark this point z. . measure to the right from z, % inch. mark this point aa. . measure from y on line y-z inch. mark this point bb. . connect aa and bb with a straight line. . square a line with line w-u, so that it will run through point q. . measure from q? ^ inches. mark this point cc. . place point b on the chart at aa and draw curve through cc. . place point c on the chart at v and draw curve through bb. loose fitting unlined coat. practical sewing and dressmaking . draw straight line from q through f. . find a point half way between k and l. mark this point r. • at r square a line with line c-f. . measure on this line from r, the under arm measure. mark this point s. . measure to the left of s, % of an inch. mark this point t. . draw a straight line from r through t and continue it down the length of the coat. . measure down from q on line q-f the length you wish your coat to open in the neck. mark this point u. . at u square a line with line q-u. . measure on this line from u inches, for the lap of the coat in front (double-breasted). mark this point v. . connect point v and a point on the neck curve opposite point n with a straight line. . measure down from u any convenient distance. mark point w. . at w square a line with line q-w. . measure from w on this line ^ inch less than from u to v. mark this point x. . draw a straight line from v through x and continue down the length of coat. point y. . continue line a-b down the length of coat. the line r-t forms the under arm line for both front and back. • if more fullness is desired, measure inch from s to t, instead of %/i of an inch, and measure % of an inch to the right of s. draw lines from r through these points. these coats are usually made up without a collar or with a large sailor collar. the sleeves may be made a medium sized flowing sleeve or the regulation'coat sleeve. lesson xxxviii the slightly eitted coat measures used for draft given — waist measure neck measure armhole measure bust measure back width measure under arm measure front length measure upper front measure back length measure ^ inches inches inches inches ^ inches i$} inches n}i inches inches inches i. draw a-b length of back. . from a measure the under arm measure. mark this point c. . measure above b, y inch. mark this point d. . at d square a line with line a-d. . from d on this line measure % inches. mark this point e. . at c square a line with line a-b. . measure from c on this line the bust measure. mark this point f. . from c on line c-f measure the back width. mark this point g. . at g square a line with line c-f. . measure from g on this line - of armhole measure. mark this point el . place point d on the chart at e and draw curve through h. extend curve j^ inch beyond h. practical sewing and dressmaking . extend line g-h above h i j ^ inches. mark this point i. . at i square a line with line g-i. . from i on this line measure inches. mark this point j . measure from g on line c-f ^ the armhole measure. mark this point k. . find a point half way between k and g. mark this point l. . at k square a line with line c-f. . measure from k on this line ^ inches. mark this point m. . place point g on the chart at the end of curve e-h and draw curve through l. . place point o on the chart at m and draw curve through l. . place point f on the chart at m and draw curve through j. . measure curve e-h and measure the same distance from j. mark this point n. . square a line with line c-f so that it will pass through point n. . measure from line c-f on this line the upper front measure, less what is used in the back neck. mark this point o. . measure down from o, x/i the neck measure. mark this point p. . at p square a line with line o-p. . measure from p on this line - of neck measure. mark this point q. . place point n on the chart at o and draw curve through q . . point . draw a line from q through f. measure from q on this line the front length. mark this r. at l, square a line with line f-c. practical sewing and dressmaking . measure from l on this line the under arm measure. mark this point s. . connect s and a with a straight line. . measure from a, - the distance from a to s. mark this point t. . measure % inch to the left of t. mark this point u. . find a point half way between e and the end of curve e-h. mark this point v. . connect u and v with a straight line. . measure to the left of u, ^ inch. mark this point w. . place point c on the chart at w and allow curve to touch line u-v. draw curve. . measure to the right of s, }/ inch. mark this point x. . place point c on the chart at l and draw curve through x. . measure to the left of s, inch. mark this point y. . place point b on chart at l and draw curve through y. . measure from r - the distance from r to y. mark this point z. . measure from e to v, and measure this same distance from o. mark this point a. . connect a and z with a straight line. . find out how much should be taken out on the dart to bring the coat in tight to the waist and take out about - of this amount. mark this point b. . draw a straight line from b to the point where b'ne c-f crosses line a-z. . continue line q-r below a inches. . measure 'from c square over j^ inch more than from r to z. mark this p int d. . connect d and z by a straight line. . connect z and b with a straight line and square a line with this line at b. . measure down inches. mark this point e. - continue line a-b below a inches. mark this point f. practical sewing and dressmaking . find a point half way between w and u. mark this point g. . square a line at g with line a-s. . measure down from g inches. mark this point h. . connect h with u and w by straight lines. . continue line l-s down inches. mark this point i. . connect i with x and y by straight lines. . square a line with line q-r at f. . measure from f on this line inches. mark this point j . . square a line with line q-r at a point i j ^ inches below q on line q-r. . measure from q on this line inches. mark this point k. . connect k and j with a straight line. . measure from k on line k-j inches, or as much as you wish the coat to open in front. mark this point . . measure down y m c h from where line j-n meets the neck curve. mark this point m. . connect m and with a straight line. this forms the lapel. in making the coat lap the fronts so that line q-r of one side falls on line q-r of the other. to draft the collar . measure from o on the shoulder curve % oi an inch. mark this point n. . place point d on the chart at m and draw curve through n. extend curve as much beyond n as the back of the neck measures. mark this point o. . square a line at o with a straight line from n to o. . measure from o on this line i l ^ inches. mark point p. . continue the line up from p ^ inches. mark this point q- slightly fitted coat. practical sewing and dressmaking . measure to the right of q / inch. mark this point r. . measure from k / inches. mark this point s. . place point d on the chart at m and draw curve through s. . place point d on the chart at p and draw curve through m (break of collar.) . square a line with line m- so that it passes through s. . measure from s on this line inches. mark this point t. . square a line with line m- at m. . measure from m on this line % inches. mark this point u. . place point b on chart at r and draw curve through u. . place point f on chart at t and draw curve through u. practical sewing and dressmaking sponge to dampen the goods and a piece of clean mus in without starch to place between the goods and the iron. have a flat ironing-board, not too heavily padded. it must be hard enough to give the goods a very dead press. we are ready to proceed with the shrinking and stretching. with the wet sponge dampen a line on each piece, represented in the drawing by letters a, b, c, d. while they are still wet, place the iron on them. be very careful to have the goods perfectly smooth under the iron. if any little creases are pressed in it is very difficult to get them out. this is all there is to the shrinking process, but as simple as it may seem, it is really difficult and needs considerable practice. now we will begin to stretch the seams, to give the desired curve. for this you must study the form for which the garment is being made. for a very full form you will need to stretch the seams quite a bit, while for a very slender person they will only be stretched a very little. take the front piece first. dampen with the sponge the under arm seam at the waist line and a little above and below. while it is wet, place it on the board, and as it is pressed stretch it as desired. now dampen the place which comes at the highest part of the bust (indicated by a cross on the drawing). stretch this by moving the iron about in a small circle. take great care not to stretch it too much, as the curve of the seam will give nearly all that is needed. take the under arm piece and stretch each edge at the waist line as you did the front, also stretch the waist line at point a. the back pieces will not need to be stretched, unless for a very full form, as the back is straighter than the front and does not need so much curve. be careful to stretch each seam the same amount. we are ready now to sew up the seams. sew the two front pieces together first. before beginning to baste, pin the seams at the waist line, then at the shoulder, and in between these points every few inches, as in basting one side will stretch more than the other. continue the pinning down to the bottom of the coat. now baste the seam with a running stitch, taking rather practical sewing and dressmaking small, even stitches. next pin and baste the two back form pieces together in the same way. the seams next to the middle back seam are usually left open for about or inches from the bottom, if it is a short jacket. if a long coat, then the back seam is left open instead of the side ones, from the waist line to the bottom of the coat. when these seams are left open a piece must be cut on one side of the seam to run under the opening. baste the front to the under arm piece, and last of all the back parts to the under arm piece, in each case beginning at the under arm piece and working both ways. stitch the seams, dampen and press open. if the goods has a nap the seams should be scraped before pressing. scrape against the nap with a dull knife or shears. this gives a flatter appearance to the seam when pressed. if pockets are put in the coat they must be located with great care. no matter how well t h e coat is made, if the pockets are badly located the coat will look home-made. until you learn by practice just where the pocket should be, you will have to locate them by placing the garment on the patron and placing them where they look the best. you will soon learn to tell very nearly where they should be. to put in the pocket — place a piece of linen canvas back of the marking for the pocket. make a smooth straight cut on the line of basting. cut two pieces of the goods thus, v j about inch longer than the cut; these two pieces are the pocket. lay one of the pieces on the right side of the coat, so that the top edge comes just even with the lower side of the cut. have the right side of the goods together. stitch across on the machine, making a very small seam. push this piece of the pocket through the opening, and turn down so that a little of the pocket shows from the right side, like a small cord. stitch across on the right side near the first stitching. now make a flap for the pocket. cut a piece of the goods about % inches wide and j^ inch longer than the opening of the pocket. turn the ends in a little more than j^ inch, and one long side the same amount. dampen and press a dead press. fit a piece of the material to be used for the coat lining to this piece of goods, i practical sewing and dressmaking turning in all the edges, except the one unfinished side. do not have the lining come quite to the edge. press again without dampening, and stitch about the three sides so that the stitching will catch the lining. this finishes the flap for the pocket. the flap when it is finished should be just the size of the opening. place the flap with its right side against the right side of the coat, above the opening, so that its unfinished edge is just even with the upper side of the opening. stitch across, making a very small seam. turn the flap down over the opening, and turn the seam up and baste on the outside near the first stitching. put the right side of this piece against the right side of the coat. now lay the other piece of the pocket on the wrong side of the coat so that the straight side is just above this last basting; stitch on this basting, being careful to catch the pocket. turn the coat over. the two pieces which form the pocket will lie one on top of the other. stitch them together in a flat seam. stitch twice so they will not rip. the front edge of the flap should always follow the front edge of the coat. this is the most common way of finishing the pocket. there are many fancy ways to be found on the ready-made garments. keep your eyes open and you will learn many of them. now we must put the canvas in the coat. if the coat is made of rather light goods, the entire coat should be lined with a light weight cotton canvas, which may be bought at any dry goods store. if the goods is firm and heavy this interlining need not be used. the canvas must be tailor's canvas, and not the kind used by dressmakers for many purposes. spread the canvas flat on the ironing-board. wet a large piece of muslin very wet and spread over it. iron with a very hot iron until the cloth is dry. turn the canvas over and place the wet cloth on thic side and press dry. remove the cloth and press the canvas until thoroughly dry. spread the canvas on the cutting-table and put the pattern on it. trace the shape shown in the drawing, remove the pattern and cut out. in cutting this piece the lengthwise threads of the canvas should follow the edge of the coat. practical sewing and dressmaking slash the edge of the canvas in about i ^> inches where it comes over the most prominent part of the bust, half way between the neck and armhole at the shoulder seam, and about inches from the shoulder seam in the neck. stretch these slashes open and baste pieces of canvas back of them so that they cannot come together again. dampen the canvas where the prominent part of the bust comes and stretch to form the proper shape. two of these pieces should be prepared, one for each side of the coat. baste them into place, having the edge of the canvas come even with the coat. cut the canvas back about ^ of an inch from the edge of the cloth. now we must pad the lapels with the padding stitch. these stitches should be short and near together. begin at the line for the turn of the lapel. take the stitches through the canvas and into the goods, but not through it so that it shows on the right side. completely fill the lapel with stitches, done in rows following the line of turning. as the work is done cause the lapel to have a slight curl. this will cause it to turn more gracefully and give style to the garment. provide yourself with some stay tape. fasten this about the edge, putting it on rather tightly. do not allow the stitches where it is fastened to show on the right side. dampen and press dry. now sew up the shoulder seams, without catching in the canvas. press with a dead press and allow the canvas to lie flat over the seam. cut two pieces of the goods the same shape as the canvas, for a facing of the coat. baste the edges of the facing to the edges of the coat, having the right side of the facing against the right side of the coat. stitch the edges as near the stay tape as possible. turn the facing over on the wrong side of the coat and baste the edges together, making a straight, even edge. be sure that the corner of the lapel is pulled out so that it makes a good shaped corner. roll the lapel over as it should roll when finished and baste the facing along the line of turning. baste the back edge of the facing to the coat. cut a piece of the light canvas which was used for the interlining, on the bias, about % inches wide. fold this through the center lengthwise and baste practical sewing and dressmaking the turned edge along the thread where the coat is to turn up about the bottom. use short stitches in basting this so that it will stay exactly on the thread. turn the goods up on this canvas, being sure to turn on the exact line for the bottom. we are ready to put on the collar. trace off the collar from the draft on another piece of paper and cut out, allowing % inch seams everywhere. have the right sides of the goods together and cut two pieces together. before raising the pattern from the goods, mark the back seam. stitch this, open and press. cut two pieces of canvas on the bias by the same pattern. stitch the back seam and press open. lay the back seam of the canvas on the back seam of the goods, having the canvas on the wrong side of the goods. baste the canvas and the cloth together thoroughly. cut the canvas away from the outside edge and at the ends about }/i inch. fasten the canvas to the goods with a padding stitch, stretching the goods a little tighter than the canvas, so that the collar will roll as it should when on the coat. the padding should be done from the canvas side. after this is thoroughly done, stitch the collar with straight rows of stitching until the point is reached where the collar turns. from this point to the outer edge stitch with a row of zig-zag stitching extending the full length of the collar. thus — cut another piece from the goods by the same pattern but having no seam in the back. lay the back edge of the pattern on fold of the goods length-wise. allow about % inch on the neck edge and allow seams as you did on the other pieces. baste this piece to the collar you have prepared, having the right sides of the goods together. stitch on the machine along the two ends and the outside edge, near the edge of the canvas. turn the collar so that both sides are of the goods and the canvas is between. baste along the edge, making a smooth even, edge. pin the back seam of the collar, leaving the outside piece of the goods loose, to the back seam of the coat. have the under side of the collar against the right side of the coat. pin the neck edge of practical sewing and dressmaking the collar each way from the seam to the neck of the coat so that the ends of the collar come at point q on the draft, or % inches from the point of the lapels. baste this seam firmly and stitch on the machine. dampen and press open, taking great care not to spoil the curve. bring the right side of the collar over smoothly and baste along the line of turning. bring it on over to the neck seam, and baste. you will find that there is a little seam where the facing and the collar meet at each end, which is not stitched. bring the seam together neatly so that it will follow the seam underneath it and blind stitch with very small stitches. stitch all about the edge of the coat about ^ inch from the edge. be very careful when you stitch about the lapels and collar to turn good square corners. we are ready now to line the coat. cut the back pieces of the lining % of an inch larger than the pattern at the back seam. cut the side pieces the same as the pattern. cut the front side pieces the same as the pattern, but when you cut the front pieces, lay a plait in the goods about the center of the shoulder seam and about inch deep at the shoulder seam, allowing it to taper out to nothing as it comes down to the bust. allow enough to turn in where the lining comes on to the front facing. baste up all but the shoulder and under arm seams. stitch and press. baste the back seam to the back seam of the coat. baste all about the armholes and at the shoulder and under arm seams. turn in the neck and baste down. baste the fronts in about the armholes. turn in the shoulder seams and baste down flat to the back shoulder seams. turn in the under arm seam and baste flat to the back portion. turn in down the front and baste to the back edge of the facing. turn up all about the bottom, keeping the lining away from the edge of the coat about - of an inch. now hem the shoulder seams, the under arm seams, down the front, about the bottom and about the neck. the coat is all finished now but the sleeves. cut the pattern and the sleeves from the goods just as you did for the dress sleeve. baste up and try on. get the exact length coat showing where stretching and shrinking is done, also piece of canvas in front practical sewing and dressmaking and run a thread marking where the sleeve is to turn. stitch up the inside seam and press open. open the other seam and spread the sleeves out on the table. cut a piece of the tailor's canvas ^ inches wide and cover one edge with a piece of cotton lining material cut on the bias. baste the piece of canvas to the sleeve so that the covered edge just follows the line where the sleeve is to turn up. baste the canvas to the sleeve thoroughly and stitch up the outside seam of the sleeve. press open. turn up the sleeve at the hand. cut a lining by the same pattern, stitch up and press. place inside of the sleeve and the seams together. turn the lining up at the hand and hem to the sleeve about inch from the edge of the sleeve. sew the sleeves to the coat without catching the lining. stitch in and bring the lining up over the seam. turn in and hem down. lesson xl the child's draft the measures used are of a child years of age. bust measure neck measure waist measure armhole measure front length measure back length measure under arm measure upper front measure back width measure ,.. g} k ^ inches inches inches inches inches inches inches inches inches i. draw line a-b length of back. . measure from a on line a-b the under arm measure. mark this point c. . continue line a-b above b yl inch. mark this point d . at d square a line with line a-b. . from d measure on this line % inches. mark this point e. . at c square a line with line a-b. . measure from c on this line y of bust measure. mark this point f. . from c on line c-f measure y the back width measure. mark this point g. . at g square a line. . measure on this line from g - of armhole measure. mark this point h. . place point d on the chart at e and draw a curve through h. extend curve yz inch beyond h. practical sewing and dressmaking . continue line g-h above h % inches. mark this point i. . at i square a line with line g-i. . from i measure on this line inches. mark this point j. . from g on line c-f measure to the left j^ of armhole measure. mark this point k. . find a point half way between k and g. mark this point l. . at k square a line with line c-f. . measure from k on this line inches. mark this point m. . place point g on the chart at the end of curve e-h and draw line touching line g-h. . place point k on the chart at this point and draw curve through l. . place point k on the chart at m and draw curve through l. . place point f on the chart at m and draw curve through j . measure the full length of curve e-h and measure the same distance from j on line i-j continued. mark this point n. . square a line with line c-f so that it will pass through n. . measure from line c-f on this line the upper front measure, less what is used in the back neck. mark this point . . place point d on the chart at and draw curve through j . measure down from o on line -n ^ of neck measure. mark this point p. . at p square a line with line -n. . measure from p on this line - of neck measure and add x /i inch. mark this point q. . place point j on the chart at q and draw curve through . . draw a line from q through f. . measure from q on this line the front length measure. mark this point r. child's draft. practical sewing and dressmaking . at l square a line with line c-f. . measure from l on this line the under arm measure. mark this point s. . connect a and s with a straight line. . connect s and r with a straight line. . find out how much too large the waist measure is. in this case it is % inches. . measure half this distance to left of s and half to right of s. mark these points t and u. . place point b on the chart at l and draw curve through t. . place point b on the chart at l and draw curve through u. in cutting out allow all seams. lesson xli child's sleeve draft measures used for draft given — arm length measure arm length to elbow armhole measure hand measure inches inches inches inches i. draw a-b length of arm. . from a measure length of arm to bend of elbow. point c. . at a square aline with line a-b. . at b square a line with line a-b. . at c square a line with line a-b. . measure from b on line, y% inch. mark this point d. . measure from c, ^l inch. mark this point e. . measure to the left of a, y inch. mark this point f. . place point d on the chart at e and draw curve to f. . connect e and d with a straight line. . measure to the right of d, inch. mark this point g. . measure to the right of g; inches more than the hand measure. mark this point h. . measure to the right of h, inch. mark this point i. . extend line a-b above a, y inches. mark this point j . measure to the right of j, y% inch. mark this point k. . measure from a, the armhole measure. mark this point l. . measure to the left of l, inches. mark this point m. . measure to the left of l, \x/i inches. mark this point n. * practical sewing and dressmaking . at m square a line with line a-l and extend line j-k to meet it. point . . at k square a line with line -k and mark where it touches line a-l, p. . place point d on the chart at l and draw curve to i. . place point j on the chart at f and draw curve through k. . place point f on the chart at and draw curve to n. . place point f on the chart at n and continue curve to l. . find a point half way between p and m. mark this point q. . with q as a center and a radius q-k, draw curve from k to . . find a point half way between d and i. mark this point r. . square a line at r with line d-i and measure on this line from r, y inch. mark this point s. . place point d on the chart at s, and draw curves through d and i. . gather the sleeve from inch from d to inch from i. also from k to . lesson xlii child's coat sleeve measures used for draft given — arm length measure arm length to elbow armhole measure hand measure elbow measure inches inches inches inches inches i. draw a-b length of arm. . measure from a on line a-b length of arm to bend of elbow. mark this point c. . square a line with line a-b, at c. . measure from c on this line y inch. mark this point d. . place point d on the chart at d and draw curves to a and b. . square a line at b with line a-b. . measure from b on this line y the hand measure. mark this point h. . measure to the right of h y inch. mark this point i. . at i square a line with line b-i. . measure from i on this line y inch. mark this point j. . connect j and b with a straight line. . measure from j on this line ^ ^ch. mark this point k. . measure from d j^ of elbow measure. mark this point e. . measure to the left and right of e y i n c n - mark these points f and g. . place point f on the chart at f and draw curve through k. childs' sleeve. practical sewing and dressmaking . place point f on the chart at g and draw curve through . measure line g-j and add enough to line f-k to make it the same length. mark this point l. . connect l and b with a straight line. . at a square a line with line a-b. . measure from a on this line y °f armhole measure. mark this point m. . measure to the left of m inches. mark this point n. . continue line a-b above a, inch. mark this point . . at square a line with line b- . . at n square a line with line a-m and mark point p, where it meets line from o. . square a line at m with line a-m and mark point q, where it meets line from . . connect p and f with a straight line. . place point d on the chart at g and draw curve to q. . measure from on line -q ^ inch. mark this point r. . place point f on the chart at r and draw curve to a. . place point f on the chart at p and draw curve to s, which is inch to the right of a. continue curve to a. . use n as a center and n-r as a radius and draw curve r-q. in cutting pattern allow all seams. practical sewing and dressmaking . place point d on the chart at s and draw curve through h. . . . . continue curve inch beyond i. connect g and i with a straight line. measure from g on line g-i inches. mark this point j . place point j on the chart at f and draw curve through jin cutting pattern allow all seams. lesson xlv boy's russian blouse suit to take the measures for blouse — bust measure plus inches. neck measure. waist measure plus inches. armhole measure. front length to waist line. back length to waist line. upper front measure. front length from neck to knee less inches. back length from neck to knee less inches. back width measure. plus inch. measures used for this draft bust neck waist armhole front to waist back to waist upper front back width front length to knee back length to knee * inches g} inches inches inches inches inches >} inches inches inches inches the blouse i. draw line a-b length of back to waist line. . from a measure the under arm measure. mark this point c. . continue line a-b above b, j^ inch. mark this point d. . square line at d with line a-d. practical sewing and dressmaking . measure from d on this line ^ inches. mark this point e. . measure from c y% of bust measure. mark this point f. . measure from c on line c-f; ^ the back width measure. mark this point g. . at g square a line with line c-f. . from g measure on this line - the armhole measure. mark this point h. . place point d on the chart at e and draw curve through h ; continue % i n c ^ beyond h. . continue line g-h above h ^ inches. mark this point i. . at i square a line with line g-i. . from i on this line measure inches. mark this point j. . from g on line c-f measure the armhole measure. mark this point k. . find a point half way between g and k. mark this point l. . at k square a line with line c-f. . measure from k on this line inches. mark this point m. . place point g on the chart at the end of curve e-h and draw curve touching line g-h. . place point k on the chart at the point where curve touches line g-h and draw curve through l. . place point g at m and draw curve through l. . place point f on the chart at m and draw curve through j. . find the full length of curve e-h and measure this same distance from j on line i-j continued. mark this point n. . square a line with line c-f so that it will pass through n. . measure on this line from line c-f the upper front measure less what is used in the back neck. mark this point o. practical sewing and dressmaking . place point d on the chart at o and draw curve through . measure down from o \i of neck measure. mark this point p. . at p square a line with line o-p. . measure from p on this line - of the neck measure. add ^ inch. mark this point q. . place point j on the chart at q and draw curve through o. . draw line from q through f. . measure from q on this line the front length measure to waist line. mark this point r. . at l square a line with line c-f. . measure from l on this line the under arm measure. mark this point s. . measure inch to the right and inch to the left of s. mark these points t and u. . measure down from b the length of back to inches above knee. mark this point w. . measure from q the full length of front to inches above knee. mark this point v. . connect v and w with a straight line. . draw straight line from l through t and u and continue to line from v to w. . the line from l through u belongs to the back. . the line from l through t belongs to the front. the knickerbockers the knickerbockers given are for a -year-old child. front of knickerbockers — . draw line a-b }^ inches long. . at b square a line with line a-b. . measure on this line from b inches. mark this point c. . at c square a line with line b-c. boys' russian blouse -•w practical sewing and dressmaking . measure on this line inches. mark this point d. . square a line at d with line d-c and draw out to line a-b. . measure from d on this line % of an inch. mark this point e. . measure down from d on line c-d inches. mark this point f. . place point g on the chart at f and draw curve to e. . measure from line a-b on line from d ^ inches. mark this point g. . at g square a line with line d-g. . measure from g on this line % of an inch. mark this point h. . place point b on the chart at h and draw curve through e. . measure from b on line a-b inches. mark this point i. . square a line at i with line a-b. . measure from i on this line ijkt inches. mark this point j . connect j and g with a straight line. . measure from j on line j-g % of an inch. mark this point k. . place point k on the chart at k and draw curve through i. back of knickerbockers — . at b square a line with line a-b. . measure from b on this line ^ inches. mark this point l. . at l square a line with line b-l. . at a square a line with line a-b. mark the point where this line meets line from l, m. . from a on line a-m measure &i inches. mark this point n. . find a point half way between b and i. mark this point o. . connect o and n with a straight line. boys' knicker bockers. a- n m ift k f?»o"v> -k c / £ a c /(. ff * >tr practical sewing and dressmaking . place point k on the chart at i and hold chart so that j touches line o-n. draw curve. mark this point p. . measure from m on line m-l j/ inches. mark this point q. . measure from b on line b-l inches. mark this point r. . find a point half way between q and l. mark this point s. . at s square a line with line q-l. . measure from s on this line % inches. mark this point t. . place point c on the chart at r and draw curve to t. . place point c on the chart at t and draw curve to q. . continue line n-q beyond q % inches. mark this point u. . measure down from q on curve q-t inches. mark this point v. . measure straight out from v i) inches. mark this point w. . connect w and u with a straight line. . measure from q on curve q-n inches. mark this point x. . square a line at x and draw }^ inches long. mark this point y. . connect y and x with a straight line. . measure from x towards q j^ inch. mark this point z. . connect z and y with a straight line. for every size larger, add inch on lines b-c, b-l, a-m, d-g. add inch on lines b-a, l-m, c-d. make the distance from b to i ^ inch more for each size. practical sewing and dressmaking fronts, and two for the backs. lay line a-b each time on the straight of the goods lengthwise. sew line b-i of the front to line b-i of the back. sew line f-c of the front to line v-r of the back. this forms the two separate legs. pin the two legs together at point i. sew line k-h of one front to line k-h of the other. sew line i-n of one back to line i-n of the other. face the seam on each side of the front and put an under lap from i to k where the seam was not sewed. turn in lap v-q-u-w half way, so that it will form a hem and under lap. fasten a pocket at line e-f on the front, or for very little children the pocket may be left out. sew in the dart x-y-z. put a bias facing all about the top of the back, also the front, just the size of % the waist plus inches for both the front and back, for the band must lap over inch at each side where it fastens. sew a button at e on each side, and work a buttonhole at q on each side. work buttonholes all along the waist line to button on to the under waist. put a hem in the bottom of each leg m c h wide and run elastic in, ^ or gather the leg and put on a straight band, having a buckle sewed on the end. if this is done, seam b-i should be left open about or ^ inches from the bottom and both sides faced. for a boy of years or over the knickerbockers should fasten in the front instead of at the sides. in this case, where the pockets are put in at the sides, sew one side of the pocket to the front and the other to the back piece, having the seams on the inside. turn each seam back and stitch again on the right side. make the facing about the top all in one piece, opening at the front center seam. in cutting the pattern leave a projecting piece on the fronts at line h-k about % inches wide. on the right side turn this piece back to form a hem, after having turned in the raw edge. take a straight piece of goods inches wide and fold it lengthwise in the center. turn the two raw edges in and place the piece just where the hem on the right practical sewing and dressmaking front will be stitched. this forms a fly for the buttonholes under the hem. work buttonholes in this fly and catch it to the hem between the buttonholes. do not catch through to the outside. line with a straight piece of the goods the projecting piece on the left front and allow it to project under the buttonholes of the right side. place buttons on this piece to correspond with the buttonholes. put a pocket on each side of the back about ^ inches from the top, and about half way between the side and back seams. make a pointed flap over each of these pockets, and put a button on the pocket and work a buttonhole in the corner of the flap. lesson xlvn child's pajama suit to make the coat, draft the same as the child's waist draft. add to the back of the neck ^ inch, and > inch at the waist ^ line in the back. draw the middle back line through these two points. leave out lines l-t and l-u. add inches to the front at the middle line for lap, point w. measure down from w inches. mark this point x. place point f on the chart at x and allow curve f-j to touch curve o-q. add inches to the bottom of the draft below waist line. in cutting out pattern allow seams everywhere. turn the edge of the goods, about the neck and down the front, on the right side, and cover with a fancy braid or bias band of the goods. allow a hem y inches wide about the bottom. lap the front so that line q-r of one side comes on line q-r of the other. fasten down the front with buttons, or with fancy frog ornaments. the pajama part of the suit is drafted just like the knickerbockers, but the lines t-r, o-b, and f-c are extended below c-b-r enough to make them come to the ankles. this amount depends on the size of the child. the dart is left out in the back, and gathered into the waist band. the front should be sewed to a waist made like the child's draft, but very loose about the waist and across the shoulders. the back is fastened to a band and buttoned to the waist. for large boys the waist is not used. the side seams are sewed up to the band and the pajamas are left open in front. a tape is fastened to each end of the band and tied in front. place buttons and buttonholes down the front. childs' drawers. lesson xlix how to make little girls' clothing for a little girl's dress the draft given may be used in a variety of ways. for the dress with the skirt gathered on at the waist line, use the draft just as it is. cut a pattern by tracing off on another piece of paper, allowing seams everywhere, and about i ^ inches down the back on each side for buttons and buttonholes. put all tucks in the goods before laying on the pattern. any trimming like insertion of lace or embroidery may be laid on after the garment is cut, but this should be planned for before tucks are put in, so that the tucks will come just where they are wanted. after the waist is cut out, cut off lengths enough for the skirt to make it the desired fullness about the bottom. (this will depend on the size and age of the child.) from the breadth which is to be used for the front of the skirt, gore off about three inches, slanting out to the selvage. for the other breadths use the goods straight on both edges. allow a hem two or three inches wide. gather this skirt to the waist at the waist line, placing more fullness in the back than in front. a belt of insertion of lace or embroidery may be used. if the dress is to be mother hubbard, use just the neck and shoulder part of the draft for a yoke and gather the skirt on to the yoke. use the straight breadths, putting more fullness in the back than in front. if you wish to make a one-piece dress with box plaits down the front and back, trace the front and back on another piece of paper. extend line q-r straight down from r the length the skirt should be. extend lines l-u and l-t down the same length but slant them out enough to make the skirt the desired fullness. a dress of this kind should not practical sewing and dressmaking have a very full skirt. extend line a-b down the same distance. cut the pattern out, allowing all seams. lay box plaits in the goods lengthwise so that one will come in the middle front, and one about the middle of the shoulder line at each side. in the back, one should be down the middle of the back and one each side about the middle of the shoulder line. these plaits should match on to each other at the shoulder. cut an opening under each plait at the waist line and run k belt through. either a leather belt or one of the goods may be used. child's blouse waist, — to make the child's blouse waist, slant the middle back line out inch at the waist line. slant the front line out inch at the waist line. draw straight line from l through u for the back under arm and draw a straight line from l through t for the under arm of the front. add % inches to the bottom of the waist. put a narrow hem in the bottom aud run an elastic in. little girl's under clothing. — for the little girps under waist this same draft may be used. face the bottom with a bias facing about i j ^ inches wide and the armholes with a bias facing inch wide. make a hem down each side of the back and work buttonholes and sew on buttons. place the buttonholes on the right hand side. sew buttons about the bottom to button the waist on. little girl's skirt. — make the skirt straight, and not quite as full as the dress skirt. place a hem in the bottom about ^ inches wide and a straight band at the waist line about % inches wide. leave the skirt open about or inches down the back and hem the left side with a hem % inch wide and the right side with a narrow hem. lap the wide hem over on the narrow one at the bottom and stitch across the bottom to keep it from tearing down. work buttonholes in the waist band to match the buttons on the waist. if desired the skirt may be sewed to the waist, but this is not desirable, as one often wishes to change one of the garments and not the other. child's drawers. — cut two pieces like the draft. sew curve practical sewing and dressmaking k-i-h to curve s-q-p. sew line f-m-k of one piece to the same line of the other. slash both pieces down from e about inches. face this slash with a continuous facing. leave the front side out for an under lap and turn the other back. gather the waist line of the back to a straight band inches longer than y the waist measure and the back to a straight band the same length. this band should be about i j ^ inches wide when finished. sew a button to each end of the front band and work a buttonhole in each end of the back band. work buttonholes in the middle at the back and front to button on the waist. child's night-gown. — use the child's waist draft. for a perfectly plain gown use the draft as it is, leaving out lines l-u and l-t. draw lines slanting out from l to make the desired fullness about the bottom, according to the size of the child. cut both the back and front on a fold of the goods lengthwise. cut the front open on the center front line to about or inches below the waist line. hem the left side of the opening with a very narrow hem and the right side with an inch-wide hem. lay the right side over on the left and stitch across the bottom. face the neck with a bias facing and sew a little edge to it. trim the sleeves at the hand the same way. use the full sleeve draft. put a hem in the bottom about i j ^ inches wide. the gown may be made full about the neck if desired. for this allow inches on the back and on the front. gather about the neck and then face as in the plain gown. infants slip or nightgown. practical sewing and . . . . dressmaking measure from c on this line, y inch. mark this point d. measure to the right of c, inches. mark this point e. at e square a line with line a-c. measure from e on this line, i j ^ inches. mark this point f. . connect f and d with a straight line. . measure to the right of d? inch. mark this point g. . place point k on the chart at g and draw curve through f. . point . . i. . measure down from a on line a-b, ^ inches. mark this h. at h square a line with line a-b. measure from h on this line, % inches. mark this point measure to the right of i, ^ inches. mark this point j . . . . place point j on the chart at d and draw curve to j. place point k on the chart at j and draw curve to i. at b square a line with line a-b. measure from b on this line, inches. mark this point k. . connect k and i with a straight line. . measure from i on this line, inches. point l. . connect l and i with a slight curve. infant's sleeve — . draw line a-b ^ inches long. . at b square a line with line a-b. . measure from b on this line inches. mark this point c. . measure from b yl inch. mark this point d. . place point d on the chart at d and draw curve through a. . find a point half way between d and c. mark this point e. infants sleeve. practical sewing and dressmaking . square a line at e with line d-c. . from e on this line, measure ^ i nc h. mark this point f. . place point d on the chart at f and draw curve through d. . place point d on the chart at f and draw curve through c. . . g. . . . . . . . j. . k. . . l. . . at a square a line with fine a-b. measure from a on this line ioj^ inches. mark this point at g square a line with line a-g. measure from g on this line ^ inch. mark this point h. place point d on the chart at c and draw curve through h. measure to the left of g inches. mark this point i. at i, square a line with line a-g. measure from i on this line, inch. point j. place point f on the chart at h and draw curve through find a point half way between a and i. mark this point at k square a line with line a-g. measure on this line from k inches. mark this point place point n on the chart at l and draw curve through a. place point n on the chart at l and draw curve through j. how to make the slip or night-gown cut the middle back and middle front lines on the lengthwise fold of the goods. sew up the under arm seams in a very narrow french seam. put a hem in the bottom, inch wide for the night-gown, and run a tape in for a draw string. sew the shoulders in a narrow french seam. slash the front down inches and hem as in the child's gown. turn the neck down a small seam and cover with finishing braid. sew to the edge of this a narrow lace edge. gather the sleeves at the hand and finish with the finishing braid and edge. bulletin of the winthrop normal and industrial college of south carolina bulletin no. december, volume ... ;-..." it sewing by mrs. bessie webb birdsall miss lora bertha able the r. l. bryan company, printers columbia, s. c. . ulotg n any course in sewing, the funda- mental stitches and operations should be given first. these may be exemplified on small pieces of unbleached cloth, sewed with colored thread; and should include hems, patches, darns, buttonholes, and so forth. this, how- ever. should be only by way of introduction. if work is confined to the small model, it soon grows tiresome, and, therefore, as soon as practicable, finished articles should be made. sewing bags, towels, aprons, flannel skirts and sets of undergarments will naturally follow: and will be found to arouse interest, develop taste and contribute to social efficiency. d stitching g n ti s a. c r e v . nin£ n u : : ' : | : tl : : : : : : a. it w : inin stn : nr ; e. d a french gathers b band f hemstitching c bound hem g cut-out corner d faced hem e french hem h mitered corner | | "* dress darning straight darn thre c c orn ered darn bias darn darn for worn spot one should darn with same color as stocking to be darned. never use knots. darning should be as smooth as possible. ' a very thin net may be used to darn over, as it makes work much easier. always have edges drawn well together; and, if necessary, baste on stiff paper, to hold in place while darning is being done. darn with thread the same color and about the same size of thread of garment. a lengthwise thread of same material, if practicable. avoid using silk thread on wool or cotton; the gloss of silk makes the darned place more notice- able. in darning, always go under and over edges alternately, thus holding them smoothly together, and not allowing them to lap. if tear is straight across or lengthwise, just darn across the tear, being sure to extend the stitches far enough out to take in all worn parts. darn just as in straight darn, except at corner, where the stitches should be in shape of opened fan. when the tear is across both warp and woof threads, it should be darned with vertical stitches, going directly with grain of goods and not on line of tear. all of these darns are done on right side, with no extra material placed under them. place patch under hole matching grain of goods or pattern. darn with vertical stitches, through both thicknesses of cloth. page eighteen " - . in s * remote storage foreword this course of lessons is guaranteed to be the “shortest cut” to independence and individu- ality and satisfaction in the matter of clothes. _ every step in it is important. nothing should be omitted or slighted if the study is to prove of real, everyday value to you. a great mind has said that we live by work, play, love and worship. but your life work and life play cannot yield their highest values if you are forced to wear expensive or inferior clothes. you need not be dependent on either. the lessons contained in this course will prove to you that you can make your own clothes—smart, good-looking clothes, clothes that give you a sense of assurance and well-being—-with little effort and at an amazingly low cost. if you apply yourself cheerfully and conscientiously to the study of these lessons, we pledge you in return our cooperation and assistance in acquiring this accomplishment of sewing, which above all others, every woman should possess. the institute of modern sewing, inc. new haven, conn. copyright i the institute of modern sewing, inc. new haven. conn‘ lesson no. the care and use of the sewing machine lesson no. the care and use of the sewing machine oiling and cleaning sewing machines require to be cleaned and oiled daily if they are used continuously all day long. if used moderately for only a few hours a day, oiling and cleaning twice a week is suflicient. a good quality of sewing machine oil should be used, and a small drop applied to each bearing where there is any friction, as often as may be required. the face plate and the needle plate of the sewing machine should be removed occasionally to clean away the lint and dust which collect. the bearings should be oiled inside when the face plate is removed. the shuttle race requires occasional oiling, as well as the ball bearings in the treadle and in the pitman. the ruflier and the tucker also require, occasionally, a small drop of oil. machines which are gummed from using poor oil should be oiled with kerosene or benzine, making sure that there is no flame in the room when such volatile liquids are being used. the machine should be run long enough to cut away the gummed oil, and then should be thor- oughly cleaned and oiled with good sewing machine oil. attention to these details will increase the life of the machine, make it run easier and lighter, and also permit it to do better sewing than it could otherwise accomplish. adjusting the tensions all sewing machines require occasional tension adjustment to suit the stitch to various fabrics. there are two tensions: the upper and the lower. the upper tension controls the thread as it comes from the spool—the lower tension controls the thread as it comes from the bobbin. to tighten the tension turn thc adjusting screw to the right—to loosen the tension turn the adjusting screw to the left. this applies equally to both upper and lower tension. the upper tension is adjusted (m i) by means of the thumb screw, the lower tension by means of small testinil'h“ tcnsi‘m‘ screw, which is turned with a screw driver. a stitch which approixmates perfection in appearance will best be obtained by an equal amount of tensions above and below. (see . .) the shuttle tension spring should occasionally be removed from the shuttle, and all the lint and dust or knots of thread should be removed from under this spring and then the spring properly replaced. this applies to both round and long shuttle. regulate your stitch the stitch should then be regulated to suit the thread which is being used. in other words, after having given all other conditions due consideration do not spoil your bit of workmanship by using a long, coarse stitch. the adjustment of the length of the stitch is such a small matter that it is very easy for any woman to learn, and one should become so thoroughly accustomed to this that a stitch may be regulated without any difficulty whatsoever. the adjustment of the belt the belt should be neither too tight nor too loose. if it is too loose, power is wasted by having the belt slip and the machine will not run full speed. if it is too tight it causes the machine to run very hard. one should avoid getting the belt soaked with oil, as it will invariably slip and cause difficulty if this is done. every machine should be supplied with a belt punch. which enables you to shorten or lengthen your belt as you find it necessary. the adjushnent of the presser foot and the feed the presser foot rests on the feed holding the cloth in position while the needle is doing the work. this pressure should be light or heavy, according to the fabric to be stitched. heavy fabric requires heavy pressure and light fabric a lighter pressure. p for chiffon, net or fine silks and other similar materials, release the a dimming : ,}? pressure by turning the adjustment screw to the left. increase the pressure °“ pms" f°°‘ for heavy materials by turning the adjustment screw to the right. the screw will be found on top of presser bar. (see ill. .) winding bobbins great care should be taken in winding bobbins to have the thread placed on the bobbin smoothly and evenly. this will insure an even run of thread from the shuttle, and will prevent the line of stitching from having a wavering appearance which will occur if the thread comes off the shuttle in jerks. if the points mentioned herein are given careful attention and you learn ( - t“ and master them thoroughly it will then be very easy indeed to use the a b°"€j'.},,‘,l‘.,°“"‘~" attachments on the machine. ' _ a machine which stitches straight with its own presser foot will make perfectly even tucks, will stitch the hem a short distance from the edge, will turn under the binding evenly, and stitch it evenly, and will do edge-stitching and all other fine operations with the greatest possible ease. a machine which does not stitch straight with its own presser foot will ( . ) under no circumstances do satisfactory work with the attachments, nor will a b°bbwolflflmpefly it be possible even with the most careful guiding to stitch a straight seam. you must learn to properly thread the machine and shnlllo from your inslrnction book. before beginning to new a long seam be sure the bobbin contains enough thread to com- plete the seam. all adjustments may be made without removing the attachment in use from the machine. always raise the needle bar to its highest point before fastening any attachment to the machine. lesson no. the cutting gauge and binder to join your bias bands the seams on your bias strips should be made as close to the edge as is safe in order that they will run properly through the binder. the edges can be trimmed after the stitching is made. lay the two diagonal ends together as shown in ill. and stitch in a seam. it will then be seen that when the strips are lapped back the edges will be exactly even. do not join your strips as shown in ill. . . ) ( . the wrong \vay the right “’ay to join strips the binder and how to use it substitute the binder for the presser foot. following the directions given in your instruction book. your instructor will assist you with this part of your lesson. cut the binding to a point with the scissors. lnsert the point in the scroll of the binder until the binding comes through the scroll and under the foot. it may be necessary to draw the binding through the scroll with the stiletto or the point of the scissors. as the binding passes through the scroll both edges are turned in neatly. binders are of two types: those which are adjustable for the distance of stitching from the edge. and those which are not. the stitching should always be close to the edge, in order to have the proper appearance. tlll.lt) the adjustable hindi- ' at \voi'k however, if you do not have the adjustable type of binder the working principle is the same. your instructor will tell you which type you have with your attachments. after you have inserted the binding in the binder attachment lower the presser bar and proceed to sew. you will find that the attachment folds the cloth as the machine stitches the folds together. the edge to be bound should be held in the scroll of the binder as shown in the illustration. all seams to be bound should be stitched and then trimmed close to the row of stitching. .--< using no. folded tape with the binder tape which may be purchased ready folded can be used with the binder. this tape must be one-half inch in width and you will find that the number will be the proper width in all stan- dard makes. the tape is inserted in the outside slot of the binder as shown in ill. . in this same manner ribbon or braid may be used. it must be one-half inch in width. norm—“ e would advise that you purchase a roll of unfolded tape ready cut for use with this lesson. it will save you much (mm, time. your instructor will supply you with a -yard roll for lnsertirg thc folded tape in ‘ , . . um bind" th rt) cents. m_-__i— projects for lesson no. (a) binding of proper width to use with binder cut a strip of lawn on the true bias, inches long and '% inch wide. cut this strip into three separate pieces and stitch together with the machine. the seams are to be trimmed ready for use with the binder. (see ill. .) (b) a bound seam your teacher will demonstrate and assist you with each operation for this lesson. this is the first sample to be made; master thor- oughly. sew up a straight or bias seam with the presser foot and trim off the edge about %; inch from the stitching. adjust the binder to stitch as close to the edge of the binding as possible, with the particular kind of material you are using. insert the edge of the scam in the scroll and bind. the finished sample should measure about six inches in length. (ill. ) sample made of lawn or muslin (c) an outside curve the adjustment feature of the binder will require practice for this operation. care must be taken by the beginner in adjusting this attachment for a curve, as a wider adjustmentis necessary than for a straight seam in order to keep the stitching directly on the edge. the edge of the cloth at all times must be held well in the scroll of the binder, and if the curve is sharp it may be necessary to stop the machine and raise the presser bar in order to turn the cloth properly. the outside curve is used in making such articles as aprons, scallops, collars, children's clothes, etc. ( . ) sample made of lawn or india linen -____ “i. ii. (d) an inside curve (ill. .") sample .\larlc of l.a ur lndin linen (e) an open this illustration shows an open seam of heavy material with both edges bound. the garment is first fitted and the surplus material trimmed from the seam, leaving one inch or less on each side. liach edge is then bound and the seam pressed flat. f the material is very sleazy and bias. it is sometimes necessary to stitch close to the edge before binding. this is especially true when using rattine or voile. serge dress seams are often finished in this manner. the material is held as nearly as possible in a straight line when binding a curve of this kind. if the cloth is liable to stretch, it is well to add a row of stitching close to the edge before binding. the outside and inside curves are conditions which you meet in your dressmaking and the time spent in practicing these two operations will be well worth while. the inside curve is used in binding the neck and armholes of garments. bound seam (ill. ) made of heavy lincn or broadcloth sample —&&__—il=__l_t_$h$ii_ih— - — .-- - - - -- _ “i- fling—g , .ea-_- _ --~ (f) a bound placket this finish is practical for children’s drawers, sleeves, etc., where a wide overlap is not desired. the seam is held as nearly as possible in a straight line, taking care not to sew in too deeply at the point, as this might cause a plait or fold to form. ()n children’s drawers it is not objectionable, however, to bind in the fold, as it insures a safe seam. this same condition is met with in binding scallops. and it would be well to include a row of scallops in this lesson, as they are very much in vogue at the present time. black or white folded tape of tafieta silk may be purchased in any department store. this is ex- cellent for finishing the bottoms of scalloped dresses or underskirts. your sample, however. may be made of any material bound with white lawn. (lll. ) sample made of lawn m- lmlia linen (g) bound buttonholes these buttonhole: are easy to make and wear well they are practical for children's waists and drawers, the back of dresses, pinafores, the back of princess slips, for the front of tailored slhirtwaists, and for any garments where a tailored finish is desirable. (ill. ) directions for making do not try to work out these directions by “mental arithmetic,” but sit down at the machine and make some of the buttonholes in order to appreciate how easy it is. the binding to be used with the binder should be cut if; of an inch wide. for ordinary binding as for seams, trimming, etc., the binding should be cut on the true bias. binding for making buttonholes should be cut on the crosswise of the material so that it will not stretch when laundered. i'm _ -- _ , _-'i='___ " _ “i. :i' i_-_:"..- _' -\ shows the strip of cloth inches wide. ll shows the same strip with both edges bound with crosswise-cut binding; the pencil marks are inch apart, showing just how to cut the strip into sections. c shows the sections stitched together in such a manner that the edges first bound will form buttonholes. d is (t with both edges bound. completing the buttonholes. .\lways cut the first strip (a) as wide as you want the distance between the buttonholes. if the buttonholes are to be two inches apart, take a strip of material two inches wide and bind it as shown in ll. the marks show this strip divided into sections. each section is one—half inch wider than the button. if your button is one-half inch across add one-half inch, thus cutting your strip into pieces l inch wide. (it the button is three-quarters of an inch in diameter, add one-half inch and cut strip into sections one and one-quarter inches wide.) after your strip is cut into sections sew the pieces together as shown in c, using the presser foot. bind the edges with binding as shown in d. this makes a finished strip of button— holes which are strong and practical for children's clothes. ;_r li shows the same idea worked out with finer materials; the foot hemmer instead of the binder is used to finish the first strip in order to get an effect dainty enough to use with dimity, batiste, etc. f. also shows the edges sewn to another piece of cloth, which in the case of practical sewing would be the garment. this is done when they are in the stage as shown in c, binding the edge of the garment in with the row of button- holes, then stitching the other edge of the binding flat on the garment, using the presser foot. (ill. ) bound buttonholes (sample made of heavy muslin) (h) button loops to make button loops, attach the binder to the machine and stitch through a strip of binding about one-half yard long. this gives you a quarter-inch fold of bias cloth with. the edges turned in and stitched securely. for each loop cut a strip sufficiently long to slip over the button when finished. fold the loop to a point as shown in ill. and sew in shape by hand. insert the ends in the hem and stitch in place as shown in ill. . u. of ill ub. the button loops (ill. ) binding dress seams. binding around armholes. princess slips. using fine binding on shirtwaist cuffs. used as trimming. binding loops for buttons. bound buttonholes. practical uses of binder binding seams, armholes and necks of corset covers and binding the neck and sleeves of kimona night gowns. binding edges of kitchen aprons, fancy aprons and caps. in this way it is also i iii. ) ( ) binding with military braid this braid comes in a variety of widths and colors, also in silk. or cotton. this year it is quite the proper finish for skirts, dresses and suits. many times it is applied flat as a trimming. but more often it is used to bind the edge. forming the loops the braid one-half inch in width may be used with the binder by inserting it in the outside slot of the scroll. purchase a yard of this braid for practice. braid a straight edge of a piece of serge or broad— cloth. the next s-ample will be a curve as shown in the illustration. this braid is so loosely woven and so pliable that it will adjust itself to a curve perfectly. this braid is also very desirable for the bottom of dresses that are either scalloped or plain. (see illustration below.) (ill. ) v<atnplc made of . _\- \“holl‘ll material (j) scallops bound with silk military braid (ill. ) sample made of \voolen material [ binding the scallops care must be taken at the point to fold the cloth in a straight line and sew in enough of the goods to insure a safe seam. (k) straight silk seam binding, used with binder straight silk seam binding which may be purchased at any notion counter is a very popular finish for seams, espe— cially on silk or heavy woolen dresses. the one-half inch width must be used with the binder. purchase a roll in either black or white and bind a piece of soft silk or crepe-de—chine. the illustration shows a piece of bias messaline bound with white silk tape. do not try to bind a sharp curve with this straight tape, but a straight edge or slight curve may be perfectly done. (ill. ) samples made of messalinc and net list of bindings ;; inch lawn cut at home ' _; inch or no. folded tape '/_, inch military braid 'f- inch bias silk binding. do not try to assist the feed by pulling or pushing the work. the feed requires no assistance it your machine is properly adjusted. (all samples of work to be sent to the institute.) lesson no. making a kitchen apron and night gown lesson no. making a kitchen apron and night gown (ill. ) to cut the apron fold a yard of material on the length-wise fold and place your pattern as shown in ill. . your instructor will furnish you with this amount of material does not allow for ties and the 'a pattern. apron may be fastened with a button and buttonhole. you desire the ties purchase %; yard more of material. the kitchen apron the apron here shown requires one yard of yard wide percale. this is a very practical pattern, as the flare sides cover one well when busy in the kitchen or about the house. if you desire to use a plain color of contrasting material for the binding you may purchase it and cut bias strips as instructed in lesson no. . if you prefer to use plain white, pink or blue, you may purchase a roll of yards from your instructor. this apron is very attractive if made of un- bleached muslin and trimmed with plaid binding. it is better to buy a good quality of percale; however, if you find it convenient to substitute print, it’ will be necessary for you to purchase two yards, as the sides must be pieced. print is only inches in width, while percale is inches. if you are using print, tear ok the selvage and bind the seam, using the binder. the selvage should never be' used to finish a seam, as it will allow the material to pucker when it is laundered. foil) ~ however, if double—ut ,___d,.__ (ill. ) the pattern on the material to trim the apron bind the outside edge of the apron, using the binder. the second row of trimming as shown in the illustration is called a french fold and is applied with the binder. the apron is placed beneath the attachment and the binding in the scroll in the usual manner. (see ill. .) (ill. ! the liinllcr making french folds a little practice will enable you to make attractive trimmings in this manner. bind the pocket as shown in ill. and attach to the apron. to shape the bond a. fold your band on the center fold and crease length-wise to give you the exact center line. open and fold as shown in ill. . stitch as indicated by the dotted lines and trim away the surplus material. you will find that you now have a band nicely shaped shaping the bamim } and one which will fit well. as. s,| lab-d you should complete your apron in one hour. always raise the needle to the highest point before fastening any attachment to the machine. house dress or apron this house dress is very simple to make and can easily be com- pleted in an hour after thoroughly learning to use the binder. we have used pictorial review pattern no. , but you may select a similar style pattern of any make. we would advise, how- ever, that you select a kimona style pattern in a loose model which can be belted in rather than a separate skirt and waist. the pattern we have selected for this house dress is very practical and quite comfortable to wear. the ready made house dresses are usually scant, and, after being laundered, are very uncomfortable to wear. directions for making the dress. cut the goods as directed by the pattern making piecings care— fully if necessary. always make it a point to match the plaid r stripe when piecing a garment. l—sew up the shoulder seams on the right side and trim the seam close to the line of stitching. attach the binder to the machine and bind the seams. z—bind the edge of the sleeves and sew a french fold about two inches from the edge of the binding. this will give the effect of a cuff and add much to the appearance of the finished garment. (see ill. , binder lesson.) —sew up the under arm seam on the wrong side and trim close to the stitching. bind this seam. —if your pattern allowed for a hem on the fronts stitch this in position, and if not add a facing by cutting a two-inch strip of the material lengthwise of the material. sew this strip to the garment, bringing the seam on the wrong side. fold the facing over and hem to the garment. —attach the binder again and bind around the neck. add the french fold the satne distance as the fold on the cuff. ' —the dress should now be tried on and measured for the width of the hem. pin baste the hem in position, following directions given for hemming the night gown. (see ill. , binder lesson.) —the belt may be cut double and stitched %; inch from the edge or it may be rounded n the corners and bound, using the binder. —the pockets may be cut round and bound or trimmed as desired. making a kin-none night gown the kimona night gown is very popular for its simplicity and the ease with which it can be made. the attractiveness and beauty of underwear depends upon the fineness of material and the careful- ness of the work, rather than the over-use of laces and embroidery. the night gown may be made of long cloth, nainsook, batiste or cotton crepe. later we will teach you how to make lace trimmings and tucks \ _ for more elaborate underwear. ix this same simple pattern may be used for the most elaborate gown. the sleeves may be omitted, the bottom may be trimmed with tucks and lace. the neck may be cut square or v shaped. ( . ) * how to cut your night gown measure from the shoulder to the ankle, and allow two inches for the hem. you must purchase material twice this length. you will also need /; yards of lace edging. novafi: "hp i ; ‘ _.. _, ___ follow the chart here given and with the assistance of your instructor you will be able to cut this garment without a pattern. cut the sleeves amply full, as a tight gown is most uncomfortable and it wears out sooner because of strained seams. if your material is not inches in width. it will be necessary to add side pieces. l .\ out enough. bind the edge of the sleeves and around the neck with fine lawn binding. if you are making a gown of fine batiste, strips of this material may be used in place of the lawn. if, however, you are making your garment of heavier material we would advise you _ not to use it for bindings. as it would be too clumsy and heavy. l l . _. . . . i > blip the gown over the head to make sure the neck trimmed ‘ i! l l start the binding for the neck at the center back and trim the l l binding close at the starting point in order that you may bind over » , this point when finishing. turn under the ends of binding and , finisli by overhanding. e'iittiiig the gownu" ) the lace edge is to be applied to the neck and sleeves later. i you are now ready to stitch up your long seams. stitching up the night gown join the under-arm seams, placing the pins in the garment % inches apart and of an inch from the edge. this will allow your presser foot to work freely without coming in contact with the pins and will eliminate a basting operation. (note . showing stitching and trimming.) use a short stitch which will enable you to trim close to the stitching without danger of the seam pulling out. to make the french seam after trimming the seam close, turn to the wrong side and crease on the seam. pin up to hold this scam as you did for your first stitching, and sew this second seam in position, stitching it as narrow as is possible. and still keep the raw edges safely within the seam. (ill. ) hemming the night gown trim the bottom of the gown evenly. turn {/ inch and crease. turn up a two-inch hem, pinning it in position. (see ill. .) press carefully and stitch close to the edge. vvben sewing in the hem take fullness out by fine gathers or tiny plaits after edge is turned. a -inch strip of cardboard used as a measure will assist you in making the hem accurate. > —. —— -——.. r- .._.___ a_,,__ __., ,l,___l this seam should never show unravelled edges on the right side, neither should it be wide and clumsy. n z i peg} (ill. ) you are now ready to apply the lace by drawing the thread to slightly full it and then stitching it to the edge of the binding or over-handing it by hand. french knots may be added in the center of the binding. this adds very much to the appearance of the finished gown. to make french knots french knots which are used in embroidery are made as illus— trated in . . after bringing the thread up through the material. take an ordinary back stitch. wind the thread or silk twice around the needle, draw it through, holding the coils down with the left thumb. then insert the needle over the edge of the coils in the same hole, thus making the knot secure. do not cut the thread on the underside, but pass on to the next knot. tlll. th making french knots lesson no. the tucker--collar patterns--making a collar and cuff set lesson no. the tucker—making a collar and cuff set the tucker and how to use it substitute the tucker for the presser foot. in order to do this with the greatest case it may. be necessary for you to consult your direction book. always have this book handy, as it will save you much time and trouble, if you refer to it freely. the fold of the first tuck must be made by hand and creased its entire length. all subse- quent folds are made by the tucker. (ill. ) the tucker in operation after creasing the first fold insert the cloth in the tucker from the left, between the smoother and the blade, with the cloth to be tucked uppermost, as shown in the photograph; lower the presser bar and proceed to sew, keeping the crease against the guide. when the tuck is finished, flatten it so that it lies in the proper direction. proceed in like manner for the next tuck, creasing it along the line made by the marker, and catching the edge of the first tuck under the hook just in front of the marker. it is unnecessary then to guide the cloth, as the tucker does it unaided. when making the last tuck, throw the operating lever back out of the way of the needle clamp, in order that no mark may be made where a mark is not desired. table for setting the tucker l . set marker sgiigeui‘ i so pointer l points at for » ;;-inch tucks with mg-inch space %;-inch tucks with no space . %;-inch tucks with %;-inch space xg-inch tucks with %-inch space m-inch tucks with no space . yi-inch tucks with %-inch space v -inch tucks with yz-inch space -inch tucks with no space . vz-inch tucks with vz-inch space %-inch tucks with no space . maammm-~fi gab-hum“)wa study your sewing machine lnstruction book in connection with this lesson if you observe you will find that tucking is the most popular trimming for all thin dresses. underwear, children’s clothes, etc. in fact, scarcely a dainty garment is made that does not require tucking of some sort. at the present time tucking is used on fine french underwear as well as the plainer models. it is not necessary to dwell long on the importance of tucking, as every woman knows how essential it is to understand this feature of sewing. but tucking to be beautiful must be well made. it must be evenly stitched and the spacing must be exact. how often you see a cheap ready-made garment trimmed with tucks. it does not attract. why? the stitches are long and the thread is coarse. this brings us to the vital part of the tucker lesson—how to make beautiful tucks, tucks which are a real trimming. before attempting to make tucks for a dress or apron, try out your tucker with a square of cloth. spend a little time practicing, making various kinds of tucks with different spaces be- tween them, until you know bow to adjust the tucker exactly as you want it. use fine thread, from to , with a needle to match. have your tensions adjusted to give a perfect stitch. always be sure to fasten the adjusting screw firmly so that the tucker guides will not shift. how to do cross-tucking first tuck the cloth lengthwise, then tuck crosswise across the tucks. cross-tucking is ex- tremely ornamental and may be made in many different ways. for example, you can tuck, bias across the first tucks, which gives a totally different effect from plain cross-tucking. (ill. ) some combinations of tucks with a \‘ariety of spacings projects for lesson no. length samples to be six inches in tucked net (b) ide tucks (a) w l ) (ill. ) five and one-half and sample made of fine lawn. net sample made of tucker set at the six. bias tucking (d) cross tucking (c) a. . .wm.wu.flm..rr.‘ - (. . sum hdalil'l .l l?! es! .i ulfimeou. ’ . . r. i p q . .h u .. > , t . r .- n.“ . am. (ill. ) ( . ) made of fine lawn sample made of fine lawn sample (e) collar patterns a flat collar may be made by cutting a pattern as shown in the illustration. edge of the collar may be round instead of square if desired. the outside if you wish to fit a collar to a certain dress lay the center back seam on a piece of paper and trim the shape of the neck. cut shape as desired. flat collab spoulde r sean. centgr pgorfl' roll collar shoulder sean . i a collar aac'o slight cc. comma aeczo mac zocune. center front by following lines here shown you will be able to cut roll collars. u. of !ll. llb. slight roll a_t back / “ shoulde r sean . i u center fr ont take a dart at center neck as shown in chart. this will slightly roll your collar. (f) a dainty c ” and cut; set now that you have practiced with your tucker and va d £ ' ' k ’v \ ma 'our m cs arl u ' re ave _\ p v ousszetcswea / j‘s; going to ask you to make a -inch square of cross— tucking. this tucking is to be made on fine organdie. a very fine stitch is to be used and a perfect tension. do not forget, too, that you are to use a fine needle to correspond with the thread and material you are using. set your tucker for a pin tuck and your space at %. you may use the pattern which your instructor will furnish you or you may draft your own. maybe you have a dress which you would like to freshen up and you have a style collar in view that will look well on the dress. after your tucking is finished and your collar and cuff set cut out it is to be trimmed with a narrow, fine lace edge. the set illustrated will require yards of edging. if you select your own pattern, measure around ( . ) the edge and allow sufficient lace for turning the corners properly. stitch the lace in position with the machine and then turn back the material and make a second stitching. you may overcast this raw edge if you desire, but we feel sure it is quite safe if trimmed close. bind around the neck and the edge of the cuffs with fine lawn, using the binder. figure the cost of this collar set and compare it with the price of ready-mades. isn’t this saving worth while? (all samples of work should be sent to the lnstitute.) a suggestion for applying croas-tucking to an undergarment lesson no. the edge-stitcher lesson no. the edge-stitcher the edge-stitcher makes the sewing machine itself more valuable. it makes it possible for the unskilled operator to do the most perfect stitching. a crooked line of stitching will actually spoil the appearance of a finished garment. if the edge- stitcher is not with your machine your sewing instructor will be glad to supply you with one. directions for using the edge-stitcher ’ the edge-stitching attachment is fastened to the machine in the same manner as the presser foot. the different slots which are numbered from one to five in the illustration serve as _ (mm guides for sewing together laces, insertions, sewing in position folded or hemmed edges, bias fold materials, piping, etc. the edge-stitcher is adjustable for the stitching in relation to the edge of the garment, lace. etc., by means of the lug a at the side of the attachment. (ill. ) how to adjust the edge-stitcher to adjust, move lug a (see ill. ) at the left of the attachment to the right or left until the desired adjustment is obtained. when sewing two pieces of lace together it is very necessary that the attachment be adjusted to stitch exactly on the edge so that the edges will not fold over when laundered. always use a fine needle and thread when sewing laces together, as this greatly improves the appearance of the finished work. the edges of lace or soft material should be held slightly overlapped when operating the edge-stitcher to prevent the material from feeding away. when the attachment is properly adjusted the most inexperienced operator can sew yards of lace or other material together with no difficulty. ,r - q a variety of trimmings made with the edge-stitcher fig. ——rows of insertion sewn together. slots nos. and are used for this class of work. fig. —rows of lace and embroidery sewn together. slots nos. and are also used for this class of work. fig. —tucking and insertion sewn together. the lace is placed in slot no. and the folded edge of the material in slot no. . fig. —ribbon and lace sewn together. the ribbon is placed in slot no. l and the lace in slot no. . fig. —.\ band of embroidery finished on the edge with a narrow lace edge. the embroidery is placed in slot no. l and the lace in slot no. . fig. —lace insertion used as trimming. the lace is placed in slot no. l and the material in under the attachment. after the lace is sewn in position the material is cut from the underside, the edge turned back and a second row of stitching added as a finish. fig. —braid sewn to a garment for trimming. the braid is inserted in slot n . and the garment under the attachment. fig. s—bias folds sewn to the edge of a garment to be used as a finish and trimming. the bias fold is inserted in slot no. l and the edge of the garment in slot no. with the garment wrong side up. the other edge of the binding is stitched in position with the presser foot. (ill. ) projects for lesson no. samples of edge-stitching to be made (ill. ) sample made of val. lace this sample is made the same as sewing together the laces. the lace is inserted in slot slmples to be six inches in length when sewing together two patterns of lace always have the one with the better finished edge in the slot at the left, as this is the edge that will show. if the feed of the machine is sharp and catches the lace insert a piece of paper in under the attachment. do not have the tension too tightly adjusted for this kind of work. this sort of trimming is very popular for underwear and lingerie dresses. no. and the folded edge of the material in slot no. . the stitching should come as close to the edge as possible when doing work of this kind so that the edge will not curl up when laundered. (ill. ) sample made of lawn and val. lnrc “*- lesson no. making a chemise—using the edge-stitcher and tucker materials required: ‘/ ' yds. batiste “ insertion “ edging. this attractive combination is made of pink batiste and trimmed with val. lace and insertion. lt requires no pattern, as your instructor will assist you with the cutting. (see ill. .) first tuck a piece of material inches by inches in groups of live tucks with a space of about % inches between the groups. the tucker is to be set for a fine pin tuck. after your tucking is finished, trim off the edges so that it measures x inches. always try out your tucker on a waste piece of material before starting to tuck for a garment. cut your yoke as indicated by ]. . you are now ready to sew your laces together for the trimming. (lll. ) -; f f d“ ' iiii'ti l. “ ? “at; f - i-"t @ h ti (ill. ) (ill. ) how to (‘ut your chemise how to cut the yoke edge-stitching the lace and insertion together attach the edge-stitcher to the machine and adjust for sewing laces together. sew to- gether your lace and insertion. after you have adjusted your attachment and started to join your lace, notice the small amount of time required to finish this work. you would hardly be- lieve it possible to do it in so short a time as compared to the tedious operation of basting by hand. you are now ready to apply the lace to the triangular pieces which form the yoke. refer again to ill. and you will find a sketch of the front and back of the yoke ready to be attached. if the yoke is too large the points may be over~lapped a sufficient amount to make it fit properly. stitching up the seams sew up the first seams in your chemise following directions given in your night gown lesson. after your seam is trimmed close to the stitching it is folded and inserted in your edge—stitcher for the final stitching. follow fig. , page , for instructions for french seaming. you have now had instruction in making french seams with and without the edge-stitcher. you will find many times that it is necessary to understand both ways of making this seam and you will be able to choose for yourself which is more practical. the bottom of the chemise may be hemmed and the lace and insertion stitched to the edge of the hem with the etlge-stite'her, following fig. . page , in your edge—stitcher lesson. if you desire to have this garment au'envelope chemise you may add a tab and apply hand- made buttonholes or snaps to fasten; or you may leave the side seams open for a distance of six inches and trim the edge with lace, as shown in the illustration. joining the yoke .\ band of the lace and insertion is then applied to the bottom of the yoke and to the top of the chemise. this edge may be finished by turning back the material and adding a second row of stitching and then overcast the raw edge, or it may be left trimmed close. a short stitch must always be used for this finish, as it insures a safe seam. a four-inch strip of lace and insertion is to be joined at the points of the yoke, thus making the garment low enough in the neck. the lace and insertion is to be joined with the lidge-stitcher. the reason your ready-mades pull out so often is because of the poor stitching. you will find that home-made garments will wear at least twice as long as the ready-made ones. to make a round medallion (ill. ) sewing lace to paper circle cut a piece of paper the size of the desired medal- lion. measure the width of lace from edge of paper to find out how large the center is to be. cut a piece of cross—tucking large enough to form the center, allowing one-half inch to turn in. (ill. ) baste the cross-tucking to the paper. with the machine sew the outside edge of the lace to the outside edge of the paper, and the inside edge of the lace to the cross-tucking, pulling the thread in the lace to make it fit into a perfect circle. (ill. ) lesson no. the hemming lesson--hemming a towel making a tailored placket lesson no. the hemmer lesson—hemming a towel for the inexperienced operator, the hemmers require more practice than any of the other attachments, so do not become discouraged when the first hems you make are not perfect. the material must be guided at all times so that too much or too little goods will not be fed into the attachment, causing the hem to be uneven. the rule for operating the hemmer can be applied to the foot hemmer, adjustable hem- mer or the hemmer set. attach the hemmer in place of the presser foot. beginning at the point where the hem is to start, fold up one—eighth of an inch of the edge for a distance of about two inches, creasing the fold. insert the folded edge in the hemmer from the left, bringing it up and around the spoon, then draw it toward you until the beginning of the hem is under the needle. lower the presser bar and proceed to sew. if too little cloth is fed in, hold the cloth to the right; if too much is being fed in, hold the cloth to the left. the adjustable hemmer is used with some machines in place of the hemmer set. by simply loosening the screw, and sliding the guide to the right or left, the hemmer is adjusted for a wide or narrow hem. (ll. ) cut of hemmer with cloth inserted the rule that must be followed when using the hemmers is to hold the cloth in a straight line after it is inserted in the attachment. when hemming over a seam, always press the seam as flat as possible before starting to sew. never pull your material, as this will cause it to stretch and your hem will not come out even with the garment. when hemming soft material that is liable to stretch it is better to insert a piece of paper over the feed to prevent the goods from puckering and the hem from stretching. paper should also be used to hem a soft bias edge, as it will keep the cloth from stretching. table linen may be run through the hemmer without using thread. your linen will then be ready for the hand sewing and much time saved. turning the hem of table linen, making it ready for the hand work \vhile it is desirable to have table linen hemmed by hand, the hemmer may be used to make the turning. for this work the machine is not threaded. the size one hemmer is used and a thread is pulled in the linen before starting to hem. you will find that much time has been saved through following this suggestion. (ill. ) table linen turned with the hemmer hemming a kitchen towel purchase one yard of toweling and hem the ends by using the hemmer. whip the hems at the edge as suggested in the above text. we would suggest that you use either the > size one or size two hemmer. (ill. quilting (ill. ) fold a crease in the cloth to be quilted as a guide for the first line of stitching, thereafter guiding each succeeding line by holding the cloth so that the last line of stitching made is run directly under the guide, as shown in the illustration. (all samples of work to he lent to the institute.) hemming and sewing on lace with the foot hemmer (ill. ) hemming and sewing on lace with the foot hemmer you will find that you have a small hemmer very similar to the one shown in the above illustration. after you have learned to make a plain hem with this attachment lace may be inserted in the slot at the right. you must guide your hem with one hand and the lace with the other. you must spend some time at practice with your hemmer. you will be well repaid for your time, as they will save you many hours of labor. projects for lesson no. hemming toweling a small piece of toweling is to be hemmed with the size , one or size two hemmer. the material must not be pulled, as the lines will not exactly match if this is done. \vhen hemming towels leave the thread ends sufficiently long in order that they may be tied, and after one thread is cut the other may be threaded into a hand-sewing needle and the edge of the hem caught together with a whip stitch. (ill. ) hemmed toweling lesson no. the ruffler and shirrer lesson (ill. ) substitute the ruffier for the presser foot, by placing the rufiier foot (a) in position on the presser bar. the forked arm (b) of the rufiier should first be set astride the needle clamp. tighten the attachment screw firmly by turning it to the right, then turn the hand-wheel slowly to see if the needle passes through the center of the hole in the foot of the rufiier. the lines , , , and show how to place the different pieces of cloth in the ruffler. if you do not have the type of ruffier here shown these directions for attaching and ad- justing will apply. the forked arm (b) on all rufflers is practically the same and the adjusting screw is usually at location (c). study your sewing machine instruction book in connection with this lesson to adjust the fullness of the gather insert the cloth in the ruffler between the blades, following line two. lower the presser bar and proceed to sew. now turn the adjusting screw (c) to the right; you will find the fullness is increased as you turn this screw down. now turn the screw up, or to the left, and notice how the fullness decreases. adjust your rufiler for an ordinary gather and lengthen the stitch on your machine. you will now note that the gathers are scant, but the plaits are not as fine and perfect as when the fullness is decreased with the adjusting screw. to increase the fullness turn the adjusting screw to the right. to decrease turn to the left. ruinng, sewing to garment and adding a facing at one operation the garment is placed in the ruffler. following line , the ruffle following line and the facing following line . it will be necessary for you to guide these bands. keeping them well in the .	tachment. you will not find this difiicult to do. you will readily see. what a great amount of time can be saved through using your ruffier for such operations as this. ( . (as) sewing : ruffle to a garment and sewing a facing at one stitching piping a ruffle [f the ruffle for this operation is to be more than % inches it will be necessary for you to use your shirring plate for this operation. your lesson on the use of the shirrer will explain why. the ruffle is to be placed in the rufiler, following line , and must be pulled through so that the finished edge comes to the right of the blade. the last guide on the ruffler underblade can be used to keep this heading even. the piping is placed following line and the band, which has first been folded, is inserted following line . uu. a») piping a ruflic and sewing it to finished band at one operation f _q. _— fi_— ": gal-t-u making plaiting with the five-stitch ruffier mm“) if your machine is supplied with a five-stitch ruffier you will find many ways in which you can apply this trimming to your garments. if it is not and you desire to have one for your machine ask your sewing machine dealer to supply you with one. if you cannot purchase same for your type of machine you will b) able to make many pretty trimmings with your type of ruffler such as are obtained in ill. . if you have the five-stitch rufliler we ask you to refer to your machine instruction book for directions as to how this ruffler is adjusted. the effect of this is to make one plait every fifth stitch, instead of at each stitch as in ordinary ruffiing. the cloth is inserted and held. and adjustments are made exactly as in plain ruffiing. the adjusting screw must be turned down or to the right as far as it will go for plaiting. the shirring lesson .‘\ _ 'i ‘ ‘* . . .. .. r " . -' ‘ _‘ be t“ wwwp.“ ‘ ‘ “\‘il‘mé‘ zi\_-;t.\*rt.\‘i- _ .\ pt") . 	 \wk ‘ " " ' (lll. | for shirring in rows or piping a wide rufiie the shirring plate must be used in connection with the rufi‘ier. as you will note from your practice with the ruffier the cloth to be gathered is inserted between the blades. if you will try to put a wide piece of cloth between the blades, you will find that the separator or part to which your underblade is attached is in the way. as the shirring plate takes the place of the underblade on the rulifler it is necessary to remove the separator before using the shirring plate. the separator of the ruffier is removed either by loosening the screw on the side of the attachment or by turning it over back as shown in the above illustration. your instruction book must be consulted for this operation. your instruction book will also tell you how to attach the shirrer to the machine. after the separator of the ruffler is removed and the shirring plate is attached the ruffler is placed on the machine and operated as before. you will find that you are now able to place a large piece of material between the blades. to shirr in straight rows crease the material in rows the proper distance apart. then press with a hot iron and stitch on the creases. the quilter may also be used to guide your rows of shirring. your instructor will tell you how. ._-. __- lesson no. the braiding lesson--making a linen scarf smocking -. _i-,_ll v;.__. _ - _ _ _ __‘fmfl sleeve placket for shirt this tailored placket is used on men’s shirts and tailored shirt waists. before stitching up sleeve, placket must be faced. cut opening four inches deep about one inch from fold on under side of sleeve, on stripe. cut facings according to draft, point of pattern on stripe, or matching line of gash. g e z -||\l '“ [in . hh' gm. _g. ' _z. » i: -in i .- jn -|n q !) (iii. b) | - in. (ill. a) under facing—lay right side of binding against wrong side of sleeve on under side of slash. stitch m; inch from edge; turn facing back on seam and then on line of slash; turn in %; inch on other side and stitch on edge. for upper facing—lay right side of binding against wrong side of sleeve; stitch %;-inch from edge. open seam flat. fold facing to right side, so point of placket comes in line with gash. turn in %;-inch around point and on long side, stitch twice across just below end of gash. lesson no. the braiding lesson—making a linen scarf l (ill. ) directions for using the underbraider insert the braid in the underbraider by threading it through the tube, then attach it to the machine as shown in the instruction book. always use the braider foot, which is cut away in the front, when using the underbraider. (see . .) to copy braiding designs braiding designs may be purchased at any pattern counter and should be continuous as nearly as possible. use several sheets of ordinary wrapping 'paper if you wish to save copies of any pattern; pin the design to the sheets and stitch with the sewing machine without using thread in the needle. the braider foot instead of the sewing foot should be used for this work, as it allows the operator to follow the design better, just as in braiding. the perforated pattern is then pinned or basted to the material and after the design is worked the paper is torn off. to start braiding insert the braid in the underbraider and attach it to the machine. lower the presser foot and stitch for a short distance to make sure the line of stitching comes in the center of the braid. if it is to one side adjust the braider over slightly by pushing it with the screw driver. the stitch for braiding should be of ordinary length unless the design consists of short curves- ’ it is then better to have the stitch a trifle shorter. the braiding design should be stamped on the wrong side of the material. to turn a square corner with the needle piercing the braid, raise the presser bar and turn your cloth in the proper direction, lower the bar and proceed to sew. by following these directions you will be enabled to turn a square corner perfectly and at the same time keep the goods from puckering. finishing the ends of braid \vhen the braiding is finished punch a hole in the material with the point of the scissors or the stiletto, push the braid through to the wrong side and fasten by hand. if care is taken when doing this the hole made by the stiletto can hardly be detected. kinds of braid to use several different kinds of braid may be used with the underbraider, but the most popular is soutache, which comes in silk or cotton. another braid that is used for fancy work such as pillows, scarfs, etc., is the pigtail braid. this braid also comes in silk or cotton and in a variety of shades and colors. the gold and silver cord braid can also be used with the underbraider. projects for lesson no. the braid and material can be of any color. the stitching must come in the center of the braid and the tension must be perfect. if your design consists of sharp curves it will be necessary to run the machine slowly in order to follow the pattern. £ . ) braiding net when braiding net it is necessary to have the design perforated on paper, as it would be impossible to stamp on this material and keep it from stretching. it is often necessary to insert another piece of. paper under the braider foot next to the feed of the machine. this is also true when braiding chiffon. this will keep the material per- fectly flat and the appearance of the finished work will pay for the extra care taken. (ill. ) braiding with pigtail braid this sample to be made of pigtail braid. when using this style of braid it is better to chose a pattern with the lines not too close together, as the braid flattens out after it is stitched. a pillow or hand bag is very effective when trimmed with this braid. for this sample use the design furnished by your instructor. (ill. ) braided loops sew a strip of fine lawn through the binder, attach the braider to the machine and sew a row of braid through the center of the strip. finish the loops as described in lesson . ‘ (ill. ) braiding a scarf or pillow ( . ) your instructor will furnish you with a braiding pattern for a scarf and pillow. we would suggest that you use both, thus making a very practical set for living-room or den. purchase linen or crash in tan or white as desired and soutache braid in a contrasting color. the scarf and pillow are very pretty made of tan linen and braided with golden-brown silk braid. the wide hem may be hemstitched. (see directions below for hemstitching.) this set will require three and one-half yards of linen or crash and three pieces of braid. the scarf alone requires two yards and two pieces of braid. to make hemstitching hemstitching is a line of open work made by drawing out parallel threads and fastening the cross threads in successive small clusters. draw as many threads from the material as desired lesson no. alteration of shirt waist patterns—making a shirt waist the directions for the alteration of shirt waist patterns will also apply to any dress or coat pattern that you may select later on with your sewing. commercial patterns are made to fit model figures and very often need alteration, just as ready made dresses usually need alteration to fit properly. for this reason we desire to teach you to alter paper patterns rather than to make a dress and then alter the dress. (ill. ) to lengthen the waist line (ill. ) very often a garment is spoiled because it is cut too short waisted. hold the pattern up to your figure from the shoulder and if it is too short in the waist, cut the pattern as indicated by . . separate the pattern by pasting a strip of paper to hold it in shape. the back should also be altered the same amount and should be cut as indicated by ill. . to add fullness to bust or increase the shoulder seam if you find it necessary to add fullness to the bust or increase the shoulder line, cut your pattern as indicated by ill. and insert a strip of paper in the pattern. the back must also be altered the same amount as shown by ill. . (ill. ) ( . ) to lengthen the sleeve if the sleeve is too short from the under arm to the cuff cut the pattern as shown by ill. . you must always alter a sleeve at these two points in order to keep the proper shape. if you take the length from the sleeve all _ from the elbow down the sleeve will draw and pull up. (ill. ) to add fullness to the sleeve if the sleeve is too tight cut the pattern through the center as shown by ill. . if you then find it necessary to tighten the sleeve at the cuff it can be done by taking it in at the under arm seam from the elbow down. the sleeve should not be altered from the elbow down until after it has been attached to the arm hole. (ill. ) to shorten the waist line for a short waisted figure over lap the pat- tern as shown in ill. and pin or paste the fold in position. the back must also be altered as shown in ill. . caution. do not make the mistake of folding too large a tuck. it is better to measure the figure and then the pattern to make sure that they correspond. (“ . ) ( . ) ll’l ‘ | ll!" ( % lesson no. making the blouse--continued a washable amass n \‘._u'_ __ 'i .\! h! ill, , '. i‘ll" \. in ll'j/l\ ' -- _———-;_—.__ ‘_—i _- _ ___-_— a making a shirtwaist this attractive blouse, which is made of fine white organdie, can be fashioned from lawn, batiste or thin silk if you prefer. however, we believe you will be more pleased if you select organdie, as this material is easily laundered and quite easy to sew on. if made of -inch organdie it will require: % yards of material @ . c. .......... $ . one-half dozen buttons ................. . thread (size ) ...................... . total cost .......................... $ . (iii. ) the lesson on the alteration of patterns will allow you to properly fit the plain shirt waist pattern you purchase for use with this lesson, all trimmings are added before the blouse is cut. measure the amount of material required for the length of the front, and if your material is wide enough to allow for the cutting of the two fronts from the one width, tuck both sides of the material. if the material is not wide enough to allow for the cutting of two fronts measure enough for two fronts and make your tucks in one continuous length. to trim the blouse tuck your material in two groups of five pin tucks very close together. these clusters should be started about two inches from the edge of your material and should be two inches apart. make two clusters of tucks. the space between the tucks will allow for your plaited trimming to be attached. to cut the strips for plaiting the strips for plaiting should be cut on the cross wise of the material from selvedge to sel- vedge and may be measured and cut with your cutting gauge set at “f.” measure around your col- lar, cuffs and down the front and allow three times this length for plaiting strips. cut sufficient strips and sew them together in one continuous strip and then hem one edge with the narrow foot hemmer. press well before plaiting. plaiting the strips try out your ruffler with a small piece of the material you are using for your blouse. set your stitch to bring the plaits quite close together. if you do not have the five stitch ruffler you may set your ruffler for a fine scant gather or you may use the fullest plait and the longest stitch that the machine will make. plait or gather your strips and bring to next class. also bring material for washable dress, and dress pattern pictorial review style b, or another pattern of similar style; so we can start it in our next lesson. the pattern will state the number of yards required for the width of material you are using. note illustrations given in lesson no. when selecting your pattern. ll. . . double; lay right sides together and stitch on three sides. cues turn. lay wrong side of cufl' to wrong side of sleeve. stitch. turn the seam down into the cuff. turn in v inch on the other edge of cuff and stitch to sleeve. turn cuff back on sleeve. b. ' belt or girdle double. lay right sides together, stitch all around the edges, leaving one end open. turn right side out. turn in edges at open end and stitch. single. hem all around, arrange on figure, and tack loosely at front, sides and back. . ribbon or silk. suggestions . sleeves may be short. b. an additional collar and cuff set may be made of tucked organdie. . vest may be tucked or trimmed with insertion. . vest may be made of tucked organdie. tunic may be tucked or trimmed with insertion to correspond with vest. reversed hem, collar and cuffs may be piped with plaid if dress is of plain material, or vice warm; or narrow plaiting may be set in reversed hem, vest, collar and cuffs. . pockets may be added. organdie and cross tuck: finishing. tions for making waist and sleeves. serge and military braid there is nothing smarter than a tailor—made frock of tricolette or serge, and this model is especially suitable for these materials. military braid makes a very effective trimming for this dress. the braid can be stitched in position with the edge—stitcher without basting. measure and mark with tailor’s chalk where the braid is to be sewed, attach edge-stitcher, and proceed with your work. ease braid when stitching so material will not puckcr. it would be well ‘to try it on a small piece of material first. follow all general directions for washable dress except for seams. all seams in wool must be plain, and finished with binding. hem plus v inch for a turn on each edge. simplicity is the keynote of this lovely little frock of batiste or voile. in making the peplum for this dress, we first make our piece of cross-tucking the width we desire, stitch the lace on each side, then cut the material for the hem twice the width of the finished stitch lace on to double hem. from the desired length of the finished peplum, subtract the width of hem and the cross-tucking and cut the upper section this amount, plus two inches allowed for join lace to upper section of peplum, and follow general direc- : 'il domestic science a text in cooking and syllabus in sewing, . prepared for use in the kansas city ele- mentary schools, yet eminently fitted for home work; containing, in un- technical language, all the fundamental theories of foods and their functions, together with more than two hundred recipes and thirty illustrations designed to demon. strate those theories and to make a comprehensive cook book for school, college, and family use. third, revised, edition. gertrude t. johnson j author and publisher care of board of education kansas city, mo. copyrighted by gertrude t. johnson - c. e. hayes co. wyandotte street kansas city, mo. printers preface. to the public: and i must "write a preface, whereon the world may look.” slight use to read a preface; read the book. gertrude t. johnson, kansas city, mo. april ist, . synopsis of contents cooking. part i. syllabus of the course; for the teacher's use. part ii. text for the pupils of the seventh scholastic year. part iii. text for the pupils of the eighth scholastic year. part iv. appendix; for additional work and general reference. part v. light cooking equipment for a class of twenty-four pupils. manual training equipment for a class of twenty four pupils. sewing. part vi. general suggestions. part vii. syllabus of the course for the sixth scholastic year. part viii. syllabus of the course for the seventh scholastic year. part ix. syllabus of the course for the eighth scholastic year. domestic science part . cooking. syllabus of the course; for the teachers' use. note.-in every lesson the food-stuffs used in the prac- tical work should be discussed briefly, with regard to their physiological use, classification, and comparative food values. the hygienic phase of the work should be emphasized at every available point. we do not live to eat; we eat to live. seventh year. lesson . sanitary housekeeping. dust, dirt, and mould in the home; danger of dark rooms; importance of fresh air and sunlight; general directions for sweeping and dusting; danger in carpets; their disinfection; in tapestry. practical work. sweeping and dusting the kitchen and furnishings; washing of dust cloths. lesson . sanitary housekeeping. dishwashing; care of dish- towels, dish-cloths, sink, garbage, garbage-can, boards and tables, refrigerators; care of knives, forks, and spoons, cooking uten- sils; use of boiling water as a germ destroyer; of sal soda. practical work. washing, scalding, and wiping of the dishes and cooking utensils, making practical ap- plication of the theories presented in the lesson. lesson . measurements. the necessity for accuracy. practical work. making the table of cooking measurements, by use of coarse salt, and of water, as ma- domestic science terial; use of salt spoon, teaspoon, tablespoon, gill measure; cup, half-pint, and quart. lesson . food. its general functions; the five food principles, and their physiological uses, in brief; classification of com. mon food-stuffs, with regard to their comparative food values. practical work. cooking rolled oats, serving with milk and sugar. lesson . albumen. its principal sources, eggs, meat, and fish; the effects of heat upon it; of cold water. practical work. tests for fresh eggs; tests of the effects of hot water on the eggs; of cold water. toasting bread, soft-boiling of eggs; serving eggs on toast. lesson . gluten. its principal sources, cereals; comparative methods of cooking fine and coarse cereals. practical work. cooking cream of wheat; serving with milk and sugar. lesson . casein. animal casein; its principal source, milk. vegetable casein; its principal sources, legumes, practical work. making cottage cheese; boiling lima beans previously soaked in water; serving. lesson . starch. its principal sources, cereals and vegetables; potatoes; comparative values of potatoes baked and potatoes boiled. practical work. boiling rice and baking potatoes; serving. lesson . sugar. its principal sources, cane, fruits, vegetables; cooking its commercial classes, crystallized and granulated; compara- tive values; economy in buying. practical work. making fondant. lesson . water. its physiological and its general uses, its sub- stitutes as a beverage, tea, coffee, cocoa; the source and nature of each; effect of each upon the nervous system. practical work. making tea, coffee, and cocoa; serving optional. lesson . animal fats and oils. their principal sources, milk, meat, and fish. examples: butter, butter oil, lard, tallow, and fish oil. practical work. sauteing potatoes; serving. lesson . animal fats and oils. discussion of the dangers of impure milk, rancid butter, oils, and fats; decomposing meats; methods of preservation. practical work. pasteurizing milk. lesson . vegetable oils. their principal sources, cereals, fruits, and nuts. examples: cotton-seed oil, olive oil, almond oil, cocoanut oil; common food uses of each; comparative values of lard and cooking oil (cotton-seed), in cooking. practical work. french frying potatoes in cooking oil; serving. lesson . mineral substances. the chief mineral substances found in the body, sulphur, phosphorus, lime, potassium, sodium, iron, salt; essential to life; their functions; principal sources, green vegetables, cereals, and water. practical work. evaporation of a solution of salt and water, to show how mineral substances are held in so- domestic science lution in water, hence in juices. making cabbage salad; serving with french dressing. lesson . acids. not a food principle; their function when used with foods; their principal natural sources, fruits and vegetables; acid beverages and acid fruits for the sick. practical work. making lemonade and baking apples; serving. lesson . vegetable soups. their great nutritive value; com- parative values of fresh, dried, and canned vegetables for soups. practical work. tomato soup; lima bean soup; serving. lesson . vegetable soups. vegetables suitable for drying; for canning; the opening and care of canned vegetables or fruit. practical work. potato soup; dried pea soup; serving with croutons. lesson . breadstuffs. the common cereals used as bread- stuffs; samples of the grains; of the flours; comparative food values of bolted and unbolted flours; bleached and unbleach- ed flour; expansion of batter by heat and air. practical work. making popovers. lesson . leavening. leavening by gas; formation of gas by combination of acids and alkalies; demonstration by use of cream of tartar and bi-carbonate of soda. practical work. making pancake batter with cream of tartar and bi-carbonate of soda; baking; serving. lesson . leavening. review of previous lessons on leavening: leavening with sour milk and soda. cooking practical work. making pancake batter with sour milk and soda as leavening; baking pancakes; serving. lesson . leavening. review of previous lessons on leavening. combination of cream of tartar and bi-carbonate of soda to form baking powder. practical work. making and canning baking powder. lesson . quick breads. review of gluten, starch, sugar, and previous processes of leavening. practical work. making and baking wheat flour muffins. lesson . quick breads. compare thick batters and thin bat- ters. the effect of fats on batters. practical work. making corn-meal muffins; baking. lesson . quick breads. bi-carbonate of soda and molasses as leavening; classification of ginger as a food stuff. practical work. making of soft ginger bread; baking. lesson . quick breads. review of leavening and batters. doughs. practical work. making baking powder biscuits; baking; drop biscuits. lesson . quick breads. review of leavening, batters, and dough. practical work. making sour milk biscuits; baking. lesson . quick breads. review of the egg; the nutritive val- domestic science ues of its respective parts; sugar; classification of vanilla as a food stuff. practical work. making sugar cookies. lesson . quick breads. general review of the subject of quick breads. practical work. making molasses cake; baking. lesson . meats. composition of meats; comparative food val. ues and expense of different kinds of meat; the effect of hot water upon them; of cold water; of dry heat; how to know fresh meats; meat for soup stock. practical work. making soup stock and canning for use. lesson . meats. the economic use of the water in which meat has been boiled; in which vegetables have been boiled. practical work. making macaroni soup with the stock previously prepared; serving. lesson . broths. discussion of their great nutritive value; their importance to the sick; the addition of cereals to in. crease their nourishment. practical work. making chicken broth with rice; with barley; serving. lesson . milk and eggs. review of the food value and care of each; the thickening properties of eggs. practical work. making plain cup custard; caramel sauce; serving. lesson . milk and eggs. review of each subject. methods of utilizing stale bread and cake; injurious effects of mouldy bread and cake. cooking practical work. making of bread pudding, using stale bread; vanilla sauce; making of rice pudding; baking: serving. lesson . milk. review of pasteurizing milk; the nutritive val. ue of milk; use in combination with cereals. value of gruels for the sick. practical work. making milk gruel with corn-meal; with oat-meal; serving. lesson . canning. preservation of food by sterilization; other methods of preservation; wholesome and unwholesome methods of canning; tin cans compared with glass cans; selection of fruits and their preparation for canning; selection and preparation of cans or jars; process of canning. practical work. canning seasonable fruit. lesson . table-setting and serving. a diagram of the loca- tion of the different articles of tableware; table serving. lesson . written or oral test of the year's work. grades. lesson . teacher's reports. eighth year. lesson . sanitary housekeeping. care of the range; fue] and combustion; soft water and hard water compared; the difference in their composition; sanitary properties of alkalies; their domestic utility; care of plumbing, cellars, bath- rooms; use of disinfectants; temperature of rooms; ventilation. practical work. tests for hard water; use of alka- lies to soften hard waters; use of disinfectants. domestic science lesson . starch. review of previous lesson on starch, and starch producing products, potato starch, rice starch, corn starch; their respective domestic uses. practical work, making potato starch; boiling, mashing, and ricing potatoes; serving. lesson . cereals. their food value and digestibility when served with fruits; comparative economy in use of raw cereals and steamed-cooked market preparations. practical work. cooking rice as a vegetable; as a dessert, with fruit; serving. lesson . fruits. review of value of mineral salts in foods; of acids. comparison of fruits, fresh, dried, canned. danger of over-ripe fruits; of unripe fruits. common fruits and methods of cooking them. practical work. making apple sauce and baking bananas; serving. lesson . fruits. review of the subject. cooling beverages for the sick, their nutritive values; fruit juices as beverages. practical work. preparation of apple water, currant water, and grape water; serving. lesson . eggs. review of composition and food value. the egg as a perfect food; economy in its use. digestibility as affected by high temperature; by low temperature. practical work. making toast and poaching eggs; serving eggs on toast. preparing albumenized milk as a beverage for the sick; serving. lesson . milk. review of its composition, its properties, its cooking nutritive values; its care. danger of sour milk. rennet, its source and properties. practical work. demonstration of the action of rennet on milk. making rennet custard; making milk por- ridge; serving. lesson . vegetables. classes in common use; their relative nutritive values; comparative values of different methods of cooking. practical work. preparing scalloped potatoes; boiling turnips, serving with white sauce. lesson . flour pastes. the composition, use, and compara- tive values of macaroni, spaghetti, and vermicelli; their food values in combination with meats, vegetables, etc. practical work. macaroni boiled, then baked with tomato sauce; serving. lesson . breakfast. planning, cooking, and serving a simple breakfast, consisting of one fruit, one cereal, one quick bread; eggs; coffee or cocoa. lesson . meats. review of their composition. effects of hot water, of cold water, of dry heat. a diagram of the different cuts of beef. discussion of the different cuts as located in the diagram; utility of tough cuts; comparative expense of tough cuts; of tender cuts. practical work. preparation of beef stew with vegetables, from tough cut; serving. lesson . meats. review of diagram of cuts of beef. the best cuts for boiling. practical work. pan-broiling beef steak; brown gravy; serving. domestic science lesson . meats. review of previous lessons on meats. cuts for roasting; expense; methods of roasting. practical work. roasting beef, making brown gravy with roast; carving, and serving at table. lesson . fish. composition, cost, and nutritive valuo com- pared with meats; tests for freshness. practical work. sauteing halibut, haddock, or cat fish; serving. lesson . fish. review of previous lesson; garnishing; various fish sauces. practical work. boiling fish; garnishing with boil- ed eggs; serving with drawn butter sauce. lesson . fish. review of fish. market preparations of codfish; methods of cooking. practical work. preparation of creamed codfish; serving. lesson . fish. review, optional. practical work. making of codfish balls; fried fish; serving. lesson . oysters. composition and nutritive value as com pared with meat and fish; danger of stale oysters. practical work. stewing oysters; serving. lesson . poultry. marketing: tests for freshness; selection of young fowls. chicken; its nutritive value; methods of cook. ing. practical work. frying chicken, southern method; serving. cooking lesson . poultry. review of previous lesson. danger of stale poultry from keeping it long on ice. method of roasting fowl. practical work. preparation of a chicken for roast- ing; roasting; making gravy for roast; carving at table; serving with cranberry sauce. lesson . salads. review of nutritive value of mineral salts found in green vegetables and fruits; value of cheese in salads. practical work. preparing cabbage salad, serving with mayonnaise dressing. lesson . cake. review of the principles of leavening. cake made with butter; cake made without butter. practical work. mixing and baking standard cake. lesson . cake. review of eggs as leavening; of acids and alka- lies as leavening. practical work. making sponge cake. lesson . doughnuts. review of fats and oils; their effects on dough. practical work. making doughouts; frying in cook ing oil, (cotton-seed oil). lesson . desserts. review of properties and nutritive value of corn starch and vanilla. composition of tapioca. practical work. making tapioca pudding, serving. lesson . milk toast. review of properties and nutritive val domestic science ues of milk; of bread. changes produced in bread by toasting. value of toast. practical. work. making milk toast; serving. lesson . table service. duties of host, hostess, guest, and waiter. practical work. planning a simple supper; table setting and serving. lesson . bread. review leavening. yeast. effects of mixing, kneading, and rising. relation of yeast bread to quick bread. practical work. mixing and kneading white bread; quick process. lesson . bread. comparative review of flours. review of yeast. practical work. moulding of white bread. lesson . bread. review, at option of teacher. practical work. baking white bread. lesson . rolls and buns. digestibility and food value of yeast breads compared with quick breads. practical work. raised muffins. lesson . rolls and buns. comparison of roll, bread, and bun doughs. practical work. parker house rolls. lesson . jellies. use of sugar as a preservative. selection and preparation of fruits for jellies. preparation of glasses and jars. methods of making jelly. practical work. making jelly of seasonable fruit. cooking lesson . canning. review of methods of preserving fruits and vegetables. preparation of jars; of fruits. process of can- ning. practical work. canning seasonable fruit. lesson . table service. practice in planning a simple din: ner; duties of host, hostess; waiter. pupils act as guests. lesson . practical work. preparation of a simple dinner, serving invited guests. lesson . oral or written examination. lesson . pupils' grades. cooking part ii. seventh year. lesson . dirt is anything unclean. it may be animal, vegetable or mineral. dust is of the same composition as dirt. it is dirt powdered so fine as to float in the air. dust plants grow from tiny seeds, or germs, that float in the air as dust. they are classed as moulds, yeasts, and bacteria. moulds are fungi of considerable size, easily visible to fig. . the naked eye, composed of thread-like tubes. some are white, some blue, green, brown, black, or red. they grow cooking upon all kinds of material and have a variety of forms. they grow and multiply rapidly in warm, moist places, and destroy food, clothing, etc. mildew is a form of mould. moulds begin to grow on the outside of food, as bread, cheese, etc., and branch out and grow down into the food, like the roots of a plant. rotting is only the process of mould growth. to prevent mould, protect from dust and keep in dry places. figure is a highly magnified specimen of common green mould. it may be frequently seen on bread, cake, etc. the delicate spores at the top, are light and feathery, and are easily detached and blown into the air, where they float as dust plants. the stalks, or stems, grow down into the bread or other articles upon which they feed, just as the roots of our common shrubs grow down into the ground. as these roots take up, or eat up, the nutrient part of the bread nec- essary to their life, the chemical change in the bread is called rotting, or decaying. yeasts and bacteria are germs so small, that it would take from , to , of them, laid side by side, fig. . make a line one inch in length. they can be seen only by the use of the microscope; hence, are called microbes. yeast is the plant that produces fermentation, or "working,” in many liquids and moist mixtures, as grape domestic science juice, preserves, etc. yeast will be discussed more fully, later in the course. figure is a highly magnified group of yeast plants. they multiply by sending out little buds, as you see in the figure, which break off from the larger part and become neú plants, to bud in turn. bacteria are the smallest and simplest of known living things. each one is a jelly-like, colorless, and nearly trans- parent cell. their home is mostly in the upper layers of the earth, but they are carried everywhere by the winds, the rain, and the snow. they are in the air we breathe, the food we eat, the water we drink; they are on the bodies of men and animals, in their mouths, under their nails. they re- quire moisture for their growth. many require heat for their growth, but some grow at a freezing temperature. they multiply rapidly, doubling about every five minutes, under proper conditions of temperature and moisture. as they fig. . grow, some kinds of bacteria throw off poisonous substances; which produce diseases of different kinds. some kinds of bacteria are harmless. as we cannot tell, readily, the danger. ous kinds, we try to destroy all. all dust and dirt should be destroyed by burning. dark, damp places are favorable to the growth of bacteria, while fresh air and sunlight are great disinfectants. figure shows a group of highly magnified bacteria, of various forms and sizes. they, too, multiply by budding, like the yeast plant. cooking lesson . care of dish-towels and dish-cloths. all towels and cloths used in housekeeping should be hemmed; and each cloth should be used only for the purpose for which it was intended. dish-towels and dish-cloths should be careful- ly washed, scalded, and dried, after each using. dried out of doors, if possible. care of the sink. when the dish-washing is finish. ed, wash every part of the sink with soap and hot water: wash above and around the sink, clean behind the sink pipes with a wooden skewer. flush the sink with boiling water every day, and with a strong solution of sal soda once each week. care of garbage and garbage can. all garbage should be burned. in the home it may be drained through a sink strainer, and burned, without using a can. if a can is used, it should be emptied after every meal, the garbage burn- ed, and the can thoroughly washed with hot water and soap. the can should be thoroughly scalded with a strong solution of sal soda once each week. care of the refrigerator. the refrigerator should be examined carefully each day, to see that no food is left to spoil. once a week the food should all be taken from the refrigerator, and every part of the refrigerator should be washed with a strong solution of sal soda and hot water, using a small broom; while the waste-pipe should be flushed with a similar solution. after the washing is completed, the refrigerator should be wiped thoroughly with a clean cloth, and left open until dry. the shelves should be dried in the sun, if possible; if not, near a fire. no hot foods, or foods with a strong odor, should be placed in a refrigerator. scrubbing boards and tables. do not wash bread boards or rolling pins at an iron sink; the iron will leave marks on them. wash them at a table. wash thorough- ly with a wet cloth. rub sapolio on the wet board; wet the scrubbing brush, and scrub well with the grain of the wood; rinse off the suds, and wipe as dry as possible. a pastry domestic science promote circulation, regulate bodily temperature, remove waste matter, to nourish, to stimulate nervous action, rolled oats. c. rolled oats, c. boiling water, teaspoonful salt. pick over the cereal and remove all foreign substances. put the water and the salt into the up- per part of double boiler; when the water boils rapidly, stir the cereal slowly into it, a small quantity at a time. allow the mixture to boil in the upper part of the boiler m., stirring constantly; fill the lower part of the boiler one-third full of boiling water, and place the upper part of the boiler, containing the oats, over the lower part. keep the water in the lower part of the boiler, boiling for to m., or long- er if desired. serve with sugar and cream. lesson . albumen. albumen is found in all animal foods, especially in eggs, milk, meat, fish, and oysters. the white of the egg contains albumen in the purest form in which it oc- curs in nature; it is almost pure albumen dissolved in water. albumen is coagulated by heat, and dissolved by cold water. it begins to coagulate at a temperature of degrees, be- comes jelly-like at degrees, and hard and indigestible at a temperature of over degrees. the name is from the latin, albus, meaning white. albumen is nitrogenous, and one of the essentials of life. its principal uses are to build and repair the bodily tissues and to yield heat and energy to the body. the white of the egg is taken as the type of albumin. foods. the yolk and the white differ greatly in com- position. comparing them, the white of the egg is found to be more than eight-tenths water, the remaining portions be- ing principally albumen, with a small amount of mineral matter. the yolk is composed of about one-half water, one- third fat, and nearly one-sixth proteid matter, with nearly twice as much mineral matter as the white contains. composition of the egg. water... . . per cent. proteid....... .. . per cent ous domestic science be covered with vaseline, paraffine, etc., but these are liable to crack, and leave places for the process of evaporation. water glass, which may be purchased at any drug store, is prepared for use by mixing it with ten times its bulk of water. place the eggs, small end down, in an earthen or a wooden vessel, and pour the mixture over them until they are covered. cover the vessel closely and set in a cool place. ask your druggist for water glass. as eggs grow constantly lighter with the entrance of the air, the best test for freshness is to drop them into a vessel of strong, cold salt and water; - pint salt to - pt. water. the quite fresh egg will go directly to the bottom and remain there. the older eggs will bounce up and down, undecided whether to remain or not; those still older will float. the "bad egg" will rise directly to the top. this method of testing eggs is within the reach of all. fig. . . vessel of salt and water. . surface of water. . bad eggs, rising above the water. . eggs not fresh, rising. . fresh eggs. cooking soft boiled eggs. place an egg in one pint of boil- ing water, remove the vessel from the fire, and let it stand, covered, for from to minutes. remove the egg and serve immediately. egg toast. cut stale bread in slices one-fourth inch in thickness. when using gas, place slice on asbestos mat. toast brown on each side, place in piles, after buttering each side. to moisten, if desired, dip the slices quickly into boil- ing salted water before buttering. break eggs, soft-boiled, on the toast, one egg on each slice. serve hot. lesson . gluten is vegetable proteid, found in all cereals. it is the gummy substance found when chewing uncooked kernels of wheat. it is named from the word glue, as its principal property is like that of glue. in making paste of flour, this gluey property of the flour is easily discovered. general directions for cooking cereals. stir the cereal gradually into the required quantity of boiling water, adding one teaspoonful of salt for each cup of cereal. cook the mixture rapidly at first, about ten minutes, directly over the stove; then place it over boiling water, and cook from twenty to forty-five minutes longer, according to cereal used. to save time in cooking, soak the cereals in water before cooking; this is especially helpful in cooking coarse cereals. fine cereals should be mixed with cold water, to the consistency of thick pancake batter, before stirring into the boiling water. this prevents lumping. cook prepared market preparations much longer than is indicated by the directions on the package. in serving cereals, milk or cream should be used to sup: ply fat, in which they are deficient. table for cooking cereals. kind quantity water rolled oats....... c. c. rolled avena............... c. . time m. m. domestic science time m. m: kind quantity water wheatena, cream of wheat, etc..... c. - c. rice (steamed). c. - to c. to m. rice (boiled) c. c. cornmeal ..... c. - c. hrs. oatmeal c. c. to hrs. cracked wheat.. c. c. to hrs: hominy (fine)............ ic. c. hr. lesson . animal casein is a proteid of milk. it constitutes nearly . per cent of the milk. it is coagulated by acids, causing a solid curd to separate from the liquid part of the milk. the liquid part is then called “whey." casein can also be coagulated by rennet, a substance prepared from the lining of the stomach of the calf. the coagluated casein of milk, called curd, is pressed together to make cheese. the whey which remains after the curd is removed, consists of the water of the milk, holding in solution a little sugar and some mineral matter, with other soluble substances in very small amounts. it has some nutritive value, and is frequent- ly used for nourishment for invalids and infants. the curd consists principally of the coagulated casein and the fat of the milk, with some mineral matters. cheese is highly nutritious, skimmed milk cheese is nearly one-half pro- teid, while cheese made from unskimmed milk is only about one-third proteid, one third fat and the remaining third is composed of water, with small amounts of mineral matters. a. b. fig. . cooking a-skimmed-milk cheese. . proteid; . water; . fat; . mineral matter. b.-full cream cheese. . proteid; . fat; . water; . mineral matter. as cheese contains no starch, it should be eaten with starchy foods, such as bread and macaroni. cheese in its raw state is somewhat difficult of digestion. this may be overcome by cooking, and adding a small amount of baking soda sour milk cheese. qt. thick sour milk, tbsp. cream, tsps. butter, - tsp. salt. heat the milk slowly until the curd separates from the whey. place a piece of cheese-cloth in a strainer, and place the strainer over a bowl. pour in the milk, lift the edges of the cloth and draw them together over the mass; then, holding the bag thus formed with one hand, press and squeeze it with the other, until the curd is as dry as possible. place the curd thus formed, in a bowl, season with butter, cream, and salt. stir well, to mix the ingredients. pepper may be used if desired; also one teaspoonful of powdered sage may be added. vegetable casein is found principally in peas, beans, and lentils. it is contained in the water in which these are thoroughly cooked. it is a vegetable proteid, and, as such, gives the great nutritive value to these foods. cream of lima beans: soak one cup of dried lima beans over night; drain, and boil in salted water until soft; drain, add three-fourths cup of cream, and season with but. ter and salt. reheat before serving. lesson . starch is a heat and energy producing food, and belongs to the car bo-hydrates. it is vegetable, and its principal sources are cereals and vegetables. it is a fine, white, glistening pow. der, insoluble in cold water, but partially soluble in hot water, with which it forms a jelly-like paste. heat and moisture are necessary to soften starch. although starch domestic science cannot sustain life, alone, it forms one of the most important foods when taken in combination with foods which build and repair tissues. raw starch is not digestible; therefore all foods containing starch should be subjected to boiling water and thoroughly cooked. starch is manufactured principally from wheat, corn, and potatoes. starchy foods are not digestible by the stomach until after they have been thoroughly mixed with the fluids secreted by the glands of the mouth. for this reason, bread and all other starchy foods should be well masticated before swallowing baking potatoes: wash and scrub potatoes of uniform size. bake on the grate of a hot oven, until soft. when baking, turn them every ten or fifteen minutes, to keep them from burning. test them by pressing them with the hand wrapped in a towel. when soft, break open the skins to let the steam escape, and serve immediately. if any are left over, remove the skins, and use the potatoes for warming over. lesson . sugar, like starch, is a carbo-hydrate; therefore its func: tions are to yield heat and energy. it is made for common use from sugar cane, sugar beets, and maple sap. the grains of sugar are minute crystals formed from the solution of sugar and water taken from the plant or the tree. sugar has the same properties as starch; yet, while starch will not dissolve in cold water, sugar readily dissolves in all liquid substances. all starch is turned to sugar in the process of digestion (grape sugar). because sugar dissolves so readily, it is easily digested. it is a most important food, and harmless when not indulged in to excess. scientific investigation shows that sugar repairs muscular strength, when depleted, more quickly than any other food-stuff. white fondant: - lbs. sugar, - teaspoonful cream tartar, - cups hot water. boil the ingredients all together, until it makes a soft ball when tried in cold water. turn out on a large platter, and, when cool, work it with a cooking a spatula and the hands, until creamy. divide into portions, and flavor to taste. shape into chocolate creams, etc. lesson . water is found in nature as a solid (ice and snow), as a liquid, and as a gas (steam). water freezes at degrees, and boils at degrees, fahr. about three-fifths of the human body is composed of water. it follows then, that large amount of water should be taken into the system to keep this proportion intact, as much water is carried off through the natural channels, the lungs, the skin, and the kidneys, each day. more or less water is contained in every food substance, no matter how dry it appears; while many fruits and vegetables contain a very large proportion of water. the dryer our food, the more exercise we take, the more water we need to drink. pure water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen; but all natural water has taken up mineral and gaseous substances. water for drinking and cooking should be free from harmful substances; it should, also, be freshly drawn. water which has been standing in the pipes between the faucet and the street over night, should be drawn off before any is taken for use. water from the hot water faucet should not be used for cooking, because impuri- ties collect in the boiler, which makes it unfit for use. fig. . figure is a group of bacteria from impure water, highly magnified. unclean water is dangerous, as dust is dangerous; for we do not know just what disease germs ere hidden in it. water from springs, wells, and streams, in cities and towns, is apt to become contaminated by sewage, and thus create the most malignant diseases. water may be purified by domestic science boiling; but, after boiling, it should be kept carefully covered from dust. water is the natural beverage; but custom has' given us several other beverages, more or less artificial. tea is a beverage. it consists of the leaves of a plant produced in china, japan, and india. tea contains two principles that act upon the body. one, theine, stimulates the nervous system; the other, tannin, is injurious to the delicate lining of the stomach. boiling tea, or steeping it long, extracts the tannin. making tea: to make strong tea, allow one tea- spoonful of tea to each cup of boiling water. scald the teapot with boiling water; put in the tea and pour on the boiling water. place the teapot where the tea will keep hot, but not boil, and let it stand for five minutes. strain, and serve at once. do not use a tin teapot, because of the tannin in the tea. coffee. the coffee tree is a native of abyssinia, but is now grown in all tropical countries. java coffee is con- sidered best. the mocha and java blend, consisting of one part mocha and two parts java, seems best suited to the average taste. the coffee berries are browned to a dark chestnut color, and ground; the ground coffee is then ready the aroma of the coffee is best retained by brown- ing, at one time, only sufficient coffee for the following meal; grinding it and placing it immediately in the coffee- pot and over the fire. coffee, like tea, has two important principles, caffeine and tannin. caffeine is the same chemical substance as theine, and has the same effect upon the nervous system; the tan- nin, also, has the same effect as the tannin of the tea. neither tea nor coffee is a food-stuff; but when prepared with water, sugar, and milk, they contain the food values of those articles of food. making coffee: for strong coffee, allow two table- spoonfuls of the ground coffee for each cup. when several cups are to be made, a smaller quantity for each cup may be for use. cooking used. put the coffee into cold water and bring it to the boiling point; then remove it from the fire and allow it to stand for a few minutes at near the boiling point, before serving, to "settle" the grounds. cocoa, while classed as a beverage, differs widely from both tea and coffee, in being a proteid food-stuff, and in containing half its weight in fat. it is made from the crush- ed bean of the cocoa tree, a native of tropical america. its stimulating principle is called theobromine; and means “food for the gods. in the manufacture of cocoa, large quanti- ties of sugar and starch are added, greatly increasing its food value cocoa: c. milk, lc. boiling water, tbsp. cocoa, tbsp. sugar. heat the milk in a double boiler; mix the cocoa and sugar together, and add them to the boiling water. boil from five to ten minutes, pour the cocoa, thus cooked, into the heated milk, and serve. lesson . animal fats and oils: fats are solid at ordinary temperature, while oils are liquid. oils are separated from the fats, by heat. the process of separating the oils from the fats is called "clarifying." though differing greatly in appearance and flavor, fats and oils used as foods do essen- tially the same work on the body; they supply heat and energy. they, with the carbo-hydrates, starch, sugar, etc., are the fuel which keeps the bodily machinery in action. fat produces more than twice as much heat as the same weight of starch or sugar; yet the carbo-hydrates act more rapidly than the fats and oils, and are less expensive. meat, fish, milk, and eggs are the principal sources of animal fats. the fats commonly used are butter, lard, “drippings" (or tallow), suet, and marrow. butter is the most digestible of these, and the most costly. lard is the semi-solid fat derived, by heating, from the fat of the hog. beef suet is obtained from and near the kidneys and loins. marrow is a soft fat found in the cavities of the bones. the term, “dripping," means the clear fat of the beef, which has been melted and domestic science strained, and thus freed from impurities. it is also called clarified fat. all fats may be clarified, when stale or rancid, by heat- ing and straining. in this way, all remnants of fat from meat, and the fat skimmed from soups, gravies, etc., may be purified and saved. "drippings," or clarified fat: cut or chop the fat into small pieces, and put it into a saucepan or kettle half filled with water. heat slowly. stir occasionally, cook un. til scraps are light brown, and the fat has ceased to bubble. remove saucepan from the heat. let stand five minutes, and strain through strainer or cheese-cloth. sauted potatoes: cut cold boiled potatoes in slices one-fourth inch in thickness. season with salt and pepper, place in a hot, well-greased frying-pan, brown on one side, turn, and brown on the other side. serve hot. lesson . milk, as it is drawn from a cow in perfect health, may be regarded as free from injurious germ life, unless germs enter it during the process of drawing, or "milking", but, during the process of drawing the milk, as commonly per- formed, dust enters the milk, and also dirt from the skin of the cow; therefore, all milk drawn by the common pro- cess may be regarded with suspicion; and few cows are en- tirely healthy. sterilization will undoubtedly kill all of the germs of the milk; but as this process requires that the milk be heated nearly to the boiling point, the flavor of the milk is much changed, and the milk is rendered less digestible, especially for infants, and those persons having weak stomachs. the method called pasteurization destroys all the germs except those which cause the milk to sour. pasteurized milk: fill sterilized bottles or jars nearly full of milk; cork with cotton that has been heated in the oven until yellow. place bottles on a rest in a deep pan, so that they will not touch the bottom of the pan. fill the pan with cold water to reach as high as the upper cooking surface of the milk in the bottles. place over the fire, and heat to degrees or degrees fahr. if no thermome- ter is used, heat until small bubbles appear in the milk, next to the glass. remove to the back of the stove where the milk will not reach a higher temperature; allow the milk to stand at the same temperature from to minutes; al of code po boga fig. . a group of lactic bacteria, highly magnified. place the bottle in lukewarm water for a few minutes, and then in cold water until milk is cold. keep the bottles in a cool place. do not remove stoppers until ready to use milk. do not insert the thermometer into the milk to test, but into the water; to avoid carrying germs into the milk. any spring-top or screw-top glass jar used in canning, may be utilized for pasteurizing milk. during the process of heating the milk, the top of the jar should be slightly loosened, to allow the escape of the expanding air; but when ready to remove the milk from the fire, to cool, the tops of the jars should be tightly closed; and screw-top jars should be again tightened several times, as they cool. domestic science lesson . cooking in deep fat. french fried potatoes: wash and pare the pota: toes, about six, medium size; cut in halves, lengthwise; cut each half in pieces like the slices of an orange; allow to stand in cold water minutes. drain, dry, and fry in smoking hot, deep fat. place on clean brown paper to absorb the grease. sprinkle with salt. care should be taken that the fat is not too hot, as the potatoes must be cooked as well as browned. lesson . the mineral matters in the body include com pounds of lime, potassium, sodium, iron, common salt, etc. (see table in appendix). mineral matters are essential to life; being necessary for the formation of the bones, teeth, hair, and nails, and also as aids in digestion, circulation, etc. fresh meats, fish, fruits and vegetables are the principal sources of mineral matters in foods, but cereals supply a small amount. water contains much mineral matter, in solution. common salt, the most common mineral sub- stance used in foods, is added to the foods in cooking and otherwise, as foods in general do not contain a sufficient quantity. phosphorus and lime are necessary to the forma- tion of bones and teeth; hence, young children should eat much food containing them. these are found abounding in cereals, but are found in small quantities in meat and fish. as persons become aged, the bones lose much of the phos- phorus, and are easily broken; hence, such persons should eat freely of foods containing phosphorus. when any food- stuff is burned, the mineral matter remains in ash. cabbage salad: remove the loose leaves from a solid head of cabbage, quarter it, and shave fine. pour the salad dressing over it, serve cold. if a cabbage is wilted, soak it for an hour or more in cold, salted water. french dressing: one-fourth teaspoon salt, one- eighth teaspoon pepper, three tablespoons olive oil, one domestic science cup dressing for baked apples: to one-half of the juice from the baked apples, add one cup of sugar. boil five minutes, and pour over the apples. serve cold. lesson - vegetable soup: as commonly used, the term "vegetables" includes all plants used for food, except grains and fruits. vegetable soups are nutritious and easily digest- ed. a comparative table of the composition of different vegetables will assist the housewife in selecting the more nu- tritious vegetables for the table. lima beans are the greatest vegetable muscle builders. lima beans and sweet potatoes excel in fat, the greatest heat producers; sweet potatoes and lima beans, the greatest en. ergy producers; lima beans and parsnips contain the most mineral matter, whilo celery and tomatoes contain the most water. the legumes, peas, beans, and lentils, may be used in place of meat; the other vegetables are chiefly valuable for their mineral matters, and should form a part of the daily food. peas and beans, when old, should be used for purees and soups; by so doing, the outer covering of cellulose, which is indigestible, is removed. lima bean soup: soak one cup of lima beans over night, drain, and cook in boiling salted water until soft; drain; add three-fourths cup cream, season with butter and salt. reheat before serving. tomato soup: one can tomatoes, one pint water, twelve peppercorns, bit of bayleaf, four cloves, two teaspoons sugar, one teaspoon salt, one-third teaspoon soda, two tablespoons butter, three tablespoons flour, one slice onion. cook first six ingredients twenty minutes; strain, add salt and soda; strain through thin cloth or fine wire strainer. lesson . potato soup: three medium-sized potatoes, one quart milk, two slices onion, three tablespoons butter, two tablespoons flour, one and one-half teaspoon salt, one-fourth cooking teaspoon celery salt, one-eighth teaspoon pepper, a few grains of cayenne, one teaspoon chopped parsley. cook potatoes in boiling salted water; rub them through a strainer. scald milk with onion, remove onion, and stir the milk slowly into the potatoes, melt half the butter, add dry ingredients, stir until well mixed, then stir into the boiling soup. cook one minute, strain, add remaining butter, and sprinkle with the parsley. lesson . bread is the most important article of food. consid- ering its great value, it seems a great wrong to place poor bread before the hungry. wheat, rye, barley, and indian corn are the principal cereals used for bread. fig. . a grain of wheat. . cuticle. . gluten cells. . bran cells. . starch cells. a grain of wheat consists of a centre of starch, which forms the largest part of the grain; a layer of gluten, which consists of proteid and fat; a layer of bran, which contains mineral matter; and an outer covering called the hull, which is removed before milling. for the conversion of any grain into finished flour, three processes are necessary; cleansing, grinding, and bolting, entire wheat flour is made by grind. ing all but the outer hull. graham flour, frequently con: founded with entire wheat flour, is often an inferior flour mixed with coarse bran. leavening is the process of making batters and doughs 'light,” by producing in them a gas, which is expanded by domestic science the heat in baking. the gases commonly aiding the process of leavening are air, steam, and carbon dioxide, (a compound of carbon and oxygen). air at degrees fahr. expands to about twice its volume when submitted to the heat of the oven in baking. popovers: one cup flour, one-fourth teaspoon salt, seven-eighths cup milk, one teaspoon melted butter, one egg. mix salt and flour together; add the milk gradually; add the egg unbeaten, and the melted butter; beat five min. utes with a fork or dover beater; pour into hot, buttered, iron gem-pans or popover cups; bake thirty to thirty-five minutes in a hot oven. lesson . experiment: stir flour and water together to make a stiff paste; beat with a fork for five minutes, drop a spoon- ful on a hot, buttered griddle. the air in the bubbles ex- pands, increasing the size of the mass greatly. this is leav. ening with air; the popovers made in the previous exercise were made light by air enclosed by the albumen of the egg when beaten. in baking, this albumen hardens around the bubbles of air, making little cells to imprison the air. the heat thus expands the mass to several times its original size. the water in such mixtures, in part, is con- verted into steam. the steam fills a space , times that of the water producing it. here, again, we have a great source of leavening, steam, alkalies are chemical substances that unite with fat to form a new substance, called soap. common baking soda is an alkali. when an alkali is mixed with an acid, as vinegar, a gas is set free which is valuable to the cook. this gas (carbon deoxide) is produced in a simple manner, by combining common baking soda with cream of tartar, or with vinegar, tartaric acid, sour milk, etc. acid and alkaline substances, when combined in the proper proportions and moistened, neutralize each other: that is, each destroys the nature of the other, and the resulting compound is neither acid nor alkaline. cold domestic science and one that should be desired; for if the milk does not sour, it will putrefy. sour milk is wholesome, and would be more freely used, if more pleasant to the taste; while pu- trefaction in any form is the result of the multiplication and development of ptomaines, some classes of which are the most dangerous species of bacteria. milk which will not sour under the common methods of treatment, may be regarded with suspicion. it contains some preservative. sour milk is utilized as food in various ways; one of which is in leavening, used in combination with bicarbonate of soda; (common baking soda). sour milk pancakes: two and one-half cups flour, one-half teaspoon salt, two cups sour milk, one and one-fourth teaspoon soda; add sour milk, and egg well beaten. bake on a hot, greased griddle. when puffed, full of bubbles, and of a rich chestnut color, turn, and cook on the other side. serve with butter, and syrup if desired. lesson . review of the previous lessons on leavening. baking powder: eight ounces bi-carbonate of soda, eighteen ounces cream of tartar, four ounces corn starch. mash or roll the soda until free from lumps. add the corn starch, mix well, and sift five or six times through a fine strainer. add the cream of tartar, mix thoroughly, and sift six or seven times. place in the boxes or cans, or in mason's jars. keep closely covered. two level teaspoons baking powder should be allowed for each cup of flour. batters and doughs leavened with baking powder should be handled as little as possible, and cooked as soon as mixed, in a hot oven. less baking pow- der is used in mixtures containing eggs. use cold liquids for mixing. pastry flour is sometimes used in baking powder mix. tures. bread flour requires more liquid than pastry flour. bread flour may be substituted for pastry flour, by taking two tablespoonfuls from each cupful. cooking cream of tartar is made from grapes. in making wine, tartaric acid from the grapes forms in lumps on the side of the wine-casks. this is purified, and ground into a powder, which is called cream of tartar. bi-carbomate of soda is nade from common salle starch is put into baking powder to keep the cream of tartar and soda separate and dry, because soda, being made from salt, absorbs moisture, like salt. lesson . slowness in mixing and in baking all kinds of "quick breads," allows the gas to escape to such an extent that what would, otherwise, have been a light and delicious creation, comes from the oven a heavy and indigestible mass, and the cook wonders: "why?" one-egg muffins: three and one-half cups flour, six teaspoons baking powder, one teaspoon salt, three table- spoons sugar, one and one-third cup milk, three tablespoons melted butter, one egg. mix and sift dry ingredients; add the milk gradually, the egg well beaten, and the melted but- ter. bake in buttered gem pans twenty-five minutes. if iron-pans are used, they must be previously heated. this receipe makes thirty muffins. lesson . corn meal muffins: one-half cup corn meal, one cup flour, three teaspoons baking powder, one tablespoon sugar, one tablespoon melted butter, one-half teaspoon salt, three-fourths cup milk; one egg. mix and bake as one-egg muffins. lesson . soft molasses gingerbread: one cup molasses, one-third cup butter, one and three-fourths teaspoon soda, one-half cup sour milk, one egg, two cups flour, two tea- spoons ginger; one-half teaspoon salt. put butter and molas- ses in saucepan, and cook until boiling point is reached. remove from fire, add soda, and beat vigorously. then add domestic science the milk, egg well beaten, and the remaining ingredients mixed and sifted. bake fifteen minutes in buttered pans; filling pans two-thirds full. lesson . baking powder biscuits: two cups flour, four tea spoons baking powder, one teaspoon salt, two tablespoons lard, three-fourths cup milk and water in equal parts. mix dry ingredients , and sift twice; work in the lard with tips of fingers; add gradually the liquid, mixing with fingers to a soft dough. owing to a difference in flours, it is impossible to determine the exact amount of liquid. place on a floured board, pat and roll lightly to one-half inch in thickness. shape with a biscuit cutter. place on a buttered pan; bake in a hot oven twelve to fifteen minutes. drop biscuits: use foregoing recipe, by adding suffi- cient milk to make the mixture thin enough to drop from a spoon. drop by spoonfuls on buttered pan, one-half inch apart. brush over with milk. bake in hot oven eight minutes. lesson . sour milk biscuits: three-fourths cup sour milk, one-half teaspoon soda, one-half teaspoon salt, one tablespoon lard, two cups flour. mix dry ingredients and sift twice. work in lard with tips of fingers; add the sour milk, and work with fingers to a dough. place on a floured board; knead lightly, roll to one-half inch in thickness. shape with biscuit-cutter. place on buttered pan, and bake in hot oven until light brown. lesson . condiments are not classed as foods, but are known as food adjuncts. they are used as stimulants to the appetite, by adding flavor to the food. the principal condiments are pepper, mustard, ginger, cinnamon, cloves, allspice, nutmeg, mace, horse-radish. flavoring extracts are foods, derived from fruits, nuts, etc., and partaking of the nature of the fruit, nut, etc.; cooking from which derived. lemon and vanilla extracts are prob- ably the most commonly used. many so-called extracts on the market are made from chemicals. sugar cookies: one cup sugar, one half cup butter, one-fourth cup milk, one egg, two teaspoons baking powder. flour to make a stiff dough, one fourth teaspoon vanilla. cream the butter and sugar, beat the egg, and add these to the milk. sift the baking powder with one cup flour, and add to the liquid. add one-fourth teaspoon vanilla, stir in more flour to make dough stiff enough to handle. roll out until one- fourth inch thick. bake from ten to fifteen minutes. lesson . molasses cake: two-thirds cup sugar, two-thirds cup butter, two-thirds cup molasses, one egg, one cup milk, two and one-half cups flour, one teaspoon cream tartar, one teaspoon soda, three teaspoons mixed spice, one tablespoon lemon juice. cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, stir in the molasses, and sift in one-half cup flour. beat the egg, add it to the milk, and stir into the mixture. mix the cream of tartar, soda, and spice, with the remainder of the flour, and add it to the mixture, stirring it well, to make a smooth batter. add flavoring last. bake at once. if baked in a loaf, add one cup more of flour. a good fruit cake may be made by adding one-half cup raisins, seeded and quartered, one-half cup currants, and one fourth cup sliced citron. the fruit should be well dredg. ed with four before adding it to the batter. lesson . meat soups: the tougher and cheaper parts of meat, as the shin, deck, and tail, are suitable for soup and soup stock; first, because tough meat is more juicy than tender meat; second, because these parts usually have a greater pro- portion of gristle, bone, etc., than the more tender parts. the bones, gristle, and connective tissues of the creature, contain the substances which form gelatin. the gelatin is extracted from them by long boiling in water. after domestic science the gelatin is extracted, continued boiling evaporates the water, and when the soup or soup-stock is cold, it forms a jelly-like mass. this is why it is called gelatin. the soup in this solid form will not spoil so soon as in a liquid form, because it is not so easily affected by bacteria. the soup-stock will keep several days in bowls, if enough fat has been used to form a layer over the top of the stock; but the better way to preserve it for future use is to can it, or put it in mason's jars. if placed in bowls, to be used in a short time, it should be closely covered. when needed for use, take the fat off the top, heat the stock to boiling point, and add more seasoning, if desired. to give variety at different meals, different vegetables may be used; as rice, barley, potatoes, cabbage. etc.; also dif- ferent flour pastes; as macaroni, noodles, etc. in making sauces, gravies, etc., soup stock gives addition- al flavor. beef, veal, mutton; poultry, etc., may be used for soup- stock, either singly or combined. bone and fat, as well as lean meat, are used in making stock. soup stock: three pounds shin of beef, three pounds bones, three quarts cold water, ten peppercorns, one table- spoon salt, one-fourth cup onion, one-half cup turnip, one- half cup carrots, one-fourth cup celery, ten cloves, one small bunch sweet herbs, if desired. wipe the meat and cut it into small pieces; have the bones cracked; put the marrow, fat, bones, and finely cut meat into a kettle with the cold water. let it stand thirty minụtes, then heat slowly to boil. ing point, and boil gently from four to six hours, keeping the kettle closely covered. prepare the vegetables, cut into small pieces, add them to the stock, and cook one hour long- er. strain, and cool quickly. keep in a cool place. the spices may be omitted, if preferred, in home cooking. lesson . macaroni soup: remove the fat from the soup-stock, cooking and heat one quart of the stock to boiling point. add one- fourth cup cooked macaroni. the soup may be strained or not, as desired. lesson . chicken broth: dress and clean the chicken; remove the skin and the fat, disjoint, and wipe with a clean, wet cloth. put into a stew pan and cover with cold water. heat slowly to the boiling point, skim, and cook until the meat is tender. when half done, season with one and one- half teaspoon salt and a few grains of pepper. strain, and remove the fat. there should be about three pints of stock. re-heat to boiling point, add two tablespoons washed rice, and cook until rice is soft. lesson . review all previous lessons on eggs and milk. general rules for eggs: always wash eggs before using them. when the yolk of the egg is firm and whole, after breaking the shell carefully, and the white is clear and thick, the egg is fresh. as eggs contain albumen, the proper temperature for cooking is about degrees fahr. fried eggs are less digestible than eggs cooked in other ways, be- cause the heat of the fat makes the albumen leathery. re- cent investigation shows that moderately boiled eggs are more digestible than raw ones; and that they are devoid of germs, which raw eggs may contain, even if fresh; hence, the moderately boiled eggs are more healthful. plain cup custard: one pint of milk, two eggs, four tablespoons sugar, speck of salt. beat the eggs well; add the salt, sugar, and milk, and stir until the sugar dissolves. if desired, a little nutmeg may be added. pour into cups, set the cups in a pan of boiling water and place the pan in the oven. bake until the custards are firm in the center. serve with caramel sauce, if desired. caramel sauce: one-half cup sugar, one-half cup boiling water. melt sugar to a syrup of light brown color, cooking sired, milk may be used instead of water, cooking three hours in a double boiler. lesson . general directions for canning: care should be taken that the fruit selected is fresh, firm, of good quality, and not over-ripe. if over-ripe, some of the spores may not be destroyed by boiling; then fermentation will begin in a short time. allow one-third of the weight of the fruit in sugar, and from two and one-half to three cups of water to each pound of sugar. boil the sugar and water together for two minutes, to make a thin syrup; then cook a small quan- tity of the fruit at a time in the syrup; this keeps the fruit in perfect shape. hard fruits may be cooked in clear boiling water until nearly soft, then placed in the syrup to finish cooking. sterilized jars are first filled with the fruit, and then enough of the syrup poured over to overflow the jars. insert a spoon between fruit and jar, to allow the bubbles of air to rise to the top; then put on the rubbers and screw on sterilized covers. as the fruit cools, screw covers again, as tightly as possible. when cold, tighten again. while filling the jars, place them on a cloth wrung out of hot water, to keep from breaking. to sterilize jars: wash the jars and fill them with cold water. place in a kettle on a trivet, and surround with cold water. heat gradually to boiling point, then re- move from the water, empty, and fill with fruit while hot. allow the covers to stand in hot water five minutes, before placing them on the jars. dip the bands in hot water quickly. use no old rubbers. if the rims of the covers are bent, air will enter the cans. canned peaches: wipe the peaches and place in boiling water, allowing them to stand just long enough to loosen the skins. remove the skins, and cook the fruit at once, that it may not discolor; following the general directions for canning. lesson . table setting, general: a table should be made domestic science to look as neat and attractive as possible. dust the table, and lay on, evenly, a cloth of felt, flannel, or cotton flannel. spread the table cloth evenly over this. lay the table cloth with hemmed edges underneath, and the lines of the cloth parallel with the edges of the table. place the knife at the right hand, with the sharp edge turned to the left, and the fork at the left hand, with the prongs turned upward. spoons are placed to the right of the knife, and the napkin to the left of the fork. all about two inches from the edge of the table. place the tumbler near the end of the knife blade, and the butter plate beside it. when bread and butter plates are used, place one at the left of the fork. place everything straight on the table. invert no dishes. general directions for serving. when a waiter serves the food, it should be passed on the left side of each person. in placing a dish in front of a person, the waiter should stand at the right. the dishes should be removed from the right side. in setting the table, try not to forget anything. care in setting the table contributes much to the comfort of the household. fig. . table setting. diagram no. . . knife. . napkin. . fork. . tumbler. . spoon. . butter plate. cooking 路​可 ​tseo fig. . table setting, diagram no. . . knife. . hot-water pitcher. . fork, . cream pitcher. . napkin. . sugar-bowl. . tumbler. . spoon-holder. . butter plate. . cups and saucers, . coffee-pot. cooking part iii. eighth year. lesson . water: review of lesson x., seventh year. water is called “hard” or “soft,” according to the amount of miner-, al matter in suspension in it. lime is the principal miner- al substance found in water from common sources. the grayish white coating found on the inside of the tea kettle is a coating of lime. when the water, by boiling, is evapora- ted from the tea kettle, the lime is left adhering to the kettle. when water is only slightly hard, it may be rendered soft by boiling. alkalies, as sal soda, lye, etc., will soften the hardest water. the alkali to be used should be put into the cold water, which should then be heated. as the water heats, a sediment will begin to settle to the bottom. this is the mineral matter. as the water becomes hotter, this sedi. ment rises to the top, as scum. this scum should be removed with a skimmer without holes, until no more risos. if the water still seems hard, when testing it with soap, of the alkali, and skim again. a piece of sal soda as large as a walnut ought to break," or render soft, three pails of water, or from nine to ten gallons. soap and alkalies, as sanitary adjuncts, have great value; destroying germs that would other wise multiply to an alarming extent "soap and civilization" is a trite quotation. "soap and sanitation" is practically synonymous. plumbing: all exposed plumbing should be frequent ly washed with strong, hot soap and water. this advances both the appearance and the sanitary condition of the home. bath rooms: there is no place in the home that should receive more careful attention than the bath room. the bath tub should be washed with strong soap and water add more cooking every day; and also, the bowls, which should be flushed with a strong solution of boiling water and sal soda every week. cellars should be kept open as much as possible; that the circulation of the air may dry the moisture. they should also be frequently sprinkled with carbolic acid, (the housekeeper's preparation), or dusted with unslacked lime. it is well not to forget that the living rooms are directly over the cellars, and that fully per cent of the impure air from the cellar finds its way to the garret. ventilation: as fresh air and sunlight are natural promoters of health, every part of the house should be well ventilated at all times, and all the sunshine possible should be admitted. bacteria develop in the darkness and moisture of confined, heavily curtained rooms. circulation of fresh air from without is the prime object of appliances for ventilation. there should be openings on opposite sides of the room, to give circulation sufficient for promoting health. the patent ventilators used in many modern buildings, especially school buildings, soon become more or less dredged with dust, and the air passing through them into the rooms is thus dust ladened; unfit to breathe. in the common house, the windows are the sole ventilators. these should be freely opened in all seasons. the old-fashioned fire place, with its wide open chimney, was an invaluable ventilator, rapidly carrying off the poisonous gases exhaled by the lungs of the occupants of the house. temperature: with our modern methods of heating, we bid fair to become a weak and enervated people. care should be taken that during the heating season, the tempera- ture should not stand for any considerable period, above degrees fahr., in living rooms. the temperature of sleeping tooms should stand much lower. lesson . starch: review lesson viii., seventh year. when starch is cooked at a high temperature, it changes into a sub- stance resembling sugar. the longer starchy foods are cook. ed at a high temperature, the more digestible they become. cooking the fuel value of a food-stuff is its heat and energy giving value. the fats and the carbo-hydrates are, pre-emi. nently, the fuels of the body; yet proteids act as fuel, also. in proof of this, we may consider the fact that an animal will live on lean meat only, and still possess great strength and energy. fuel value is measured in calories. it is a heat measure. a calorie is that amount of power in the form of heat, that is required to raise one ton, . feet. the table shows that it takes - lbs. of potatoes to give the working power of a lb. of rice; while neither pos. sesses any considerable amount of proteid matter. it will be seen, also, that the potato is composed largely of water. weak in proteids, potatoes should be used with meat, fish, eggs, or some other strong proteid food-stuff. potatoes boiled, riced, and mashed: select po- tatoes of uniform size. wash, pare, and drop at once into cold water to prevent discoloration; soak one-half hour in the fall, and from one to two hours in the winter or spring. cook in boiling salted water until easily pierced with a fork. allow one tablespoonful of salt for seven medium sized potatoes, and cover with boiling water. when cooked sufficiently, drain off the water, and allow the potatoes to stand uncovered, but where they will keep hot enough to dry, until serving time; large potatoes frequently cook soft on the outside, while hard in the centre. to finish cooking without breaking them apart, add one pint of cold water. this cools the outside of the potato, while the heat already accumulated in the inside completes the process of cooking the center. to rice potatoes: force the hot boiled potatoes through a potato ricer or a coarse strainer. serve, lightly piled in a hot vegetable dish. to mash potatoes: add three tablespoons butter, one tablespoon salt, a few grains of pepper, and one-third cup of hot milk, to the riced potatoes; beat the ingredients domestic science together with a fork. when smooth, light, and creamy, re. heat, and pile lightly on a hot dish. potatoes may be mashed, without ricing. use a wood. en masher, and mash them in the kettle in which cooked, add- ing the seasoning when the potatoes are well mashed, and continue mashing until the mass is dry and white. heap in a dish, and garnish with butter and pepper. serve hot. lesson . cereals: review lessons vi. and viii., seventh year. as cereals are poor in mineral matters and in fat, their nu- tritive values may be increased by adding fruit as a com. pound; and by serving with milk or cream, and sugar if de- sired. uncooked fruits may be cooked with the cereal. cooked fruits, as dates, steamed apples, etc., may be added after the cereal is cooked. both fruits and milk add to the digestibility of the cereal. boiled rice: see “general directions for cooking cereals,” lesson vi., seventh year. to wash rice: put the rice in a strainer; place strainer in a pan of water, and rub the rice between the hands; change the water two or three times, or until the water is clear. to serve rice as a dessert: combine with fruit. when cooked, turn into moulds. when firm, serve with cream and sugar, or a pudding sauce. the water in which rice has been boiled, may be utilized in mixing bread, or as a basis for soups. the kernels of rice, when cooked, should be soft, yet whole and distinct. as rice is the poorest in proteid of any cereal, food rich in proteid should be served at the same time with it. cream sauce: egg; cup powdered sugar; cup thick cream; - cup milk; - teaspoon vanilla. beat the white of the egg stiff; add yolk of egg well heaten, and sugar gradually; dilute cream with milk, beat until stiff, combine mixture, flavor. egg sauce (yellow sauce): eggs; cup sugar; cooking teaspoonful vanilla. beat eggs until very light, add sugar gradually, and continue beating; add flavoring. lesson . fruits, mineral matter, acids. review of lessons fourth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth, seventh year, apple sauce no. : wipe, pare, quarter, and core eight medium sized sour apples. make a syrup of cup sugar, cup water, tablespoon lemon juice, boiling minutes. drop into the syrup enough apples to cover the bottom of the saucepan. watch carefully, and remove the quarters as soon as they are soft. when all are removed, pour the syrup from the saucepan over them. serve warm or cold. comparative value of five common fruits. digestible line in calories. . apples bananas grapes oranges strawberries . . . . . . . . . | . . . . | . . | . . . . . . . . . u. s. bulletin. . . . . this table shows that, of these five fruits, the apple ranks highest as a tissue builder, while the grape ranks highest as a heat and energy producer; the orange standing lowest in both muscle building and fuel values. domestic science apple sauce no. : prepare eight apples, as in no. . put them into a saucepan, sprinkle over them cup of sugar, add eight cloves and enough water to prevent burning. cook to a mush, stirring occasionally. baked bananas: peel six bananas, cut them in halves, lengthwise. place them on a shallow granite or earthen baking dish. mix tablespoonfuls melted butter, - cup sugar, tablespoonfuls lemon juice. baste the bana- nas with - the mixture; bake minutes in slow oven, basting with the remaining mixture at intervals. serve hot. lesson . the invalid's tray should appear inviting. a spot: less tray-cloth, the daintiest dishes; flowers to attract and cheer. foods to be served hot should be served in heated dishes. foods to be served cold should not be allowed to become warm. all foods should be carried covered, to the sick room, and should not be uncovered until required. table napkins and doileys are serviceable for covers. serve food in small quantities, and in pleasing variety. after each serving, all remains of the meal should be taken im. mediately from the sick room, and destroyed. all solids should be burned. drinks for the sick. apple water: wipe, core, and pare one large, sour apple. put two teaspoonfuls sugar in the cavity bake un- til tender; mash, pour over one cup boiling water, allow to stand one hour, and strain. serve cold. currant water: mix two-thirds cup of cold water with two tablespoons of currant juice, or two teaspoons of currant jelly. sweeten to taste of patient. if jelly is used, it should be thoroughly beaten before attempting to mix with other ingredients. serve cold. grape water: wash, pick over, and remove stems from - cup grapes; add one cup water, and cook one and one-half hours in a double boiler. add the sugar, and cook twenty minutes. serve cold. cooking lesson . eggs: review lessons iv. and v., seventh year. in regard to the healthfulness of eggs broken in "cold stor age,” and their fitness for market, the “research department" of the kansas state agricultural college, sends the following: "no degree of cold will kill the bacteria found in de caying eggs; neither can the micro-organisms present in de caying eggs be killed by heat without coagulating the egg. all the vegetative forms of the organisms in decaying eggs may be killed by exposure to streaming steam for about one- half hour, or by boiling for the same length of time. the spores of bacteria and moulds which may be present in the decaying egg, may be killed by exposing the egg to the procedure stated (steaming or boiling), for the same time, for three successive days; taking care that no further con- tamination from the air or any other source, takes place. this process produces absolute sterilization. absolute steri- lization may be obtained, also, by heating the egg for a half- hour in steam, under fifteen pounds pressure." toasted bread: see lesson v., seventh year. poached eggs: put - tsp. salt into qt. boiling water. place muffin rings in water, break one egg at a time in a cup, and drop them into the rings. cook until the white is firm, but not hard. remove from the water. to serve with toast, place each egg on a slice of toast, with a speck of salt. serve hot. albumenized milk for the sick: put the white of one egg into a tumbler or a mason's jar; add - cup milk. cover tightly and shake until well mixed. serve cold. sterilized milk: put c. milk in a pt. mason's jar. cover tightly. place in lower part of double boiler, with water on the outside of the jar as high as the milk in the jar. allow water to heat gradually, to near the boiling point. keep it at this temperature for ten minutes. when used for infants, allow from a tsp. to a tbsp. of lime- water in each jar. cooking ture into a glass or china dish, add tbsp. liquid rennet or rennet tablet. set the mixture in a warm place until firm, then place it to cool. serve cold, with sugar and cream. lesson . vegetables. review lesson iv., seventh year. scalloped potatoes: cut qt. cooked potatoes (cold) in cubes, or slice; add tsp. salt, - tsp. pepper, tbsp. chopped parsley. butter a baking dish, put in the potatoes, pour over cup sweet milk, cover with cup buttered bread crumbs. bake until brown. serve hot. boiled turnips: wash and pare the turnips, slice thin, and cook in enough boiling salted water to cover them. boil until soft. with great spoon or skimmer, remove the turnips from the water, placing them upon a piece of cheese cloth. mash them fine in the cheese cloth, with a wooden potato masher; pressing them in the cloth to remove the water. pour the water in which they were boiled, out of the kettle, and replace the mashed turnips. add to every pint of turnips, tbsp. butter, - tsp. salt, and a speck of pepper. stir thoroughly, allowing the turnips to heat and dry slowly in the kettle. serve hot. turnips may be cooked with potatoes, and both mashed together. if cooked in a vegetable boiler, they need only to be drained, returned to the kettle and mashed in that, then seasoned and dried in the kettle. the smaller the amount of water used in cooking, the sweeter the turnips will be. turnips may be cut in cubes, and boiled as directed, then removed from the water and served with white sauce. white sauce: melt tbsp. butter in a saucepan, and remove from the fire; add - tbsp. flour, and stir smooth; add a little of cup of milk, and - tsp. salt, and a speck of pepper; stir well, and add the remainder of the milk. return to the fire and stir constantly. allow it to boil min. after it thickens. new potatoes, asparagus, cabbage, celery, carrots, turnips, and parsnips. may be served with white sauce. domestic science lesson . flour pastes: macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli, and several other pastes are made of wheaten flour, rich in gluten, moistened to a stiff paste with water, and then forced through small apertures in an iron plate, by means of a screw press. these pastes are all very nutritious, and have a high fuel value. composition of macaroni. fig. . . and . starch. . water. . proteid. . mineral matter. . fat. fuel value per lb.; calories. boiled macaroni: place - cup of macaroni, broken in inch pieces, in qts. boiling water, with tbsp. salt; boil min., or until soft; drain in a strainer; pour cold water over it to prevent pieces from adhering; add - cup cream. reheat, and season with salt. macaroni baked: put the boiled macaroni, with tomato sauce, into a buttered baking dish; cover with bread crumbs, and bake until crumbs are brown. tomato sauce: - can tomatoes or - cup of fresh stewed tomatoes, slice onion, tbsp. butter, - tbsp. flour, . tsp. salt, - tsp. pepper. cook onion with tomatoes fifteen min. rub through strainer. cook the butter and the flour, with the season- ings, together. add the tomato and onion to the cooked butter and flour. if the tomatoes are very sour, add a few grains of soda. serve hot. lesson . breakfast: planning, cooking, and serving a simple breakfast, consisting of one fruit, one cereal, one quick bread, eggs, coffee or cocoa. cooking fig. . lesson . diagram of side of beef. hind quarter. fore quarter. . hind shank. . loin. . round. . porterhouse. . rump . flank. . neck. . brisket. . chuck. . shoulder. . prime ribs. . fore shank. . plate. domestic science use of tough cuts of beef. soups. stews. hind shank. fore shank. brisket. chuck. shoulder. neck. tail. flank. plate. use of tender cuts. roasts. por roasts. steaks. prime rib. chuck ribs, porterhouse. porter house. rump. loin. round. note.—the smaller subdivision or cuts vary greatly in name in different localities; therefore they are not given in the diagram. the composition of meat varies greatly, according to the cut, the amount of fat, etc. the following gives the average composition of a piece of lean beef without visible fat: average composition of lean beef without visible far. fig. . . and . water. . proteid. . . extractives. . gelatin. . mineral matters. . fat. beef: of all animal foods, beef ranks highest in nutritive value. it reaches its highest nutritive value when the ox is from four to five years old. the different parts of the ox vary greatly in value as nutrients, and also in fuel value. cooking composition of beef from different parts of a very far ox. parts water proteids fat neck, . loin, . shoulder, . hind quarter, lean, . hind-quarter, streaky, . fore quarter, lean, . fore-quarter, streaky, . analysis by knight. . . . . . . . . . . , | . . . placing the meat directly in boiling water, to cook, makes a coating of the albumen in the meat, through which the juices of the meat cannot pass. this method should be used when the meat, itself, is to be eaten. the fibres of meat are softened and loosened by soak: ing in cold water, and the juice of the meat is readily extracted by cold water; therefore, the meat intended for soup should be placed in cold water, and cooked at a low temperature. beef stew with vegetables: lbs. neck of beef, carrot, tbsp. flour, potatoes, onions, sliced, turnip, water, salt, and pepper. wipe meat with damp cloth, cut into two-inch cubes or smaller. remove all extra fat. place the pieces of meat in a kettle, cover with cold water, and heat to boiling point. heat the fat in a frying pan until smoking hot. roll the more choice pieces of meat in flour, put them into the hot fat, and turn them until the surface is slightly browned. brown the onions, also, and put into the frying pan the rest of the flour, if any remains after the meat has been rolled. when the water reaches the boiling point, put the domestic science meat and the onions into the kettle, rinse out the frying pan with a little of the water, and then return it to the kettle, which should be placed so that the water will be kept very hot, but will not boil. cook slowly thus, until the meat is tender. prepare turnip and carrot, cut into thin slices or half-inch cubes. three-fourths of an hour before stew is to be served, move kettle where water will boil, add the turnip and carrot. wash and pare the potatoes, cut into squares, parboil five minutes, drain, and add to stew; cook minutes. season to taste with salt and pepper, and add boiling water if necessary. there should be enough liquid to come near the top, but not cover the vegetables. thicken with flour, if desired. lesson . review of diagram, previous lesson. broiling was, originally, the process of cooking by direct exposure to the heat of red-hot coals; but, at the present day, we "broil” in ovens, called "oven broiling," and by cooking with little or no fat, in a very hot frying pan. this method is called "pan-broiling." the object of broiling is to sear the outer part of the meat so quickly that the juices cannot escape. the heat coagulates the albumen of the meat, forming a thick coating which prevents the escape of juices. in broiling, the meat is cooked so quickly that tough meat is made tender; hence, only tender meat should be broiled. in broiling, cook one side quickly, on the surface, and then turn and cook quickly on the surface of the other side. this, to prevent the escape of juices from either side. then remove farther from the heat, to cook the inside of the meat. the slices for broiling should not be thick, or they will not cook well throughout, without burning the outside. the water in the meat turns to steam during the cook: ing. as water expands , times its bulk, in turning to steam, the meat thickens, in broiling; but if the cooking is not domestic science the best cuts of beef for roasting are: tip or middle of sirloin, back of rump, or first three ribs. wipe the meat with a damp cloth, scrape the fat, if necessary. dredge with flour, salt , and pepper, on all sides. if the meat is lean, put pieces of fat in the pan and on the meat, or use melted fat. place meat on the rack of the oven, fat side up. baste every ten minutes. when brown on upper surface, turn, and brown on the other; then reduce heat of oven. after the last basting, sprinkle with salt and pepper. place meat on a hot platter and keep it hot until gravy is made. if the beef is cooked rare, the gravy which cooks from it may be used instead of the thickened or brown gravy. roast beef gravy: after removing the meat, pour the fat from the pan. use tbsp. fat and - tbsp. flour for each cup of gravy desired. put fat in pan, add the flour, and stir over a hot fire until well browned. add the boil- ing water gradually, boil minutes, season to taste with salt and pepper, and strain. lesson . the flesh of fish is the animal food next in im- portance to that of birds and animals (and with few ex- ceptions, it is more digestible than these). salmon, mack- erel, and eels, are exceptions and should be eaten with consideration of this fact. the fiesh of white fish is very easily digested. to obtain from fish its greatest flavor, it should be eaten fresh, and in season. to determine the freshness of fish: examine the flesh: it should be firm. the gills should be red, the eyes bright and full, and there should be no unpleasant odor. if the flesh of the fish can be readily crushed by gentle pressure of the thumb and finger, it is not fresh; and not suitable for food. fish containing a large proportion of fat is less digestible than the lean varieties. drying, salting, smoking, and pickling, each serves to harden the fibres and to render them less digestible. cooking broiling and baking are the best methods of cooking fish. hot water and cold water have the same effect on fish as on meat. in boiling fish, the water should be just below the boiling point when the fish is put in, as the motion serves to break the fish. the temperature of the water should then be lowered, and the fish cooked until the flesh readily separates from the bones. fish should always be thoroughly cooked, as a precautionary measure. cloths and kettles used in cooking fish should be boiled, after use, in a solution of sal soda and water. filling for a baked fish: c. fine bread crumbs, - tsp. pepper, tsp. chopped onion, scalded, tsp. lemon juice, - tsp. salt, . c. melted butter. water to moisten. mix the ingredients thoroughly. use enough liquid to make filling stick together. the foregoing quantities are sufficient for a fish weighing from to pounds. baked fish: wipe the fish and cut off the fing. fill, and sew together; dredge with flour, put bits of butter on outside, and bake in a hot oven. when the flour is brown, baste the fish, and repeat every ten minutes. cook until the flesh is firm, and, on being touched, separates easily from the bones. remove from the oven, lay the fish on a hot platter, and serve with fish sauce or tomato sauce. do not cut through the large bone. any fish may be baked without filling. sauteing fish: clean fish and wipe dry. sprinkle with salt, dip in flour or crumbs, then in egg, beaten with crumbs. place a small amount of fat in a frying pan, heat hot, lay in fish, fry until brown on one side, turn; and fry until brown. if preferred, the fish may be rolled in corn meal instead of flour. lesson . boiled fish: wipe the fish or slice of fish, carefully, with cloth wrung out of cold water. if a fish is to be cooked, remove head and tail. place the fish on a plate, and tie the plate in cheese cloth. lower plate into kettle or sauce pan containing a sufficient amount of salted, boiling water to cooking gether, thoroughly. take up a tablespoonful at a time, shape into round cakes, flatten slightly, and drop carefully into deep, hot fat. if the balls crumble, add more egg to the mixture. when well browned, remove from fat, and place on a clean brown paper to drain. serve hot. in place of shredded fish, c. ordinary dried fish may be used. wash it, remove the bones, cut into fine pieces, and cook with the pared potatoes. the advantage in using the shredded fish is that it does not need to be previously cooked. fried fish: select small, fresh fish, and cook whole; or large fish, and remove bones, cutting the flesh in slices. season with salt and pepper, and roll in corn meal, flour, or bread crumbs mixed with egg one-half corn mealand one- half flour may be used. drop into hot, deep fat; then drain on paper. serve on a hot dish. lesson . oysters, clams, mussels, and scallops, are salt water shell fish belonging to the family of mollusks or soft-bodied animals. oysters have about the same composition as milk; containing carbohydrate matter, which most animal foods lack. they are nutritious and easily digested, especialy when eate raw. cooking converts the oyster into an indigestible, leathery mass. oysters are "in season" from september to may. during the summer months they are flabby and of poor flavor; although wholesome, if fresh. to open oysters: put a thin, flat knife under the back end of the right valve, and push forward until it cuts the strong muscle which holds the shells together. the valves may then be separated. to clean oysters: place oysters in a wire strainer, and allow the liquor to drain into a bowl, to be used later. pick over the oysters carefully; taking them one at a time in the fingers, to remove all bits of shell or seaweed. pour over the oysters one cup of cold water for every quart of oysters, shaking them gently, to wash. drain quickly. domestic science stewed oysters: pt. oysters, tbsp. flour, tbsp. butter, cup milk, - tsp. salt, - tsp. pepper. heat the milk in stewpan to boiling point. heat the reserved liquor to boiling point, and strain it through double cheese cloth. add the oysters to the liquor, and cook until they are plump and the edges curled; no longer. remove the oysters with a skimmer, placing them in a tureen with butter, pepper and salt. pour the liquor over the oysters add the hot milk. serve with oyster crackers. lesson . poultry: the term, “poultry,” includes chickens or fowls, turkeys, ducks, and geese. the flesh of poultry is very nourishing. birds like the common fowl, guinea fowl, and turkey, which have a white flesh, are the most digestible, being tender and of a delicate flavor. a young well-fed chicken is the most digestible of animal foods. the short- legged fowls are more delicate in flavor. the flesh of ducks and geese is more difficult of digestion. fowls should be cooked in water, to make them tender. young chickens may be broiled or roasted. a chicken is known by soft feet, smooth skin, and soft cartilage at the end of the breast bone. an abundance of pin feathers always indicates a young bird, while the presence of long hairs over the skin indicates age. in a fowl, the feet have become hard and dry, with coarse scales, and the cartilage at the end of the breast bone has become ossified, or turned to bone. fried chicken: clean, singe, and cut in pieces, a young chicken. plunge into cold water, drain, but do not wipe. sprinkle with salt and pepper, and roll in flour un til thickly coated. place three tbsp. fat in frying pan, and lay in the pieces of floured chicken. cook slowly until tender and well browned. serve with white sauce made of milk. lesson . roast chicken: dress, clean, stuff, and truss chicken. place on its back on rack in dripping pan, rub a cooking entire surface with salt, and spread breast and legs with three tablespoons butter, mixed with two tablespoons flour and rubbed till creamy. dredge bottom of pan with flour. place in a hot oven. when flour is well browned, reduce the heat, then baste. baste every ten minutes until chicken is cooked. for basting, use one-fourth cup butter melted in two-thirds cup boiling water. after this is all used, baste with the fat in the pan. if necessary to prevent the flour's burning, add one cup boiling water in the pan. turn chicken freely, while cooking, that it may brown evenly. "if a thick crust is desired, dredge with flour two or three times during the cooking. to make a glazed surface, omit the flour, and spread the surface with butter, basting as before. when the breast is tender, the bird is sufficiently cooked. a four-pound chicken requires about one and one-half hours. stuffing for roast: cup cracker crumbs, - cup butter, powdered sage or marjoram, salt, pepper, - cup boiling water. place the seasonings in the cracker crumbs, melt the butter in the hot water and pour over the crackers and seasonings. mix thoroughly with the hands, to a pulpy mass. place in the chicken. if any remains after filling the chicken, it may be placed in the pan, at one side. gravy for roast: pour in the liquid from the pan in which the chicken has been roasted. skim four tablespoons fat from the liquid; return this fat to the pan; stir into it four tablespoons flour; brown. add two cups of the stock in which giblets, neck, and tips of wings have been boiled. cook five minutes; season with salt and pepper, then strain. the remaining fat may be used for sauteing sliced potatoes. for giblet gravy, add to the foregoing the giblets (heart, liver and gizzard), finely chopped. lesson . green vegetables are less nutritious than roots and tubers. they are valued as foods, mainly for their minerals cooking plain cake: tbsp. butter, - cup pulverized sugar, egg, - cup milk, tsp. baking powder, - cup flour, - tsp. spice or - tsp. vanilla. sift together the flour, baking powder, and spice. cream the butter, and work the sugar into it gradually. separate the yolk and the white of the egg; beat the yolk well and pour the milk into it. add portions of this mixture and the dry ingredients alternately, to the creamed butter, and stir well to make a smooth batter. beat the white of the egg until stiff, and fold it lightly into the batter. bake from to minutes. "try” with a clean straw or a fine skewer. if the straw is free from dough when it is removed from the cake, no further baking is required. remove the cake from the pan; let it stand a few minutes, if baked on a greased paper, before removing the paper. after cooling, it may be iced. if granulated sugar is used, add - cup of flour to the amount given in recipe. if fruit is desired, currants, raisins (quartered and seeded), or citron sliced, may be rolled in flour and added to the dough just before baking. to make marble cake, take out part of the batter and stir a little cocoa into it. spread half the light batter in the pan, then scatter in the dark batte and add the remainder of the light. lesson . sponge cake, proper, contains no "leavening” properties, but is made light by the quantity of air beaten into both the yolks and the whites of the eggs, and the expansion of this air and the steam, by the heat during baking. (review leavening). cheap sponge cake: yolks eggs, cup sugar, tbsp. hot water, cup flour, - tsp. baking powder, - tsp. salt; whites of eggs, tsp. vinegar. beat yolks of eggs until thick and lemon-colored. add sugar gradually, and continue beating; then add water, flour, mixed well with baking powder and salt, whites of eggs beaten stiff, and vinegar. bake minutes in a moderate oven, in a buttered and floured cake pan. domestic science sponge cake: yolk of eggs, cup sugar, tbsp. lemon juice, - lemon rind, grated, cup flour, - tsp. salt. beat the yolks and the whites of eggs separately, as in previous recipe. add the sugar to the beaten yolks, gradually. beating constantly. add the lemon juice, rind, and beaten whites, to the yolks. when the whites are partially mixed with the yolks, remove the beater, and carefully cut and fold in the flour mixed with sifted salt. bake hour in a slow oven, in deep pan. lesson . doughnuts: cups flour, . c. sugar, egg, tsp. baking powder, tsp. melted butter, tsp. salt, - tsp. cinnamon, sweet milk. sift the dry ingredients, add - cup milk to the egg, well beaten; combine the mixtures. stir in more milk to make a soft dough. roll - inch thick; cut, and fry in deep fat, lard, or cooking oil. the fat should be "smoking" hot, but care should be taken that it does not burn the doughnuts before they are cooked through. try the heat with a small piece of dough, before putting in the doughnuts. it should brown nicely by the time one can count sixty. keen the fat at the same degree of heat. the dough cools it tapidly. drain the doughnuts on paper before placing in a vessel together. lesson indian tapioca pudding: tbsp. granulated tapioca, tbsp. indian meal, tsp. butter, tsp salt, qt. milk, - cup molasses. soak the tapioca in cold water. soak the meal in - cup milk; heat the rest of the milk. mix together the tapioca, meal, butter, and salt, then add the hot milk and the mo- lasses; mix thoroughly, bake about one hour in a buttered baking dish. serve with cream. apple tapioca pudding: - cup granulated tapioca, ; qt. hot water, - tsp. salt, or apples, - cup sugar, cinnamon, or nutmeg. cooking pick over the tapioca, pour on hot water, add salt, and cook until clear, stirring frequently. core and pare apples, arrange in buttered pudding dish, fill the cavities with sugar, pour over the tapioca; bake in moderate oven till apples are soft. serve with sugar and cream. lesson . milk toast: pt. scalded milk, tbsp. butter, tbsp. flour, - tsp. salt, cold water, slices dry toast. add cold water gradually to flour to make a smooth paste. place the milk in a stew pan over the fire, add butter and salt. stir in the paste slowly, and stir the thickened milk constantly until it boils. remove from fire. place slices of toast in the sauce, and remove to serving dish when soft. pour the remaining sauce over all. tomato milk toast: - cup stewed and strained tomatoes, cup scalded milk, - tsp. soda, tbsp. butter, tbsp. flour, - tsp. salt, slices toast. melt butter in saucepan; when hot, add flour and salt, stir in tomato, to which the soda has been added, gradually; then add milk; allow to boil, place slices of toast in the serve immediately. lesson . planning, cooking, and serving a simple lunch, using dishes the pupils have already learned to prepare. this lunch should be a lesson in economy, as well as a lesson in cooking. lesson . yeast is a vegetable germ or plant of the fungus family, to which mushrooms and toadstools belong. yeast plant needs no light, and it grows and multiplies rapidly. it is the sim. plest form of vegetable life, being only a small cell with a thin skin and full of liquid which contains the germ of life. the yeast plant is generally oval in shape, and so small that it can not be seen without a very strong microscope. it multiplies by sending out buds, which increase in size and sauce. domestic science finally separate from the plant and become new, growing plants. yeast plants float in the air as "wild yeast." they float into all places where "dust" may float, and when they fall into the proper food for their nourishment, they begin to absorb the food and grow; then the substance into which they have fallen begins to "ferment" and, later, to "sour.” yeast is cultivated, like other plants; and yeast in three different forms, dry, liquid, and compressed, is an article of commerce. compressed yeast, in cakes, is the form con- sidered the most convenient and satisfactory at present. this should be fresh. its freshness may be tested by its light color and the absence of dark streaks. the yeast plant is killed at degrees, fahr., boiling point. it grows best at a temperature between degrees and degrees, and in a substance that is moist, sweet, and nitrogenous (glutinous); hence, all these conditions must be carefully considered in making bread. bread dough is the best soil for growing yeast. the yeast changes some of the starch into a kind of sugat, and then the sugar into a gas (carbon-dioxide), and alcohol. the gas, being lighter than the dough, and constantly expanding by the heat, struggles to escape, and thus puffs up this elastic, glutinous mass to two or three times its original size. as this process produces alcohol in the bread, it is called alcoholic fermentation. when the dough is sufficiently "light," it is kneaded, to press out some of the gas, and then baked. in the heat of the oven, the alcohol escapes; some of the starch on the outside is changed to a gummy substance called dex- trine, which forms the crust. if the bread dough is allowed to stand too long in the process of fermentation, acetic (acid) fermentation begins; and we say the dough is “sour. bread is baked. . to kill the ferment. . to make the starch soluble. . to drive off alcohol and gas. . to form a brown crust. . to make it palatable. cooking white bread (quick process): (for slow process, see appendix). tbsp. sugar, cups boiling water, tbsp. shortening, yeast cake mixed with . c. lukewarm water, - tsp. salt, about c. flour. put salt, sugar, and shortening into mixing bowl, pour on the hot water. when cooled to lukewarm, add the dis- solved yeast. add five cups sifted flour, stir until smooth; then add enough more flour to make dough stiff enough to knead. turn on floured board, knead until it is smooth and elastic to touch, and will not stick to the board or hands. return to the bowl, cover closely, and let it stand in a warm place (about degrees fahr.) until double in bulk (from two to three hours). knead again until fine grained, using as little flour as possible. shape into loaves, place in greased pan, cover and put in a warm place. when double in bulk (about one hour) bake in hot oven, from to minutes. remove bread from pans as soon as taken from oven. en. rub the crusts with melted butter. place loaves so that the air can circulate all around them until cool. lesson . second lesson on "quick process." moulding the bread. when, on slicing bread, it is found to be very porous, the pores being large, it is because of too little kneading. lesson . baking of white bread. see appendix. lesson . raised muffins: c. milk, tbsp. butter, c. flour, - yeast cake, tsp. salt. scald the milk, add the butter, and allow to cool to lukewarm. stir in the yeast, salt, and flour, and beat for five minutes. cover, and allow to rise until double its bulk. add flour to make a soft dough. divide and roll into balls. place in deep gem pan, cover, and allow to rise to double bulk. bake about - hour. domestic science place on a lesson . parker house rolls: c. scalded milk, c. boiling water, tbsp. butter, tbsp. sugar, - tsp. salt, yeast cake, to c. sifted flour. put the milk, water, butter, sugar, and salt into a mixing bowl. when lukewarm add the yeast cake, and mix until smooth, then add c. of flour. beat thoroughly, cover, and let rise until sufficiently light. add enough more flour to make stiff enough to knead. knead until smooth and elastic, cover, and let rise again. when double its bulk, knead again, and shape into oval biscuits one-third of an inch thick. make a deep crease through the middle of each with the handle of a case-knife previously dipped in flour, rub melted butter over one-half the biscuit, fold over double, and press the edges together. buttered pan; onc inch apart, cover, and let rise until light. bake in a hot oven from to minutes. lesson . preserving, in the ordinary sense of the word, means cooking in sugar syrup, according to special directions; but the word "preserve" means to keep from spoiling;" and there are various methods by which foods may be preserved; as, by drying, salting, pickling, smoking, canning, packing in oil, cold storage, etc., as well as by the use of sugar. fruit juice is preserved in the form of jellies. general directions for jellies: select fruit some what under-ripe; boil until the juice may be pressed out easily. drain, or press out the juice. measure the juice and an equal quantity of sugar. boil the fruit juice minutes. skim well. heat the sugar, stirring occasionally to prevent burning, add the heated sugar to the cooked juice, stir until dissolved, then boil until the compound thickens (jellies) when tried on a cold plate. strain jelly into heated pitcher and pour into heated glasses. set away to cool and harden. pour over each glass enough melted paraffine to cover thoroughly, or use tin or paper covers, or cooking one- both. to cover with paper, cut circular pieces of paper larger than the top of the glass by one inch in diameter. cut slits around the edge, about one fourth inch deep, place over the glass, and fasten with white of an egg. keep glasses in a cool, dry place. jellies should not be made in tin. an agate, porcelain lined, or granite-ware preserving kettle should be used cranberry jelly: use only firm berries. pick over, wash, and measure. cook with half as much water as berries. boil rapidly minutes. strain, but do not press; add half as much sugar as juice obtained; boil rapidly minutes, pour into moulds, and cover. lesson . preservation by canning: the addition of mild preservatives, as sugar, salt , vinegar, etc., makes it possible to preserve many kinds of food; but these preservatives not only change the flavor of the food, but in many cases they render the food less digestible; and none of these methods preserves the food in anything like the natural condition. canning; a method of preserving food by keeping bac- teria away from it, is at present employed more than any other method. canning consists of two important steps: ( ) destroying or removing the bacteria already in the food. ( ) preventing the access of other bacteria. no limit has yet been found to the time during which properly canned food may be preserved in a wholesome state; but proper canning requires care and attention. a sufficiently high degree of heat will destroy all forms of life; hence, heat is usually employed to destroy the bac- teria in food before it is canned. the food to be canned should be cut in pieces of suitable size, placed in water and heated to a brisk boil. it must be remembered that if a single bacterium is left alive in the food after the boiling, the whole process is useless, and the canned goods will spoil. some kinds of bacteria are not so easily destroyed as others, hence it is best to boil all foods to be canned, as thoroughly as their nature will allow. green corn is very difficult to can, domestic science - requiring a very high degree of heat; this is true of peas, beans, and tomatoes, also. common liquids, boiled in open vessels, cannot be heated above degrees, fahr; but can be raised to a much higher temperature in a closed vessel, tight enough to prevent the escape of the steam, and strong enough to prevent fig. -spring-top jar. fig. -position of spring during sterilizing. fig. -position of spring after sterilizing. cooking bursting by the steam. a temperature of degrees does not destroy all kinds of spores, but, if the time of boiling be prolonged at degrees, the effect will be the same as that of a higher temperature. it is better to place the food in cold water, and then bring it to boiling point. review lesson no. , seventh year. hermetical sealing, to prevent the access of air to the food, is easy and effective. the food should be poured into thoroughly sterilized jars while it is hot, and the jars should be sealed immediately. cans may be corked with cotton which has been previously sterilized by the heat of an oven, keeping the food from bacteria; but this method does not wholly exclude moulds. most forms of fruit are canned with little difficulty, re- quiring only moderate boiling and careful sealing. the spring-top glass jar and the screw-top glass jar are best adapted to the purpose of hermetical sealing. a wide- mouthed jar should be selected, for convenience. lesson . planning a simple dinner: this should be made a lesson in economy, as well as a lesson in cooking. each pupil should present a menu for the dinner. the one selected should be copied by each pupil. lesson . cooking and serving the menu previously selected. serving invited guests. appendix. a. the foods eaten, nourish the body to its growth, and repair all tissue waste produced by both physical and mental action. the body, then, must contain, in its healthful state, all the chemical elements found in these foods. the principal of which are as follows: chemical elements. carbon, . { oxygen, . proteids. nitrogen, . hydrogen, . sulphur, . . fats. carbon, . hydrogen, . oxygen, . . hydrogen, . { carbo: oxygen, . hydrates. carbon,(variable). . fig. . in the carbo-hydrates, the hydrogen and oxygen unite to form water. this union exhausts the normal power of domestic science each of these elements, so that the carbon, alone, is left to do its normal work; that of producing heat and energy. the following tables show the average per cents of the different salts or mineral matters, found in the solid tissues and in the fluids of the body. table a. solid tissues. bone. muscle. brain. liver. lungs. spleen. percentage of salts. sodium chloride, . . . potassium, soda, . . . . . potash, . . . . . lime, . . . . . . magnesia, . . . . . . iron oxide, . . . chlorine, . fluorine, . phosphoric acid (free), . combined, . . . . . . sulphuric acid, . . . . carbonic acid, . silicic acid, . . . . phosphate of iron; . appendix table b. fluids of the body. blood serum. blood. blood clot. lymph. urine. milk. bile. percent. of salts. sodium chlo. . . . . . . . . potassium, . . soda, . . . . . . potash, . . . . . . . lime, . . . . . . . magnesia, . . . . . . . iron oxide, . . . . . . chlorine, fluorine, phosp.acid (free), combined, . . . . . . . sulphuric acid . . . . . carbonic acid, . . . . . silicic acid, . . . . . phosp. of iron, by a study of the foregoing tables, the pupil will learn what mineral salts enter into the bodily tissues and the fluids, and in what relative proportions; and from this may select the food-stuffs best serving the purpose of building up and repairing the different parts of the body. domestic science b. the menu for each meal should be selected with the greatest care, based upon scientific knowledge. by the ex- pression, “a well balanced meal," is meant a meal for persons in the ordinary walks of life; those who labor in ordinary avocations; not a meal for the excessively active, nor for the excessively idle. neither does it have in view the growing child, or the emaciated convalescent. no ex- tremes are meant. no fixed rules for feeding can be given. growing children, building muscle, and, by their excessive activities, wearing out muscle, need about as much protein as a daily laborer; yet care should be exercised that they are comparison of the muscle-making values of some common food-stuffs. protein. beef, round, mutton, leg, beef, loin, beans, beef, rib, ham, smoked, codfish, dressed. oatmeal, eggs, white flour, white bread, cornmeal, rice, oysters, milk, unskimmed, milk, skimmed, potatoes, butter, sugar, fig. . based on the govt. analysis, u. s. agricultural dept. appendix care not fed proteids to excess. only the wise mother's can determine the proper proportion for her child's diet. the same is true of all the other food principles. it must be remembered that it is not the amount taken into the stomach, but the amount digested, that is available in the devel. opment and repair of muscle, the production of heat and en. ergy, or the growth of the solid tissues. over-feeding should be avoided; the sin of commission equals the sin of omis. sion in many cases, and sometimes bears the balance down. the tables given will serve somewhat as a guide to the housewife in the seclection of the daily menus for her family. comparison of the fuel (heat and energy pro: ducing) values of some common food-stuffs. fats and carbo-hydrates. butter, oatmeal, sugar, rice, white flour, cornmeal, beans, beef, rib, beef, loin, white bread, mutton, leg, beef, round, eggs, ham, smoked, milk, unskimmed, codfish, dressed, potatoes, oysters, milk, skimmed, fig. . based on the govt. analysis, u. s. agricultural dept. domestic science c. digestion, and the digestibility of foods. the digestive processes begin in the mouth; where the foods are masticated by the teeth and mixed with the fluids from the salivary glands and from the mucuous lining of the mouth. fig. . c. the salivary glands. a. the right sublingual gland. b. the right submaxillary gland. the right parotid gland. the ducts leading from these glands to the mouth are also shown. the salivary glands are placed in pairs, one of each pair being situated on each side of the mouth. the fluid from these glands is called saliva; and it is this fluid that performs the chemical changes on the foods, which are a part of the process of digestion. the fluid from the mucuous lining of the mouth performs no chemical changes in the foods; its work is to moisten the mouth and throat, to assist in mixing the saliva thoroughly with the food, and to soften starch grains so that they will burst and permit of appendix con- the action of the saliva. the digestive glands may be con sidered as little pouches, with mouths partially, or quite closed when no food is in process of mastication; but which open more or less, as soon as the delicate nerves of the tongue are touched by food or other substances placed in the mouth; and the flow may be started by simply the chewing motion of the jaws; and, also, by odors of foods, which strike the olfactory nerves, of the nose, and effect the nerves of the mouth through reflex action. further, and what is still more wonderful, the thought of food, when one is hungry, will serve to cause the glands to pour their tents into the mouth; and sudden emotions, such as great joy, sorrow, or fear may relax or contract the muscles that control the mouths of the ducts of the salivary glands and the mucuous glands of the mouth, and thus cause too great or too scant a flow of these fluids. sometimes a frightened person finds himself suddenly unable to swallow, because of the dryness of the mouth and throat. the importance of the healthful action of all the digestive glands can scarcely be overestimated. these glands of the different digestive organs vary much in the amount of fluid secreted daily from the blood, and again returned to the blood in the processes of absorption and circulation, as shown by the following: amount of daily secretions by the different digestive glands. . glands of the mouth, to pts. . glands of the stomach, to pts. . glands of the liver, to pts. it has been found difficult to estimate the amount of digestive fluids secreted by the intestinal glands. one of the most important points to be considered in the purchase of foods and in planning the menu for each meal, as well as in the actual processes of cooking, is the palatableness of the foods. the more agreeable the food to the taste, the more readily it is digested. when a par. appendix that tie the little mouths relax, and all the mouths open; the food receives its due amount of digestive fluids, and the pro- cesses of digestion trip merrily along. the spirit of the person eating, also has great influence in the processes of digestion. «laugh and grow fat" has a double meaning. sadness and leanness are twins. no un- pleasant discussions should be participated in, at table. it should be the effort of the mother of a family, to make every meal-hour as pleasant for her family as she would endeavor to make it for the most honored guests. yea, more. sour looks, tearful eyes, and disappointed stomachs, are poor pro moters of ready digestion. he who said: “the avenue to the heart is through the stomach," was wiser than he knew. she who began to feed her child with its head resting upon her breast, should have his welfare close to her heart at all meals. from the mouth, the food passes to the stomach, where, again, it is acted upon by a digestive fluid, the gastric juice. this fluid is poured, or filtered, through the walls of the stomach by the little puckered mouths of the gastric glands. this process, also, depends upon the nerves. as soon as the food enters the stomach, the nerves controlling the gastric ducts in the walls of the stomach relax, and the gastric juice flows into the stomach and is mixed with the food, changing proteids in their chemical nature, rendering them easily ab- sorbed by the vessels of the stomach; but having little if any action on fats and carbo-hydrates. the water taken with the food dissolves all soluble matters, and, with these, is absorbed by the vessels of the stomach, which carry them to others to be circulated throughout the body. the processes of digestion, however, are not completed in the stomach. some of the mass, not changed in its na. ture by the gastric juice, is passed on into the duodenum, the upper part of the small intestine, and is there mixed with two digestive fluids; the pancreatic juice, and the bile. the pancreatic juice is a more powerful factor in digestion than the gastric juice; because it acts upon all classes of foods, while domestic science the chemical action of the saliva is upon carbo-hydrates, only; and the chemical action of the gastric juice is upon proteids, only. the bile also enters the duodenum, and plays a promi- nent part in the processes of digestion, especially in its action upon fats and oils, of which it is a powerful solvent. and yet the processes of digestion are not complete. from the duodenum (about inches of the small intestine) fig. . the stomach, laid open. a. the oesophagus. e. the biliary duct. b. the cardiac dilatation. f. the gall bladder. the lesser curvature, g. the pancreatic duct. d. the pylorus. i. the duodenum. the masses of partly digested food pass into the small intes: tine, where they are subject to the action of digestive fluids from the digestive glands of the walls of the intestino, itself; and it is here that the chief work of digestion and absorp- tion is performed. in the large intestine, the nature of di- gestive action is putrefactive fermentation; caused by organ- ized ferments, rather than the soluble ferments of the other appendix summary of the digestive organs and their action. organs: digestive fluids. nature of ferment. character of action. mouth (salivary glands) saliva alkaline stomach gastric juice acid pancreas pancreatic juice alkaline converts starch into dextrin and maltose. curdles milk. converts proteids into peptones. converts cane sugar into glucose. converts starch into maltose. converts proteids into peptones. decomposes fats. curdles milk. saponifies and emulsifies fats. arrests putrefaction. converts starch into dextrin and maltose. converts proteids into peptones. converts starches into dextrose. converts sugars into dextrose. liver bile neutral intestines intestinal juice alkaline-acid domestic science digestive organs, these organized ferments are forms of fungi, known as bacteria, bacilli, cocci, etc., introduced in food. foods remain in the stomach about three hours, on an average; about three hours in the small intestine, and about twelve hours in the large intestine. time required for digestion. from the foregoing, it will be seen that it is impossible to state, with any degree of exactness, the length of time any food-stuff requires for digestion. how long the food re- mains in the stomach can be learned by use of the stomach tube; and an approximate may be reached by artifical digestion. in tests performed by the first method, the subject should be a person in perfect health. however, the following table will greatly assist the decision in the selection of food-stuffs and methods of cooking for persons in ordinary health: period of digestion. method of cooking and no. of hours in the stomach. food. how cooked. no. of hours. rice, boiled tripe, soused, pigs feet, soused, trout, fresh, - soup, barley, eggs, fresh, whipped, raw apples, sweet, mellow, venison steak, broiled, brains, boiled, - sago, apples, hard, sour, raw, barley, boiled, cabbage with vinegar, raw, codfish, cured, dry, boiled, eggs, unwhipped, raw, appendix - . - liver, ox, fresh, boiled, milk, tapioca, turkey, wild, roasted, eggs, turkey, domestic, boiled, milk, raw, beans, pod, boiled, cabbage, without vinegar, raw, gelatin, boiled, hash, meat and vegetable, warmed, lamb, fresh, broiled, parsnips, boiled, pig, young, roasted, potatoes, baked, sponge cake, beef, with salt only, boiled, chickens, full grown, fricassee, corncake, baked, custard, apple dumpling, boiled, bass, striped, fresh, broiled, beef, lean, fresh, raw, beef steak, broiled, chicken soup, boiled, eggs, soft-boiled, mutton, fresh, boiled or broiled, pork, recently salted, boiled, pork, stewed, soup, beans, boiled, pork steak, broiled, oysters, roasted, mutton, bread, corn. baked, carrots, orange, boiled, beef, fresh, roasted, . - appendix d. combustion, respiration, and ventilation. combustion is but another name for fire. it is pro- duced by the union of some substance, called fuel, with the oxygen of the air. before any substance can unite with oxygen, the substance must be heated to its "burning" temperature; and to produce flame, the fuel must be con: verted into a gas. the gas unites with the oxygen in the air, and ignites; a flame being the result. a flame is burn- ing gas. after all the gas is burned, what is left of the fuel is called ash. oxygen is by far the most abundant element of the globe; constituting from two-thirds to three-fourths of its entire substance. it is invisible, odorless, and tasteless, and constitutes from one-fifth to one-third the entire atmos- phere, of which it is the active element; nitrogen being a diluant for the oxygen. it is consumed by all animals, and there can be no life without it. it enters the body through the mouth and nose, in the air inhaled, and also with the food taken. in the first case it enters the lungs, and in the second, the stomach; and performs certain specific functions in each case. within the body, it enters into combination with the carbon in the different tissues, and actually burns out the broken down tissue cells within the blood vessels; and, in so doing, it sets free from the carbon in the blood, a gas called carbonic acid gas, which is thrown off in the ex. haled air from the lungs. in this process, the oxygen produces the heat and energy necessary to perform all the involuntary and voluntary functions of the body. the carbon enters the body in the foods eaten; occurring in all proteids, fats, and carbo-hydrates (see "table", page ); but without the presence of oxygen in the system, it would lie dormant. united with oxygen, the combination performs the functions of animal life. respiration, mechanically considered, consists of the compound act of inhaling and exhaling air; commonly called breathing. the mission of respiration is to “purify the blood"; that is, to burn up its waste matter. domestic science from all parts of the body the blood comes pouring in dark red floods into the heart, which acts as a double force- pump, driving the blood to the lungs and over the body with each rythmic dilation and contraction. when the dark red blood, sent to the heart by vessels called veins, is pumped to the lungs, it does not freely en. ter the tiny air cells which compose the lungs; but it is forced into the net-work of hair-like vessels, called capillaries, which ataud fig. . the lungs. a. trachea (windpipe). c. d. bronchial tubes. lie on the mucuous membrane lining the air cells. tho walls of the capillaries are so thin that the gases pass through them readily; the oxygen of the air in the air cells enter- ing the capillaries, and combining with the carbon in the appendix blood, and, in this act, releasing a gas from the carbon, (carbonic acid gas), which enters the air in the air cells, and l.a. left auricle. l.v. left ventricle. ao. aorta. h.v. hepatic vein. v.c.i. inferior vena ca- aling i va. nd op ddd cunu p.v. v.c.si td lg. la. p.a. pulmonary ar tery. lung. ly. lymphatic. r.a. right auricle. r.v. right ventricle. viel h.a. hepatic artery. v.p. vena portae. v.c.s. superior vena ll rt cava. wurde fonuir lch p.v. pulmonary vein. lct. lacteals. al. th.d. thoracic duct. a. . arteries to the upper part of the body. hlv. a. . arteries to the lower part of the body. v. . veins of the up- Ти per part of the body. Н. А. v. . veins of the low: er part of the body. the arrows indicate the course of the flow of fig. . blood, lymph, and chyle. chart of the system of blood circulation. is exhaled. this action of the oxygen upon the blood, changes the color of the blood from the dark red of the im- domestic science c. sary to the healthy development of the child, as to its vege- table prototype, the violet; the rose. the pappoose, carried on its mother's back, has the benefit of all the oxygen neces- sary to its perfect physical development; and every child is entitled to this great inheritance from nature. e. recipes. white bread (slow process): tbsp. sugar, boiling water, tbsp. lard or butter, - yeast cake mixed with - c. luke-warm water ( deg. fahr.), - tsp. salt, about c. bread flour. prepare the sponge, to p. m., in the following manner: put salt, sugar, and shortening into a large mixing bowl, and pour over them the hot water. when cooled be- low the scalding point ( deg. fahr.), add the dissolved yeast. add flour enough to make a paste about the consist ency of pancake batter. beat the mixture thoroughly. cover the paste with a layer of flour about one-fourth inch in thickness. invert a pan, or other cover, over the bowl, (or lay a thin cloth upon the flour), and cover with paper or several thicknesses of cloth, to exclude the air. place where it will be only moderately warm, (about deg. fahr.), until morning. look at the sponge early in the morning, as it is fre quently an "early riser". if it is about to run over", and you are not ready to “make it up”, set it where it is cooler. when ready, mix in, with the hands, flour enough to make a stiff dough. let this stand in the mixing bowl until about double its original size; place it in a temperature of from to degrees, and cover it closely. turn it around frequently, if the heat is not evenly applied. when double its original bulk, cut off portions large enough for loaves, (about one pound), knead these thoroughly, on a floured board, until they will not readily stick to the bare board, and place in greased pans to "rise" again. cover with heavy cloth, and keep at the same temperature as before. when . domestic science filling them half full. when raised until pans are three fourths full, bake in a moderate oven. beaten bread: c. milk or water, tbsp. shorten: ing, tsp. salt, - yeast cake, - c. water, flour, tsp. sugar. put the water or milk, salt, sugar, and shortening into a bowl. dissolve the yeast in the warm water, add it to the mixture, and stir in flour enough to make a batter. beat it until the flour is thoroughly mixed. allow to rise until light. add flour to make a stiff dough, beat well for min., or until light. place in pans and allow to rise until double its bulk. bake in slow oven. drip coffee: to avoid extracting the tannin from the coffee, use a "drip” coffee pot. this is composed of three sections: the upper section to receive the boiling water, the middle section to receive the ground coffee, and the lower section to receive the coffee which drips from the middle section. drip coffee: c. boiling water, c. finely ground coffee. set the lower section of the coffee pot into a pan of boil- ing water; place the middle section upon the lower, and put the ground coffee into it; place the upper section upon the middle, and pour into it the c. boiling water. place where the water in the pan will keep near the boiling point, but not boil. when the coffee has filtered through into the lower sec- tion, remove the upper and middle sections, and serve the coffee immediately, or set it where it will stand just below the boil. ing point, but not boil, until ready to serve. in lieu of a drip coffee pot, place the ground coffee in a cloth, tie firmly, and place the mass in the coffee pot. pour boiling water in: to the coffee pot, and set it where it will keep near the boil. ing point, but not boil, for minutes, before serving. lemon ice: pt. water, c. sugar, - c. lemon juice, - lemon rind. place sugar in water and boil five min.; add lemon juice and rind to the boiling syrup, and allow to stand min. strain, cool, and freeze. the rind may be omitted, if desirable. domestic science bread crumbs or cracker crumbs, - c. milk, - c. finely chopped cooked chicken, - tsp. salt, pepper to taste. pour the milk over the crumbs, and allow it to stand ten min. remove all the fat from the broth, heat the broth to boiling point, boil one min., then add the chopped chicken, and re- heat, season to taste. serve hot. the broth of any other fowl or meat may be used for panada, in a similar manner. chicken jelly: c. chicken broth, - tsp. granu- lated gelatine, a few drops of lemon juice. remove all fat from the broth, season to taste with salt or celery salt, and pepper. put one tbsp. of cold broth over the gelatine, heat the remainder of the the broth to a boiling point, add the softened gelatine and stir until the gelatine is all dissolved. add the lemon juice, strain through double cheesecloth into a cold, wet mould. set in a cool place until it is solid. serve cold. beef tea, lamb broth, mutton broth, veal broth; etc. may be prepared in the same way. oyster broth: oysters, - c. cold water. chop the oysters very fine, and put into a sauce pan with - c. cold water. heat to a boiling point, then cook more slowly for five min. strain, season the broth with salt and pepper, to taste. serve immediately. beef tea: lb. lean beef, pt. cold water, salt to taste. chop the meat fine, and place it in the cold water, allowing it to stand minutes or more. if a double boiler is available, place the meat, and water in which it has been standing, in the top part, and set it into the lower part, which should be . full of cold water. (if no double boiler is at hand, place the meat and water in a glass jar with a cover, and set the jar into any convenient vessel containing cold water.) place the meat thus prepared over the flame, or where it will heat slowly, stirring frequently, until the liquid becomes of a reddish brown color. strain it through a coarse strainer, into a heated cup. remove all fat from the top: by laying upon the surface for a moment a thin piece of bread, or by holding a piece of bread between thumb and appendix move finger, and touching the drops of fat, lightly, until all are removed. in case of using a glass jar, place it upon some rest, in the vessel of water, to prevent breakage of jar. the tea may be canned, and kept for an indefinite period. mutton broth: lbs. neck or forequarter, - large onion, - c. of rice or barley, - qts. cold water, salt, pep- per. wash meat until sure that all dust is removed. re- all fat, cut lean meat into small pieces. put meat and bones into a kettle containing cold water, and let it stand thirty min., add the sliced onion, the washed rice or barley. cook, slowly, three hours; remove bones and meat, take off all fat by touching it lightly with a piece of bread; season it to taste with salt and pepper; serve hot. tapioca .or sago may be used instead of rice or barley. dry toast: cut stale bread in - in. slices; toast on a toaster or a fork until of a chestnut brown. gash the crusts. serve with or without butter. water toast: prepare as for dry toast. dip slices into boiling, salted water, removing and buttering quickly; or place them on a plate, salt, butter, and pour hot water or hot tea over them. some prefer hot milk. milk sherbet: . c. milk, - c. sugar, - lemon. freeze the milk and sugar until partially stiffened. add the lemon juice, and freeze stiff. egg lemonade: lemon, tbsp. sugar, c. boiling water. pare the lemon very thin, using only the yellow rind. put the rind and the sugar into a bowl, add the boiling water, cover tightly, and allow to stand twenty minutes; add the juice, and strain. weaken, at pleasure, with a little ice or cold water. frozen custards: pt. milk, tbsp. flour, c. sugar, or eggs, - tsp. salt, pt. cream, tbsp. flavoring. scald the milk in a double boiler; beat the eggs slightly, adding half the sugar, and pour the milk slowly into this, stirring constantly. pour back into the double boiler, and cook until the mixture begins to thicken; add the remaining sugar, cool, add cream and flavoring, and freeze. domestic science farina gruel: tbsp. farina, tsp. salt, c. boiling water, c. milk. bring water to the boiling point, add farina slowly, stirring constantly. let the mixture boil - minute, then remove from heat, but to remain at boiling point, without boiling, for fifteen min. add milk slowly; bring to boiling point; remove from heat and allow to stand fifteen minutes longer. serve sweetend, if desired. pastry. pastry flour is made from “winter wheat"; a wheat sown in the fall, and growing, somewhat, during all the cold and moisture of the winter. it is soft and starchy; hence more brittle than the spring wheat, thus being better adapt- ed for pastry. spring wheat contains a greater proportion of gluten, which is slightly elastic. for this reason, the spring wheat is better for bread dough. pastry is hard to digest, because the starch grains, which require water to swell and burst them, are saturated with the fat used in the "crust"; and thus the fluids of the mouth and stomach are unable to act upon them, in the processes of digestion. some general rules for pastry. . have everything cold. . roll the crust one way, only, as nearly as possible. . handle the crust as little as possible. . bake pastry quickly, to prevent the crust's being more or less saturated with the "filling." . have the heat greatest at the bottom, for the same reason, and to allow “light” pastry to rise before browning. . pastry flour is best, but any flour may be used. . reduce all pastry to the lowest temperature above freezing, if possible, before serving. . in making short" pastry, use equal amounts of water and shortening. general rule for "short" pastry: equal amounts of shortening and ice water, or very cold water, about three appendix times as much flour (by bulk) as water; tsp. sugar and tsp. salt to each c. of water. sift flour, salt, and sugar together; chop in the lard, and add the water slowly, mixing lightly with the fingers. when mixed in the bowl so that it may be moved in a mass, lift from the bowl and place upon a lightly floured board, roll out all one way by turning over, until large enough to fit the pie plate, and of a proper thickness, about one eighth of an inch. place the crust on the plate, press it down firmly; with a knife, trim off the crust outside the edge of the plate. put in filling, and, if only one crust is necessary, place in the oven and bake. if two crusts are necessary, roll the upper crust to the same thickness as the lower, place it upon the "filling”, press down the edge into the edge of the lower crust, perforate in several places with a fork, and place in the oven to bake. half the “shortening" may be left out when the crust is mixed, and “rolled in", on the board. this makes the crust "flakey”. to do this, roll the crust out, spread with one third the shortening left out, fold over one-half the crust, spread again with shortening, fold over, etc., until all the shortening is used; then roll thin, and place on plate. in making pies, with only one crust, the crust may be baked quite thoroughly before filling. then pour in the fill- ing, and complete the process of baking. this is the better way, as it prevents the "filling” from saturating the crust, making it “soggy". lemon pie: c. boiling water, c. sugar, tbsp. corn: starch, tbsp. butter, eggs, lemons. mix cornstarch with a little cold water, until smooth and creamy. stir in the boiling water slowly, stirring until the starch has a uniform appearance; place over fire and boil for five minutes, stirring constantly. remove from the fire, add the sugar and butter creamed smoothly together, and mix with the yolks of the eggs and the juice and grated rind of the lemons. place the pastry, prepared according to rule previously given, on the plate, prick a few holes through the domestic science pour in pastry with a fork, to let the air from underneath escape with- out raising the crust from the plate; bake. when sufficiently baked, but not brown, remove from the oven, and the mixture prepared, and cook until the crust is brown on the bottom and edges. cover with a meringue made of the whites of the eggs, beaten with two tbsp. sugar; place in the oven again, and bake until the meringue is of a delicate brown. apple pie: use tart apples. prepare crust, place lower crust on plate, slice in the apples, very thin. add c. sugar for a large pie, tbsp. butter, a little cinnamon or nutmeg. lay on the top crust, pierce it in several places with a fork, to allow the escape of the steam and hot air. bake in a moderate oven until the apples are tender and pastry cooked. all seasoning and sugar may be omitted, and placed in the pie after the apples and crust are cooked, by lifting the top crust. pumpkin pie: remove the rind of the pumpkin after cutting it into suitable pieces; remove the seeds and the pulpy mass inside the meat. cut in thin slices and boil in clear water until soft enough to mash easily with a wooden masher. when thoroughly mashed, allow the kettle to stand over a slow fire until the pumpkin dries somewhat. the drier it is the richer the pies will be. rub the pumpkin, thus dried, through a sieve. thin the pumpkin, when cold, with sweet milk, to the consistency of milk porridge. beat three eggs for each quart of milk used, and add to the mixture, stirring thoroughly. add sugar, cinnamon, and ginger, to taste. place one crust upon the pie pan, pressing it down carefully and raising it a half inch at the edges by pinching it up with the thumb and fingers. pour in the mixture, and bake in a slow oven until firm throughout. meat and potato pie: chop cold meat fine, re- moving the bones, fat, and gristle. put the meat into a pudding dish. to each c. of meat, allow - c. meat gravy or stock, or - c. water. stir into the gravy - tsp. salt, a spk. of pepper, and a little chopped onion or parsley, or both, appendix for steamed dumplings, prepare as in dumplings for stews, place in a tin steamer and set it over a kettle of boiling water, cover closely, and steam minutes. dutch apple cake: use formula for baking pow. der biscuits, except add to the ingredients enough more fluid to make a drop batter," and add one egg. spread the mix- ture with a spoon, until it is one-half inch in thickness, on a shallow baking pan. mash, quarter, core, and pare, four sour apples. cut each quarter into halves, lengthwise. lay the pieces in parallel rows on the top of the paste, the sharp edges down. sprinkle with tbsp. sugar, mixed with - tsp. cinnamon. bake in a hot oven, from to min., or until the apples are soft. serve with lemon sauce. other fruits may be used instead of apples. cottage pudding: add to the formula for biscuits, - c. sugar, tbsp. butter, egg, and milk to make a some- what thick “pour batter”. mix with spoon, bake in a butter- ed pudding dish to minutes, or until the centre is found to be cooked. serve with a hot pudding sauce. yankee apple pudding: add to formula for bis- cuits, to more tbsp. shortening. stir with a spoon to a paste that may be spread with a spoon, but will not run. pare good “baking apples”; slice, but not thin. spread the pastry over a baking pan or pudding dish, about one-fourth inch thick, covering the sides of the dish with the pastry, also. place the sliced apple in the dish, on the pastry, pressingthem down lightly. add tsp. cinnamon or allspice, to taste, a little grated nutmeg, . tsp. salt, tbsp. sugar, and tbsp. butter. the apples should be one inch thick in the dish. spread a cover of pastry over the apples, observing that they are all covered. bake in moderate oven, until the apples serve hot or cold, with cream sauce. other fruits that will slice may be used in the same are soft. manner. short cake: add to the formula for biscuits, to more tbsp. shortening, and one tbsp. sugar. divide into two equal parts. shape one portion to fit a shallow tin plate or domestic science pan. brush the top of the dough lightly with melted butter. shape the second portion of the dough, and place it upon the first. bake in a hot oven. when cooked, separate the two portions of the pastry, and lay them upon two separate plates, soft side up. place the crushed fruit to be used, al- ready sweetened, on one half, and cover with the other half. more fruit may be placed on the top, if desired. serve with cream and sugar, if desired. suet pudding: c. flour, tsp. bak. powd., - tsp. salt, tbsp. finely chopped suet. cold water. have suet very cold. mix and sift dry ingredients. remove the mem- brane from the suet; cut the suet in slices thin as possible, then chop very fine and stir it into the dry ingredients. add water gradually until the mass forms a “spreading” paste. fill well-greased moulds two thirds full. cover and steam two to three hours. serve with hot sauce. this pudding may be baked instead of being steamed. pudding without pastry. entire wheat pudding: - e. entire wheat flour, - tsp. bak. soda, . tsp. salt; . c. molasses, - c. milk or water, egg, beaten, tbsp. butter, melted, c. raisins, seed- ed and chopped. mix and sift the dry ingredients. add molasses, and milk or water, and mix thoroughly. add beaten egg and melted butter, then the raisins. fill a buttered mould two thirds full, cover, and set mould in steamer, cover, place over kettle of boiling water and steam - hours. chopped figs or dates may be substituted for raisins. cake. some general rules for cakes. . everything used should be fresh, and of the best quality. . pastry flour should be used. . flour should be sifted before measuring. . use no melted butter. place it where it will soften somewhat, before using. appendix boiled icing: c. sugar, - c. boiling water, white of egg, tsp. vanilla, or - tsp. lemon juice. boil the sugar and water together, until the syrup spins to a thread. pour slowly on the beaten white of the egg, and continue beating until of the proper consistency to spread. uncooked icing: - c. powdered sugar, - tsp. hot water, - tbsp. orange juice, rind of - orange, or tsp. lemon juice. sift the sugar, add the orange juice, and the rind grated, or the lemon juice, and enough boiling water to make it spread smoothly. salads. potato salad: c. potato cubes (cooked), tsp. salt, - tsp. pepper, tbsp. vinegar, tbsp. olive oil, tsp. finely chopped parsley, a few drops of onion juice. mix salt and pepper, and sprinkle over the potatoes. add the chopped parsley and then the oil. mix all together, gently, with a fork; then add the vinegar and the onion juice, and stir until these are absorbed. place the potato cubes in the salad dish, garnish with parsley, and, if desired, finely chopped beets which have been sprinkled with vinegar. serve cold. half as much celery as potatoes may be used. the celery should be washed, scraped, and cut in half inch pieces, and chilled. use the tips for garnishing. cooked salad dressing may be used instead of the oil dressing. cucumber and tomato salad: cut off the ends and remove the paring from fresh cucumbers. chill, and slice. pour boiling water over ripe tomatoes. drain quickly, and peel. chill and slice. prepare lettuce, and chill. arrange the leaves of the lettuce on a dish, and place over them the sliced cucumbers and tomatoes. cover with salad dressing. cooked salad dressing: egg yolks, or two whole eggs; tsp. salt, tsp. mustard, tbsp. sugar, - tsp. cayenne, - c. milk, . c. vinegar, - tbsp. butter. mix the dry ingredients with egg yolks slightly beaten. add the milk, then the hot vinegar, and cook in a double domestic science boiler until it thickens, stirring constantly. when done, add the butter, and when this is melted, stir it in evenly, and turn the dressing out, to cool before use. lettuce salad, no. : pick over the leaves carefully, and wash. use only whole leaves. place the leaves, after draining minutes, on a flat dish, placing the smaller leaves inside the larger, and serve with cold salad dressing. lettuce salad, no. : pick over and wash the leaves carefully, drain minutes. place the leaves one up- on another, and slice with a knife, until quite fine, in strips. turn and cut the strips crosswise, in a similar manner. place in shallow dish for the table. serve with egg dressing. egg dressing: whip the yolks of two eggs thoroughly. pour into the beaten eggs two tbsp. vinegar, add two or three tbsp. sugar. beat together thoroughly. add ssp. salt, if desired. pour the dressing in sufficient quantity over the lettuce; lift the lettuce lightly with a fork until dressing is mixed evenly with lettuce. vegetable salad: use cold cooked carrots, beans, beets, peas, asparagus, and celery; one or more kinds at pleas- ure. cut them in small, neat pieces, mix with a chosen hot dressing. serve cold. one tsp. onion juice may be added. meat salad: take cold, cooked meat or fowl, with- out much fat, remove bones, skin, and gristle. cut in small pieces; add celery, cut small. pour over the mass a hot salad dressing. chill, and serve cold. this is an excellent way to utilize left over meats. for appearance, arrange the salad on a flat dish, on lettuce leaves. one tbsp. in the middle of each leaf. lobster salad: cut the meat of a boiled lobster in: to small pieces, and mix it with the dressing chosen. serve as the meat salad. the lobsters should be first slowly boiled from to min. apple and celery salad: cut raw apples into - inch cubes, or chop fine. cut white part of celery into half inch pieces, or chop; mix in equal parts. arrange chilled lettuce on individual plates, place the salad on the leaves appendix and cover with any chosen salad dressing. if the apples are sweet, add a little lemon juice to the salad. if desired, add nuts to the salad. egg salad: use hard boiled eggs. remove shells, cut the eggs smoothly in halves. take out the yolks, being careful not to break the whites. notch the edges of the whites in points, if desired. mash the yolks, seasoning to taste with pepper, salt, and melted butter. return the yolks to the whites, filling the cups full. place chilled lettuce on individual plates, place three “cups" of the egg on each plate. garnish with bits of parsley, or with radishes. serve with cooked salad dressing. beet salad: wash the beets and trim off the stems close, but without cutting the beet. do not cut the beet anywhere, if possible to avoid it. cook in as small a quanti- ty of water as possible, to retain the sweetness of the beet. take out the smaller ones when thoroughly cooked, leaving the larger ones until cooked. place the beets in cold water as soon as removed from the kettle, and with the hands slip off the skins. trim off the slight stalky portion at the top, and cut off the root. slice thin, and place in a crockery ware or an enameled vessel. pour over the hot beets vine- gar to cover, somewhat diluted with water if very strong. pure cider vinegar is best. for each quart of the beets thus covered with vinegar, add tbsp. sugar. cover closely and set aside for hours. to serve, remove from vinegar, heat hot in oven, place on individual plates, heated, and pour over each slice - tsp. melted butter. garnish with sprigs of parsley. sweet potato and bacon salad: cook and peel sweet potatoes of more than medium size. slice thin. slice smoked or salt bacon, thin, cut in small squares. fry (saute) until crisp as possible. "sandwich" each slice of ba- con thoroughly drained, between two slices of potato. serve cold on individual plates, placing each sandwich by itself, with any desired dressing. a thick white sauce made of milk or appendix stantly. pour over the peanuts, and mark in squares; when cool, break in pieces. any other nuts may be used in the same manner. glace nuts: c. sugar, c. boiling water, tsp. cream tartar. put ingredients in a saucepan, stir, and heat to boiling point. boil without stirring until the syrup reach. es the crack, ( deg., fahr.). remove any granulation of sugar from sides of saucepan. remove saucepan from fire, and place instantly in a large pan of cold water, to stop the boiling. remove from the cold water, and place in a pan of hot water during dipping. take the kernels of the nuts on a long pin, dip in the syrup to cover, remove from syrup, and place on an oiled paper. if the syrup begins to crystal- ize, set back on the stove until it just comes to the boiling point, then remove, and dip again. chocolate creams: eggs, tsp. vanilla; squares baker's chocolate. put white of eggs with same quantity of cold water in a suitable vessel, add the vanilla, and beat thoroughly. beat in sifted sugar (confectioner's) until the mass is of the con- sistency of stiff dough. take small pieces in the fingers and mould into thimble shape, and place them, large end down, on a buttered dish, to harden. set these to cool. melt the chocolate in a small vessel over steam, to prevent burning; a bowl set into the top of a teakettle will answer the purpose. when the cool and hard, take them up one at a time between two forks, or on the flat of a fork, dip them into the melted chocolate, let them drain on the forks, and place them carefully on the buttered tins again to dry. to box, wrap each in a square of tissue paper, or tinsel, and place in the box lightly. nuts may be dipped in chocolate in the same manner. cocoanut drops: - c. sugar, - c. molasses, c. grated cocoanut. mix all together and boil slowly, stirring constantly, until "hard ball" is reached. remove from the fire, and stir slowly creams are domestic science rice is cooked, soft. add pepper, white or black, and celery salt. to taste. add sufficient boiling water to replace that boiled away. serve with crackers or crutons. serve chicken on separate dish. mutton soup: lbs. neck of mutton, - c. pearl barley, qts, cold water, - c. each, of carrot, turnip, onion, and celery; tbsp. butter, - tbsp. flour, tsp. salt, a little chopped parsley, pepper to taste. prepare the meat, removing fat and skin. cut the meat from the bones and cut into small pieces. put the bones to boil, just covered with cold water, in one vessel, and the meat in - qts, cold water, in another vessel. boil the meat rapidly to min.; skim off fat; add the barley. add the vegetables, cut in cubes or sliced thin, after frying them to min. in the butter. stew slowly to hours, until both meat and barley are very tender. take the bones from the liquid in which boiled, strain the liquid. put tbsp. butter into a saucepan, when hot stir in the flour, stir- ring until smooth. thin this by adding the strained liquor, slowly, stirring constantly. add this mixture to the broth, with the salt and other ingredients. simmer a few minutes, and serve. gelatine dishes. lemon jelly: tbsp. granulated gelatine, - c.cold water, - c. sugar, ssp. salt, - c. boiling water, - c. lemon juice. soak gelatine in cold water until soft, adding the salt; pour over it the boiling water, stirring until dissolved. add sugar, and pour into moulds wet with cold water; chill. lemon jelly pudding: make the lemon jelly as above directed. set a pudding mould in a pan of ice water, pour in the jelly until - inch deep. when firm, place any desired fruit upon it, covering the fruit with the jelly by use of a spoon. when firm, add another layer of fruit, covering as before, etc., until all is used. the jelly must be allowed to become firm each time adding, before placing another layer of fruit. serve with any desired sauce or with appendix cream. other fruit jellies may be prepared in the same manner. snow pudding: prepare the lemon jelly, add whites of eggs beaten stiff; beat until stiff enough to keep in shape; mould. serve with sugar and cream. other fruit jellies of gelatine may be prepared in the same manner. chartreuse: make a sponge cake and, when cold, cut out the centre, leaving only enough cake at the bottom and sides to hold the jelly. fill the centre with any fruit jelly made with gelatine, using the jelly when just ready to "form". set the cake to cool. to serve, cover the top with frosting, or with a mixture of c. thick cream, c. milk, beaten, until stiff, with . c. confectioner's sugar; season with vanilla, or other desired flavoring. pickles and relishes. sweet pickled peaches: qt. vinegar, lbs. sugar, oz. stick cinnamon, - oz. whole cloves. prepare fruit as for canning. boil vinegar and sugar together for five minutes. tie the spices in a cheesecloth bag, and cook in the syrup, skimming, if necessary. place a few of the peaches at a time in the syrup, and cook until sufficiently soft. put the fruit into sterilized jars, fill, to overflowing, with syrup. close jars according to directions for hermetical sealing. these proportions are sufficient for seven pounds of fruit. pears, plums, apricots, sweet apples, or other suitable fruits, and the rind of watermelons and muskmelons, may be used instead of peaches. chow-chow: pk. green tomatoes, bunch celery, small onions, green peppers, lbs. brown sugar, tbsp. allspice, tbsp. cloves, tbsp. cinnamon, tbsp. pepper, salt, to qts. of vinegar. wash tomatoes, remove hard piece at stem end, and slice them. arrange in layers, covering each layer with salt; let stand hours, then drain off the salt liquid, and rinse in fresh, cold water. chop the tomatoes, celery, onions, and domestic science peppers fine; put them into a preserving kettle with the sug: ar, spices, and vinegar. heat to boiling point, then cook slowly hrs., and cover. cabbage may be used instead of celery. jams. jams are usually made of small fruits or berries; but large fruits may be used by cutting fine. prepare the fruits, and weigh, using equal weights of fruit and sugar, with tart fruits; and three-fourths the weight of the fruit, in sugar, for sweet fruits. cook the fruits in clear water, mashing while they are heating, stirring to the bottom, frequently. cook until the fruit is very soft. heat the sugar in a pan set over a vessel of hot water. when the sugar is thoroughly heated, add it to the fruit, and cook min., to thicken the jam. place in tumblers or jars, cool, and cover closely, as for jellies. no separate recipes are necessary for jams. miscellaneous. butter (experiment): - c. cream, sweet or sour; . shake the cream in a wide-mouthed bottle tightly corked; or stir in a bowl, beating with a dover egg-beater, un- til the butter fat separates from the liquid part of the milk. continue shaking or beating until the particles of butter col. lect in little balls, and then into one large mass. remove the mass from the milk, place it in a wooden bowl and wash it in several waters, using a wooden ladle, until the water is quite clear. drain off the water, sprinkle in the salt, and work the salt into the butter and much of the water out of the butter at the same time, using the ladle. make up into a round ball, place on a butter dish, and shape to suit the fancy. nutmeg sauce: tbsp. cornstarch, - c. sugar, - tbsp. flour, tbsp. butter, c. boiling water, - tsp. nutmeg. combine cornstarch and sugar; add the water gradually stirring constantly. boil min.; remove from fire, add the butter and nutmeg, stirring. tsp. salt. domestic science , . , . , . , . , . , . , . , . . . , , . , . . . . . . . pork ham, smoked, wheat flour, patent, rice, rye flour, beans, white, dried, mutton ham, pork ham, fresh, mutton loin chops, bread, white wheat, beef ribs, fresh, turkey, beef loin, fresh, salmon, canned, beef, chuck ribs, beef, round, mutton leg, cream, beef, dried, smoked, poultry, fowl, beef shoulder, fresh, veal cutlets, round, eggs, raw, veal leg, sweet potatoes, fresh, mackerel codfish, salt, milk, unskimmed, potatoes, grapes, bananas, oysters, solid, codfish, fresh, apples, skimmed milk, beets, fresh, oranges, strawberries, . . . . . . . . appendix part v. light cooking and serving equipment. used in the elementary school of kansas city, mo. for a class of girls. wire strainers, no. -b. graduated measuring cups. tin tablespoons, no. . tin teaspoons. iron handled case knives. iron handled case forks. paring knives, no. asst. royal stew pans, no. . covers for same. royal rice boilers, no. . acme frying pans, no. . tin pie pans, -inch. tin pie pans, -inch. wooden spoons, -inch. daisy hand brushes. asbestos mats, no. xx. bread boards, x inches. biscuit cutters, no. . rolling pins, no. xx. wire egg beaters. white metal tablespoons, no. . white metal teaspoons, no. . royal dish pans, -qt. cake tins, -pt., no. . royal coffee pots, -pt. royal tea pots, .pt. twin match safes, iron. royal soap dishes, no. . mason's jars, -pt. royal pails, with covers. japanned pepper shakers, no. . grandmother's spinning wheel. domestic science can sit there a little while!" should plead no excuse for main taining sewing classes in rooms not susceptible of proper heating and ventilation. thimbles: owing to the danger of piercing the skin of the finger, no pupil should be allowed to take one stitch without a thimble. for school work, the aluminum thimble is best; being cheap and non-corrosive. class of work: pupils should be set to work on articles of practical value as soon as possible; first, from the view point of interest; second, from the point of utility. these girls are to become home-makers. they can not be overtrained in the subject in so short a time. knots: "tie a knot in the thread and you will not miss the first stitch." this is the tailor's motto, and one worthy of following. "pratice pieces" for exhibition, may be made without knots, but garments should be sewed to stay. biting off the thread injures the enamel of the tooth. unfinished work: work not completed at the regu: lar time may be finished at home, or as "busy work" at school. red thread is not a necessity in the practice work," but a convenience. it should be discarded with the begin. ning of the making of articles of use. the french seam is better adapted to the sewing machine than to hand work. it should not be backstitched; as the material will be more or less drawn by it. felled seams should be used in making all under garments instead of the french seam. right to left: all seams, fells, hems, and overcast: ing, should be sewed from right to left. holding work: there is no laudible reason for not pinning the vork to the knee, or the waist, on occasions seeming to require it. note l. the (*), used in this syllabus denotes that the material for the article or garment is to be furnished sewing by the pupils. all other cloth for pratice is to be furnished by the board. note ii. each girl should provide herself with a neat work-box, containing a pair of five inch scissors, a thim- ble, and an emery cushion and pins. as necessity requires, a tape measure may be added to the contents of the work box, to be used in drafting. note iii. for the sake of uniformity, and to further the progress of the work, the board furnishes all needles and thread, and bleached and unbleached muslin for "practice pieces"; also cards, x inches for first lessons in darning, and stockinet for more advanced work. note iv. where the boys are sent to manual train: ing, the girls can do the sewing in the regular class room; perhaps more effectively than to go to another room. note v. this syllabus is prepared for one lesson a week and each number indicates a week's work. sixth year. . (a) enrollment. (b) directions concerning the individual equipment and material to be furnished by the pupils. . drills: (a) threading the needle. (b) knotting the thread. (c) use of the thimble. (d) use of scissors. (e) position in sewing. . basting: uneven basting, only. material: for each pupil, one piece unbleached muslin, cut (not torn) in.x in., folded in the middle crosswise. this piece to be used for all practice stitches in lessons third to eighth inclusive. red cotton no. and needles no. for these four lessons, also. . the running stitch. . the back stitch. (a) the whole back-stitch. domestic science - . drafting, cutting and making underskirt: simple method of drafting. material, bleached muslin. (*). finished with plain hem. seams back-and-fore stitched, overcast. . tucking. material, unbleached muslin. piece x inches; tucks, - .in. wide. - . the toy pillow case: material, bleached muslin (*), cut x - .in., made in. seams over-sewed on right side. raw edges over- cast. hem one inch wide. - . the toy sheet: material, bleached muslin (*), x in., made x in. (one sheet). - . the toy bed blanket: material, white outing flannel (*). blue germantown wool. blanket cut x in. edges finished with a blanket stitch. - . the toy bed comfort: material, white cheese-cloth (*). cotton batting, blue darning cotton. size, x in. . the cradle mattress: material, striped ticking (*). cotton batting. . the toy pillow ticks: material, striped ticking (*). cotton batting. size - , - in. seventh year. . enrollment: assignment of individual equip- ment. - . rapid review of all the stitches taught in the first quarter of the sixth year's work. material, unbleached muslin, cut x in., folded in the middle crosswise. white thread, no. . needles, sharps, no. . this one piece to suffice for the review. . - . apron: the straight apron, gathered into a band. three tucks and a hem at the bottom. no other adornment. size, adapted to pupil. sewing material india linon (*). needles and thread adapted by the teacher. - . handkerchief: hemstitching. the untrimmed hemstitched handkerchief. material, india linon, (*). size, x in. before hemming. . table napkins: the linen hem. material, linen or mercerized cotton, (*). size, de- cided by parents. hem, - inch wide. . buttonholes: one review lesson. a square ended, barred, tailored buttonhole. material, bleached muslin, strips cut x inches, folded lengthwise in the middle, edges turned in and over- sewed. buttonholes cut crosswise the piece, two inches apart. a grade contest for the best buttonholes. . patching: matching stripes. the felled patch- material, any kind of light weight striped goods, (*). all goods must be clean. piece cut x inches. . darning: material, silk, cotton, linen, or woolen goods, (*). thread, silk or darning cotton adapted to the cloth, also the needles. darning of the cut, the tear, the worn hole. . darning: material; cotton or woolen stockings, (*). these must be freshly washed and scalded, if they have been worn. needles; etc., adapted to material. . the felled seam: material, bleached muslin. piece cut x inches. two seams. . the french seam: material, as in previous lesson. two seams. - . drafting, cutting, and making a petticoat; using the "gingles" method. (see "ad." in this book material, bleached muslin, (*). (a) measurement. (b) drafting to same measurement. domestic science drafting to individual measurements. (d) cutting (e) fitting. (f) making. petticoat made with fourth-inch felled seams, back-and- fore stitched; finished with plain hem. - . drafting, cutting, and making a seven gored dress-skirt, using the same method. material, calico or gingham, (*). skirt finished with the french seam (not back-stitched), and a plain hem. - . drafting, cutting, and making shirt-waist (same method). material, calico, gingham, or white goods, selected by the parents (*). waists plainly finished. barred button- holes. . drafting, cutting, and making drawers, by same method. finished with felled seams and plain hem. material, bleached muslin. eighth year. first quarter. note. no purely "practice work” is done in the first quarter. garments are drafted, cut, and made. the drafting is done by the "gingles method." all equipment and material is furnished by the pupils. the garments and all other articles made, are the property of the makers. exactness is the highest aim. garments made in the first quarter: (a) plain shirt-waist. (b) trimmed corset cover. material, selected by parents. second quarter. the introduction of the sewing machine: one machine, only, for each school having a class which has com- pleted the two previous years' work sewing drills: (a) in the general manipulation of the machine. (b) in the cleaning and oiling of the machine. (c) in basting for the machine. (d) in sewing straight seams. all cloth for practice furnished by the pupils. the care of the machine and the ability to run it are the chief aims of this term's work. third quarter. articles made for home use: (a) one tablecloth made by each pupil. (b) two sheets made by each pupil. (c) two pillow cases made by each pupil. (d) six napkins made by each pupil. cloth selected and furnished by pupils. fourth quarter. drafting, cutting, and making: (a) a dressing sacque. (b) a plain night gown. drafting by the "gingles" method. material, as in previous quarter. final grades. reports. inventories. . kansas city, mo., june , . to the american college of dressmaking, kansas city, mo. gentlemen:-after having carefully inves- tigated the plan of your work, i have been par- ticularly interested in the system of drafting which you use and teach, not only in the class- rooms of the school, but by correspondence. sending, as you do, to each correspondence student, a page text of instructions and a scientifically gauged square and large printed model pattern drafts, accompanied by a vol uminous set of test questions designed to pro- mote interest and further application, under- standing, and thoroughness in the work of a series of graded lessons, the student a thousand miles away is equipped to take up the work and pursue it to a thorough and successful termina- tion. on reviewing the remarkable results you have obtained, the question at once arises: «why do not our institutions of higher learning include more of the industrial side of education ?" for all purposes of dressmaking and draft- ing in the high school, the college, the normal school, and the home, this system is both suf- ficiently simple and comprehensive. i shall watch your results with great inter- est, and i wish you the highest success, most truly yours, gertrude t. johnson, supervisor domestic science, elementary schools, kansas city, mo. 'the dressmaker the butterick publishing company new york london paris the library university sity of of the sina de indon minnesota reg classt . b book the dressmaker chapter i sewing stitches tº are make a knot, hold the threaded needle in the right hand. take the end of the thread between the thumb and first finger of the left hand, stretching the thread tightly. wind it around the top of the first finger, crossing it over the end held between the finger and thumb. roll the first finger down the ball of the thumb about half an inch, carrying the thread with it, and with the second finger push the knot thus formed to the end of the thread. if a larger knot is required, wind the thread around the finger twice. bastings temporary stitches used to hold two or more pieces of ma- terial together while putting in the perma- nent stitches. the thread should be fig. . even bastings smooth and rather fine. careful bar sting is essential to successful sewing and dressmaking. there are four kinds of bastings. even bastings start with a knot on the right side so that they may be easily re- moved. pass the needle over and through the material, making the stitches and fig. . uneven bastings spaces the same length. to fasten the fig. . combination bastings thread, iake two stitches over the last one made. (fig. .) uneven bastings are made by the method just described for even bastings, except that the stitches and spaces are of unequal length. the stitches taken upon the needle are about a third shorter than the space covered by the thread. (fig. .) combination bastings are used on seams where extra firmness is desired for close fitting. they are made by ta- king, alternately, one long stitch and two short stitches. (fig. .) diagonal bastings are slanting stitch- es used in dressmaking to secure the out- side material to its lining, particularly where the lining is eased on to the mate- rial, as is often the case in waist-making. the method is shown in fig. . . a fig. . diagonal bastings & sewing stitches catch-stitch, sometimes called cat stitch, is a cross stitch used to hold down seam edges. it is the preferred finish for the seams of flannel garments, for it does away with the clumsiness of a french or feiled seam, takes the place of overcasting and pre- vents raveling. place the edges together and run a seam, taking an occasional backstitch. trim off one edge close to the line of sewing and press the other edge flatly over it, holding the work as shown in fig. . make a knot and insert the needle under the edge at the lower left corner, cross the edge and take a small stitch a few threads to the right. cross back again and insert the needle, fig. . catch-stitch taking a similar stitch through all the thick- nesses of the material. always point the needle to the left and make the cross stitches encase the raw edges. the stitch is done from left to right. if preferred, these seams may be ava pressed open and catch-stitched, working the stitches over the raw edge at each side of the seam, thus holding both down as shown in fig. . a quicker method of catch-stitching is shown in fig. . this stitch has not the strength of the first method and is only used in millinery and in dress- making where the work is concealed. this style of catch-stitching is done from right to left. fig. . catch-stitch on open seam fig. . catch-stitch used in dressmaking and millinery fig. . flat fell seam a flat fell seam has one edge hemmed down to protect the other raw edge. it is used principally for underwear. baste the edges together, and sew with combination stitch. if the edges are bias, sew from the broad part of the pieces to the narrow, to prevent raveling and stretching. remove bastings, trim the edge toward you close to the sewing line, and turn the other edge flatly over it, pressing hard with the thumb nail. make a narrow turning, baste and hem. (fig. .) a french seam is a double seam encasing the raw seam edges. (fig. .) place the edges evenly together and sew close to them on the right side of the garment. trim off fig. . french seam all ravelings from the edges. turn the wrong side toward you, crease exactly at the seam, and make a second sewing of sufficient depth to entirely cover the raw edges. this seam is generally used in making garments of wash materials. sewing stitches square corners are made by turning under the edges as for hems. turn the over- lapping hem back toward the right side and crease the material along the first fold. open the hems and cut away the underlapping hem to within a seam of the second turning. (fig. .) hem the overlapping edges to the hem underneath, but not through to the right side. (fig. .) overhand the ends of the hems. finish all the corners in the same manner. mitered corners are made by joining two bias edges to form an angle. turn the edges as for hems, and crease. open the material, fold the corner toward the center, and crease where the lines cross. cut the corner off, allowing a narrow turning (fig. .) fold the hems down all around, bring the mitered corners together, and hem the side. (fig. .) hem the corners, but do not catch the stitches through the material underneath. a gusset is a triangular piece of material set into a garment to strengthen an opening. (figs. and .) fold diagonally a piece of mate- rial two and one-quarter inches square and cut it on the fold. take one of the triangles and fold it down a quarter of an inch all around, folding fig. . hemming mitered the straight edges first. cut away the projecting corners fig. . inserted gusset on wrong side fig. . finished gusset on right side points at the sides. hold the wrong side toward you, with the right angle down and fold so that the point at the bottom will meet the fold at the bias edge. make a narrow hem all around the opening. pin the corner of the gusset to the end of the opening, right side to right side. (fig. .) beginning at the center, overhand to the hem as far as the crease in the gusset. fold the gusset over at the crease and pin at the center and each corner, taking care that the warp and woof threads run parallel with those of the garment. baste and hem all around. (fig. .) the lower edge of the gusset will have to be stretched to fit the opening. tucks should be marked with a meas- ure so that they will be of even width. fig. . tucks the dressmaker a row cut the gage from a piece of cardboard, and from the end measure down the width of first tuck, making a slash and a bias cut to meet the slash. (fig. .) make a second cut as shown in fig. , allowing for width of space and second tuck. it is quicker and more accurate to make a gage of this sort in measuring short spaces, such as hems, tucks and the spaces between them, than to use the tape meas- ure, as sometimes the eye becomes con- fused at the small marks on the tape, and mistakes are made that will prove quite serious. fig. . gathering for gatherings, make of small running stitches. the stitches may be the same length as the spaces, or the spaces may be twice the length of the stitches. always begin by inserting the needle from the wrong side to conceal the knot. it is better to slip the stitches along on the needle and not remove it from the material. when the gathering is completed remove the needle and draw the gatherings up tight. place a pin vertically, close to the last stitch, fig. . position of needle in and wind the thread several times around the stroking gathers pin in the form of an . (fig. .) this holds the gathers firmly together and facil. itates the stroking. in stroking or laying gathers the work is held between the thumb and fingers of the left hand, with the thumb below the gath- ering thread. put the side of the needle well above the gathering thread and press the little plait under the thumb, drawing the needle down. (fig. .) do not use the point of the needle, as it scratches and weakens the material. continue entirely across the gathers, putting the needle under each stitch and holding the plait firmly with the thumb. stroke the material above the gathering thread as well as below it to make fig. . two rows of gathers the gathers firm and even. two rows of gathers are often used in dressmak- ing and do not need stroking. a skirt joined to a band, a sleeve set in a cuff or sewed into the armhole, should be gathered twice so that the gathers will stay in the proper place, the second row is made with the stitches directly in line with those of the first row and one-quarter or three-eighths of an inch below them. (fig. .) if there is much fulness to be gathered, the spaces be- tween the stitches may be lengthened. embroidery edging used as a facing is shown in fig. . the plain material above the em- broidery is applied as the facing. crease the edging off at the depth it is to extend beyond the garment. fig. . embroidery facing baste the material along the crease so that the seam will come toward the inside of the garment. then stitch the seam. now turn the edging down, fold in the raw edge at the top, and hem down as a facing. the facing should be no wider than necessary to make a neat joining. sewing stitches to join embroidery in a tuck, make several tucks in the plain material above the embroidery if it is wide enough. then measure carefully the amount for the space between the tucks, the under part of the tucks, and the seam. cut away the superfluous material and join the edging to the gar- ment. crease the tuck with the seam directly in the fold so that the raw edges will be encased in the tuck. when the materials of the garment and the embroid- ery are similar, and there are several tucks above and below the seam, the joining is imperceptible. (fig. .) a rolled hem may be used as a dainty finish in joining trim- ming of any kind to a garment of sheer wash ma- terial. hold the wrong side of the material toward fig. . embroidery joined you, and, after in a tuck trimming off all ravelings, begin at the right end and roll the edge toward you tightly between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, keeping the edge rolled for about one and a half inches ahead of the sewing. (fig. .) fig. . insertion inset with rolled hem embroidery may be inserted by differ- ent methods. when a straight-edge insertion is used, the plain cambric may be cut away at each side of the embroidery. the material of the garment is then cut away under the em- broidery, leav- ing a small seam, which is rolled and whip- ped to the em- broidery shown in fig. . fig. . insertion inset by machine if preferred, a small seam may be left on the insertion as well as on the garment and be put together by a tiny french seam. this is the finish most commonly employed. embroidery also may be inserted by a machine fell seam. (fig. .) baste the insertion to the ma- fig. . whipping on trimming terial with a narrow seam on the wrong side. trim off all ravelings and insert raw edges in the hem- mer of the machine, and stitch as in hemming. whipping on trimming is generally done on an edge. if lace, it should be either gath- ered by pulling the heavy thread which is usually found at the top, or whipped and drawn as in a ruffle. roll an inch or two of the gar- ment material, place the lace with its right side to the right side of the material, and whip both together. (fig. .) lace may be whipped fig. . whipping and gathering on plain if preferred, but it must be eased in. insertion may be inset in the same way. a ruffle used as trimming may be whipped and gathered. roll the raw edge and overcast the material as far as it is rolled, taking care to make the stitch below the roll, as the dressmaker not through it. (fig. .) draw up the thread, making the ruffle the desired fulness. divide the ruffle in quarters and mark them with colored thread. make corresponding marks on the edge to which the ruffle is to be attached. roll the edge of the garment fig. . showing cut for lace insertion and overhand the ruffle to it, taking a stitch in every whipped stitch of the ruffle. methods of inserting lace and insertion, when the material has a straight edge, are shown in figs. and . fold the fig. . finished effect of inserting lace material for a hem, creasing the lower fold hard. open the hem and baste the lace edge just below the lower fold, and stitch. (fig. .) turn back the hem and crease the mate- rial on a line with the top turning of the hem. cut to within a small seam above this crease. fold in the raw edge, insert the edge of the lace insertion, and stitch. turn a second hem, following the preceding directions, baste the other edge of the insertion just below the lower crease, and stitch as before. as many rows of insertion may be used in this manner as are desired. to insert lace insertion in a garment, pin the lace in the position desired, and baste fig. . lace insert down both edges of the insertion. if the insertion is narrow, the ma- terial is cut through the center (fig. ); but if the insertion is wide, the material is cut away from under- neath, simply allowing a seam on each side. the edge is turned in a narrow hem covering the line of the basting. stitch the insertion close to the edges from the right side, and at the same time catching through the material hemmed down. insertion above a facing is first basted in position, and the upper edge is finished as shown in fig. . the facing is generally used when the outline of the lower edge is curved or pointed so that it can- not be turned up in a straight hem. fig. . lace insert above facing sewing stitches the facing is cut to fit the outline of the lower edge and applied as a false hem, as shown in fig. . when edging is used, it is basted to the bottom before the facing is added and all stitched in a seam together. turn under the facing at the line of sewing, baste in position and stitch insertion from the right side. to insert ruffles in a hem turn the hem toward the right side of the gar- ment and crease the fold hard. divide both ruffle and hem in quarters and mark each division with colored thread. insert the edge of the ruffle in the hem close to the fold (fig. ) with the right side of the fig. . finished ruffle on right side fig. . ruffle inserted in a hem ruffle to the right side of the garment and the corresponding marks together. baste and stitch one-quarter of an inch from the fold. turn the hem back to the wrong side of the garment, fold the second turning, baste and hem. (fig. .) to cover the joining of a ruffle, divide both ruffle and garment in quarters and mark with pins or colored thread. gather the ruffle and baste it to the garment. turn the raw edges up on the garment and cover with a narrow bias band which can be bought by the piece with the edges turned ready for use. (fig. .) this finish may be used on either the right or wrong side of the garment. frequently this finish is used on berthas or scalloped edges that are not lined or faced. so trimmings may be mitered that the joining will scarcely be seen. if embroidery, fold it over so that the crease comes exactly in the middle of the corner, taking care to match the pattern per- fig. . band covering joining of ruffle fectly. crease firmly, and cut on the creased line (fig. ) place the right sides face to face and buttonhole the raw edges together with short, close stitches. fig. shows the finished corner. the method of making the but. tonhole stitch is shown in fig. . fig. . showing cut for mitered corners chapter ii buttonholes a well-made garment that is otherwise perfect may be greatly injured in ap- pearance by badly made buttonholes. they should always be properly spaced and marked before they are cut. mark the points for the top and bottom button- holes, and divide the distance between these two points into the desired number of spaces. the slit must be cut on the thread of the goods, if possible, and must be large enough to allow the button to slip through easily, as a buttonhole becomes tighter after it is worked. with the buttonhole scissors carefully test the length of the slit and make a clean cut with one movement of the scissors. one of the most noticeable faults in buttonhol- ing results from an uneven or ragged slit. this may be caused by dull scissors or by the slipping of the fabric. to prevent the material from slipping, baste around the cutting line before using the scissors. there are three kinds of buttonholes, one with the bar at both ends (fig. ), another with one round and one barred end (fig. ), and a third called the tailor's but- tonhole. (fig. .) barred button. holes as illustrated in figs. and are used for un- derwear, waists and shirts. if the buttonhole is in an up- right position as in the cen- ter of a plait, or if the strain does not come at the ends of the buttonhole, as at the cen- ter back of a neck-band, the fig. . correct position in buttonhole with a bar at both making buttonholes ends (fig. ) is used. if the strain on the buttonhole comes at one end so that the button requires a resting-place as in a cuff or belt, use the bute tonhole with the round end. (fig. .) buttonholes are stranded to prevent the edges from stretching. bring the needle up at one end of the buttonhole, and, allowing the thread to lie along the edge of the cut on the right side of the material, stick down at the opposite end. do the same on the other side of the cut and stick down opposite the first stitch, with a stitch across the end to fasten the thread. if the material is inclined to fray, the edges may be overcast before working the buttonholes. to make the stitch, place the buttonhole over the forefinger of the left hand, holding it in position with the thumb and second finger as shown in fig. . begin to work the button- hole close to the corner or starting-point. insert the needle, and while it is pointing toward you, bring the double thread fig. . buttonhole with bar at both ends the dressmaker fig. a. bound buttonhole the bound buttonhole is shown in figure a. the length and position of the buttonhole should be marked on the garment with basting cotton. a bias strip of self or contrasting material about seven- eighths of an inch wide is used for binding it. sew the binding to the right side of the garment with running stitches an eighth of an inch from the buttonhole mark (figure b). turn in the other three edges an eighth of an inch and press them flat (figure b). the binding should be fully the length of the slash. when it is sewed on and the edges pressed, cut the buttonhole in the garment. be sure to cut a clean, straight hole. push the binding through to the wrong side of the garment and slip-stitch it to position in the sewing line of the right side. slip-stitch the corners of the binding so that they will not fray. figure a shows. the finished bound buttonhole. the bound buttonhole can be used on wool, silk, linen or cotton garments. it gives a finished look to a coat or dress and is particularly effective when the binding itself is in a contrasting color, though the bind- ing is frequently of the same material as the garment. fig b. the binding chapter iii darning and mending n° towhere is the maxim " a stitch in time saves nine” more applicable than in the household. here it implies, in a general sense, the immediate repair of any and all household articles. but the proverb is more particularly associated with the thought of mending and darning the household linens and the clothing of the fam. ily. every one will agree that a patch is better than a hole, but it is still better to postpone, and, if possible, to prevent, the hole wherever the case will permit it. darning is a simple remedy for many cases of prevention as well as cure. a few general directions will apply to darning in all its various phases. neatness and the care- ful selection of materials most appropriate for the work are the chief requirements for successful darning. whether the material to be darned is cotton, silk or wool the darn- ing thread should correspond in thickness and color to the thread in the material, and the needle should be neither coarser nor finer than required. for reenforcing worn places before the hole has come through, particular care should be taken to make the work as inconspic- uous as possible. a thread or raveling of the material will do better than one of sewing silk, as the latter, no matter how well matched in color, will be sure to have a luster that will bring the stitches into prominence. the drawn thread need not be long; short ones can be worked in just as well. baste the part to be mended over a piece of medium stiff, glazed paper, or table oilcloth. use a needle as fine as the thread will permit. darn back and forth with as fine stitches as possible, following the grain of the goods and keeping the threads fig. . reenforcing a loose so that they will not draw. (fig. .) the ends of the worn place threads are not fastened, but are clipped off close to the garment when the work is finished. a running darn is used when the garment is worn too thin to be mended satisfactorily by reenforcing. insert the needle a short distance from the edge of the worn or thin part, and parallel with the thread of the weave. run it under a few threads and over a few, to the opposite side of the worn place. re- turning, run the needle over the threads that were taken up, and under those over which it passed in the first row. con. tinue the process until the whole thin surface has been given a new body. in fig. , white thread has been used in order to show the stitches. when the part to be mended requires still more body than can be given by the running darn, a piece of the material may be laid on the wrong side, and while applying the running darn, this piece is occasionally caught up by the needle to fig. . a running darn hold it securely in position. a woven darn is necessary when a hole has been worn through the material. the threads in this case are woven both lengthwise and cross- wise with the weave of the garment. first baste the part with the hole over a piece of paper or table oilcloth, taking care not to draw it out of shape nor to let it bag. do not trim the frayed or worn edges off. the unevenness around the edge, which these frayed ends create in the process of darning, helps to make the darned place less con- the dressmaker oteles spicuous. the lengthwise threads are run in first. starting well in from the edge of the hole at one side, take up a few small stitches, cross over to the opposite side and again run a few stitches into the edge. keep the threads taut, but not tight enough to pull. returning, leave a tiny loop at the turning-point, to allow for shrinkage of the darning threads. continue back and forth till the hole has been covered. now begin the crosswise threads in the same way; darn over and under the lengthwise stitches, alternating with each return thread. the frayed edges are caught in the weave as they happen to come, and are firmly secured between the latticed fig. . woven darn threads. (fig. .) stockings are darned on the right side to keep a smooti surface next the foot. a darning-egg or ball, held in the left hand, is slipped under the hole, with the stocking stretched smoothly, but not tightly, over it. the darning is done with the right hand. in a woven darn the darning threads in a stocking usually run up and down with the rib, and then across, but when the hole is at the knee or heel, where greater elasticity is desired, the threads are run across diagonally. a broken stitch or two in a stocking, sometimes giving the appearance of a large hole, can be very easily remedied if attended to at once. with a silk thread, pick up the broken stitches and draw the edges together, and by a web-like weav- ing close the hole. a dropped stitch is an ugly imperfection in a stocking that is more easily remedied by the use of a crochet-hook than by darning. slip a fine crochet-hook through the little loop at the lower end of the hole; catch up the first thread, and pull it through the loop. continue until every dropped thread has been caught, then securely fasten the last loop at the end with a few sewing stitches. fig. shows the position of fig. . picking up a the crochet-hook in the process of picking up dropped stitches. dropped stitch to set in a piece is a very satisfactory way of extending the term of usefulness of the stocking when the hole is too large to be neatly darned. for this pur- pose it is always well to keep on hand the leg por- tions of a number of stockings of which the feet have been worn out and discarded. baste the part to be mended over a piece of paper and trim off the ragged edge. cut a piece from a stocking-leg, matching it in color and texture, with the ribs running like those in the stocking, and conform- ing in shape to the hole, but a trifle smaller. baste this piece into position on the paper, and join the two edges, the needle passing in fig. . setting a piece in a stocking close stitches, alternating, over one edge and under the opposite, until the piece has been securely and neatly worked into position. the stitch in this method will be seen to form a kind of lacing, which must be done evenly and closely, but not tightly enough to raise the edges. (see fig. .) an underlaid piece darned in is a still better method of closing a hole when the stocking or garment is very loosely woven or knitted, in which case the use of a darning-egg fig. . an underlaid piece darned in would give it a baggy appearance. do not the dressmaker notch the corners of the hole diagonally to the line of tacks, and trim off the corners of the patch. turn the seam edges of both hole and patch toward the wrong side on the line of the tacks, and baste together. then with small overhand stitches sew the patch in securely, being careful during the whole proceeding to keep the warp and woof threads of the material straight at the joining edges. figs. and show both sides of the patch after it has been well pressed. fig. . setting in an overhanded patch fig. . wrong side of patch mending tissue, or tailors' tissue, as it is sometimes called, is a great convenience in cases of awkward rents or tears where patching would be undesirable. it is a semi-transparent substance, resembling the thin rubber used in dress shields. it melts under a hot iron and acts like a glue, holding the torn fibers together. a triangular tear should be mended imme- diately, before the edges have had a chance to fig. . completed patch fray. the torn part of the garment should be laid, wrong side up, over an ironing-board. push the torn edges together, bringing them as nearly as possi- ble to their original position. lay a square piece of the mending tissue large enough to completely cover it over the tear and a piece of the cloth over the tissue. baste the cloth piece in position, but do not let the basting threads run through the mending tissue or they can not be easily drawn out. then run a hot iron over it all several times until the two pieces and the ragged edges are nicely stuck together. cut away all superfluous material around the fig. . a rent repaired with edges. fig. shows mending tissue a satisfactory result of this method of mending on the right side of the material. a patch may also be set in with mending tissue in cases where it is undesirable to have any stitches showing. the hole is trimmed to a square or oblong shape, and a fig. . a piece set in piece cut the same shape, but a seam's width wider all darning and mending around. lay the garment over an ironing-board, as directed above, and, between the edges of the hole and the lapped edge of the patch, lay strips of the mending tissue. be careful not to have any of the tissue extending beyond the torn edge on the right side, as it will make an ugly mark after being pressed. fig. shows a hole neatly mended by this method. stoting is a process of mending much used by tailors, especially on closely woven or very heavy cloth that does not fray. the first illustration, fig. , shows the cut, and in fig. is shown the position of the needle and thread in the proc- ess of stoting. use either a thread drawn from the cloth, or a hair, to do the stoting. the part to be mend- ed is basted smoothly over a piece of paper. the needle is inserted fig. . a cut in heavy cloth about half an inch from fig. . stoting with a hair the torn edge, and run between the threads of the cloth, across the cut, to half an inch on the opposite side, and drawn through. reinserting it, run the needle back on a somewhat slanting line and continue until the cut has been closed. then repeat the same process, running the threads in the opposite direction. when pressed, this mending can hardly be noticed, but stoting can only be done over a clean cut or tear. on material that is not thick enough for the needle to pass between the weave, it must be done on the wrong side as lightly as possible. practical and ornamental stitches ca (fig. ), and take another stitch at point b close under the first one, and down very close to point c along the line ca. (fig. .) the needle must go in on the chalk line bc and come up on the chalk line ba, keeping the outline of the triangle. each successive stitch below point b will be a little longer than the previous one. repeat this stitch until the entire space is filled. the finished arrowhead is illustrated in fig. . on the preceding page. the crow's-foot tack is the most ornamen- tal of the fancy tacks ordi- b narily used at the ends of pocket openings and seams. fig. . outline of arrow- head a it is illustrated in fig. , with the detail of the stitch in figs. and . fig. . second movement outline the tack with chalk or pencil. the dotted outline seen in fig. shows the correct design for the tack. bring the needle up at point a, pass it down at b, and up again at b outside of fig. . third movement and close to the stitch in line ab; then down at c, up at c outside of and close to the stitch in line bc, and down ot a just outside the stitch in line ab, as illustrated in fig. . now bring the needle up on the dotted line ac out- b a с fig. . detail of crow's-foot fig. . crow's-foot fig. . second movement side the stitch on line ac close to a; pass it down on dotted line bc outside the stitch on line bc close to b; up on dotted line ab outside both stitches on line ab close to b; down on dotted line ca outside the stitch on line ca close to c; up on dotted line bc outside both stitches on line bc; and down on dotted line ab outside both stitches on line ab, as illustrated in fig. . fill in the entire outline in this way until the completed foot looks like fig. . it will be noticed ir, making this tack that all the stitches are taken on the dotted lines and always outside the made stitches, thus compressing the first stitches so as to curve the sides of the tack like the outline. for working these ornamental tacks, coarse buttonhole twist or twisted embroidery silk is usually employed, and it is generally the same color as the material. with a little practise these tacks can be well made, and any of them will add greatly to the finish of the garment. the crow's-foot is generally worked in scarlet or dark blue silk on the pockets of serge sailor suits. when it is used to finish the end of a plait in a skirt it is worked in floss the color of the dress. a chain-stitch is, as its name implies, a row of stitches resem- fig. . chain- bling the links of a chain. bring the needle up from under the material, stitch hold down the thread under the left thumb, and insert the needle in the the dressmaker same hole. bring it up a stitch's distance below, on the upper side of the thread, thus forming a loop, or link. (fig. , preceding page.) the feather-stitch is one of the most frequently used of all ornamental stitches, for it can be worked with the coarsest of yarn or the finest of silk or linen thread, accord- ing to the nature of the material on which it is used. it makes a most satisfactory trim- ming. the single, double and triple combinations are shown in fig. . run a colored thread along the outline to mark the center line or mark it with a transfer design. to make the single stitch, knot the thread and then bring the needle up through the material. hold the thread down over the line with the left thumb. insert the needle a little to the left of this line, fig. . feather-stitching. butterick transfer design and take a short, slanting stitch to- ward the right, drawing the needle out while the thread is held down smoothly by the left thumb. then hold down the thread on the center line and take a stitch of equal length on the right fig. . simple design side, and draw it out as before. for the double combination, take two stitches to the left, and two to the right each time before crossing the center line; and for the triple combination, three stitches. the beauty of feather-stitching depends on its evenness. material may be marked for feather-stitching by a trans- fer pattern. figs. and show ornamental designs. fig. . wreath design the blanket-stitch is used to protect the edges of heavy woolen materials, and prevent them from fraying. in working, do not use a knot, but secure the thread by one or two running stitches toward the edge. then, holding the thread under the left thumb, insert the needle to the depth required and bring it up from under the edge, allowing the thread to lie beneath the needle, forming an edge. (fig. .) this stitch fig. . design used as ornamentation may be worked into var- fig. . the blanket-stitch ious ornamental designs if intended for decorative purposes. (fig. .) the dressmaker loose buttonhole stitch is made over the thread. over this same loop, run two closer buttonhole stitches. then make a second loose buttonhole stitch over the first thread, and again, as before, the two close buttonhole stitches over th s loop. catch the needle into the edge of the fold, and pass on to the next stitch. the link bar is not so difficult to make as it appears, and eally can be done more quickly than the plain buttorikole bar. more elaborate beading stitches are shown in fig. . the upper design is a combination of the link bar (described in the preceding par- agraph) run diagonally across the open space, and a simple twisted stitch run straight across from the apex of each of the triangles thus made. to make the second design from the top in fig. , bring the thread up from one edge of the fold over to the opposite edge, take a stitch from the under side and draw the thread taut. then insert the needle three-eighths of an inch fig. . simple beading stitches from that point, allowing the thread to form a tiny loop. insert the needle again directly op- posite the last hole, and from this point make five buttonhole stitches in the loop. now catch up the edge of the fold just where the first plain stitch began, and on the under side bring it over to the second plain stitch, and draw it up for the next loop. in the third design in fig. , the thread is first carried across from one fold to the other and left rather loose. then the thread is brought up through the same fold one-fourth of an inch from the point where it was just inserted. make five buttonhole stitches in the loop formed of the thread in crossing, and insert the needle in the opposite edge. now carry the thread over again to form the next loop, running the needle jjd into the same hole. bring it up one-fourth of an inch below this point, and continue as before. to make the buttonhole cross-bar stitch illustrated in the fourth design of fig. , first make a buttonholed bar as described in the par- agraph on simple beading stitches, but do not draw it tight; rather let it curve a trifle. then proceed as if for the next bar, but when crossing catch into the preceding bar at the center but- tonhole stitch, and then continue to the opposite fig. . elaborate beading stitches edge. make an even number of buttonhole stitches on each side on this thread. allow a small space between the cross-bars. shirring is made of successive rows of gatherings. it is used as a trimming. there are several different kinds of shirring, the use of which niust be determined somewhat by the character of the material and the style of garment. before beginning, it is best to mark the sewing lines with a colored thread, to be sure to get the rows even. this thread can be drawn out when the shirring is finished. a simple shirring is shown in fig. on the next page. the top edge is turned in and the first row shirred in close to the edge. the thread should be amply strong, with a good big knot at the end; for if the thread is weak and breaks, or the knot pulls through, the shirring will progress slowly, and the material will suffer unnecessarily in the working. shirring can also be done very successfully on the machine, by using the gathering at- tachment. in that case it is especially necessary to mark the sewing lines before beginning, as the machine does the work so rapidly that one is more apt to get an irregular line. the dressmaker as a transfer pattern, use many rows of dots as the width of the smocking re- quires. but it is always a safe plan to mark a row or two less, in case a change should be decided upon before the work is finished. then the material will not be disfig- ured by the marks. soft, loosely twisted embroidery fig. . cord shirring silk is used on silk or woolen materials, and the best quality of french embroidery cotton on wash fabrics. for the simple smocking, as illustrated in fig. , take a thread and catch the mate- rial at the first dots of both the first and second rows; bring them together and catch the ma- terial securely at this point with two or three neatly made over-and-over stitches. then, pass- ing the thread under the material, bring the needle out at the third dot and do the same there. continue down the row to the depth desired for the smocking. in the second row of stitching, the alternate dots of the second and the corresponding dots of the third rows are caught together, always fig. . preparing the material for smocking keeping the long thread on the under side taut but not so it will draw, and making the stitches as even in size as possible. in fancy smocking the material must, of course, be marked with dots following the pattern decided upon. the needle is first run through each dot as for a gathering, drawing the material up in even folds (fig. ), similar to the method of making french gathers. the outline stitch, as used in fig. is worked from left to right along the line of the gathering thread. the stitch is caught through from the fig. . method for making simple smocking under side of each small fold while the gathered material is held in the left hand, and brought up and over the edge of the first fold to the second one. a variety of arrangements can be used effectively in this way. the cable stitch, used single and double, is illustrated in fig. . start the thread as for the outline stitch, taking a stitch from left to right through a fold from the under or left side; then through the next fold, from right to left, and repeat. the second row is begun with the right-to-left stitch, thus producing a v-shaped arrangement of the fold. the double cable stitch is simply two rows of the cable stitch run close together. the diamond stitch is begun like the cable stitch. take one stitch in the first fold, from fig. . preparing material for fancy smocking left to right, with the thread below the needle. in the second fold, a little above the line of the first stitch, take a similar stitch. in the third fold take a stitch from left to right, but with the thread above the needle. this stitch forms the apex of the triangle. descending, take a stitch in each of two folds practical and ornamental stitches from left to right, keeping the thread above the needle. the stitch in the third fold again has the thread below the needle, and the line of stitches again begins ascent. continue in this way as far as the smocking is desired. w fig. . cable stitch fig. . outline stitch the second row of zigzag stitches is put in so that the two will form a line of diamond-shaped figures which can be increased to any depth de- sired by additional rows of smocking. (fig. .) if a yoke or pointed effect of the smocking is desired, it can easily be accomplished by omit- ting as many diamonds as necessary to make the fig. . diamond smocking points, as one proceeds with the work. smocking is not in the least difficult once the method has been thoroughly grasped. for some reason it is much more popular in england than in the united states. abroad it is used a great deal for small children on little dresses of the simple smock order. they are very quaint and picturesque, extremely comfortable and becoming. smock- ing done in colors on fine white batiste, silk mull, or nainsook makes pretty guimpes and dresses for children and very smart blouses for women. chapter v bias trimmings b. ias bands, folds, ruffles, facings, etc., must be cut on a true bias to give satisfactory results. for rounding corners or following curved lines, or making folds or ruffles hang gracefully, it is impossible to use successfully material that is cut on the straight of the weave. to maintain a perfect bias, the strips should be of equal width throughout their entire length. sometimes, in cutting, if the material is very " pliable, the edges will stretch, and in time the cut- ting line will deviate from the original mark. it is well, in cutting many strips, to test the bias line occasionally, by laying the yard-stick across the material, and cutting a new edge if the old one is not even. true bias is obtained by spreading the ma- terial on the table and making a mark seven or eight inches from one corner on both the selvage and the cut end. lay a yard-stick across the corner, touching both these marks, and draw a line. (fig. .) make as many marks on both edges as there are strips needed, marking them the required width. then cut, carefully follow- ing the line and using sharp scissors. when the material for the bias bands is alike on both sides, as in the case of corded silk, for instance, be careful to have the cut strips all on the same bias. to join bias strips, lay the two diagonal ends together as shown in figure and baste in a seam. (fig. .) it will then be seen that when the joined strips are lapped back, the grain of both pieces runs correctly in the same direction. (fig. a.) fig. . marking material for bias strips. bands or folds used as trimming are made in a variety of ways. they may be lined, unlined, double of the material, or piped at the edges. cut the band the required width, allowing for a turning at both edges. the unlined fold, illustrated on the following page, has its lower edge basted up in a hem, and stitched evenly from the right side. the upper edge is turned over, and the band is then basted into position on the garment. the upper edge is stitched through the garment, making the one stitching serve two purposes. (fig. .) ایران اور ان کے fig . joining bias strips fig. a. the seam. the lined fold is finished before it is applied to the garment. cut a strip of canvas or crinoline, as wide as the band should be when completed. baste it evenly on the wrong the dressmaker tuck, stitching with fine even running stitches as close to the cord as is possible. in fig. is shown the cord run in a bias strip which is intended to be used as a facing for an edge. after the cord has been inserted, join the cording to the garment with the raw edge on the inside. the broad edge is then turned over one- quarter of an inch and hemmed down. piping is a finish much used in all styles of dressmaking. it is easy to make and very effective. cut bias strips an inch and a quarter fig. . inserting cord wide, if the material to be used for the piping is firm, as taffeta, etc. if a loosely fig. . cording for facing woven material is used, the strips should be a trifle wider. join all the strips, as described on page , and press the seams open. then fold the strip over at the center line and baste it flat, being careful not to let it become twisted. next prepare the edge of the material to which the piping is to be applied. if a stiffen- fig. . crinoline basted to material fig. . under side showing piping clipped at corners fig. . right side of completed piping ing is desired, cut a lining of crinoline or canvas three-eighths of an inch narrower than the pattern or the piece to be lined. baste this lining into position as shown in fig. . if the edge forms a fancy outline, as illustrated here, turn the edges over evenly all around, clipping at the corners and folding in at the points where necessary. (fig. .) then run a basting thread an even width (about three-eighths of an inch) around the edge to serve as a guide. next baste on the piping, following this line closely. be careful to avoid any scantness at the points or bulginess at the corners. fig. shows the right side of a pointed edge neatly piped. a rolled hem makes a very pretty finish for bias or straight trimming-bands. it can only be used on an edge that is cut on a straight line. it can not be used on a curved edge. an allowance of one and a half inches will have to be made on the edge for this hem. fig. a. the rolled hem fold the edge over on the right side and sew one-quarter of an inch from the fold (fig. a). then turn under the raw edge one-quarter of an inch and hem it over the stitches on the wrong side (fig. a). the hem must look round like a cord when finished—not flat—(fig. a). bias trimmings cording is a very useful trimming and is made with bias strips and germantown or eiderdown wool. the bias strips should be about an inch and a quarter wide. fold the strips lengthwise through the center and run a seam three-eighths or a quarter of an inch from the fold edge. with the strips still wrong side out, slip the ends of several strands of germantown or eiderdown wool far enough into one end of the tube-like covering so that you can sew them securely to it. then with the loop end of a wire hairpin push the wool farther and farther into the covering at the same time turning the covering right side out. when cording is used to form a motif, stamp the motif on ordinary wrapping paper. the cordings are first basted in place on the design with the seam uppermost so that the right side of the motif will be next the paper. they are then sewed together at the points of intersection and contact. chapter vi plackets u* nderwear plackets are made in the following manner. if there is no seam, cut the opening in the garment the desired length. it should be long enough to slip easily over the head. cut for a lap a strip of material lengthwise of the goods. it should be twice the length of the placket opening and three and three-quarter inches wide. fold the ends together and crease through center; open and fold the sides together and crease. cut out one section to within a small seam of the crease as shown in fig. . baste the long straight edge of the lap to both edges of the opening, making a nar- row seam. run it almost to a point at the lower end of the opening. (fig. fig. . underlap and facing .) make a strip for placket narrow turning on the three edges of both the narrow and the wide part of the lap. double the wide part back (fig. ), baste the edge over the line of the sewing, and hem. this forms the underlap. turn the narrow part back on the line of sewing, baste the free edge to the garment to form an under- fig. . underlap and facing stitched to facing, and hem. the end of the underlap is placket slit in skirt turned under, basted and stitched across. the finished closing is shown in fig. . this placket has an outside row of stitching. it is usually employed for drawers, petticoats, etc. plackets such as are made for unlined dresses are słown in figs. and , on the following page. these illustrate the placket used on skirts of unlined dresses when the outside sewing would be an objection. use a strip twice the length of the opening and three and three-quarter inches wide, without cutting away the section as in the first method. the first sewing is made as in the first placket, then the free edge is turned under and hemmed close to the sewing. when this strip or lap is applied above the back seam of a skirt, it is set back an eighth of an inch from the stitching of the seam. one side is ex- tended out to form the underlap, and the other side is turned under on an even line with the stitching of the seam. when the placket is closed, the entire lap is. hidden as shown in fig. . the plackcts for cloth skirts require neat and tailor-like workmanship. great care fig. . folded to fig. . finished must be taken in handling the edges of the position placket - plackets opening. they are gen- erally bias, and stretch easily. if the upper edge becomes stretched it will bulge when the skirt is on the figure—a defect you probably have often noticed on other women. hooks and eyes or pat- ent fasteners should be placed sufficiently close together to prevent the skirt from gaping. any stitching that shows through on the outside should be done evenly and with a suitable stitch and tension. otherwise the placket- hole will have a careless appearance. a placket- hole should be ten or fig. . outside view of continuous. lap placket eleven inches deep unless the figure is unusually large and full, requiring a still deeper opening. the design of the skirt regulates the position and finish of the placket. it may be at the center or side back, the front or side front. a placket-hole at the center of an in- verted plait is shown in fig. . the placket comes under an inverted plait at the center back of the skirt. the first step in finishing the placket of a skirt of this kind is basting a nar- row strip of canvas or cambric along each edge of the opening, with the edge of the canvas three-eighths of an inch from the edge of the opening. fig. . inside view of con- tinuous-lap placket fig. . placket in center of inverted plait the skirt edges are then turned back on the canvas and caught to it with small stitches. (fig. .) stitch the edges of the placket-hole and sew on the hooks and eyes as illustrated. cover the canvas on the right side with a facing of silk. sew an underlap of material an inch and a half wide, finished, to the left edge, and bind the raw edge of the lap with binding ribbon. (fig. .) a placket-hole at the right side of an inverted plait is used on a skirt of heavy cloth that does not require the canvas reenforcement. join the center-back seam to the top of the skirt and cut through the right-hand crease in the inverted plait to the regular placket depth. bind both cut edges of the inverted plait with binding ribbon or a fig. . inside view showing hooks binding of thin silk. this method, as you see, allows and eyes plackets positions to the eyes. the patent fasteners are sewed to the lap. (fig. .) the placket-hole in a skirt set in the same belt with its foundation skirt is made by the same methods as ordinary plackets. in such an instance, the placket opening of the skirt is finished separately. the edges of the placket open- ing of the foundation skirt are turned under three-eighths of an inch. the right-hand edge is hemmed under the bill of the hooks on the skirt, and the left-hand edge is hemmed against the edge of the underlap of the skirt placket. this style of placket is not used as much just at present as in former years, when almost every skirt was made with either a lining or a foundation skirt. while we dispense with the drop skirt in all dresses of heavy materials, it is still used with all thin evening fabrics and with a good many light-weight materials such as voiles, etc. fig. . reverse side of whatever kind of placket is used, one should be particu- underlap larly careful to see that the hooks and eyes or fasteners are so arranged that they will keep the hole securely closed. nothing looks worse than a gaping placket, and any woman who takes a pride in her personal appearance will pay special attention to this part of her dressmaking. making and finishing undergarments un- the petticoat may be finished at the top with a narrow bias facing which allows it to drop below the waistline. if fulness is used, it can be gathered or laid in plaits at the back and the bias facing is basted to the right side of the skirt, turned over to the wrong side and stitched down by machine. the method for applying a facing is shown in fig. . a yoke which insures a better fit to the outer skirt is often used instead of a facing on derskirts and drawers. the yoke pattern should be bought by the same measure- ments as the skirt. if the waist and hip measure a re disproportion- ate, order the pattern by the fig. . a circular yoke fitted to a large waist. hip measure- ment nearest your own and alter it at the waistline. the yoke patterns are cut in one piece, either with or without darts. the yoke may be fitted by the darts if there are any. in case there is none, cut a trial yoke from coarse cambric before cutting out the real garment. mark the center front with a colored thread and fit the yoke. if the waist is too small, slash the yoke down from the waist wherever necessary and pin a piece of cambric at each slash to hold it to the correct size as shown in fig. . use this fitted yoke as a pattern from which to cut the real yoke. do not alter any of the notches in the lower part of the yoke, as the changes at the waistline do not affect the construction of the rest of the garment. if the waist measure is smaller than that of the pattern, pin little darts into the cambrio yoke to make it fit. this process will repay the slight trouble involved by giving a smooth and comfortably fitted garment. two pieces should be cut from muslin by the yoke pattern, one to be used as a facing or lining. if the yoke is not provided in the pattern, measure down from the waist to yoke depth and cut off the top of the skirt, making the cutting three-quarters of an inch above the lower edge of the yoke. a silk petticoat may be finished at the top by a method which dispenses with a placket. (fig. .) the entire upper edge of the skirt is finished with a bias facing. stitch the facing to the skirt with the seam on the wrong side, turn fig. . method of finishing skirt without the facing over and stitch directly on the edge; placket. the remaining edge is turned in and stitched down flat. at the back, where the fulness commences, cut a slit in the skirt at each side. the slits should be worked like buttonholes. insert a tape or drawstring through one buttonhole and draw it over a short distance beyond the buttonhole on the oppo- site side. tack it firmly. a second tape is put through the buttonhole near the last tacking and brought out through the one on the opposite side, where it should be tacked firmly just beyond the buttonhole. (fig. .) the hem is turned up at the bottom, or a narrow ruffle is put on as shown in figs. and on page , making the skirt three-quarters of an inch longer than the desired the dressmaker ered. the lap at the front of the opening is turned under at the joining, and the one at the back extends out to form an underlap. the facing or yokes are attached in the manner illustrated on page . a button and buttonhole is used for fastening the front of the drawers to the back. if worn with a waist, buttonholes only are needed in the ends of the bands, and at the center front and center back. corset covers have the widest range of design and style among undergarments. they should be carefully planned as to material, trimming and style, for they often serve as a slip under a thin waist. for a stout, short-waisted figure a pointed neck both back and front will be found more becoming than a round outline. ruffles extending across the front of the corset cover will give a good figure to a slight per- son and serve to hold out the blouse. this style of cover usually closes at the back. the pattern is perfo- rated for the position of the ruffles. corset covers can very easily be made by hand, and they are extremely dainty, pleasant handwork. hand-made underclothes are steadily gaining pop- ularity with the general use of french underwear. its very simplicity expresses refinement and daintiness. very narrow tucks, insets of lace and motifs of hand fig. . hand-embroidered corset embroidery are used as trimming. cover a dainty corset cover may be made of either nain- sook or cambric. the under-arm and shoulder seams are put together with veining or stitched with a french or felled seam. if a peplum is used, it is fitted like the yoke of drawers. gather the corset cover at the waist as directed in the pattern instructions, and sew it to the peplum in a french seam. or, the seams may be turned from the inside, and a narrow bias strip basted on and stitched over the this bias seam is hemmed over as a narrow facing. if preferred, the waist may be gathered into a strip of beading and sewed on in a french seam. the bottom edge has a narrow hem. finish the neck and armholes with embroi- dered scallops as shown in fig. . buttonhole tiny slashes for the ribbon draw-strings. a few sprays of flowers scattered over the front or a monogram in hand embroidery makes a pretty trimming. medallions may be purchased and applied if the hand embroidery seems too labor- ious. valenciennes insertion inset in the fronts, combined with a little embroidery in a fancy design, makes a dainty trimming. several methods for applying laces, etc., are given in chapter xv, “unlined waists." if a plainer corset cover is desired, the top is hemmed and beading and lace overhanded to it as a finish. a very narrow bias facing is basted around the right side of the armhole, stitched, basted over on the wrong side, and stitched again. care must be taken in basting on the bias strip fig. . a chemise nightgown to give plenty of ease around the curve of the armhole so that it will not draw when turned over. the lace edge should be sewed on the armhole after it is faced. seam. sou combination garments dispose of much of the useless material about the hips and waist, are excellent for stout figures, and give a better fit to the one-piece dress. if the corset cover and skirt are cut in one, the garment is basted and carefully fitted and stitched in french searns. if cut separately, each is fitted and them basted to- making and finishing undergarments gether with the seam toward the outside, which is afterwards covered with narrow bead- ing. the skirt is closed directly in line with the closing of the corset cover. the skirt opening is made the necessary length and finished like the placket for underwear, which is shown in the process of making on page . nightgowns may be made of cambric, nainsook, long cloth, dimity or cross-bar materials, and trimmed with lace, embroidery, or a touch of handwork. the parts are joined by french seams and a hem turned up at the bottom. the chemise nightgown slips over the head and may be gathered into a fitted yoke or finished with an insertion or beading. (fig. .) it may also be gathered into a binding of sheer lawn, trimmed in any pretty fashion. the binding should be about three-quar- ters of an inch wide after it is joined. the ribbon is run through it instead of through a beading. if desired, beading or narrow insertion may be used for attaching this binding to the gown. beading is inserted between the turned-in edges of the binding and all three edges held together with one row of stitching. the beading is then joined to the garment in a tiny french seam. the ends of the binding are made to meet in front so as to form openings through which the ribbon is passed. in a high-neck gown the opening is cut as directed in the pattern instructions. the edges are usually turned under for hems, the right lapping over the left and machine- stitched across the bottom. another kind of finish for the neck is a strap, yoke-shaped to fit the neck of the gown smoothly. it gives a simple method of closing, one side en- tirely covering the other. the strap may be trimmed with feather-stitching or hand em- broidery. when the yoke is not lined, the outer edge is turned under in a narrow hem. a buttoned through closing is better for this style than the fly. the neck decoration is usually repeated in the sleeve. the sleeves are gathered twice at the top. baste the seam in the armhole with the seam toward the outside and stitch close to the edge. now turn the seam and stitch again, having the finished seam at the inside of the garment. care must be taken that the gathers are evenly distributed between the notches of the pattern, and drawn down straight from the first stitching. chapter x children's clothes c hildren's clothes should be made very simply. use a good quality ma- terial and suitably childish colors. the one-piece dress is an accepted style for small boys and girls, and can be made of wool, linen or cotton materials. directions for finishing dresses made of sheer materials will be found in chapter ix, “infants' clothes." for instructions on the making of a sailor or naval suit, see chapter xi. the russian dress has a side-front closing, and the buttonholes may be made through the material or in a fly applied underneath the over- lapping edge. patterns for this style of garment are to be had either with or without plaits. a good design for little folks is a perfectly plain dress confined at the waist with a belt of leather or of the dress material. an inverted plait is sometimes allowed at the under-arm seams, which gives extra fulness to the skirt. the neck and wrists, and sometimes the closing edges, are usually finished with narrow bands. a plaited design is very becoming to little girls. the front fig. . stitching on box and back portions of the dress are laid in plaits which are plait finished with stitched only to the belt line. the closing is arranged under one crow's-foot of the plaits, either at the front or back. before cutting out, place the front and back of pattern on the material, and if piecing is necessary, plan to have the joining concealed under a plait. mark all perforations and notches plainly · on the material. to make the box plaits, bring the lines of perforations together; oaste and stitch through them. bring the cen- ter of the plait over the line of stitching and spread it to form a box plait. baste the plait in position along both folds and stitch it down, if desired. a crow's-foot (fig. ) worked at the end of each row of stitching may be used. the method of making a crow's-foot is given in chapter iv, “practical and ornamental stitches." the closing, cut under a plait and fin- ished with laps for buttons and button- holes, is shown in fig. . the slash for the opening was made under the plait a seam's width from the sewing. the laps are made double, and when attached should be a little narrower than the plait which covers them. by referring to the illustration, the method fig. . laps finishing closing edges of joining the laps to the edges of the open- ing will be readily understood. a buttonhole fly is provided in some patterns by a hem allowed under the plait. the edge is turned under once, and basted as for a hem, but not stitched. the raw edge is not turned in a seam, but is inserted in the box plait and secured with the one stitch- children's clothes ing. (fig. .) if the hem is not allowed on the pattern the edge is brought over to the line of perforations, where it is basted and stitched. the center of the plait is brought over to the line of stitching forming the box plait, and is then basted in position. to the raw edge under the plait, stitch a lengthwise strip of material cut to extend to within one-quarter of an inch of the outer edge of the plait, to form the fly for the buttonholes. hem the free edge of the strip against the line of sewing. in- structions for the most suitable finish for each garment will be found on the pattern. the button side of the garment can be fin- ished with a hem or an underlap. (fig. .) a yoke can be joined to the front of a dress as shown in fig. on the following page. cut the yoke and turn the edge under a seam's width, clipping the edge where necessary to make it lie flat. baste the yoke over the top of the front of the dress. to the wrong side, baste a bias strip of material with its edges turned under. place two rows of stitching across the yoke, stitching from the outside. they will catch through the bias facing that is basted un- derneath, and which covers the seam, ma- king a neat finish on the inside. this finish is desirable for a summer dress, as it makes it unnecessary to line the yoke. if a lining is used, however, it is cut like the yoke pat- tern, and the top of the dress portion is en- fig. . hem used as fly under plait closed between the turned-under edges of the yoke and its lining. sleeves are made in various ways. they may be gathered at the wrist and set into a cuff or wristband, or the lower part of the sleeve may be stitched in plaits forming its own cuff. after lay- ing the plaits according to the pattern instructions, baste them flat to the sleeve and stitch through both plait and sleeve. stitch the seam of the sleeve at the openings, with the extensions beyond the edges of the seam. on the front edge this extension is turned under for a hem, and on the other extension a tiny hem is turned in along the upper end and the long side. this extension is meant for an underlap. underface the wrist as shown in fig. . close the opening with buttons and buttonholes. (fig. .) a cuff, if one is used, is made of two pieces of material cut from the cuff pat- tern. these two pieces are basted to- gether, with the right sides facing each other. the stitching is made close to fig. . a fly stitched on under plait chapter xi sailor or naval suits a lmost invariably the small boy and girl, if given any voice in the choosing of their clothes, will select the suit that looks most like a uniform. probably this is the reason why the styles permitting the use of brass buttons, emblems or insignia meet with such general and long-continued favor. emblems and chevrons in the various groups, or sets of anchors, bars, eagles and stars, finished and ready to sew on, can be bought, but they are never as satisfactory as the designs that can be stamped on the dress itself. sometimes the figures are worked in the center of a piece of broadcloth or linen, which is cut square or oblong, or possibly in shield shape, and attached to the sleeve with a row of catch-stitching. w dir fig. . emblems and chevrons the mother who makes her children's clothes is sometimes confronted with the problem of selecting some kind of an embroidered emblem, and for this reason we offer the differ- ent combinations illustrated above. the chevrons or stripes are not padded but should be made of strips of scarlet three-eighths of an inch wide, separated one-fourth inch and sewed on flat with an overlock stitch of scarlet silk on the edges. in working the specialty marks and eagles, an easier plan than the one of cutting the figures out of pasteboard and working over them, is to baste a piece of canvas or crino- line on the wrong side of the material, and work right through it, cutting the edges of the canvas away after the figure has been completed. sailor or naval suits the lower edge of the yoke is turned under a seam's width. if the yoke has a curved lower outline, the turned-under portion at the fullest part of the curves must be slightly eased, while at the sharp points it must be slashed as shown in fig. . lay the blouse flat on the table, spread out its entire length. place the yoke on the blouse so that the shoulder seams come ex- actly together and the yoke lies smoothly on the blouse. pin the yoke to hold it in place, then baste and stitch it to the blouse. plaits are made in the regulation sleeve by fig. . turning edge of yoke creasing fron. the perforations at the bottom to the corresponding perforations at cuff depth. these creases are brought over to the position marked by perforations and the plaits are stitched along the fold edge before the seam is closed. the illustration below shows how the blouse may be laid out on the table for conven- ience in joining the sleeve. baste the sleeve to the yoke with the usual three- eighths-of-an-inch seam and then stitch it. turn under the armhole of the blouse three-eighths of an inch, baste it over the seam, and fell it down. make a second stitching on the body of the blouse one-quar- ter of an inch from the seam. the under-arm and sleeve seams have been left open until now, making the work easier to handle and also making it possible to sew the rating badge on the sleeve properly. close the under-arm seams and the sleeve seams as notched, using flat felled seams. a placket is some- times made in the sleeve at the wrist, which is closed with buttons and buttonholes. the method for ma- king this style of sleeve, with and without a cuff, is given in chap- ter x, “children's clothes." a hem is turned at the bot- tom of the blouse, and, if the pattern instructions direct, an elastic is inserted to hold the blouse in place. the collar is joined to the neck with the seam toward thein- side. (fig. .) the collar is marked with notches showing where it joins the blouse, and, in basting it on, the edge should be stretched between the notches to fit the corresponding edge of the fig. . setting in sleeve blouse thus causing the collar to roll closely about the neck. the outer edges are turned under three-eighths of an inch and basted down. at the end of the slash in front, the turned- under portion tapers away to a point. the outer facing is placed on the collar so carefully that the roll perforations will come exactly together and the ends are slipped under the fronts. (fig. .) baste along the roll perforations. the neck edge of the facing is stretched sufficiently to make it lie smoothly when the collar is rolled back. after pin- ning the collar facing around the neck and down the the dressmaker front, roll the collar and facing over at the perforations, and roll the fronts back to the single perforations near the front edge. put your hand under the collar and smooth it outward, so that it does not wrinkle on the collar facing. turn the edge of the collar facing un- der, even with the collar. baste the collar and the facing together across the bottom and sides, up to the seam join- ing the collar and blouse. from that point down, take out the pins that hold the collar facing to the blouse. the collar facing is trimmed with three rows of linen tape, set its own width apart and stitched on both edges. if you sew the tape on the collar facing after the latter is on the blouse, the stitching will show on the front of your yoke. across the back of the collar it makes no difference, for the facing is on top, and the stitching underneath. baste fig. . pasting on collar the linen tape carefully to the collar fa- cing and stitch it on both edges. after it has been stitched, the collar facing can be basted in place under the front. a row of stitching as close to the edge as possible should run around the entire outer edge. the inner edge cf the collar facing must be turned under three-eighths of an inch. wherever it is necessary, it must be clipped, or eased, like the edge of the yoke. after the edge is turned under, it is basted to the blouse. across the back of the neck it is felled to the blouse, covering the seam, but down the fronts it is stitched with two rows of machine stitching, which makes a pretty decora- tion on the front of the blouse. another method of attaching a sailor collar is given in chapter xxii, under "the russian blouse jacket.” fig. . adjusting the collar facing the shield is cut in one piece and may be simply hemmed, or, if preferred, lined throughout with lawn or cambric. it is trimmed with an emblem or star. after both blouse and shield are finished, it is practical to make a few buttonholes along the neck line of the body part, under the collar, sewing buttons in corresponding posi- tions on the shield to prevent it from shifting around out of place. a crow's-foot may be made at the lower end of the neck opening in front. the neckerchief or tie worn with the blouse by a sailor of the navy is made of a an efficient equipment for dressmaking bent in this way so as to raise the material as little as possible in cutting and so prevent the under layer from slipping in cutting two thicknesses of material. a good pair of bent shears can be had for a dollar and a quarter. do not buy a cheap, poor pair. good steel will last for many years. do not use your shears for cutting threads, etc. you will need a pair of scissors and also a pair of buttonhole scissors. weights. when your material is laid out smoothly on the table for cutting it should be held in place by four round iron weights weighing one or two pounds. (fig. .) you can get them at the stationer's and they cost about fifteen cents apiece. or you can use the same sort of weights you use for your kitchen scales. pins, needles, et cetera. clean, unbent pins are important. small pins fig. . the sleeve-board are better than large, and fine steel pins should be used on silk or any material that will mark. never push a pin through a fabric. use the points only and take up as little of the material as possible. you will need a thimble that fits correctly, needles of all sizes, basting cotton, different colored cottons for marking tailor's tacks, chalk, a yard-stick and a tape-measure. learn to use your tape-measure accurately, for one of the points of fine dressmaking is the differ- ence between an eighth of an inch and a quarter, a quarter of an inch and three-eighths. irons. you should have either an electric iron and two ordinary irons, or else three ordinary irons. the two extra irons are used to hold the third in an inverted position in steaming velvet. an eight-pound smoothing-iron is the most satisfactory type for pressing. iroying-board. skirts and coats can be pressed on your long laundry ironing- board or on your sewing-table. seams should be pressed over the curved edge of an iron- ing-board so that the seam edges will not be marked on the garment. a sleeve-board which can be used for sleeves and short seams can be made from a board two or three feet long, and tapering from five or six inches in width at one end to three inches at the other. (fig. a.) the ends and edges should be rounded and the board should have an inner covering of flannel or a similar wool material, and an outer cover of smooth cotton cloth. (fig. a.) a tailor's cushion is used for pressing darts and curved seams. (fig. b.) it is ham shaped and is stuffed tightly with cotton rags. cut two pieces, eighteen by fourteen inches, making them narrower at one end. (fig. b.) round off all the edges. stitch the seam with a close stitch. the sewing-machine should be of a good, reliable make. you will get full directions with it, and in using it be careful to observe the correct tension, length of stitch, etc. tucking and gathering, etc., can be done on a machine. the dress-form. it is necessary in dressmaking to have a perfect duplicate of your own figure on which you can try your clothes as you make them. buy a dress-form one size smaller than your bust measure. if you have a thirty- six-inch bust, buy a thirty-four-inch dress- form. it should have an extension stand that can be lowered to your skirt length. the stand should be on casters so that you can move it around and turn it easily. it is fig. b. the tailor's cushion an efficient equipment for dressmaking the lining. (see chapter xxi, skirts.) take the lining off and face it with a bias facing three inches wide, stitching the upper edge of the facing flat to the lining. mark the waistline by a line of colored thread through the waistline perforations. place the lining on the dress-form, leaving the front edges open temporarily. pad be- tween the lining and the form with tissue-paper, cotton rags or wadding until it fits per- fectly. be careful in padding not to stretch or draw the lining or to let the padding get in bunches. pack it until the front edges just meet and then pin them together. then sew them with an overhand stitch. (fig. .) if you have prominent or uneven hips or a round abdomen, place the wadding where it is needed. when you pad below the waist- line, pin the wadding to the form so that it will not slip. when you have padded the front out to its right proportions, turn up the lining and cover the padding at the hips with a thin piece of lining material, tacking the covering to the dress-form. fell the left side of the collar in place and overhand its back edges together. place a piece of lining material inside each armhole, turn in the armhole edges three- eighths of an inch and fell them to it. (fig. .) for a figure that varies quite decidedly from the average it is better to use a special dress-form. alter your pattern and make up the lining as described in the earlier part of this chapter. send your finished lining to a firm that makes dress-forms and have a special form made from it, but a size smaller than your lining. when you get the form, put the lining on it and pad it as already described. or a woman of this type of figure can get an adjustable dress-form. get it a size smaller, adjust it to represent your figure, cover it with your lining and pad it as directed here. a woman who sews for a number of people will have to use an adjustable form with a fitted lining for each person she sews for. mark these linings distinctly with name of the person for whom it was made. the form will have to be adjusted and padded each time a lining is used. in using a dress-form, the skirt can be put on the form and the form placed on the table. it is easier to work with in this position. in fitting a coat the form should be dressed with the waist and skirt over which the coat will be worn. the sleeve-form. take the finished sleeve of the lining and pad it firmly and evenly. place a piece of lining material over the padding at the wrist, turn in the wrist edges three-eighths of an inch, and fell them to the piece of material. (fig. .) slip a piece of lining material in the armhole of the sleeve. turn in the edge of the under portion of the sleeve three-eighths of an inch and fell the fold edge to the lining material. (fig. .) pad the upper part of the sleeve until it looks as nearly as possible like the arm. turn in the upper edge of the piece of lining three-eighths of an inch and fell it to the upper part of the sleeve. (fig. .) you can use the sleeve-form for either the right or left arm and you will find it very useful for trimming or draping sleeves. chapter xiii cutting materials, sponging, etc. t" fold of front gore : first side gore fold of front gore first second he nap or pile in all woolen cloths should invariably run toward the bottom of the garment. (fig. .) the cutting line of perforations in the patterns, and the directions for their use must be carefully followed. in waists and skirts that are to be cut bias, special instructions for placing the cutting perforations are given with the pattern. fig. shows a pattern laid on material that has no nap. when velvet or plush or any velvet material except panne velvet is used, the pile should run upward, just as the pile of the fur does in a garment of sealskin. when in these fabrics the pile runs upward its tendency is to fall outward, thus bringing out and enhancing its depth of color; while when the pile runs downward it is more liable to flatten, just as fur will when stroked, and its richness and intensity of color are ren- dered less apparent, and therefore less effective. panne velvet, the one exception to the above rule, should be cut with its pile running downward. in adjoining sections, great care should be taken to have the nap or pile run in the same direction. otherwise the different reflections of light caused by the varying directions of the nap will make the garment appear as if made of two side gore shades of goods. first an irregular plaid can rarely be side gore used on the bias, consequently the ways of making it up are limited. side gore a dress made of irregular plaid second requires more material than one side gore made of regular plaid. the darkest stripes should run across the bottom with the lighter tones up, as the shading in this direction back gore is better. it must always be borne in mind throughout the cutting, that all second pieces of the pattern, or lining, must be placed with the upper side gore part in the direction for the top of the material. an amateur back gore had better use an even plaid. the most satisfactory results are obtained by folding the mate- second side gore rial and pinning through both thicknesses as for a seam, then fig. . how pattern may be back gore turning over on the right side and laid when material has no nap noting the effect. in this way it may be easily ascertained which stripe, plaid or figure it will be best to use for the center of the front and back, respec- fig. . laying pattern on tively. be careful, in replacing the goods, not to lose the material having a nap original position. selvedge selvedge back gore selvedge selvedge first side gore cutting materials, sponging, etc. new the plaid waist should be cut in as few pieces as possible and can be made either on the straight or the bias of the material. match the heavy lines wherever the waist is joined, either at the under-arm or shoulder. with the present style of stretching the back of the draped waist, little difficulty is ex- perienced in the making. having chosen the stripe that is most suitable for the center of the back, select also, for the crosswise stripe, a position which will leave the best effect on the figure. for the front, arrange the plaid so that when the waist is closed the center will form a succession of perfect blocks. other ideas may be considered for the front closing; this is simply a matter of choice, since the lines across the front must match. in any event, the crosswise plaids of the front must be on a line with those of the back, so that when the under-arm seam is joined the crosswise stripe of both will match perfectly. (fig. .) the chief difficulty in the making of a striped or plaid waist lies in the accurate matching of the stripes. in using a fig. . marking pattern for matching pattern, cut and fit the lining first. then if stripes on shoulder any alterations are necessary they can be re peated in the pattern of the outside waist before cutting the material. when making a waist of striped mate- rial the only place where the stripes must match is at the shoulder seams—unless, of course, the stripes in the material run bias or the waist itself is cut on the bias. in the latter case the general principles given in the preceding paragraphs on cut- ting materials can be followed. in a plaid waist the vertical lines at the shoulder seams and the crosslines at the under-arm seams must match. (see fig. .) if the waist closes in front, the back should be cut out first. pin the back to the pattern of the front at the shoulder edge. mark the stripes with a pencil on the pattern of the front where they intersect the shoulder seams. (fig. .) lay the pattern of the front on the goods so that the stripes of the material correspond to the stripes marked on the pattern. then cut out the fronts. in fig. the seam edge of the pattern is folded under to show the way the stripes should match when the shoulder seam is closed. in cutting the skirt of plaid, place the chosen line or plaid exactly in the center of the front gore, or, if the skirt is circular, directly down the center fig. . matching cross stripes at of the front. after the front is cut, the under-arm seam the use of butterick patterns a large double perforations invariably mark the cutting line. (fig. c.) they are always used in a series that form a straight line. (fig. c.) when you have your material laid out, ready for cutting, these large double perforations are always laid lengthwise of the material. (fig. c.) fig. c. every piece of material has two dimensions: crosswise—which is line of large from selvage to selvage; and lengthwise—which is the length of double perfora the selvage. the large double perforations are laid on the material tions is always parallel to the selvage, so that each one of these large double perfor- laid on the ma- ations is the same distance from the selvage as all the other large terial length- double perforations. wise and parallel to the selvage. it is extremely important to get these large double perforations straight, and not bias, on the material. if they are laid on straight, the garment will be easy to make, and will wear nicely. if you put these perforations on carelessly, so that instead of being parallel to the selvage they run bias, the garment will pull and twist and stretch. it will be found an aid in cutting correctly if a ruler or yardstick is laid on each piece of the pattern, its edge touching each of the perforations that indicate the way the pattern should lie on the goods, and a heavy pencil mark made along the line formed by the ruler. this question of the grain or thread of the goods is a very important one. some skirts are cut with one straight and one bias edge on each gore; others have two bias edges, for it all depends on the design of the skirt. the only safe plan to follow is the line of perforations marking the grain of the pattern. measure from each end of the line to the selvage of the goods, and move the pattern until both ends of the line are the same number of inches from the edge. large triple perforations are also always used in cutting. (fig. d.) they are always laid on a lengthwise fold of the ma- terial. in some cases they can also be laid on a crosswise fold. the pattern instructions tell you whether you are to lay the large triple perforations on a lengthwise or crosswise fold. small double perforations are always used to mark the normal fig. d. large triple waistline in skirts, blouses, coats, etc. (fig. e.) perforations. large single perforations (fig. f) and small single perforations (fig. g), either alone or together, are used for different purposes, which are explained in the instructions. notches (fig. h) are used to mark seam edges and to show which edges come together. edges marked with corresponding notches are put together in a seam, with the notches matching. fig. e. small double perforations. fig. f. a large single perforation using a pattern for cutting is explained fully on the pattern envelope. in most cases, when the two sides of a garment are exactly alike, the pattern is given for one-half the garment. each piece of the pattern is cut twice or double to make the complete garment. in cases where the two halves of a garment are not alike, for example, when a skirt is draped on the left side and not on the right, the pattern is given for the entire garment. in every case the pattern explains which pieces should be cut twice or double, and which should be cut once and singly. a front-gore pattern is usually laid on the folded material with its front edge on the fold, thus cutting it double. two side gores can be cut either singly, making two cuttings, or once with the material doubled so that the two are cut at once. in a skirt with an irregular front closing, each half of the front is cut separately. before cutting your material, be sure that the pattern is the right length and proportion for you. if you are shorter or taller than the average figure, the length of the pattern can be altered as directed on the pattern envelope. if your figure is out of proportion in any way, large or small in the bust, etc., the pattern should be altered according to the directions fig. g. a small single perforation. dressmaker the figure to the underarm seams. fig. . if the bust is too place it over your bust and pin it full it pulls up the lining smoothly to your lingerie slip. put the lining on, pinning the fronts together with the fold edges just meeting and placing the pins about an inch and a half apart. the lining will draw in wrinkles that run from the bust downward toward the underarm seam. (fig. .) get some one to cut the lining straight across the figure to the side-front seam (fig. a.), and from the side-front seam upward to three-quarters of an inch below the notches in the armhole edge. (fig. a.) as soon as the lining is cut it will separate as much as the figure requires (fig. a.) and will drop in place on the abdomen. (fig. fig. a. the remedy is a.) pin the edges of the slash to give the lining more size across the bust carefully to the piece of lining material underneath. (fig. a.) take the lining off and taste the edges of the slash to the piece under it. be sure to baste very carefully. try the lining on once more to be sure that it fits perfectly. then take it off and rip it apart, cutting through the material underneath on a line with the seams. these lining pieces are not to be used for a pattern or for a lining. take each piece of this altered lining and the corresponding piece of the pattern and make the same alterations in the pattern, using the lining piece as a guide. slash the pattern fronts like the lining, sep- arating the pieces of the pattern in the same way and to the same extent, and paste a piece of tissue-paper under the slash. never use the altered lining to cut your real lining. the lining material would stretch in handling and would not make an accurate, reliable pattern. keep the corrected tissue pattern and use it for any waist or dress that calls for a french lining. the change here suggested and illustrated is for a figure of extreme fulness at the bust. it will not, of course, be necessary to make so great an alteration for figures more nearly the normal shape. for a small bust—figure a shows the same french lining pattern, slashed and adjusted to fit a figure with an extra small bust. this represents an extreme case, where the bust is very small, although the measure taken about the bust is the same as for a figure of average shape. where the bust is not so small—that is to say, but slightly undersized-such extreme altera- tions are unnecessary. here again you make up your waist lining in unbleached muslin, just as the woman with the large bust would do. the experimental lining is put on fig. . here the bust is small in proportion to the rest of the figure fig. a. some of the size must be taken out the use of butterick patterns carefully, but it is not necessary to pin a piece of material under it. when the lining is on the figure, the size that is not taken up by the bust will drop in wrinkles below the full part of the figure. (fig. .) the alteration is made at the same point as the alteration for the overfull bust. the lin- ing is again slashed straight across the front to the side-front seams and from the seams upward to within three-quarters of an inch of the notches in the front of the armhole. (fig. a.) lap the slashed edges until the lining sets smoothly and comfortably on the figure. do not try to make it snug or tight. there should be plenty of room so that the lining does not cramp or confine the figure, and so that you can breathe comfortably. pin the edges of the slash (fig. a), re- move the lining, baste in the alteration, and fig. . if the figure is fig. . the lining will try the lining on again. if it fits perfectly, round-shouldered require more size across take it off ard rip it apart. you will find the shoulders that the edges of the side-front seams are jagged from the lap laid across the lining. even them off, following the original seam-line. correct your paper pattern in the same way. slash the pieces and lap them as you did in the lining, pasting the edges together. these alterations for a large or small bust may be made on this kind of a lining—usually called a “french lining”—or on a lining with one or two darts or with a straight or curved edge. for a round-shouldered figure—the lining must again be made up of cheap material so that it can be fitted to the figure and the corrections transferred to the paper pattern. when your lining is made, have some one pin a strip of the lining material, about four inches wide, smoothly across your back from one arm to the other. then put your lining on and you'll find that it looks like figure l'i. wrinkles will run up from under the arm to the side-back seam (fig. ), and the lining will stand out across the back at the bottom. (fig. .) the lining draws in this way because the shoulders pull the lining upward. (fig. .) have some one cut the lining across the shoulders between the side-back seams (fig. ) and from the seams down to within three-eightlis of an inch of the underarm seam. (fig. .) the lining will spread apart, separating as much as your figure requires. (fig. .) have some pin the cut edges of the lining to the piece beneath it, take off the lining, baste it, and try it on again. now rip and cut it apart so that you can use the altered pieces to fix the tissue pattern. slash the pattern just where the lining is slashed, separate the pieces a similar amount, and paste tissue-paper underneath the slash. if you are not very round-shouldered it will not be necessary to slash the lining as much or fig. . if a woman fig. . the extra stands too frectly. her size should be separate the pieces as much as shown in figure lining will wrinkle removed . it is only for very round-shoulders that across the shoulders one the dressmaker such an extensive alteration is necessary. if a person stoops very much, a second cut should be made nearly all the way across the back and side back, commencing at a point about one-third the distance from the neck edge to the broken line, and ter- minating near the armhole edge just below the outlet perforations, separating the edges made by the slash more or less as the figure requires generally from an eighth to a half inch. in cutting out the side back, preserve an even curve all along the edge. the un- derarm gore very seldom needs any change for this type of badly proportioned figure. for an over-erect figure-on a figure overerect in carriage, the lining will wrinkle across the shoulders. (fig. .) the lining must be made up carefully and put on the figure. it is also slashed fig. . if a woman has fig. . the alteration across the shoulders from side seam to side square shoulders the lin is made at the shoulder ing will wrinkle across seam and downward to within three-eighths seam of an inch of the underarm seam. the chest (fig. .) the edges of the slash are lapped and pinned. (fig. .) don't lap them too much or you'll be drawn back more than ever. baste the slash, try the lining on and then rip it apart. where it has been lapped there will be slight unevenness at the seam edges that must be trimmed off. using the lining as a guide, alter the pattern, slashing it, lapping the edges and pasting them securely. adapting patterns to square or sloping shoulders—we have shown how a waist will act and how it should be altered under such conditions. an instance of square shoulders causing crosswise wrinkles at the front is shown in figure . for a case of this kind it is not necessary to make up a lining first in order to alter the paper pattern. the alteration is very slight and can be made on the actual lining. cut your lining by the pattern, follow- ing the pattern instructions carefully, and baste it together in the usual way. try it on, pinning the fronts evenly together. you will find that it draws across the chest. (fig. .) it should be taken up at the shoulder seam, taking up as much as necessary near the neck to remove the wrinkles, and gradually slop- ing off the alteration toward the shoulder. (fig. .) this alteration will make the lining too high around the neck, for the lining has been lifted to the level of the highest part of the shoulder. so the neck edge must be slashed at intervals until it feels comfortable. (fig. .) after you take off the lining, rebaste the shoulder seam and trim off the neck on a line with the slashes. try the lining on again to be sure the alteration is right, before stitching the shoulder seams. if there are crosswise wrinkles across fig. . sloping shoulders fig. . the lining must the back, the lining can be altered in the make the lining wrinkle from be lifted on the shoulder same way at the back. shoulder to armhole the use of butterick patterns shoulders that are more sloping than the average will cause a diagonal wrinkle from the neck to the armhole. (fig. .) this alteration, too, can be made in the actual lining without changing the pattern. make up your lining in the usual way and put it on, pinning it carefully. you'll find that it looks like figure , though if your shoulders only slope a little it will not wrinkle as much as it does in the picture. the trouble in your case is that your shoulders droop too much to take up the full size of the lining, so the extra size must be taken out at the shoulder seam. as little as possible near the neck and as much as is necessary out on the shoulder. (fig. .) lifting the lining at the shoulder will raise the armhole and make it fig. . shortening the bind. you'll have to slash it a little until sleeve pattern it feels just right. don't slash it too much or your armhole will be too large. (fig. .) fig. . lengthening the sleeve pattern take off your lining, baste the shoulder seams, and cut out the armholes on a line with the slashes. try it on again to make sure that it is comfortable, and your lining is ready to be stitched. if there are diagonal wrinkles at the back, they may be handled in the same way as the diagonal wrinkles at the front. hd take up to lengthen or shorten sleeve patterns, measure along the inside of the arm from the armhole to the bend, and from the bend to the wrist. these two meas- urements are necessary so that the elbow of the sleeve may be in correct position on the arm, since the upper and lower arm may vary in proportionate length. if all the altera- ations are made in the upper or lower part of the sleeve, the elbow will be drawn out of place. if the measure from the armhole to the bend is one inch less than the corresponding part of the pattern, fold a half-inch plait straight across the pattern a little above the elbow. if it is necessary to shorten the lower-arm portion, make a plait half as wide as the amount to be taken out, laying it across the lower part of the sleeve pattern, about three inches below the elbow and parallel with the wrist edge of the sleeve. the plaits across the under- sleeve piece should be made to correspond in size and position with those on the upper piece. the upper- sleeve portion with the plaits pinned in is shown in figure . fig, a. increasing the waist size when the plaits are folded over, the perforations and of the yoke pattern the edges of the pattern become uneven. to correct them, lay the altered pattern on a large piece of paper and mark a new outline, running across the edge of the folded part. if the arm is very full, the space between the elbow and the greater width at the top of the sleeve should be filled out, making the edge an even line. but if the arm is not large, the surplus width may be trimmed off to make an even outline from the elbow to the top of the sleeve. whatever alteration is made at the edges of the seam must be repeated in regard to the large perforations. fig. b. decreasing the waist size if the sleeve needs lengthening, make the alteration ot the yoke pattern at the same places by cutting across the pattern, it ( the dressmaker instead of making the plaits. lay the pattern upon another piece of paper and separate the pieces far enough to make it the required length. correct the outlines in the same way as when the sleeve is shortened. (fig. .) alter the outside sleeve to correspond to the lining. altering a yoke pattern-if, in buying a pattern with a circular yoke, you had to take a pattern that was too large or too small for you at the waist, the yoke pattern can be altered very easily. (figs. a and b on preceding page.) if the pattern is too small for you, slash the yoke pattern from its upper edge to about the hip line. make three slashes. (fig. a.) in pinning the yoke pattern on the material, spread the upper edge until it is the right size for your waist. (fig. a.) if the pattern is too large for you at the waist, make three dart-shaped plaits in the yoke pattern, letting the plaits begin at the upper edge and taper to nothing about the hip line. (fig. b.) the dept of the plaits depends on the amount of the alteration required. v for altering a gored skirt pattern, it is of greatest importance that one should know the hip measure as well as the waist measure of both the pattern and the figure to be fitted. in taking the waist measure the tape should be drawn quite snug- ly. the hip measure should be taken seven inches below the waistline, holding the tape easily around the figure. ...... the table of measurements on the envelope should be referred to in order to ascer- tain if the figure's measures correspond to those of the hip line pattern. order the pattern accord- inghes ing to the directions given from waistline on the pattern envelope. in some styles a skirt pat- tern should be ordered by fig. . increasing the waist size in a gored skirt pattern the waist measure, in others by the hip; but in each case the pattern instructions will specify whether it should be bought by the waist or hip. if a gored skirt is of the correct hip measure, but is too large at the waist, the alteration is quite simple. it can be made in fitting the skirt after the gores are basted together, by making each seam a little deeper from the hip toward the waist. if the waist is the correct size and the hip is too large in a gored skirt, make each seam a little deeper from the waist toward the hip, continuing to take in each seam from the hip to the lower edge of the skirt the same amount taken in at the hip. as a rule this is the best plan, because it is easier to take in material than to add it, and one is sure not to have a pattern that is too small. however, if one is proficient in making garments, a gored skirt pattern may be bought by the hip measure, even if too small at the waist, and the waist size may be increased in the following way: the increase must be calculated and planned for before the skirt is cut. we may find, for instance, a figure with inches waist measure, and hips that measure . referring to the “table" we find that the waist measure of the pattern of this hip size is inches-four inches less than the waist we are to fit. the first consideration is the number of gores in which the skirt is cut, as this governs the number of seams at which allowance may be provided in cutting, and the amount that may be added at each seam. another and very important consideration is the shape of the figure to be fitted. the same number of inches may result from the measurement of figures that differ entirely in shape. the hip measure of the nicely rounded figure with perfectly proportioned hips and abdomen may be the same as that of another that is flat at the front and back, with abnormal development at the sides; or of still another that has unusual abdominal prominence with extreme flatness at the back. the use of butterick patterns on it will be readily seen that the allowance at the seams must be so distributed that the greater amount will come where the figure has the fullest development. under ordinary circumstances, it is preferable to make no alteration on either the front or back gores, but this rule can not be followed when the figure is unusually full at the front. in the meas- urements cited ( inches waist and inches hip) it is neces- sary to add inches to the skirt pattern at the waistline, inches on each side. figure shows how this amount may be added to a nine- gored skirt pattern. it is a good plan to mark the outline of the pattern the goods, leaving ample material at each seam hip line which may be let out inches where the figure re- from waist- quires it, tapering this line amount off to nothing at the hipline which is hip line ginches from seven and three-eighths tinches inches below the upper from waistline hip line edge. a skirt pattern should never be ordered with a hip measure inches smaller than that of the from hip line figure to be fitted. if a plaited skirt is too large or too small at the waist or hip, the plaits should be made either deeper or shal- lower to fit the figure. fig. . shortening a plain gored-skirt pattern hip line inches from waist- line inchesi from hip line lengtheningand shortening gored skirts-measure the length of the skirt at the center front from the natural waistline to the floor and compare it with the corresponding measure of the pattern. to shorten a gored skirt pattern, lay a plait straight across each gore fig. . shortening a plaited gored- of the pattern about six skirt pattern inchos below the bipline (seven and three-eighth inches below the waistline, the three- eighths of an inch being the seam-allowance at the upper edge). (fig. .) if the gores are cut with one straight edge, measure at the straight edge, or, if both sides of the gores are bias, measure along the line of perforations that indicate a length- wise thread of the goods. if the figure is full, the slope of the gores at the bias side should be filled out from the folded plait to the hip; but if the figure is slight, this little extension may be taken off. to lengthen a gored skirt pattern, cut each gore straight across, six inches below the hipline, and separate the pieces as much as necessary. (fig. .) fig. . lengthening a gored-skirt pattern the use of butterick patterns inches from as the alterations may easily be made at the waist when the hip measure is correct. a well-cut circular skirt pattern without darts allows from one to two inches extra size, more than the waist measure, on each half of the pattern. this fulness should be eased into the belt over the hips, and the fulness shrunk away after the skirt is finished. when fitting the skirt, mark on the waistline where the fulness should be distributed, and gather this portion to the required size with fine stitches on a strong thread. dampen the material, or place the wet sponge cloth over it and press it over a tailor's cushion until the cloth has shrunk to the correct size. (fig. .) this must be done very carefully in order not to leave any "bubbles'in the cloth. if the waist needs to be made very much smaller than fig. . increasing waist size, with extension for prominent abdomen the pattern, it may be necessary to make one or two small darts, but if only a small reduction is re- quired, it may often be shrunk in. if the waist size is to be increased, no alteration is necessary. there will simply be less material to ease into the belt. in a circular skirt with darts, the waist size can be made smaller or larger. it can be done by taking in or letting out the darts. if the waist size is to be increased, the darts may be let out. in a circular skirt pattern of the correct hip measure it should not be necessary to make an al- teration of more than one inch at the hips on the whole skirt. this alteration may be made at the center back. to alter the length of a circular skirt, it is best to make the change at the lower edge. for a woman having a slightly rounded or decidedly prominent abdomen, an alteration is required to provide for extra length at the top. (fig. .) if this provision is not made in cutting, the skirt will draw up in front and stand out in a very ugly manner. ta hip line waistline front fig. . shrinking out fulness in circular skirt it will be found, in making the alteration, that according to the prominence of the abdo fig. . extra length at top of circular men, from one-half to one and one-half inches skirt will have to be added to the top of the pattern in front, gradually decreasing to nothing at a point over the hips, to make the skirt drop in the dressmaker seams are again closed, stitched by machine and finished in the usual manner. the collar, which is preferably attached to the waist, may be made of alternate rows of the fine and heavy lace. cut a fitted collar pattern of stiff paper, turning under a seam at the top and bottom. on this paper col- lar baste the insertion in place, right side down, drawing the pull-thread sufficiently to give it the proper curve. overhand the edges together and then remove the collar from the paper. a narrow seam beading is used to join the collar to the waist. trim the material away from the upper edge of the beading, and over- hand this edge carefully to the lower edge of the collar. baste the lower edge of the bead- ing to the neck edge of the waist and stitch in fig. . finishing the underside of a french seam. medallion inset to keep the collar from becoming crushed, a suitable number of collar supports should be placed at each side of the center front, as shown in fig. . the supports are placed two and one-half inches from the end on each side, and a third support at each end. a shirt-waist is a type of waist model- ed on the style of a man's shirt. shirt-waists are usually made of linen, madras or flannel. a good pattern for the beginner is a perfectly plain design having slight fulness at the waistline. though a shirt-waist needs care- ful fitting, not so much skill is required in making it, and it is quite possible to fit oneself. always open the pattern, identify each piece and get a clear idea of the construction by reading the instructions carefully before beginning to cut into your material. this fig. . medallion and insertion set in care at the beginning will make the work by machine easier and save mistakes and consequent waste of material. in cutting out the shirt- waist, mark all notches and perforations. in tucked shirt-waist patterns, it often happens that the fronts are too wide to be cut from one width of the goods. in this case it is necessary to piece the material. fig. . showing position of collar supports take care that the seam comes where it will not show. in fig. the right front of a shirt-waist is shown pieced in this way. the method of piecing is easily understood. the pattern should be laid on the material, and the best place to make the joining con- sidered carefully. it will depend on the width of the goods and the style of the shirt-waist. in some cases it may be made at the stitching of the last tuck, but in others this tuck is not stitched to the waist line but terminates at yoke depth; consequently this seam would not be hidden. in the model illustrated the best place proved to be at the stitching of the first turn- back tuck on the right front. accor ing to the pattern instructions, one inch back of the fold edge of the tuck is the stitching line, as the tucks are one inch wide. mark unlined waists this band is an inch deep, when finished, and is cut a trifle bias in front. fig. . be careful not to draw the line of the seam joining the front and back out of place. the material, which is slightly bias under the arm, should be drawn smoothly toward the front as far as it will reach, and pinned at the waistline. the tucks may then be lapped over each other unless the fulness is gathered or laid in overlapping plaits and the waist drawn down or bloused, as preferred. the tape should be pinned carefully, fol- lowing the waistline. when the waist is taken off, baste the tape in place. then take either a strong twill tape or a narrow strip of the material with the ends turned in, and baste to the inside of the waist, follow- ing the line of the upper edge of the tape on the outside. then remove the outside tape and stitch the upper edge of the inside tape to the waist, after disposing of the fulness fig. . method of applying yoke at the back by making two rows of gathers as far apart as the width of the tape. this method is shown in fig. , on the next page. another method of finishing the fronts is to cut across the fronts just above the lower edge of the strip stitched to the inside. (fig. .) the cut must extend only as far as necessary to take out the extra fulness. the uneven upper edge of this piece may be trimmed and turned in and hemmed down to the part from which it was cut, providing sufficient length to hold the waist down. (fig. .) a row of stitching should be placed at the lower edge of the inside band. the band will cover the raw edges of the cut portion at the front. this finish does away with the bulky material below the waistline, which is apt to spoil the set of a close-fit- ting skirt. the bottom of the waist is fin- ished with a narrow hem. the extension below the waist at the fig. . fulness below waistline dispensed sides may have to be slashed to prevent its with in band drawing over the hips. if preferred, a circular peplum such as is given in a corset cover pattern, may be used. the pepluni fig. . tucks cut away below waist fig. . extension joined to waist lined waists sufficient ease to the armhole, pare the edges off a little and snip the seams a trifle deeper. the same caution applies to the neck. pin the alterations, and mark carefully along the line of pins with tailors' chalk. with- out removing the pins baste through the corrections, keeping a well-shaped line for the seams. try the lining on again to be sure that the alterations are right. transfer the alterations to the other side of the waist by using the corrected side as a pattern. baste the seams again, this time with the seams toward the inside. stitch the seams just out- side the bastings so as not to make the waist any smaller, bearing in mind that the sewing of the seams will tend to tighten them. it also allows the bastings to be drawn easily, for if the seam is stitched directly on top of the bastings, both rows will be so interwoven that it will be almost impossible to pull them out. in stitching side-back seams always have the back next the feed of the machine and the side- back next the presser-foot, and hold the parts well up at each end of the presser-foot. other- wise the side-back seams are liable to pucker or pull when being sewed. in making seams in which one portion is fulled on to another, place the full portion next the feed, or downward, because if it is placed next the presser-foot, the latter is liable to shove the fulness out of place. notch the seams at the waistline and two or three times above and below it, enough to allow them to lie flat when pressed bind the seams neatly with ribbon seam-binding run on loosely, and press them open. some dressmakers prefer to overcast the seams, and most of the imported french dresses are finished in that way, but it does not present as neat a finish and takes a great deal of time, as the overcasting must be done closely and carefully. many linings, especially those of taffeta, are simply pinked. fig. shows a seam edge bound, another overcast, and a third notched and ready to bind. it also shows the notching neces- sary to make the side seam lie flat when it is pressed open. when no hem is allowed at the closing edge of the lining, it is necessary to face it. cut two fig. . notched seams before and after pieces of the lining material in the same outline binding as the front or back--wherever the opening comes--and two inches wide. baste one on the outside of each front or back, stitch a seamed edge, and turn the facing over toward the inside. place a row of stitching one-eighth of an inch inside the edge and another far enough inside the first to allow a whalebone or featherbone to be slipped in. if a hem is allowed at the closing edge, turn it over toward the inside of the lining and make the two rows of machine-stitching form a casing for the bone. if the waist has a back closing, the hem or closing line is usually indicated by a notch at the neck and an- other at the bottom of the pattern. fold a line from one of these notches to the other, keeping the hem an equal width, and with a thread of different color from the lining run á basting along the edge of the fold. later this will be turned over for the closing. make a stay for the hooks and eyes from an extra strip of taffeta or thin lining, two inches wide. fold lengthwise through the center and place it on the inside of the lining, with its fold at the basting-thread which marks the closing. turn over both thicknesses and baste very carefully. then stitch with one row of stitching an eighth of an inch back from the edge, and another row about three-eighths of an inch inside of that. the method is shown in fig. . pin the fronts together with the waistlines even. place a tape- measure along the front edge, and with pins mark carefully the position for the hooks and eyes at every inch point, beginning one inch below the neck. lined waists cut until they are finished and sewed in the armhole. if not cor- rectly cut and basted, one sleeve may be larger than the other. if they are not stitched in the armhole exactly alike, one may twist while the other hangs without a wrinkle. the first step before cutting the sleeves is to study the pat- tern instructions. measure the sleeve and arm and make altera- tions in the pattern, if necessary, as instructed in chapter xiv, "the use of butterick patterns.” be sure that the elbow of the sleeve comes in the right place. next, the sleeve must be cut accurately and carefully basted. the seams should be pinned even at both top and bottom, and the extra fulness of the upper back edge gathered in at the elbow. (fig. ). to be very accurate, the pattern should have the outlet seam marked with tailor's tacks. baste the front seam three-eighths of an inch from the seam edge. the back seam is basted through the line of perforations. a one-seam sleeve should be basted with the upper and lower edges even. in joining waist and sleeve seams, short basting stitches are used, as shown in fig. . never place machine stitching directly on top of a basting. if the seam is stitched just fig. . fulness at elbow outside the basting there will be no of sleeve lining difficulty in removing the latter. enough emphasis can not be laid on careful basting, for next to cutting, it is the groundwork of dressmaking. if it is poorly done, it is the source of many future difficulties. iſ a fancy sleeve is to be made, the lining must be fitted first and the material draped or arranged later. in basting the lining, place the under piece of the sleeve upon the upper with the notches of the front seam together, and pin in posi- tion. then baste this seam with small running stitches. pin the back seam through the outlet per- forations from the top to the upper notch, and again from the lower notch to the bottom. the extra material fig. . correct location of of the upper sleeve portion is gath- front seam ered into the space between the notches to give room for the elbow. the seam is then basted. the sleeve should always be basted as the pattern directs, and the same width seam will be taken off both upper and under sleeve por- tion. the outlet seam should be basted on the line of perfora- tions. fig. . wrist of sleeve adjust the sleeve in the proper position, draw it up well on the prepared for facing arm, so that the elbow is in the correct position, and pin the sleeve in the armhole with notches matched, as directed in the pattern instructions. distribute the fulness fairly evenly. more of it should come on the top of the arm than at the back or front. in a sleeve which sets correctly after basting, it will be noticed that the front seam, in- stead of lying perfectly straight when laid flat on the table, will roll somewhat toward the under side of the sleeve from the center of the seam to the wrist, as shown in fig. . this is quite important, as many workers imagine that the sleeve should set perfectly flat the length of this seam. drape the material on the sleeve lining, remove the bastings and press the seams flat. chapter xviii maternity dresses g arments for maternity wear are so designed that they may be adjusted com- fortably to the changing figure and yet keep the trim appearance of a fitted gown. the clothing should be so skilfully planned and made that no undue pressure will rest upon any part of the body. if corsets are worn they must be very loose, and be laced with rubber lacings at the back and over the abdomen. dresses and negligees may be made of attractive materials, prefer- ably of soft wool or silk, and in plain, solid colors rather than figured effects. they may be prettily trimmed with lace, embroidery and ribbon. the great trouble has always been with linings, for when they were once made and fitted there was no way of gradually enlarging them. this difficulty has been overcome by lacing the front seams or the darts. (fig. .) other necessary changes may be made by moving a few hooks and tapes. the waist lining should be basted and fitted in the usual way, making it fit neatly but not too snugly. turn back the hem at the front of the lining and stitch it with the usual two rows of stitching, making the first row three-eighths of an inch, and the second three- quarters of an inch, from the edge. work eyelets near the edge the entire length of the front of both sides, and run a very soft and pliable bone in the casing formed by the two rows of the stitching. or, place the bone near the edge, as in an ordinary lining, and sew eyes, but not the hooks, along both edges, and lace through them. it would be well to sew a fly or underlap about two inches wide underneath each front, and sew hooks and eyes on their front edges. lace with a round elastic cord, such as is used fig. . french lining with plait and lacings for corset lacing. after the lining has been fitted, the under-arm seams should be pressed open and bound. the correct basting line in the side-front and side-back seams should be marked with tailors' tacks or chalk. cut four strips of lining on the bias, making each strip three and a half inches wide and a bit longer than the side seams of the front and back. baste a strip to the under side of the side-front seam with the raw edges together. baste and stitch them three eighths of an inch back of the edge. this forms a small plait under each seam. (fig. .) in sewing on the bias strip, one must be particularly careful to ease it over the bust on the outer edges of the side seam. in sewing the strip to the second edge of the side seam--the edge nearer the center front-the bias band should be stretched at the bust to make it easy over the curve of the figure. baste the second bias strip to the second side seam in the same way as the first. take out the basting threads in the side seams and sew back three-eighths of an inch from the edges. this gives you a small fold on which to work the eyelets for the lacing of the fronts. the other two bias strips are used to finish the side-back seams of the lining. they are handled just like the side-front seams and are also laced together instead of being stitched. the edges of the center-back seam are closed in an ordinary seam. the eyelets should be placed an inch and a quarter apart and a quarter of an inch in from the edge of the fold. (fig. .) they are made with a stiletto and worked with the ordinary buttonhole stitch, tailored slams a raw-edge lapped seam is used in making garments of heavy, closely woven material that will not fray or ravel. the seam edges must be cut very accurately and smoothly. baste the edges evenly, lapping them the full allowance, and stitch as near the edge of the upper lap as possible. a second row of stitch- ing five-eighths of an inch from the first gives it a neat and tailored finish. the seam on the under side should be trimmed off evenly. (fig. .) one should be very careful in deciding on the style of seam used on a tailored garment. tweeds, homespuns, friezes, and all other rather loosely woven woolen materials should be fin- ished with bound seams. in linens, pongees and crashes one should use the cord, bound or lapped seam. “broadcloth, meltons, kerseys, covert, and other heavy driving cloths can be fig. . raw-edge lapped seam pinked, as they are so closely woven that they will not ravel. to have a good tailored look the machine-stitchings on any seam must not be too fine. the thread and needle should be of medium thickness and the stitch should correspond in size. pockets us nun wa ju in sa nous na fig. . inside view of a slash pocket fig. . outside view of a slash pocket inch from it. (fig. .) tie the ends of the threads firmly so that the stitching can not pull out, and then cut through the pocket line with a sharp knife, cutting through both the facing and the garment material. push the facing through the slit. (fig. .) rebaste the facing from the outside, letting it form a head or cording an eighth of an inch deep at the edges of the pocket. it should be stitched on the upper edge of the pocket hole from the right side. the pocket edges should be cross-stitched together to hold them in shape until the rest of the work on the garment is finished. turn down the upper edge of the pocket facing as close to the stitching as possible, and press it flat to the wrong side of the garment. (fig. .) cut from strong cotton or light-weight canvas a pocket piece about twelve and a half inches long and two inches wider than the pocket opening. shape one end of the pocket like the curved pocket opening and insert it between the lower pocket facing and the garment, close to the opening. (fig. .) baste it in place from the wrong side, turn the garment portion over to the right side, and stitch through both facing and pocket. this row of stitching should be set close to the pocket opening. turn under the lower edge of the pocket facing and stitch it to the pocket (fig. ), but be careful not to stitch through the garment. now turn up the pocket about four and a half inches from the opening and baste it in place with its upper edge toward the top of the garment. from the right side, stitch through the garment and the pocket along the upper edge of the pocket opening. turn under the edge of the upper part of the facing and hem it to the pocket. the easiest way to do it is from the right side, pushing the pocket and facing through the slit so that you can get at it easily. the sides of the pocket are closed with a fig. . when the pocket opening is single row of machine stitching about three- perfectly straight eighths of an inch from the edges. (fig. .) chapter xxi skirts t he present style of making skirts without linings has considerably siin- plified the work of the dressmaker. these unlined skirts, however, unless made of very heavy material, call for well-fitting underskirts as a foundation, and on them largely depends the fit of the overskirt. the foundation skirt may or may not be joined in the same belt with the over- skirt, as preferred. in either case, both the overskirt and the foundation are made and finished separately, with the exception of the inside belt. the foundation skirt is made first. china silk, india silk, taffeta, and satin are good materials for this purpose, though for wearing qualities some of the lining materials, mixtures of silk and cotton, or the better grades of percalines, sateens, etc., are pre- ferred. get a good pattern, and make a careful study of the figure which is to be fitted. many women have a slight hollow below the waistline in the back-an ugly defect, but one which can easily be overcome. it is frequently found in connection with a round or prominent abdomen. entren a small light bustle that will not interfere with the wearer's comfort adds much to the set of the skirt on such a figure. it can be made of the same material as the foundation skirt. cut a piece of the lining material the size and shape desired for a foundation, and hem or pink the edges. make ruffles four inches wide, and treat their edges in the same way. sew several rows of these ruffles across fig. . a ruffle bustle the foundation piece, and one all around the edge except at the top. (fig. .). the completed bustle may be attached inside the skirt, or it may be hung around the waist under the corset by means of a narrow tape sewed at each side. if the figure to be fitted is abnormally short or tall, stout or thin, or out of pro- portion in any way, instructions for ad- justing the pattern to the figure will be found in chapter xiv, "the use of butterick patterns." separate patterns are used for the foundation and skirt ex- cept in the case of tunics, overskirts, etc. cut the gores for the foundation skirt; baste them together according to the pat- tern instructions and try it on. if the skirt is to end in a full plaiting at the lower edge, measure the width of the finished plaiting and deduct this width from each gore in cutting, allowing, of course, three- eighths of an inch on each for a seam. fig. . plaiting stitched on foundation skirt for the plaiting, cut strips crosswise of skirts chiffon double the width of the ruffle desired, plus the two inches required for the heading at the top. fold the chiffon double, bringing the two raw edges to- gether on a line one inch below the edge that will be the upper edge of the ruffle. turn under the upper raw edge and run in the gathering thread, using small fig. . three-tuck ruche stitches. baste and then sew the puff ruffle to the skirt above the silk flounce. (fig. .) a circular flounce may be used as a finish at the bottom of the foundation skirt if desired. this may be cut from any good circular pattern. the lower edge is turned up in an inch hem, and the upper edge joined to the skirt in a french seam. the flounce may be trimmed with tiny ruchings or ruffles, as may be preferred. a dust ruffle is sometimes sewed on the in- side of an outside skirt when it is desired to give it a graceful flare at the lower edge without ma- king it necessary to wear additional under- skirts. the dust ruffle is also used on founda- tion skirts when one is desired. it is usually four inches wide, pinked at both edges, and sewed to the skirt by hand with invisible stitches. the ruffle is held down at intervals by french tacks. they are made by taking a small stitch in the skirt and one in the ruffle, leaving a half-inch or more of thread between. fig. . puff ruffle pass the needle back and forth once more, put- ting it into the same place, and then work several loose buttonhole-stitches back over the three strands of the silk thread. (fig. .) foundation skirts vary in style and shape according to the prevailing fashions in out- side skirts. these instructions are intended, therefore, to be of general use in making either drop skirts, petticoats or foundation skirts for evening dresses, etc. r the dress skirt is, of course, made and finished ac- cording to the material used and the style of pattern chosen. di- rections for putting the skirt together will be found in the pat- tern instructions. if the figure to be fitted is out of proportion in any particular, read chapter xiv, "the use of butterick patterns,” before cutting out the skirt. the first step is to fig. . method of making french tack lay out the pattern on the ma- terial, following, of course, the perforations indicating the right grain of the material, and being careful to keep the nap or figure running the proper direction. (read chapter xiii, “cutting materials, sponging, etc.") before basting, lay the gores together, with the more bias edge on top (fig. ), and smooth the two gores out by running the hand lightly down and across with the weave of the fabric, being careful neither to pull nor stretch the bias edges. beginning at the top, pin the edges together at intervals, and then baste along the sewing line with small even stitches until well over the hips, where the strain will come in fitting. below this point the basting stitches may be longer. skirts a false hem or facing is sometimes pre- ferred for the finish of the lower edge, espe- cially if there is a wide sweep at the bottom. the facing is cut in bias strips, or shaped to fit the lower edge of the skirt. the strips are pieced together and the seams pressed open. then baste and stitch the facing with a narrow seam, to the lower edge of the skirt on the right side. turn over to the wrong side and baste down flatly along the edge. then baste again along the upper edge of the facing, turning in a narrow seam. (fig. .) velveteen or skirt braid may be added to protect the lower edge of the skirt, if de- sired. the velveteen strip is first stitched by hand, on the inner side of the skirt very near the edge, then turned up, leaving a narrow fig. . facing hemmed to bottom of skirt fold extending below the edge, and again sewed to the inner hem or facing, as shown in fig. . the skirt braid should be shrunken -wet thoroughly and pressed dry-before it is used. it is sewed flat to the under side of the skirt, its lower edge one-eighth of an inch below the bottom of the skirt. sew it with a running stitch, just above the lower edge of the skirt. the upper edge of the braid is hemmed down. in other words it is sewed with two rows of stitching-running stitches near its lower edge and hemming stitching at its upper edge. an interlining may be used in the hem or facing if it is desirable to add weight at the lower edge of the skirt. the material used for the purpose may be strips of lining, or, ac- cording to the texture of the skirt material, any substantial material such as heavy flan- nel or broadcloth. these materials are used where body is required in the garment. since it is simply a question of giving weight to the skirt edge, especially in the case of soft silks, etc., the interlining for the hem may be made of light-weight cotton flannel. the interlining is cut in strips as wide as the hem or facing, omitting the seam edges fig. . veiveteen finish on bottom of skirt at both sides. baste it to the skirt along its lower edge, if the skirt is to have a fa- cing. for a hem that is to have an inter- lining, mark the skirt all around a distance above the lower edge to equal the width of the hem. then the strip for the interlining is basted along this line. the hem is then turned up, and with the narrow seam turned in at the top, one row of stitching catches through both the hem edge and the upper edge of the interlining. when it is not desirable to finish a hem with machine stitching, and it must be done by hand, do it with blind or slip stitches. when this is the case, the interlining must first be securely stitched on the inner side of the facing, or the turned-up portion of the hem, with the seam edge turned fig. . braid finish over the upper edge of the interlining. skirts the first step, of course, is to read the pattern instructions carefully, and to get a clear idea of the particular style of the skirt that is being made. in cases where the skirts are composed of seven, nine or more gores it is not so difficult to handle them successfully, since alterations may be made at the seams. but in skirts where few gores are employed, particular attention must be paid to the correct position of the lines, in order to keep the plaits perfectly even. furthermore, the skirt must be joined to the belt and the material between the plaits properly disposed, so that the plaits themselves will have a uniform appearance. before cutting the material read the pattern instructions, examine the pattern and iden- tify the pieces, observing the notch- es and perforations according to the directions. no fixed rule can be given for laying out material for cutting. it is frequently necessary to open out double-width material, cutting each part separately. be careful in this case to observe the right and left side of the garment. in cutting a skirt, make a length- wise fold in the material for the center of the front gore. never start cutting with the widest part of your pattern toward the solid part of your material. lay out your pattern carefully and place it on the material economically before starting to cut. if the material is narrow, it will be necessary to piece the lower part of this gore at each side; but this need not be done until after the rest of the skirt is cut, as some of the pieces cut from the side gores will probably be large enough fig. . a gore marked for the plaits for this purpose. single-width material should be laid out straight for all breadths except the front. it may be folded across at half its length, or cut in two and reversed (if it has a nap) and cut double. after all the breadths are cut, and before removing the pattern, mark all perfora- tions except the ones that indicate the cutting or grain line, with tailors' tacks. (see chapter iv, fig. .) in a plaited skirt remove the pattern and place a yard-stick on the cloth with its edge even with the tailors' tacks, and draw a con- tinuous line with chalk. mark this line with tailors' tacks. (fig. .) the long threads should be cut, the pieces separated, and the breadths joined at the seams. in sewing a bias edge be careful not to stretch it. basting the seams is shown in fig. on page . for a box-plaited skirt, after all the seams are joined (except the back seam, which is not basted until the plaits are all laid), begin at the front breadth and bring the two lines of markings at each side of the center front together and baste. this forms a large tuck. (fig. .) the next two rows of markings are then basted together to form a second tuck. continue in this way around each side of the skirt. each seam corresponds fig. . basting the plaits in tucks to a row of markings, and is to be basted to the line skirts under plait careful pressing be unnoticeable, a larger quantity would be too bulky, and had best be treated differently, when the plaits are laid the full length of the skirt. and the skirt is being fitted, side plaits or darts should be used to adjust the extra material to a small waist. fig. shows the method of placing the darts. if a dart is used it is sewed in a position that will come well under the plait so that there will be no likelihood of its being seen. even if folded over, the upper edges of the box plait should not be disturbed, for this would disar- range the size and width on the outside. the material near the stitching is folded over one-eighth or one- quarter of an inch to form a dart-like tuck, and these new lines are joined or folded in such a way that they taper gradually into the line of the original plait just fig. . arrangement of dart above the full part of the hips, as seen in the illustration. it should then be pressed flat, and the extra fold will not be objectionable. treat the extra fulness in this manner where it is necessary, and keep the spaces an equal width. a skirt made with side plaits or kilts is shown in fig. . the manner of prepar- ing the skirt and marking the perforations that indicate the plaits is the same as that already described. at each line of markings that represents the fold of a plait, the plait should be folded with the markings as an edge, and the doubled goods should be basted one-quarter of an inch back of the edge. this will hold all the plaits in the correct line, no matter what alteration may be neces- sary in fitting. many plaited models have one row of stitching placed just back of the fold edge, and through the two thick- nesses only, in the same way as the basting just described. this row of stitching an- swers a double purpose. it is ornamental and at the same time holds the edge of the plait in shape, and is especially desirable for wash goods or a thin woolen mate- rial that is likely to twist on a bias edge. the second row of stitching is placed a little distance back of the first and is taken through both plait and skirt. stitch it to the desired depth and leave the ends of the thread two or three inches long at the end of the stitching, so that they may be drawn through to the wrong side and tied securely. (see fig. ca fig. . side plaits with two rows of stitching page ). when a plaited skirt is made of heavy material or is lapped very much at the waist in fitting, it may be made less bulky by cut- ting away the surplus material after the plaits are stitched. the under-lapping goods is cut away to within an inch or so of where the stitching finishes. from that point it is cut across the top of the plait. the raw edges left in this way are bound with a bias strip of lining, that will finish across the top of each plait except where the seams that join the breadths form the inner fold of a plait, when the binding will continue down the raw edges of that seam to the bottom of the skirt. (fig. on the next page.) as each figure has some trifling peculiarity. careful study should be given the instruc- tions on the pattern and judgment used as to the best means of alteration or adjust- ment. it must always be remembered, however, that the tucks or plaits must be evenly arranged and that the space between them must be the same, as this is quite an im- portant point in making a plaited skirt. when a plaited skirt is made of washable material, the laundering is not difficult if one goes about it in the right way. the lower part of the skirt should not be pressed the dressmaker llllll fig. b. getting an even line at the bottom of the skirt and chalk tap your skirt against the rim of the pan. you can easily mark an even line in this way. take the skirt off, turn it up at the chalk marks and baste it. try it on again to be sure that it is even at the bottom. this is an easy method for the woman who has no one to help her with her dressmaking. coats and jackets army cloth are really self-finished, for they are so closely woven that they will not fray and can be left raw quite satisfactorily. tweed, cheviot, mixtures, etc., will fray and must be bound. the seams should be bound with rib- bon seam-binding, the color of the coat. seam-binding comes in ainierent widths and you can get it wide enough for even a heavy coat- ing. put the seam-binding on by hand with an easy running stitch, sewing it neatly and evenly. (fig. , chapter xix.) the seam- binding should run up well above the line of the lower edge of the lining. the lining. the coat lining should be cut with the coat pat- tern as a guide, following the direc- tions given in the illustrated in- structions. the lining must be cut slightly wider than the pattern. a lining must be loose and very easy. if it draws at all, it will wear out almost at once. in a half-lined coat the lining comes only to about twenty-six inches from the neck. put the lining in according to the directions given in the illustrated fig. a the half-lined coat instructions in the pattern. an unlined coat. an unlined coat needs interlining. the interlining for the front of the coat should be cut and put in according to the pattern instructions. the interlining in the front of the coat should be covered with a facing of the coat material. the part of the interlining left exposed back of the facing should be covered neatly with a lining. in cloth or linen the raw edges of the interlining and facing of the side fronts should be bound together. in silk they may both be turned under three-eighths of an inch, facing each other, and stitched. in either case, these edges should be left loose from the coat; they should lie against it, but should not be caught or stitched to it. a yoke-shaped piece of lining material must be used in the back of the coat. it should be six inches deep at the center, and run straight across the shoulders. turn under its lower edge three-eighths of an inch, and stitch it in a narrow hem. then baste it to the back of the coat at the shoulders and neck, leaving its lower edge free. the shoulder edges of the back yoke should be turned under, and then basted and felled carefully over the shoulder edges of the front lining. in silk the coat should be finished with french seams. in a coat of cloth the seams may be pressed open and the edges bound separately with silk seam-binding or they may be bound together, turned to one side, and stitched down flat to the coat. if they are pressed open, they need not be stitched again unless you prefer to stitch them on both sides of the seam. in heavy wash materials the seams can be handled in the same way, using a cotton seam-binding instead of silk. be sure the binding is shrunken. it should be the same color as the coat. or, on a linen, cotton rep, etc., you can use the flat stitched seam. the lower edge of the coat should be turned under according to the instructions on the pattern, weighted with lead weights at the seams, and its raw edge either hemmed or bound. coats and jackets the front of the jacket. cut a facing for the collar and a front facing like the front, extending back an inch beyond the turned-over corner at the top. lay the front facing face down on the outside of the jacket fronts and stitch a seam around the corner and down the front of the jacket; turn it over and baste near the edge. baste the collar-facing to the collar, turn under the edges and slip-stitch to the collar and to the front facing where joins it at the top. stitch one or two rows around the edge of the collar and down the fronts. turn up the bottom of the jacket according to the pattern directions. cut the back lining like the cloth back, but allow a half-inch plait down the center of the lining. cut the lining of the front and side pieces in one, laying a dart-like plait from the shoulders, running out to nothing about five inches down. full directions for lining a coat will be found on pages and . boys' suits small trousers buttons are sewed on in position corresponding to the buttonholes on the opposite fly. for the smaller boys, when buttons and buttonholes are impracticable, the small facing provided for in the pattern is attached to the right side of both of the fronts, turned in and stitched down. (fig. , page .) the front seam is then closed from the notch above to the waistline. the side pockets should be put in next. complete instructions for ma- king them will be found on page , chapter xx, “pockets.” trousers having no fly closing have the waistband divided into a front and back waistband, leaving an opening at each side of the trousers. in this case the extension on the side of the back pieces of the trousers is faced, thus forming the under- lap for the opening. the loose edge of the pocket piece is then faced on both sides with the cloth, and two rows of stitching, a quarter of an inch apart close to the edge, give it a firm finish. now the upper edges of the pocket are basted to the upper edge of the trouser's front. (fig. fig. . inside view of pocket with buttonhole fly , page .) make a bar, overcast or buttonholed, between the two rows of stitching, catching through the cloth, and both sides of the pocket at the top and at the bottom of the opening. the pocket may now be closed. round off one or both of the corners, and, turning in the seam with the raw edges toward the inside of the pocket, stitch securely. the outside seam of the trousers is closed next. in knickerbockers, it is stitched in a seam all the way down. the lower edge of the legis gathered in a casing with an elastic. in trousers fin- ished with a band the extension allowed at the lower part for an opening at the side is turned under for a facing on the upper side, and faced and used as an extension on the under side. the band can be fastened with a buckle or with a button and buttonhole. after stitching the seam, turn the raw edges toward the front. from the outside, run a line of stitching one-eighth of an inch from the seam. now stitch and press open fig. . outside view of fly and pocket the inside seam of each leg. the two leg portions may then be joined, beginning the seam down the back at the waist, and extending it to the notches in the lower edge of the fly pieces, including in the seam the seams of the fly pieces below the notches. press this seam open and baste over it, flat on the inside, a piece of tape or a bias strip. stitch from the outside a row on each side of the seam. turn the end of the tape over and hem neatly down at the end of the fly stitching. on the outside, at the end of the fly opening, make a strong stay-stitch or bar, to keep it from tearing out. the dressmaker curve, run several rows of stitching across it, parallel to the tracing. the other part of the collar is covered with "padding stitches." (fig. .) now baste the top collar piece over this foundation; turn the edges under and baste. the collar is then basted to the jacket on the outside of the neck edge. baste it on carefully, avoiding any possible stretching out of shape. at the points where the collar meets the lapels of the jacket, the canvas must be cut away to make a neat joining. the sleeves are cut, the seams stitched and pressed open. turn the wrist edge up as far as the pattern allows, and baste it flat. then run a line of stitching around it, as directed in the pattern instructions. following the notches, baste the sleeves into position and try on the garment. if they set properly, they may then be stitched in by machine. if cuffs are provided for, they are made sep- arately, and slip-stitched to the sleeve over the wrist edge after the lining has been put in. (see page , chapter x, “children's clothes.") the belt has an interlining of canvas, stitched in at the same time with the row of machine- stitching that finishes it three-eighths of an inch around the edge. the lining is then added by hand. two buttonholes are made, two inches apart, at the round end of the belt, and two corresponding buttons are sewed on the straight end. an opening through which the belt is run is allowed under each box plait in the jacket. the buttonholes are made with eyelets as described and illustrated in chapter ii. the lining for the jacket is the next con- sideration. cut the back by the pattern for the jacket, allowing a half-inch plait down the center, which keeps the lining from drawing the outside cloth out of shape. baste this little fig. . inside view of jacket front, before lining is added plait down. now secure the lining back into position on the inside of the jacket. baste the raw edges at the side seams over the corresponding seams of the cloth, but do not have the bastings show through to the right side of the jacket. do the same at the shoulder seams. at the neck edge clip the curve enough to make the lining lie smoothly; slip the raw edge under the collar and baste the latter down over it. each lining front is cut in one piece, with a dart- like plait allowed at the shoulder which graduates to nothing five inches below it. fig. . showing padding stitch and machine stitching baste each piece into posi- on the collar tion in the jacket. the raw edge at the side seam is turned in and hemmed down by hand, covering the raw edge of the back piece. it may be necessary to clip the edges slightly to prevent any possible drawing at the seams. the raw edges down the front are, likewise, turned in and stitched down over the cloth facing by hand. at the shoulder, the seam of the back lining laps over the raw edge of the front piece. the top collar piece is then stitched down by hand. the sleeve lining is cut by the sleeve pattern, the seams stitched and pressed open. slip it into the jacket sleeve with corresponding seams together. at the wrist edge i - - chapter xxiv remodeling o ne ought, at the very beginning of each season, to set to work to take a critical survey of last year's wardrobe. it is the easiest way to find out exactly what new clothes are needed and exactly how far one can go with the old ones. coats, suits and dresses that are still in sound physical condition, but which have grown out of style, should be remade. the remodeling of a pair of sleeves, the recutting of a skirt, will almost always give a new lease of life to a suit, while there are dozens of clever little ways by which one can completely obliterate the date of vintage of a gown. decide first what clothes are worth remaking. when the materials are badly worn it is hardly worth while going to any amount of trouble in the way of renovations. but when the material is sound and whole it is little short of criminal not to take advantage of its possibilities. if one feels inclined to take a little trouble--and with a good dye there is practically no trouble at all-one can completely disguise a last year's suit or dress by changing it to another color. dyeing is a very simple thing, but there are certain hard and fast rules in regard to it that must not be disregarded. in the first place you can not dye a silk or wool material with a dye intended for cotton and linen. neither can you dye cotton and linen with a silk and wool dye. in the second place, you can't change dark colors into lighter ones. in the third place, the material must be prepared carefully for the dyeing. if there are any grease spots or stains they should be removed as thoroughly as possible. (chapter xxv.) afterward the material should be washed for two reasons. the first is, that if the material is put into the dye soiled, the dirt will mingle with the dye and the result will be muddy instead of bright and clear. the second is that as much of the old dye should be taken out or “discharged," as it is called, as possible. otherwise it will be impos- sible to predict how the mixture of the two dyes will turn out. cottons and silks can be washed in soap and boiling water, but it is not safe to use soap to any great extent on wool materials, as it softens the wool. boil the materials about half an hour, changing the water as it becomes discolored. keep up the washing until the water remains clear-a sure sign that all the dye has been discharged that is likely to do any harm. it is best to dye the material while it is still wet from the washing as it absorbs the dye more readily and more evenly in that condition. be sure to follow the directions given with the dye you use. a good reliable dye compound will be accompanied by explicit directions, which you must take care to follow. you must be especially careful in picking out a dye that will suit your material. white, of course, can be dyed any color. pale shades can be dyed darker or changed into other slightly deeper colors. a material of one color dyed with a dye of a second color will emerge from the fray an entirely different shade from either. for instance, if you dye a yellow material with a light blue dye, you will get green; while the same light blue over light red makes purple, and over light green makes peacock. a dark blue dye over brown makes navy blue, and over yellow, bottle green. a brown over blue makes dark brown; over green makes olive brown; over red makes seal brown. there are dozens and dozens of combinations and variations of colors that one can bring out by a clever combination of dye and material. one should go back to the old safeguard of experimenting first and doing the actual business afterward. after you've dyed your material, take it out of the dyeing fluid and hang it up until it is nearly dry. then rinse it out in clear water to prevent its crocking. if a material - remodeling has been dyed black, do not rinse until it has dried thoroughly. it will leave it a better color. if you do not dye your material, clean it carefully. directions for removing spots, stains, etc., are given in chapter xxv, “care of the clothes." sors. in making over a waist it is sometimes necessary to use new material; but when chemisettes, yokes and half-sleeves are in fashion, you can use net, lace, chiffon, etc. in remodeling a waist or dress, put it on a bust form and stuff out the sleeves with tissue-paper. look it over to see where it requires alteration. sleeves and skirts fre- quently need to be recut. if piecing is necessary, make the seams fall in places where they will not show or where they can be covered with trimming. if the dress is to be entirely remodeled, rip it apart with a sharp knife or pointed scis- do not stretch the material, especially at the neck and armholes. brush the seams carefully, and remove all clipped threads. if the material has changed color, use it on the reverse side if possible, even if the weave is slightly different. after the material has been thoroughly freshened—washed, pressed or dyed-lay it out on the new pattern and see if it requires piecing. if necessary, piece the lining so that it will set comfortably. it should be easy across the bust and shoulders, and snug, but not tight, over the waist and hips. in piecing, cut the patches on the same grain of the material as the original garment. never piece at the neck or armhole with a bias or straight piece of material. lay the new fabric on the old, following the grain of the latter. hem the piece down neatly, and cut the garment over by the new pattern. put the lining on, and then drape the outside over it after you have cut it according to your pattern. by using fancy trimming-pieces, collars, yokes, plastrons, etc., you can almost always remodel a waist so that the piecing will never show. lace or net for yokes, chemisettes, etc., can be dyed the color of the dress either at home or at a regular dyeing establishment. lace can be dipped in tea to give it a rich cream color that can be made lighter or darker according to the strength of the tea. remodeling a skirt is an easy matter if the new pattern is narrower than the old skirt. in that case it is only a question of recutting; but if the pattern calls for more material than you have in the skirt itself, you will have to do some piecing. braided bands covering the skirt seams are an excellent way of increasing the width of a skirt. or you can raise the skirt at the waistline, refit it, and add to it at the bottom by a band or a fold. or it may be pieced at the bottom and the line of piecing covered by wide braid, bias bands, etc. linen or piqué skirts can often be lengthened by bands of embroidery insertion or by bias bands of the material. these skirts are very apt to shrink around the hips. they should be ripped from their belts, raised and refitted. they will have to be lengthened. coats should be remodeled by an up-to-date pattern. if they require piecing, try to let it come at a seam and cover it with a stitched or braided band. quite frequently it is easier to cut a coat suit down for one of the daughters of the house than to remodel it for the mother. but do not use a material that is old and somber for a child, without relieving it by a trimming that is bright and youthful-looking. a black-and-white pin- checked wool or a dark serge is apt to make a dull frock for a little girl, but if it is trimmed with bands of contrasting material in a suitable color it becomes childish-looking and pretty. in making over half-worn garments into presentable and at the same time durable clothes for boys, such as suits, reefers, and overcoats, a tailored finish is the first require- ment. it means neat work, even stitching and careful pressing. for the pressing you will need heavy irons, evenly heated, and a piece of unbleached muslin that can be dampened and laid over your work. in ripping apart the old coat or suit that is to be remodeled for your little son, notice carefully all the small devices of interlining, canvas and stitching that the tailor used in making the garment. you can repeat many of them in your own work. if you use the old canvas and find that it has grown limp, you can restiffen it by dampening it thoroughly and ironing it with a heavy iron thoroughly heated. full directions for making boys' trousers are given in chapter xxiii, "boys' suits,” and chapter xx, "pockets." chapter xxii, on "coats and jackets," will give you all the necessary information you will want for finishing the jackets or overcoats. university of minnesota sci . b butterick publishing company, limited. the dressmaker: a complete book on all u access center za r d s tn p. minnesota libr st. paul campus library uh ?: “m-““__-_m .i ‘j‘: ."): ’// /> introduction. this work has beeen prepared to aid the teacher of sewing in the public and industrial schools. the author has tried to meet the demandfor prac- - tical methods, by a systematic arrangement of the subject, which will be of invaluable assistance to the teacher. i as a book of reference for the pupil, its arrange, ment is so simple that it will afford her much useful information, that will assist in fitting her for' the duties of life. / the chapters devoted to the manufacture and weaves of materials, are intended to aid the teacher; in giving talks to her pupils on kindred subjects, also to render the pupil so familiar with the differ- ent kinds of cloth, that she may become an intelli- gent judge of them. i ' index pagi introduction ..................................................... .. cloth .................................. .. ................. .q ........... .. cotton ............................................................... .. average width of muslins ................................ .. wool ................. .._ ............................................. woolen dress materials .................................... .. linen ................................................................. .. average width of linen fabrics ...................... .. silk ...... .; ............................................................ .. silk fabrics ....................................................... .. running ............................................................. .. basting .............................................................. .. cat-stitch ................. ... ....................................... .. chain stitch ................................................... feather stitch .................................................. .. loop stitch .................................................... .. seams ................................................................. .. french seam ...................................................... .. back stitch seam ..................................... .;. half-back stitch ............................................... .. overcasting ..................................... ................. .. overhanding ...................................................... .. dorothy seam ................................................... .. felled seam .................................................... .. hemmed seam .................................................. .. hems .................................................... .......... .. faced hems ....................................................... .. extension hem ................................................. .. rolled hem ........................................................ .. hearst-itch hem ................................................ .. illustrations . pagi canvas showing difierent stitches ................... .. hands showing the position of running ........ .. basting ..... ....................................................... .. overcasting and half-back stitch .................... .. overhanding ...................................................... .. felled seam .............. .._. ...................................... .. rolled hem ...................... ............................... .. hemstitch hem ................................................ .. mitered corner ................................................... .. hands showing the position for gathering .... .. gauging with a band ....................................... .. gussets ............................................................... .. overhand patch ................................................ .. hemmed patch .................................................. .. three-corner darn ............................................. .. stockinet darning ............................................. .. linen darninz .................................................. .. stockinet web stitch ........................................ .. button holes ..................................................... .. buttons .............................................................. .. hooks and eyes ................................................ .. loops and eyelets .................. ........................ .. model sawmo \ fia~—~___a_ , _ __ _.\___.__ average width of )iuslins. long cloth, inches wide. lonsdale cambric, inches wide. berkeley cambric, inches wide. pride of the \vest muslin, to inches wide. alpine rose muslin, inches wide. heavy muslins— new york mills \vamsutta inches wide. utica l medium— ' masonville, inches wide. fine— fern, inches wide. \ wool. wool is a variety of hair or fleece, which is shorn from the sheep, the angora, alpaca and cashmere goat, and which furnishes the most important ma- terial for clothing, in all cold and temperate cli- mates. _ wool is always more or less wavy, and, under the microscope, is seen to be covered with scales, over- lying each other. these conditions of the wool, are what causes the fibers to retain the twisted state, after being spun. ‘vhen wool is shorn from the sheep it is divided into two classes, short or carding wool, which sel- dom exceeds a length of or inches; and long or combing wool, varying in length from to inches. each of these classes is sub-divided into a variety of sorts, according to the fineness and soundness of the staple or fiber. the finest wools are usually of a short fiber. by combing, some of the scales are removed from the wool and it is better adapted for the manufacture of light fabrics. yarn made from this wool is called worsted, and the cloths, worsted goods. the finest carding wools were formerly obtained from spain, from the merino sheep; but, as they are margaret blair system now raised in australia, north and south america and south africa, it is more easily obtained, and’ less expensive. . wool is the most important of all animal sub- stances used in manufacture and ranks next to cot- ton as a raw material for textile fabrics. the spinning and weaving of wool into cloth, dates back to very ancient times. at the time of the macedonian conquest, b. ., we read that the natives of india wore shawls of great beauty. the greeks learned the manufacture of woolen fabrics from the egyptians; the romans from the greeks; and from the romans the britons derived their knowledge of the art, soon after the roman conquest. the english improved upon the meth- ods previously known, until the knowledge has be- come general throughout the world. it is difficult to tell which country produces the best fabrics, at the present day, so great is the com- petition. the manufacture of the wool into cloth is a very interesting process. after the sheep are washed and sheared the wool is sorted, the carding wools being separated from the combing wools. when sorted, the wool is thoroughly beaten, not only to remove any dust or other impurities, but to open the fibers and render the material softer and more pli- able. the wool is then scoured, that is, dipped in an alkaline lye, which, with the natural grease of the fleece, forms a soap, and cleans the wool most thor- oughly. the more gently and uniformly the wool is then dried, the better the result. but when dried the wool is still found to contain' matted locks, dust, sand and other impurities, which must be removed. this is done by passing the wool through a teasing or willowing machine. ' after being sprinkled with olive oil, to make it soft and pliable, the wool is carded. any remain- model sewing \ \mw flax is cultivated in the united states more for the seed than the fiber. the process of the manufacture of linen fabrics is similar to that of the cotton and wool. average widths of linen fabrics. linen sheeting, to inches wide. pillow case linen, to inches wide. household linen, to inches wide. art linen, to inches wide. shirt bosom linen, inches wide. surplice linen, and inches wide. dress linens, to inches wide. linen cambric linen lawn handkerchief linen table linen, to inches wide. circular table cloths } "} x % yards' x yards. - napkins, x inches to x inches. f and inches wide. silk. silk is a fine, soft thread spun by the silk worm. the manufacture of silk appears not to have been well known to the ancients. among the greeks, aristotle was the first to mention it in his writings. evidence collected would tend to show that the manufacture of silk fabrics originated in china, in which country the cultivation of silk is of the high- est antiquity. according to chinese authorities, ‘silk worms were raised by the wife of the emperor years b. c. _ the cultivation of silk has become one of the great industries of italy, turkey and greece. some efforts have been made to raise the silk worm in england, but with only partial success, for they re- quire a warmer and less variable climate. and yet the quantity of silk raised in the world is enormous, for it takes worms to raise a pound of silk. model sewing the silk is not yet ready for the weaver,but has to go through several processes, before it will be prop- erly cleaned, twisted, or strong enough. of textile fabrics, silk is the strongest, most lus- trous, and most valuable. - the first silk mill in the united states, was es- tablished at mansfield, conn., in . many other factories were started, most of them surviving. one of the best known was at patterson, n. j ., and that town became, and has since remained, the chief seat of silk manufacture in the united states. silk fabrics. china, japanese, kai kai wash silk, habu-tai ' wash silk, twill-ed india, surah, taffeta, benga- line, foulard, satin, satin rhadame, armure, gros grain, poplin and many others- model sewing running. running is composed of small basting stitches of equal size. ‘ have the needle a little larger than the thread, and the thread the size of the thread in the mate- rial. ' running is used in plain seams that do not re— quire great strength, as for joining light materials, gathering, making tucks and pleats, also in mak- ing cord. several rows are used in darning, strengthening worn materials and for quilting. in running, use as free wrist motion as possible, and take as many stitches on the needle at a time as you can. . bast'ing. .__-____._..__. _.- . . . ~_——--___—-—— basting is light sewing and is used as a guide for margaret blair system sewing. and to keep two pieces of cloth in exact relation to each other. never sew without bast- ng. . "begin by having the knot on the right side of the work. . fasten the thread by taking two stitches in the same place, over each other. in basting for machine sewing, the stitches may be-longer than for hand sewing. uniformity in length of stitches and straightness of line in bast- ing are of the utmost importance. bastings should always be cut out. never allow your sewing to run into or across the thread of basting stitches. - regular basting stitch, one-eighth by one-eighth, should be used in basting seams that are subject to any strain, as in fitting a waist. regular basting stitch, one-eighth by one-fourth, is used in basting for overhanding and machine sewing. for overhanding, baste one-eighth of an inch .from the edge, whether selvedge or crease, as the edges need to be held firmly together. in basting a hem, take one stitch at a time, and be sure both folds of the hem are held in place. use one-eighth by one-half basting stitch. a basting stitch one-eighth by three-fourths, is used for basting seams in skirts, and the crosswise basting is used in basting material on lining. cat-stitch. a cat-stitch is a crbss stitch worked from you, holding the material over the left forefinger. it is used in patching flannel and on raw edges of a hem to avoid the ridge formed by folding the edge; or in woolen seams, a row of cat-stitching may be put through the center. model sewing half-back stitch. // //////m half~back stitching is the same as back stitching, except that the needle is put only half way back, thus leaving a space between the stitches. it is used in sewing on gathers. overgasting. overcasting is a diagonal stitch taken loosely through and over two raw edges of cloth to keep them from ravelling. ’ it is worked from left to right. to make the stitches uniform, the distance be- itweeen them and the depth of each one, should be the same. before overcasting a seam, remove your basting vthreads, and trim the edges evenly. overcasting is very difiicult to do nicely. overhanding. \ \\\\ overhanding is a stitch taken very closely over ‘two edges of cloth, which may be either selvedges \or creased folds. model sewing m~w“_ hems. a hem is a fold made by creasing a piece of cloth and then sewing it down. first crease an eighth of an inch, then crease the second fold the desired width, haste and hem. to join the thread in hemming, leave the end of the thread in the fold of the hem, and fasten anoth- er thread by hiding the knot under'the fold. fasten the thread by taking two or three stitches over each other. a narrow hem in stiff materials, as on table linen, or a rolled hem, need not be basted. nvhen basting a straight hem, the seams r stripes should match exactly. hems on elastic materials, as woolen or mohair, that do not stay folded, should be basted twice. first crease an eighth of an inch and baste, then turn the desired width and baste at the fold. faced hems. a faced hem is used when the material is not long enough to allow for a hem, or where a hem can not be turned evenly. it is a finish or protection to an edge of a garment, and has the appearance of a hem. it is also called a facing and is said to be “felled” on. a bias facing fits better than a straight one, and should always be used if the edge on which it is to be sewed is curved or expected to give. extension hem. cut a piece of cloth twice the width of the de- sired hem, and sew one edge on the garment in a. seam; then crease the upper edge and baste on the wrong side, even with the seam,. and hem down. it is used where there is not enough cloth to allow for a hem, or in a placket. margaret blair system a mitered corner. v _ l - - _ _ _ _ _ '?+:eflf!-=q:~—_::s___‘ :=' to miter a corner in needle work is to change the direction of a hem, straight band or border, by cutting it at an angle, so as to sacrifice a three cornered piece. in a hem cut off the corner one-eighth of an inch deep, then, creasing the material each side of the cut corner, one-eighth of an inch, (see hems), fold the hem the desired width. open the hems and fold the corner towards you, creasing it one-eighth of an inch outside of the point where the creases of the hem meet. cut ofi the cor- uer on the crease, then fold and baste the hem at the right of the bias edge. fold and crease the bias edge one-eighth of an inch. fold and baste the hem at the side, making the edge of the two hems meet at right angles. hem the corner fold, taking the stitches through only one thickness of cloth. \a mitered corner is used on heavy cotton or linen materials. ' “miter” is a term derived from carpenter work. model sewing gathering. gathering is composed of small running stitches, and the thread is drawn so as to full the material. 'llakc as many stitches on the needle at a time, as possible, using rapid wrist motion. draw the stitches together on the needle, and fasten the thread by winding it over and under the eye and point of the needle;_then hold the gathers between the thumb and finger of the left hand, and with the other pull each gather in its place. unwind the thread, and pull the needle through. do the same with each needle full. gathering is used whenever a piece of material is required to fill a smaller space. the thread should be a little longer than the sec tion to be gathered. divide both the gathers and the plain material into halves or fourths. place the marks together and sew the gathers in place with half-back stitches, holding the gathers towards you. the size of the gathering stitches would vary with the quality and quantity of ma- terial to be put into the arranged space. margaret blair system r gauging. gauging is two rows of running stitches, one- eighth by one-eighth inch, with the stitches of the second row exactly below those of the first. in heavy materials, as the backs of skirts, the stitches would be long. plackets. a placket is an opening made in a. garment. to make a. placket for cotton garments, cut an opening from eight to ten inches; hem the right side one inch wide, and the left side with a narrow hem. place thewide hem over the narrow one, and finish at the bottom with two rows of back- stitching. to make a placket for woolen garments, cut the opening the same as for cotton garments. cut a facing for the right side two and one-half inches wide, and one'half inch longer than the .- margaret blair system falls over the point of the gusset and cut the square diagonally. baste to the material and hem (asillus- trated on page ). the gusset can be made as large or small as de- sired. this kind is used, principally, in plackets of drawers. patching. a patch is a piece of cloth sewed on a garment to repair it. there are several diilferent ways of patching, the overhand and hem patching being used principally. an overhand patch is much neater than a hem patch, but the latter is the stronger. \vhen a garment requires a patch the worn partsl must be cut away, until strong threads are found to support the new piece placed on it. checks, stripes and figured materials should al- ways match. great care should be taken to have. ' o margaret blair system overhand the edges closely, not taking in any deeper than necessary to hold the threads. in working a buttonhole, always begin at the end farthest from the edge of the material, working from the right toward the left. insert the needle with the point towards you, drawing it but half way through. take the twd threads at the eye of the needle and bring them around from right to left, passing under the point of the needle. draw the needle out so that the thread will be at right angles from the button- hole, forming a knot or purl on the edge. _ in the first position the needle points towards the worker; in the second, it points in the opposite di- rection. when the buttonhole has been worked across onel side, work several stitches close together, so that the buttonhole will be rounding at the end. work across the other side and finish with a bar, which is made by drawing the needle down through the first buttonhole stitch taken, bringing it up on the opposite side, through the last buttonhole stitch. draw this stitch tightly, so as to bring the sides close together. make four of these stitches, then, bringing the needle under them, work four button- hole stitches on them. draw the needle down through the cloth close to the purl of the last stitch and fasten on the wrong side. in working a buttonhole,if the thread should be too short, pull the needle through the hole and fasten the thread tightly on the wrong side, close beside the last stitch. fasten the new thread on the wrong side, bringing the needle up through the last purl. proceed with the buttonhole stitch, as if a new thread had not been necessary. buttonholes for shirts and shirt waists, and gar- ments where the buttonhole is made lengthwise, should be worked with a bar at each end, to make it stronger. in addition to overhanding their but- tonholes, very careful workers sometimes strand model sewing them—i. e., carry a thread of silk across each edge, over which the stitch is to be worked. this is done by bringing the needle up through the cloth close to one end of the hole; down through the material at the opposite end, coming up on the other side; repeating these stitches so that there will be two strands on each side. the buttonhole is then work- ed as has been explained. buttons. a button is a knob or ball, fastened to a garment in such a way that it will go through a buttonhole or loop, and hold different parts of a garment to- gether. they are made of horn, wood, mother of pearl, etc. in sewing on buttons, draw the needle through the material from the upper side, to conceal the knot under the button. a: large button should be sewed on a cloak, with ' a smaller one under it and on the wrong side of the garment, which will prevent the cloth from tearing. each button should have the same num- ber of holes. the stitches should never be crossed - margaret blair system but sewed lengthwise (as illustrated). place a pin across the top of the button, then, after sewing it on_ securely, remove the pin, which will loosen the stitches then bring the needle out between the top button and the cloth, and wind the thread tight- ly around the stitches four times. this will allow room for the buttonhole. fasten the thread by bringing the needle through to the wrong side, and' taking several stitches under the small button. in sewing on buttons for other garments, place a pin across the top, and, after removing it, bring the needle out between the button and the material, wind the thread tightly around the stitches, as in sewing on the cloak button. bring the needle through to the wrong side, and fasten by taking several stitches over each other. a boot button or one with a shank, should be sewed on over and over, the stitches being length- wrse. there are different ways of putting on hooks and? eyes. ' for the outside of a garment they are button- holed (as illustrated). when they are to be cov- ered, they are sewed on over and over. always sew on the hooks firmly through the rings and: across the shank, close to the turn. sew on the eyes through the rings and across each side of the eye itself. under the name of crochet and loop, this form of, fastening was in use as early as the th century. . part ll garment drafting index page system of grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . implements used in cutting and making gar- ments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . instructions for taking measures . . . . . . . . . . sleeve measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . child’s drawers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . child’s night gown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . child’s apron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. child’s waist and sleeve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . drawers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . under skirt . . . . . . . . . . .l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . night gown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . chemise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . corset cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. shirt waist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. plain \vaist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t sleeves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the french bias dart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the seamless waist . . . . . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . princess dress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dress skirt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . boy’s sailor \vaist and collar . . . . . . . . . . . .. boy’s sleeve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . boys’s pants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . introduction. in submitting to the public the result of years of labor and experience, i feel that i am responding to a genuine need and filling a place that has long been vacant or at best but inadequately filled by the use of patterns. my system is primarily for use in drafting underclothing, aprons and child- ren’s dresses, but it can also be used with the best of results in dressmaking. this system is so sim- ple that it can be taught to children, and therefore might, without difficulty, be used in the public schools. . . beauty in personal appearance is often almost destroyed by the lack of knowledge how not to spoil the beautiful gift of nature. this knowl- edge can be best inculcated in the children, and a wonderful change would soon be noticed in the appearance of young women, if in the public schools the little girls were taught what is proper to wear and how to make their clothing. the art of sewing really antedates history, for the first clothing of man, the skins of animals, were rough- ly sewn together, yet it has never, until recently, been developed scientifically along utilitarian lines. as an art, sewing has long been popular and the knowledge of making tapestries, embroideries and other beautiful needlework has, for centuries, been thought much of, but the more useful art of making garments and making them beautifully has been allowed to lie unused. the problem of putting this art on a scientific basis and making . of it a part of the education of women is now being solved. a hundred years ago our great-great-grand- mothers were employing nearly all of their time—- not only in making garments to wear—but in— spinning and weaving the cloth of which they were made, and in addition to this, all of the table linen, bed linen and towels must be manu- factured by the maidens’ own hands. no doubt this constant employment became at times irk- some, but fingers were deft and the end toward which she was striving was most alluring, name~ y, a well-filled linen chest and a large stock of clothing, which we know the young matron of had in store. and she was proudly conscious that everything was perfect of its kind, for every thread had been woven and every stitch taken by her own indus- trious fingers. has there ever been a woman, i wonder, who has not felt the deepest pride in her own handiwork, if she is so fortunate as to know how to use her hands? these are her best ser- vants, but, like all servants, they must be trained or they can not obey the dictates of her mind. in order to reach the state of cultured woman~ hood toward which we all aspire we must study something besides literature and the arts—we must study civilized dressing. a bird sings its sweetest notes after its morning bath is taken and its feathers plumed; so will we all do better any- thing we undertake if we know how to dress well and suitably. lve may think that the making of garments and keeping them in' repair is a thing to which we do not wish to become a slave. then let us master this art, and when we know how, it will all become so easy that it will not take up so much of the precious time which we long to de~ vote to other things. system of grading. the understanding of principles makes the work easy, hence the first thing in the course is the in- culcating of those principles which are the foun- dation of needlework. the first grade pupils are taught the different stitches used in sewing; basting, the different seams, hemming, patching, flannel stitches, but- tonholing and darning. for children we arrange the work somewhat differently, using an open canvas for the first sam- pler stitches which are sewn with bright colored thread on a gray or brown canvas. hemming, patching, darning and button holing should be taught as second and third grade work in chil- dren’s classes, and for them the work should be kept simpler in all its grades than for older pu- pils. the aim should be to 'see that each step in the work has been so thoroughly taken that the next step becomes easy. if properly taught and the child has taken up the primary work at the age of six, she should be able to make her own dresses by the time she is fourteen. for older pupils the drafting and making of underwear should be taught in the second grade. the third grade pupils may be taught the draft- ing and making of shirt waists and cotton dresses. garment drafting the fourth grade work consists of the drafting and making of children’s garments. after these steps have been taken, dressmaking may be taken up, and to become a finished dressmaker requires from one to two years of study. implements used in cutting and mak- ing garments. in work of any kind success depends largely up' on the tools used and this is especially true in garment making. the first thing needful is a suitable pair of shears. scissors and shears are made in various sizes and styles; strictly speaking, every pair over six inches in length should be called shears. bent shears are best for cutting heavy material as they are so shaped as to raise the material as little as possible from the table. avoid dropping your shears or scissors upon the floor as the concussion they thus sustain often loosens their adjustment and may cause uneven cutting. the next implement with which the work basket should be supplied is the needle. needles have been used by women of every country, in every age. the common sewing needle is made from steel wire and is manufactured almost exclusively in england. three kinds of needles are in use for ordinary sewing; they are sharps, ground- downs and betweens. of these sharps are the longest and betweens are the shortest. grounddowns are best for school work and for all beginners. all needles are numbered from to ; number being the coarsest and number the finest. margaret blair system always use thread the size of the warp of the material upon which you are working. do not use too long a thread and always cut your thread,- never bite or break it. use a number needle with number to thread and a number nee- dle with number to thread. a small pin cushion well supplied with the best pins is a necessary adjunct to the work basket. those made of aluminum are excellent and do not rust. thimbles made of aluminum are also very good and do not soil or irritate the finger. the other articles belonging to the work box are a inch tape line, an emery bag and a piece of wax. in all the illustrations in this volume each square, the sides of which measure three-six- teenths of an inch, represents a full inch. garment drafting instructions for taking measures. first tie a cord tightly around the waist so as to find correct 'waist line. the first measure taken is the neck measure and is taken around the fullest part of the neck. in taking the bust measure stand behind the person and measure over the fullest part of the bust. ‘ the waist measure should be taken tightly around the foot of the waist. _ the front measurement is taken from the cen- ter of back of neck to waist line in front. the length of back is taken from back of neck straight down to waist line, another back meas- urement is taken from the shoulder to waist line, this is sometimes called the back balance. the under arm measure is taken from well up under the arm straight down to the waist line. the chest measure is taken straight across the chest. width- of back is taken straight across the widest part of back. the shoulder measure is taken from neck to shoulder point. ' dart no. is measured from waist line to fullest part of bust. ' dart no. is measured one-half inch higher than dart no. . margaret blair system sleeve measurements. the arm’s eye measurement is taken around the arm just below the shoulder bone. the next measure is from shoulder to elbow, the next from elbow to wrist. the elbow measure is taken around elbow with elbow half bent. the inside measure is taken from the hollow of elbow to arm’s eye. the hand measure is taken around the fullest part of the hand. garment drafting child’s draivers. to make a pair of child’s drawers requires from one to one and one-half yards of material. two measurements are taken, the first, around the smallest part of the waist; the second, from the waist line over the hip to the knee. first measure on fold of paper the required length from bottom up, then mark for the width of bottom one-half of band measure. to find seat line, measure downward from five-eights of the length to ; from this point meas- ure out three-fourths of the length, then connect this point with by an inward curve. to find width of top, measure out from four- sevenths of band and mark, from this point meas- ure up two and one-half inches to , connect with at seat line by a straight line and connect and by a straight line. _ place the pattern on the folded material having the bottom on a woof thread, pin and cut accord- ing to the pattern. make an opening on each side and finish with a gusset. garment drafting seven inches long and measure down two, inches to , from this point measure five inches to then from top of line out one and one-half inches to . from measure out eight inches to . measure one inch above out one-half of the chest meas- ure, this line will be . draw the neck curve , then the length of the shoulder measuring from and connect the shoulder with by an inward curve, then connect with by an outward curve which will be . for the sleeve measure on fold of paper the length of inside measure, always adding three and one-half inches for the curve at the top. measure up from one-half inch to , then up the length of the inside to , then out the width desired and mark . slope two and one'half inches in at the wrist or more if desired. draw a curved line , beginning four inches in from the top of fold to ; from draw a curved line to the edge of fold. connect and with the line and and with the line . another very good pattern for a child’s night gown is out exactly like the child’s apron on page with the exception of the neck which is cut like the child’s “’aist, on page . margaret blair system child’s apron. for the back draw a horizontal line the length of the paper. from to measure three and one-fourth inches; from to the length of back; from to the under arm measure; from to the length from waist to bottom of skirt; is one and one half inches from dot- ted line; is always seven inches from dotted line and marks the shoulder slant. is the width of back adding on one and one-quar~ ter inches to bring the seam under the arm. is the width on waist line slanting out one inch. is the back balance. is the shoulder, marks the arm’s eye curve, the neck curve, is the slanting line below waist line and is a slightly curved line at the bottom. for the front draw a horizontal line the length of your paper. is two inches from top of line; from to is five inches for a child, from to is the length of the under arm measure; from to is the length below the waist line; is two inches out from top of line; from to is always eight inches; from to is the bust line which is obtain- ed by subtracting the width of back from the bust measurement, and making the back one and one- 'quarter inches wider. this must be taken off on the front. is the slant on the waist line; is the garment drafting garment drafting . back on waist line to shoulder point and deter- mines where the shoulder seam should be; is the arm’s eye curve. for the front, draw a horizontal line the length of paper. from top of paper mark down two inches to . from to is always five inches, and from to is the underarm measure. now, from top of line mark out two inches to , from to mark out eight inches to get shoulder slant. from to is the bust measure after taking off the width of back. to is the width of waist line of front; to find how vvide to make the front measure the back on waist line and subtract from the waist measure, then mark the remainder out on temporary waist line from to . ' is the chest measure taken one inch above bust line; is the length of shoulder from out on shoulder slant; is the arm’s eye curve from shoulder to bust line touching chest line; . is the neck curve from to one and one-quarter inch be- low ; is the measurement used to get correct waist line and is taken from center of neck to waist line in front. the measurements taken for the child’s sleeve were as below and the sleeve was made for a child of seven. from shoulder to elbow, % inches. from elbow to wrist, % inches. inside from arm’s eye to elbow, inches. elbow, inches. hand, ; inches. first measure down from top of paper the length from shoulder to elbow to dotted line . from to the length from elbow to wrist; from margaret blair system to always mark off one and one-half inches for slant at wrist. from to mark the inside measure from el- bow to arm’s eye; from to always mark one and one-half inches for the curve of under sleeve. from top of line mark in four inches to ; from measure out~one-ha f of arm’s eye less one and one-half inches to . to is one and one-half inches more than one-half of arm’s eye measure. from mark off one-half of the distance from to , this gives the line to . from always mark in one and one-half inches for curve; from mark off one-half less one inch of elbow measure to . from to is one inch more than one- half of elbow measure. measure from to one- half inch and mark from to one-half of hand measure less one inch. from to one inch more than half of hand measure. connect and with straight line; to an inward curve; from to an outward curve; from to an outward curve; to top of line with an outward curve; to is an outward curve and to an in- ward curve. for the collar mark down one inch to and out from top of line one-half of neck measure, then mark in one-half inch to . from mark down one inch to . at the end of top line mark down one inch, connect and with an inward curve which is the top of the collar. connect and with a straight line which is the center of front, and connect and with an outward curve. this curve is joined to the neck of the dress. garment drafting drawers. for a pair of drawers two to two and one-half yards of material, thirty-six inches wide is re- quired. if lace is used for trimming, one and one- half the width of the bottom is required, but if embroidery is used, but one and one-third the width will be needed. ' two measurements are required for drafting drawers. the first is the band measurement and is taken around the waist, the second is the length and is measured from the waist over the hip to the knee. on fold of paper measure from bottom up the required length and mark at . at bottom from fold of paper measure out one-half of band meas- ure which is the width of bottom of drawers and mark . for the seat line, measure down from one-half of the length to ; from this point meas- ure out three-quarters of the length for width of seat, then connect and by an inward curve. for width of top of front, measure from four- sevenths of the band measure to , from this point measure up two and one-half inches and mark , connect with by a slightly inward curve and connect and by a straight line. for back of drawers measure out from three inches and mark , then measure from up two garment drafting pattern from one of the edges and pin together, place the pattern even with the raw edge of the cloth and pin firmly, out both thicknesses by the back and trace the front; remove the pattern and cut the upper fold of cloth by the tracing; cut the other leg by placing the one already cut on the cloth with the right sides together and the bottom on a woof thread of the material. make with felled seams and finish with gussets. garment drafting night go'wn. the night gown, chemise and shirt waist illus- trated in this volume were all cut from the fol- lowing measurements: neck . bust . waist . front %. back . back balance %. under arm %. chest . width back %. shoulder %. back: ' draw a“ horizbntal line seven inches long one inch from the edge of the paper. always mark down one-fourth of an inch for the curve at the neck to , then from measure down four inches to and the bottom of the yoke is . measure out from the top one and one-half inches to , then from measure out eight inches to . measure out from one-half of the width of-the back to and up from one inch. measure on shoulder slant the length of the shoulder from and come up one-half an inch and connect and with very slight inward curve. connect with the mark an margaret blair system inch above with an inward curve, this line is . then make the curve, at the bottom of yoke. for the front, commence two inches in from the edge of paper and draw a horizontal line eight inches long; first mark down two inches to , then measure down six inches from to or the length of the yoke. at top of line measure out two inches to ; from measure out nine inches to get the slant of the shoulder; at measure out the width of chest and come up one inch at the arm to , then connect and and measure on this line beginning at , the length of the shoulder and mark ; now draw the neck curve, making it one and one-fourth inches below . for a twelve inch neck measure, make the back of the neck one and one-half inches and for the front come out two inches and down from , one and one-half inches; for every inch larger add one- eighth inch and for every inch smaller take off one— eighth. " ' connect and by an inward curve and and by a slight outward curve. . the measurements taken for this night gown sleeve were: arm’s eye , shoulder to wrist , inside arm’s-eye to wrist , hand . for the night gown sleeve take the inside meas- ure of the arm and add to it'five inches for the curve at the top. measure thewhole length on fold of paper. -. from mark up the length of inside measure to , then mark from up one inch to . measure out from the desired width and mark, also meas- ure‘ out from the width desired at top of sleeve and mark, from this point, draw the curve to garment drafting within four and one-half inches of . from the same point draw the curve for the under part of the sleeve. connect the top of sleeve with the wrist by a straight line then finish with curved line at bottom. to make the night gown hang evenly, measure from bust line all around the correct length. overhand the gores and sew up in french seam. 'another excellent pattern for a night gown is out exactly like the shirt waist on page with the exception of the two lines which should be changed from curved lines to slanting lines from the bust line to bottom of night gown. margaret blair system chemise. back:— draw a horizontal line two inches in from the edge of paper, measure down one-fourth inch from top line to , from to is four inches, from to is the length of back to waist and from to is the under arm measure. now, begin at top and measure out one and one-half inches for neck to , (for a neck measure exceeding twelve inches see neck scale in night gown). from to always measure out eight inches to get the shoulder slant; from to is the width of back, adding one and three-fourth inches to bring the seam far enough under the arm as no under-arm piece is used in this gar- ment. connect and .by an inward curve. is the shoulder and is made two inches wide; is the arm’s eye curve; is the neck curve from shoul- der to three-fourths of an inch above . a square neck may be made by following the‘dotted lines. is an inward curve to waist line. the dotted lines show the fullness allowed in the back, more may be allowed if desired. > front:— draw a line three inches in from edge of paper; is two inches from top, from to always meas- garment drafting ure six inches; to is the under arm measure- ment. for measure out two inches from top of line (see neck scale in night gown). from to always measure nine inches for shoulder slant; to is the bust line which is obtained the same as in corset cover, but as we have made the back one and three-fourths inches wider this amount must be taken from the front. is the chest line taken one inch above the bust line and out one- half of chest measurement. is the shoulder two inches wide; is the arm’s eye curve from shoul- der to bust line and touching chest line; is the neck curve from shoulder to one inch above chest measure. the neck may be made square by fol- lowing the dotted lines. garment drafting garment drafting line two inches from edge of paper. measure down two inches from top to , from to always measure six inches. from to is the under arm measure. from top of line measure out two inches to (see neck scale in night dress). always measure out nine inches from to , to get the shoulder slant. get the bust line and under arm seam the same as in the chemise. the dotted line, to , is our temporary waist line, is the chest measure taken one inch above bust line and out one-half of chest measurement. is the length of shoulder and is drawn out on the shoulder slant. is the inward curve from shoulder to bust line and touching chest line. is the neck curve from to one and one-half inches below (see neck scale in night dress). is an inward curve from to waist line; is the front measurement; is our waist line; is an out- ward curve three inches down and slanting one and one-half inches. ‘ in making this waist use french seams for the sleeves and under arm seams. in putting on the yoke, cut the outside on the bias and the lining straight. sew the front of shoulder to the lining of shoulder in back, then sew the outside of back shoulder over on the seam. in sewing in the sleeve the seam of sleeve should come from to } inches in front of under arm seam and the full- est part of the gathers should come just in front of the shoulder seam. the bishop or leg of mutton sleeve is used in the shirt waist. the cufi is a straight band ten inches wide and three inches long. the neck band is one and one- 'garment drafting plain waist. , the same measurements were taken for this waist as for the corset cover. for the back, draw a horizontal line the length of paper. is one-fourth of an inch from top of line; is four inches from . mark from to the length of back to waist. from to is the under arm measure. begin at the top and mark out one and one-half inches—this for a twelve inch neck measurement, see neck scale in night gown—to . from to always mark out eight inches to get the shoulder slant, from to is the width of back, from mark up one inch to get the curve for the arm’s eye. from at waist line, first mark off three-fourths of an inch for the slant in the back, then one and one-fourth inches for width of back at waist line, then space three- fourths of an inch; for the side body mark off two inches to (this for a twenty-four inch waist meas- ure). since for a twenty-four inch waist the two back forms together will measure three and one- fouth inches at waist line, allowing one and one- fourth inches for back and two inches for side body, then for each additional inch in the waist measurement allow one fourth of an inch, one-- eighth on back and one-eighth on side body. for each decreasing inch in the measurement take a like amount. garment drafting half the front we divide this by two, which would give us eleven and one-fourth. from mark in two and one-half inches to for the under arm piece; from the waist line, , draw a straight line, , extending one inch above ; is the dotted line from to waistline; is the chest measurement taken one inch above the bust line and out one- half of chest measure. . _ 'is the length of shoulder; this line is marked out on shoulder slant five and one-half inches. now make the arm’s eye curve, , from shoulder to bust line and touching chest line; is the curve one-half an inch in from top of line to bust line. now draw a curve from the one-half inch point, extending down two and one-half inches and con- necting with the line . is the neck curve from shoulder to one and one-half inches below —-see neck scale in night gown. is the front measurement and deter- mines the permanent waist line. is the first dart one and one-half inches in from front line. always make the first dart smaller than the other. to find the quantity to put into the darts measure the back which in this figure is six and one-half inches, subtract this from the waist meas- ure which is twenty-four, this leaves seventeen and one-half which, divided by two-makes one- half the pattern or eight and three-fourths inches; then measure out on waist line eight and three- fourths inches and the quantity we have left for the darts in this figure is three and one-half inch- es, so mark f one and one-half inches for the first one and two inches for the other, . 'always leave a space of three-fourths of an inch between the darts. is the straight dart, the dart lines - margaret blair system are curved “to the waist line and straight below, they are just half as large at the bottom as at the waist line. is slightly slanted toward the back and is one-half inch higher than the first dart. is an outward curve three inches down from waist line, , and slanting one and one-half inches; is an outward curve three inches down and slant- ing one and one-fourth inches; is an outward curve slanting three-fourths of an inch. the trimmings needed for a plain waist are two yards of silesia, sewing silk, button hole twist, basting cotton, buttons or hooks and eyes, three whale bones and yards of bone casings. always cut your waist lining crosswise of the silesia. in basting the material onto the lining hold lining slightly full from two inches above the waist line to one and one-half inches below it. great care must be taken to hast the seams of a basque according to the tracing marks; always begin basting at waist line, first basting up then from waist line downward. after the waist is- basted try it on. after the seams are sewed take out the bastings, pare the seams, making notches at the waist line to allow for the curving of the dress. the under- arm seams may be left wider than the others so that the waist may be altered. overcast the seams closely or if in silk, bind them with a narrow silk binding, then press open. in sewing the whalebone casing which should be single casing, hold it full; if possible soak the whale bone over night before using, then place in the seam and fasten firmly every inches; sew through the bone in finishing. margaret blair system garment drafting sleeves. the measures taken for the sleeves illustrated here are as follows: ' arm’s eye, inches. shoulder to elbow, inches. elbow to wrist, inches. inside elbow to arm’s eye, % inches. elbow, inches. hand, inches. for the plain coat sleeve, first draw a horizontal line. from to is the length from shoulder to elbow, to the length from elbow to wrist. for mark up two inches from , to is the inside measure from elbow to arm’s eye, from to al- ways mark up one and one‘half inches, from to mark half the arm’s eye, from to measure out half of arm’s eye and always add on four inches. from to measure out one-fourth of arm’s eye, from measure in two and one-half inches; from to measure 'one-half the elbow measure less one inch, and for the upper piece, to meas- ure one-half the elbow measurement plus one inch. our elbow measure is inches then the under part of sleeve would be four and one-half inches wide and the upper side would be six 'and one-half inches in width. for wrist measure in one-half inch from to and divide the hand measure, garment drafting margaret blair system waist measure which is twenty-four inches, this leaves seventeen and one-half inches, divide this by two as we are making but one-half the pattern, then measure out eight and three-fourths inches on waist line and the quantity left on this line is the quantity we have to put in the darts. in this figure we have five and one-half inches for the darts, we measure of one and one-half inches for the first dart and four inches for the other which in the illustration is marked . always leave three-fourths of an inch between the darts, is the center of the first dart, the outlines to the waist are curved but straight below and one-half as large at bottom as at waist. marks the center of the second dart which extends one-half inch higher than the first. is an outward curve extending down three inches and slanting one and one-half inches, is an outward curve extending down three inches and slanting one and one-fourth inch, is an outward curve slant- ing three-fourths inch. garment drafting l | + ; ‘ ‘ cs .jq—l ’- [ . .’ ~> garment drafting . front.—'- . ' for the front draw a straight line two inches from the edge of paper, measure down two inches from top to , from to always measure down six inches, from to measure the length of un-_ derarm. begin at top and measure out two inch- es to (see neck scale in night gown). from measure out nine inches to for shoulder slant, to is the bust line to- get which see description of plain waist, but for the princess dress add two inches to the bust line, these, two inches are used in the under arm dart. from measure in two and one-half inches to and from two inch- ’ es to . - is the same distance from front as , from to measure two and one-half inches and from to measure two inches, is the ' straight line extending from at waist line to one inch above and curving in one-half inch at top, is a slightly curved line connecting with ,. connects with , is length of shoulder measured on shoulder slant from , is the chest measurement and is taken one inch above bust line and out one-half of chest measure, is the arm’s eye curve from shoulder to bust line and touching chest line, is a curve from top of line to , is the neck curve from to one and one-half inches below , is the front measure- ment, is the first dart, the second (to get size of darts see description of them 'in plain waist.) marks the straight line in center of first dart and marks the second which is slight- ly slanting. is a curved line extending below waist, is a curved line slanting three-fourths of an inch and is a curve slanting one and one- fourth inches. ,/ fexrmlaxr drafting ' line, is an “outward curve beginning one inch below the dotted line marking width of back, ex- tends to the “next'mark on waist line and mark the curve ot side body. is a slanting line extend» ing five inches down from waist line and slant- ing outward three-fourths inch, extends down . five inches and slants three-fourths inch, ex- tends down five inches and slants one and one- fourth inches, is an outward curve, extending down five inches and out one and one-half inches. for the front of jacket draw a horizontal line two inches from the edge of paper, measure down two inches fromtop and mark , from to is always six inches, to is the length of under arm measure. measure out two inches from top of line to (if more than twelve inches neck meas- ure' see neck scale in night g wn).’ from to measure out nine inches for shoulder slant, to is the bust line, (to get bust line follow descrip- tion given in plain waist), measure in three inch- es from to for, under arm piece. from one inch above to the waist line is a straight line , is the dotted line from to waist line, is ~ the chest measurement and is taken one inch above the bust line and out one-half of chest meas- urement. is the length of shoulder and is measured out on shoulderslant from , is the arm’s eye curve from shoulder to bust line, touch- ing chest line, is the neck curve from shoulder to one and one-half inch below (see neck scale in night gown). ' is the front measurement, is the waist line, is an outward curve extend- ing five inches below the waist line and slanting two inches, is a curved line slanting two inch~ es, is a curved line slanting one inch. margaret blair system measure out eight inches and at the bottom eight~ een inches. from the five inch mark at top draw a curved line to mark on hip line and a straight line from this point to the eighteen inch mark at bottom. on straight edge at top curve off one- half inch, draw the curve at top from the one inch mark to five inch mark, measure the length down on gored edge and mark, make a curved line at bottom and cut by pencil marks. for side gore no. , first mark down one and one-half inch on edge of paper, from this mark measure the length, at the top mark out three inches, from this point measure out eight inches and at bottom measure out twenty-two inches. connect this point with mark at top by a straight line, measure the length on this edge and mark, draw the curve at the top. from the three inch mark at top curve slightly about six inches down then from this on a straight line to edge of paper at bottom. draw a curved line at bottom. for the back gore, mark down on fold of pa per one-half inch, then the length. from fold at top measure out four and one-half inches and at bottom measure out fifteen inches, draw the curve at top. connect the points on gored edge with a straight line and measure length on this line. then draw curve at bottom. - this skirt when finished is about four and one- half yards around the bottom. in making a dress skirt see that you have plenty of material for it will not do to piece the material crosswise. for the lining, if of silk, ten yards is required, of percaline five and one-half yards or eight yards of garment drafting cambric. double the lining crosswise, lay pat- tern on and pin firmly. after cutting lining lay the interlining on it (if the interlining is of hair cloth it should always be shrunk before using). cut the interlining from four to five inches wide, baste interlining on lining and stitch at the top of interlining, (if of haircloth it must be bound at the top. new lay material on the table place lining on it with interlining between, smooth the material carefully from top toward bottom. first baste through the center always beginning at top; baste top and sides and so on until all the gores are basted. baste the gores together always begin- ning at the top. try on the skirt to see that it fits nicely around the hips; if darts are needed make them in lining and stretch material over them. when stitching the cams always begin at the top. pull the basting threads out of the seams and press thoroughly. now make the belt which should be of silk or some firm lining mater- ial; cut it on the bias two and one-half inches wide and the length of waist measure, adding one and one-half inch for making. now take a strong cord, (wrapping cord will do) double it and twist, fold your belt in center, lengthwise, run the cord through and stitch on the machine, turn the ends in nicely and overhand. before putting belt on overcast around the top of skirt and seams. to put the belt on the skirt find the centre of front gore and begin there; always hold the skirt next you and slightly full. when you have b'asted the belt on try on the skirt to see that it hangs evenly all round the bottom. when it hangs evenly margaret blair system overcast the bottom and baste the velveteen on. now stitch the belt where it was basted and hem down nicely on the right side of skirt. for fastening skirt belt use a large hook and eye in the back of the belt, sew on three eyes to fasten to waist and two loops to hang the skirt up by. present trends in home sewing dren's garments. however, many of the women made garments for children when there were no children in the family. as the size of the community increases the percentage of women making from to kinds of garments for women and for girls over years of age increases. the largest percentages of women making the most different kinds of garments for women and girls were in the rural districts and the small towns. the size of the community seems to have little or no effect on the percentage making from to kinds of garments but causes the greatest variation in the groups making to kinds. in the classification by income the percentage of women making to kinds of garments for women and for girls over years old increases with the income. approximately half of the women in the $ , to $ , and the $ , to $ , groups made to kinds. throughout all the income groups there was least variation in the percentages making to kinds. in all groups the percentage of women making children's clothes decreases as the size of the community increases. classified by in- come groups the number answering in most cases is too small to afford any definite comparisons. in table is given the percentage of women having children under years of age and younger who made the children's garments named in the questionnaire. table .—proportion of women making garments for children under years of age, classified by size of community and by income groups, and based on the number of families having children under ib years of age witb ta percentage of women making garments— bo number of families children women not answerin question rompers cotton dresses wool dresses cotton suits wool suits shirts coats night garments drawers or bloomers petticoats | w per cent . pa. cent . per per per per cent . per per cent . per cent . per per per per cent . summary of all reports. , cent . cent . cent . cent . cent . cent . cent . size of community: rural . . . . . . . . . . . . . under , . . . . . . . . . . . . . , to , . . . . . . . . . . . . . over , . . . . . . . . . . . . . not given . . . . . . . . . . . . . income: under $ , . . . . . ( . t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ , to $ , - $ , to $ , . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ , to $ , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ , to $ , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ , or over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . from the summary it will be noted that a larger percentage of women made night garments than made any other garment. it is also shown that per cent made coats and per cent made hats for their children. in this group a much higher percentage ( . ) of the women than in table ( . ) failed to answer the question. use and care i university of virginia library i i i i ii u.s. department of agriculture federal extension service pa- how to teach sewing machine use and care step - how to sit and run a sewing machine - - step - how to guide fabric - - step - how to stitch - - step - how to thread sewing machine - bobbin and bobbin case - - step - how to thread sewing machine - upper threading - - step - how to strengthen seams with backstitching - - step - how to regulate stitch length - - step - how to stitch corners and curves - step - how to test the stitch for tension - - step - how to take care of your sewing machine - remove dust and lint often - step - how to take care of your sewing machine - where to oil inside face plate and bobbin case - - step - how to take care of your sewing machine - where to oil underneath and on top - - step - how to clean up machine after oiling - step - how to change a needle - - for the instructor - more about sewing machine needles for the instructor - what to check if the sewing machine does not sew - - threading charts for different sewing machines - - this publication was prepared by a committee headed by alice linn, clothing specialist, home economics division, federal extension service, in cooperation with the singer company. illustration credits) top, page , courtesy utah state extension service; bottom, page , fes. all other illustrations are furnished by the singer company as a public service, and are copyrighted by the singer company. the use of commercial names does not constitute on endorsement of a product by the department of agriculture to the exclusion of other products which may be suitable. step how to sit at and run a sewing machine do these things before you begin to teach open sewing machine . set length of stitch at do not thread machine have the presser foot up instructor shows: . how to sit at the machine body centered with needle . feet flat on floor sit back on chair or stool lean forward slightly, back straight, arms resting lightly on table "sitting right helps you sew better and keeps you from getting tired." . how to run a sewing machine show how to start machine how to put "hands down" for safety how to keep an even speed how to stop . how to lower the needle into the fabric near the end of the seam. . how to lower the presser foot. . how to start stitching and to run machine slowly while guiding seam edge against seam guide. . how to stop machine near end of seam. . how to turn hand wheel to bring needle out of fabric and takeup lever to its highest point. . how to raise presser foot. then remove seam by gently pulling material back. keep needle thread between toes of presser foot. remove material. bring take-up lever up. raise presser foot. . how to strengthen seam end when machine does not backstitch . tie threads or start at seam edge, stitch / ". . start again at seam edge without breaking the threads. . do the same at the end of the seam. students do: make seams with backstitching at start and end. "form the habit of doing things right. then you do them without thinking about the next step." - - step how to regulate stitch length do these things before you begin to teach student threads sewing machine . give student pieces fabric for practice instructor tells and shows: . most sewing machines have numbers on the stitch regulator. . numbers such as , , , , and mean the number of stitches in one inch. . the larger numbers are for shorter stitches. the smaller numbers are for longer stitches. stitch on fabric to show what you have told your student. measure and mark inch, and count the stitches. . a stitch length is used for most things you will sew - stitch is used for lightweight fabrics. stitch is used for heavy fabrics. . stitch is used for sewing machine basting. . how to change stitch length on different kinds of sewing machines. . turn thumb screw or thumb nut to left to loosen... move lever to number for stitch length...tighten screw. - - what to check if the sewing machine does not sew . if the machine runs but will not make a stitch - check the threading - thread guides, tension or take-up lever may not have been threaded in the proper order. —the needle may not have been threaded in the right direction. if the needle has not been threaded in the right direction, the machine will not form a stitch and the top thread will loon and break. —the bobbin may not have been put in with the thread pulling off in the right direction. —the thread may not be under the bobbin tension. —if the needle has not been put into the machine with the long groove in the right direction, the machine will not form a stitch and the top thread will loop or break. . if the machine runs but makes a loose stitch with loops underneath - check the threading of the tension - thread sometimes gets behind the tension discs instead of between them. make sure the thread passes under the fine wire spring, called "take-up spring," at the tension. check the bobbin - the thread may be pulling off the bobbin verv hard or heavy. a bent bobbin will not turn freely in the bobbin case. it will cause the bobbin thread to draw. check the bobbin case - a machine with a removable bobbin case will make thread loops and loose stitches if the bobbin case is not put in right and the thread catches on the latch of the case. . if the hand wheel will not turn and the needle will not go up and down - check the bobbin case area for tangled thread - to free the machine and make the needle come up, force the hand wheel back (away from vou). this backward force will usually break or cut the threads that are iammed in the bobbin case area. remove all the thread pieces before you try to stitch, otherwise another thread jam will form. - - hm\lil/iwmiqinhiihihiiwiiiii extension scni ' '— . . dcparlmcm of agriculture-pa- / fabrics and notl n s jacket fabric there are many exciting fabrics available for menswear today. woven fabrics which are traditionally popular for men include gab- ardines and flannels. woolen and worsted fabrics are found in such pattern designs as checks, plaids and tweeds. more casual fabrics, such as denims and chinos, made in cotton or cotton-synthetic blends, are popular for men’s suits, too. knits, available in polyester, wool or blends, are now being made in designs, textures, and weights for men's suits and jackets. these knits look different from the ones used in women’s clothes—the yarns are smaller and the fabric is more tightly constructed, result- ing in a firm knit suitable for tailoring. knits for men are designed to have especially good stability and wrinkle recovery. before cutting the fabric, pre-shrink wool and other non-washable fabrics, by having them steam-pressed by a reliable dry cleaner or by doing it yourself using the london-shrunk method. pre-shrink washable fabrics in the same way you plan to launder the finished garment. this will eliminate shrinkage and remove any excess fin- ishing solution which may cause skipped stitches. under-collar fabric for the undercollar, choose fabric which will be in keeping with the color and care requirements of the jacket. ' for a knit jacket, use a self-fabric undercollar. ' for a lightweight washable woven jacket, use a self-fabric undercollar. for a medium to heavy-weight washable woven jacket, use a polyester double knit undercollar. for a dry-cleanable woven jacket, use a tightly-woven wool flannel undercollar or special undercollar fabric. lining fabrics choose linings that are compatible with the fashion fabric in qual- ity, weight and care requirements. the fiber content should pro- vide strength and durability. even though the cost may be greater, polyester and nylon will wear much better than acetate. also, make certain the lining fabric is opaque so that the inner construction will not be visible. for jacket lining, use a medium weight synthetic or blend in a solid color or print with a smooth texture to coordinate with the jacket fabric. due to similar stretch and comfort properties, tricot makes a compatible lining fabric with a double knit. for pocket lining, use a firmly woven, lightweight polyester-cotton blend or a special stabilized nylon warp knit. interfacings for smooth, crisp shaping, interfacings must be used in a well-tail- ored jacket. fusible interfacings, developed originally to duplicate the look of hand-tailoring for the men's ready-to-wear industry, are available by the yard for home-sewers. these interfacings have a fusible agent on one side which secures the interfacing to the jacket fabric when steam and heat from the iron are applied. you will find fusibles are easy to use and a real time-saver because they eliminate the need for pad-stitching. pre-shrinking is recommended for all fabrics and notions before using them. the method selected depends on how you plan to care for the finished garment. the only exception is fusible interfacings. they should not be laundered or dry cleaned before use. they are damaged if washed before application, but are safely washable after they are in place. the fusible interfacings used in menswear tailoring may be woven or non-woven. there are two woven types: fusible hair canvas, very resilient and good for shaping, and fusible interfacing ( with- out goat's hair), softer but providing body and stability. of non- woven types, the only one we recommend for menswear is the fus- ible interfacing with one-way stretch. for jacket front, chest pieces, and undercollar, the best shaping is achieved with a fusible hair canvas which pro- vides resiliency as well as firmness. however, if fusible hair canvas is unavailable, or if jacket fabric is a lightweight washable woven, use the fusible inter- facing witho'ut goat's hair or non-woven with one-way stretch, as used for detail areas below. since it doesn’t have the body or weight of hair canvas, it is fused to the jacket front facing and the upper collar in addition to the jacket front, chest pieces and undercollar. ' for detail areas, such as cuffs, lapel tips, pocket flaps, vents and hems, use a fusible interfacing without goat's hair or a non-woven with one-way stretch. this softer inter- facing provides the right amount of body to stabilize these areas. for pocket welts and underlays, use a fusible web to sta- bilize the area. ' machine needles should be the correct size for the fabric you are using. for most menswear fabrics, either knit or woven, a size needle is suitable. the universal type nee- dle is designed for both knits and wovens. a blunt or burred needle can damage your fabric and thread, so be sure to change your machine needle often. if topstitching with buttonhole twist, you may want to use a size or larger needle. hand sewing needles are available in a wide range of types and sizes. we recommend sharps or embroidery needles. for easier threading, you may prefer embroidery needles, which have longer eyes but are otherwise like sharps. l measurements and to jot down the figures. the person being meas- ured should stand with normal posture, rather than assuming a straight, military stance with pulled-in stomach and thrown-out chest. for this reason, the measuring should not be done in front of a mirror. \vhere t )leasure take the following measurements and record them. you will use only the chest measurement to determine the size jacket pattern to buy. however, you must have all the other measurements for alter- ing the pattern. tie a string around the man’s waistline before you begin to measure. allowance for seams, hems or ease should not be considered when taking these measurements ( ): . height: measure when standing with normal posture without shoes, against a wall. figure type is partially deter- mined by height. . shoulder seam length: measure from base of neck at side of head (place a pencil behind the ear and bend head to the side to locate this point) to top of bone where arm connects to shoulder. . back width: measure across the shoulder from armhole to armhole, below the base of the neck as follows: " ( cm) for men, %” ( . cm) for teen boys, " ( cm) for boys. . chest: measure around the fullest part of chest. tape measure should pass under armpits. . back waist length: measure from the base of neck (prominent bone) to string at waistline. . front waist length: measure in the front from the base of neck at side of head (place a pencil behind the ear and bend head to the side to locate this point) to waistline. . arm length: bend arm at a right angle, measure from the bone at top of the arm, around the elbow to just below wrist- bone. . upper arm girgumfeeenge: measure around fullest part of upper arm with muscle flexed. . wrist: measure the circumference over the wristbone. . full hip (seat): measure around the fullest part of the seat. generally this falls " ( . cm) below the waist for men, " ( cm) for teen boys, and " ( cm) for boys. adjustment at each alteration line. otherwise, a decrease of " ( . cm) or less is made at the lower shortening line. for a two-piece sleeve, be sure to make the same alteration on both sections. cut and spread the pattern where needed; tape or pin edges to paper insert. redraw the cutting lines ( ). ii. width adjustments the most common width adjustments are in the waist and hip area. a. to widen or narrow the waistline and hiplinez refer to waistline and hip (seat) measurements. consider the total amount needed to be increased or decreased. alter each pat- tern piece accordingly. simply redraw the cutting and stitch- ing lines the amount needed, beginning at the bottom of jacket and tapering to "- "( . - cm) above the jacket waistline ( ). iii. special fitting problems the following adjustments are easier to make on your jacket mus- lin first. then transfer them to your pattern. a. square shoulders: just below the collar, wrinkles appear and pull toward the shoulder ( a). to correct this problem in the muslin, remove collar and open shoulder seams. lower collar about %" ( cm). taper shoulder line seam. some shoulder padding may need to be removed ( b). transfer this alteration from the muslin to the back pattern piece; re- draw the neckline and shoulder seam ( c). increase width b e. broad shoulders: horizontal wrinkles form across back and top of sleeves. the jacket may also pull across the chest area ( a). to correct this problem, refer to shoulder length measurement. this alteration is best done in the pattern be- fore the muslin is cut. however, to correct the muslin, re- move upper part of sleeve and refit toward edge of shoulder ( b). to transfer this alteration to the pattern, draw a line perpendicular from the middle of the shoulder seam, about " ( cm) long. connect the end of this line with a horizon- tal line extending to armhole. cut the pattern along this line, to, but not through, the cutting line of the armhole. at the shoulder line, spread the edges the necessary amount. re- draw the shoulder line ( ). f. narrow shoulders: armhole seams fall too low on the shoulders. wrinkles appear around armholes ( a). to cor- rect this problem, refer to shoulder length measurement. this alteration is best done in the pattern before the muslin is cut. however, to correct muslin, remove upper part of sleeve and refit, moving sleeve toward neckline ( b). to transfer this alteration to the pattern, draw a line perpendicular from the middle of the shoulder seam, about ” ( cm) long. con- nect the end of this line with a horizontal line extending to armhole. cut the pattern along this line, to, but not through, the cutting line of the armhole. at the shoulder line, lap the edges to take out the extra width. redraw the shoulder line ( ). c inner construction fusing interfacing cut interfacing for each section, following grainline on each pat- tern piece in addition to the directions given below. to avoid bulk, trim %" ( . cm) off the interfacing seam allowance; then, when the seams are stitched, v ” ( mm) of interfacing will be secured in the seams. fuse interfacing to your jacket fabric, following the manufacturer’s recommendations. as you press, be sure to overlap each pressed area slightly with the iron so interfacing fuses com- pletely. allow fused section to dry before working with it. stabilization for detail areas interfacing is fused to the detail areas first. extra support is needed here to prevent edges and points from curling. then, the entire garment section is fused with interfacing. for the following detail areas, use fusible interfacing without goat’s hair or non- woven with one-way stretch. lapel tip—cut interfacing about " ( cm) deep and a." ( cm) in from roll line and lapel edges ( ). this will prevent lapel tip from losing shape or curling up. underarm—to stabilize the underarm, cut interfacing and trim ‘é" ( . cm) off seam allowances ( a). ' pocket—to stabilize the area of a welt pocket which may extend into the side section, cut interfacing as shown; trim %" ( . cm) off seam allowance ( b). for a patch pocket, cut interfacing k" ( . cm) larger than the length and width of the pocket. after fusing, transfer pocket marking ( a). side hem, sleeve hem, back hem—to stabilize hem areas, cut interfacing so that it extends from hem fold line to / " ( mm) from bottom edge. trim %" ( . cm) off seam al- lowances ( b, , ). vent facing ( )—on the left back only (the part of the vent that forms the overlap), cut interfacing as shown, the width of the space from vent fold line to raw edges. trim %” ( cm) off one long edge; at bottom, trim interfacing even with hem fold line as shown. pocket flaps—for sharp edges with no bulk, cut interfac- ing and trim , " ( cm) off seam allowance edges ( a). ' patch pockets-—-to add support without bulk, cut interfac- e welt pocket v " ( cm) a - out -' " ( cm) front a ' patch pocket hem told line vunder sleeve‘ i | \ g l hem told line \ upper sleeve hem told line .fiil trim oft v " cm ( ‘p ) lettback ing just to the fold line at the top of pocket and trim %" ( cm) off seam allowance edges ( b). vent g: told line overall interfacing for jacket front and collar ;? for the following areas, use fusible hair canvas. hem ‘old line ' jacket front—for shaping and support, cut hair canvas from ‘ _; the jacket front pattem, as shown. if your jacket does not have a a side front seam, end the hair canvas at the underarm marking. y . i mm o" %,, eliminate hair canvas in hem area and trim %" ( . cm) off @ ? ( cm) seam allowances. to reduce bulk, trim /i" ( mm) off lapel tip ‘ ( ). interfacing is fused in place, covering the interfacing in i the lapel area. b for accuracy, transfer all markings such as roll line, pocket, dart and buttonholes, to the hair canvas after fusing. for chest piece placement, mark an additional line toward the armhole side of the roll line—- / " ( mm) away at top and %" ( . cm) at bottom ( ). told line if using fusible interfacing without goat's hair in the place of fusible hair canvas for jacket front, it is also necessary to interface the front facing. cut interfacing from the front facing pattern, as shown. eliminate interfacing in hem area and trim %" ( . cm) off seam allowances. to reduce bulk, trim / " ( mm) off lapel tip ( ). trim off a" ( mm) ' undercollar-for recommended undercollar fabric, see page . for less bulk, it is necessary to eliminate some seam allowances from your undercollar pattern. (see complete undercollar direc- tions, p. .) follow specific directions below; however, be sure to leave the center back seam allowance for joining a two-piece undercollar. for lightweight washable wouens only, trim off seam allowances on short unnotched ends of pattern ( ). to insure a better roll, the undercollar should be slightly smaller than the upper collar; if not, mark and trim /a " ( mm) off the two long edges. using the adjusted pattern, cut out undercollar and fusible interfacing without goat’s hair. on this interfacing, trim /i" ( cm) off long seam allowances ( ). after fusing, transfer roll line to interfacing. {y {t - i’pv'm-i > ndercollar i undercollar pattern - intertacin roll line i _, ‘ s for all other fabrics, trim off all outer seam allowances (not center back) of pattern. to insure a better roll, the undercollar should be slightly smaller than the upper collar; if not, mark and trim an additional / " ( mm) off the two long edges. using the same pattern, cut out undercollar from undercollar fabric and fusible hair canvas ( ). after fusing, transfer roll k line to fusible hair canvas. k b ) if using fusible interfacing without goat's hair in the place of fusible hair canvas for undercollar, it is also necessary to inter- face the upper collar. cut interfacing from upper collar pattern. on this interfacing, trim h" ( . cm) off long seam allowance which attaches to neck edge ( / " ( mm) of interfacing will be secured in the seam); trim %" ( cm) off long edge on opposite side; trim seam allowance off the ends. before cutting out jacket fabric, extend ends of upper collar pattern, following directions for upper collar, page . fuse interfacing in v " ( cm) place ( ). l upper collar interlacing two-piece undercollar i! ( cm) chest pieces either a fused or a floating chest piece may be used in your jacket. neck edge ( cm) a fused chest piece is cut from a remaining piece of hair canvas ' and fused in place over the interfaced jacket front. it can be cut to fit any size jacket. a floating chest piece is available pre-made in a kit which can be purchased or ordered through a fabric store. it is attached so that it will “float" over the interfaced jacket front after darts and upper pockets have been completed. the appearance and construction of this pre-made chest piece (non-fusible) is very similar to the type found in ready-to-wear garments. it comes in a range of sizes. when deciding which chest piece to use, availability and price may affect your choice. ‘ " cu‘ fused chest piece cut a piece of fusible hair canvas with the . ‘ mound grainline parallel to the shoulder line of your jacket front pattern. , cut chest pieces %" ( cm) from shoulder and armhole edges and along previously marked chest piece placement line. end the chest piece %’ ( . cm) above the bottom of the roll line. curve the a chest piece as shown to meet front seamline, cutting out area over " dart. mark position of upper welt pocket, if any. to eliminate (r bulk, mark and cut away hair canvas in pocket area, / " ( mm) cm _ outside pocket marking. fuse chest piece in place over previously . front fused hair canvas ( ). join jacket front to side section, if any. iq iq . to stitch bottom welt in place, fold jacket so bottom seam allowance of opening is exposed. using stitching line of open- ing as a guide, baste through seam allowances of jacket, pocket and welt. if welt is straight and even, stitch exactly over basting with regular machine stitches; back-tack ( ). . to stitch top welt permanently in place, fold jacket so top seam allowance of opening is exposed. stitch as for bottom welt. . to stitch sides of welts, fold jacket to expose base of triangles. carefully stitch back and forth several times at base of triangles through pocket and welt. this secures the trian- gles and sides of welts ( ). . grade bottom layer of welt to reduce bulk. zigzag over raw edges of welts, catching them to pocket only ( ). to avoid shine from iron when pressing, steam welt with a press cloth, using a pounding block to flatten welts. . flap: for the flap to roll slightly to the underside, trim va" ( mm) off sides and bottom of under flap. make sure interfacing has been fused securely to upper flap. with raw edges matching, stitch upper and under flaps, leaving top edge open. grade seam allowance; turn to right side; press. baste top edges of flap together, %" ( . cm) from raw edge. . slip flap under top welt, lining up basting stitches on flap with upper part of top welt; pin. if flap does not fit the open- ing perfectly, adjust side seams of flap accordingly. stitch in the ditch through all thicknesses to hold flap in place ( ). . fokming the pocket: fold pocket up, right sides to- gether, raw edges even; stitch side seams, rounding off bot- tom corners. (this prevents corners from becoming lint traps.) stitch again vs" ( mm) away ( ). . to hold top seam allowance of pocket in upward posi- tion, fold jacket to expose top edge of pocket. stitch across top of pocket, through all layers, vs" ( mm) away from pre- vious stitching ( ). jacket opening interfacing seam allowance pocket wrong side lin [nb this method for attaching the lining coordinates with the collar method that follows. the jacket facings are joined to the lining and then this facing-lining unit is stitched to the jacket by machine. when the collar is attached, the neck edges of both the jacket and lining will be enclosed. quality jackets, even in summer weight suits, almost always have full linings. however, if you prefer a half lining, follow directions below for altering the lining pattern. for a half lining, be sure the jacket fabric is opaque. in either full or half lining, the inside welt pocket and arm shields are optional. (‘lilting aml joining lining‘ . alterinc pattern ron faon'r pleat: to help eliminate strain from the contents of the inside welt pocket in a woven lining, a pleat can be provided for ease. (a pleat is not necessary for a knit lining.) if your pattern doesn’t have a pleat, the front lining pat- tern can be altered. slash front lining pattern " ( . cm) above bottom of armhole. add v " ( . cm) to pattern ( ). the entire full lining can now be cut out. . altering pattern for hale unrnc: for a half lining only, cut off back pattern " ( cm) below armhole ( ). eliminate center back pleat. cut out front lining as follows: for a jacket pattern without a side section, add a" ( cm) to front side seam allowance. for jacket pattern with a side section, add a" ( cm) to side back seam al- lowance ( ). this is done so that lining fabric will cover the jacket seam allowances. . forming front pleati mark the area added for pleat in seam allowances. fold top marks to meet bottom marks, forming a / " ( mm) pleat in lining. stitch pleat in place, " ( . cm) from raw edges ( ). . jornrnc facings to front lininc: join jacket facings to front lining. for ease in handling, make the inside welt pocket next, before the lining is completely assembled. tront lining back lining pattern out here for half lining !! ( cm) i! /% ( cm) y i i.___i __ _ third edition published by the butterick publishing company butterick building, new york paris london new york toronto copyrighl, i , by the bullerick publishing company t - "-‘ c o n t e n t s page chapter i—the necessary equipment p r dressmaking. . . . . . . chapter —but'l‘erlckpatterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . io chapter —altering the length of patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . i chapter —at.tering waist patterns for figures that vary from the average........................ chapter —alter ng skirt, yoke and drawer patterns for figures thatvaryfromtheaverage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . chapter —materials, sponging, cutting, etc . . . . . . . . . . . chapter ——wa sts, blouses and shirtwaists. part i—dress waists. chapter —waists,blous ':s and shirtwa|sts. part ii . . . . . . . chapter ()—skirts for ladies and misses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . chapter io—dresses for ladies, misses, girlsandchildren. . . . . chapter i —sail r r naval suits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . chapter -c ats and capes for ladies, misses, girls and children . chapter —h use dresses, negligf:es, kimonos, bathr bes, apr ns, bathing-suits and romp}-irs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . chapter i —making and finishing undergarments. . . . . . . . . . chapter i —maternitycl thes and the layette . . . . . . . . . . chapter t —sew ngst tches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . chapti' ri —seams..........-............... chapteri —hems......................... chapteri --facings........................ chapter —tucksandplaits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . ciiapter i—placke'i‘s............',.........ioo ch.-\pter -—pockets...............,..,.....i chapter ——c llars,cupes and belts . , . . . . . . . . . . . . io() chapter —butt nh les, eyelets, butt ns, patent fasteners, hooxs andeyesandblindl ps .,....,........ ii chapter —tr mming stitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . chapter -biastrimmings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i chapter —applied trimmings, ruffles, embroidery and lace. part i i chapter —appuedtrim hings. part ii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i the new dressmaker preface he best-dressed women in the world have their clothes made for them, on lines that are suited to their type, and in colors and materials that emphasize their good points and minimize their weak ones. women of wealth and fashion go to paris for their clothes. the woman of moderate means can not go to paris nor can she have her clothes made for her. the only way that she can be really well dressed is to make her clothes herself. she too can exercise her taste and discrimination in choosing the correct fashion, the new material, the charming color, the line that will make her look young, slender and elegant. and like the woman who wears french dresses, she can have clothes that are cut to fit her figure, that are not too long in the shoulder. too big under the arms, too low in the waist, or too short at the elbow. omen are so well trained in economics nowadays they will readily understand that in making their own clothes they pay for the bare materials and nothing else, and so efiect a tremendous saving which is further increased by the fact that they can buy a better quality of fabric that will lengthen the life of their clothes. with the present simple styles dressmaking was never as easy as it is now. com- pared to the elaborate trimmings of the “awful eighties” and even the whalebone and crinolines of later date, the extreme simplicity of the dresses of to-day has reduced the work of dressmaking to its lowest possible terms. trimming is so often in the form of effective but bold, easily executed embroidery, braiding, etc., for which you get the newest french designs in needle-art, the special butterick publication on this subject. thi : di-:i. .\'i:ator, butperick fashions and the butterick fashion sheet illustrate the latest french way of using the new trimmings and the little finishing touches that give a dress a parisian look. the object of this book is to enable a woman to make her clothes with the same per- fection of finish, the same attention to detail that she would receive in the atelier of a french dressmaker or in the workrooms of a fifth avenue establishment. the success of a dress depends on four things: style, material, construction and finish. he first is line or style. this you get from butterick patterns, which give you french fashions adapted to the needs of well-dressed american women. it does not give you conspicuous, ephemeral extremes. for example, when the french mannikins wore dresses which reached just below the knees at the same time that certain american manufacturers of ready-made clothes were making the very long lead-pencil skirt, butterick patterns kept to the smart conservative length of skirt used by the best-dressed parisians and new york women. you can absolutely rely on the styles given you in butterick patterns. an interesting collection of the latest paris and new york fashions appears each month in the delineator and butterick fashion sheet, and at the beginning of each season in butterigk fashions. you get every phase of the new fashions including the parisian conception of the french modes as sketched from the models of worth, the new dressmaker paquin, poiret, doucet, etc., to the simple practical versions prepared for american women. econd, the materials and colors which change every season stamp a. dress with its year mark. the new materials which are suitable for your dress, blouse, suit, etc., are given on the butterick pattern envelope. this information is also given every month in the delineator and every season in brrrrei-ucx fashions, where you see the actual colors and color combinations on the color pages. [n the third place, your dress must be cut and put together and finished with profes- sional skill and precision. the deltor, the very wonderful complement of the butterick pattern, shows you in pictures how to cut the garment and put it together and tells you how it should be finished. the deltor shows you in its illustrated layouts exactly how to place each size of each version of the pattern on material of every suitable width. the imyouts show how the pieces of the pattern can be laid out so as to use the least possible amount of material to give the right style efiect. if it is necessary to fold the material the lay- outs show where to fold it so that it will cut without waste. with the deltor it is possible to give what is lmown as “trick-lays"—that is, layouts planned by expert cutters, which save an eighth, a quarter or half a yard of material over the layout that a woman could plan for herself. with an inexpensive material these “trick-lays" save the price of a pattern, while with expensive material the saving amounts to two, four, six dollars or even more. with the saving made possible by the deltor the pattern itself costs nothing. the layouts give the correct position for each piece of the pattern in relation to the svlvedge so that it will be cut on the right grain of the fabric. if a garment is cut on the wrong grain it will have a bad style effect. the illustrated layouts save the woman the work of planning the cutting of her mate- rial. she simply copies in five minutes a layout that is the result of several hours’ work on the part of an expert. ‘it saves her time and gives her the benefit of an expert cutter's knowledge of grains and cutting lines. the butterick illustrated instructions are a series of pictures which show you how to cut and put your dress together step by step. for example, in making a skirt the first picture will show you just how to put the pieces together, match the notches and just where to haste the seams. another picture shows you how to make the inside belt down to the last hook. still another puts the skirt on the belt for you. there is no possibility of misunderstanding. you don't have to read directions—you simply follow the pictures. the butterick pattern is the only pattern in the world that has this remarkable picture guide. it isn't necessary to know anything about dressmaking when you have the deltor. a beginner can drape the most elaborate skirt or put together a tailored coat as expertly as a dressmaker or a tailor, for the simple reason that highly skilled pro- fessionals show her each step in the illustrations. they show you how to make clothes by pictures in the same easy, absorbing way that a movie tells you the story of the play. n the fourth place, your dress must have the correct finishing touches which are so characteristic of the french gown. all women dread the “home-made look.” it is al- ways traceable to one of two things. either a woman does not know how to finish her dress smartly or she is unwilling to spend the proper time in doing so. you can not get something for nothing. you can get the equivalent of a french dress by substituting your own work for the price that you would pay a french dressmaker if you supply yourself with the same information possessed by the french dressmaker. the deltor will tell you just what kind of finish to use at every point and tm: ni:w dressmaker will show you how these finishes are done. this book will give you every possible phase of finishing every type of garment. it is given in a simple, fully illustrated form that a beginner can follow without the slightest difiiculty. but nevertheless it represents the methods used by the great french dressmaking houses, the best english tailors and the fashionable fifth avenue establishments. for that reason it will be invaluable to the madame who is ambitious for the success of her business and to the home dressmaker who can not afford to go to the madame. the new dressmaker dressmaking are known as the “bent” shears. (ill. .) they are bent in this way so as to raise the material as little as possible in cutting and so prevent the under layer from slipping in cutting two thicknesses of material. do not buy a cheap, poor pair. good steel will last for many years. do not use your shears for cutting threads, etc. you will need a pair of scissors and also a pair of buttonhole scissors. weights. when your material is laid out smoothly on the table for cutting, it should be held in place by four round iron weights weighing one or two pounds. (ill. .) you can get them at the stationer's. or you can use the same sort of weights you use for your kitchen scales. pins, needles, et cetera. clean, unbent pins are important. small pins are better than large, and fine steel pins should be used on silk or any material that will mark. never push a pin through a fabric. use the points only and take up as little of the material as possible. you will need a thimble that fits correctly, needles of all sizes, basting cotton, dif- ferent colored cottons for marking tailors’ tacks, tailors’ chalk, a yard-stick, emery for polishing needles, and a tape-measure. learn to use your tape-measure accurately, for one of the points of fine dressmaking is the difference between an eighth of an inch and a quarwr, a quarter of an inch and three-eighths. the needle must be in proportion to the thread and to the texture of the material on which it is to be used. it should be just large enough for the thread to slip through the eye easily and heavy enough not to bend when it is put through the material. complete information concerning irons and ar- ticles for pressing will be found in chapter “pressing.” the sewing-machine should be of a good, reliable make. you will get full directions with it, and in using it be careful to observe the correct tension, length of stitch, etc. tucking, gathering, hemming, binding, etc., can be done on a machine. the dress-form. it is necessary in dress- making at home to have a perfect duplicate of your own figure on which you can try your clothes as you make them. buy a dress-form one size smaller than your bust measure. (ill. .) if you have a thirty-six-inch bust, buy a thirty-four-inch dress-form. the stand should be on casters so that you can move it around and turn it easily. it is not necessary for you to have a wire skirt frame. buy a waist-lining pattern reaching down to about the hips, buying it by your bust measure. (chapter , pages and .) cut the lining from unbleached muslin or natural- colored linen or duck. the material should be of a firm, strong quality so that it will not stretch and it should be thoroughly shrunken before it is used. in cutting the lining out, cut one sleeve. put the lining together according to the illus- trated instructions given with the pattern, making m‘ ' b“°"'f°"" the closing at the center front. the lining should be tried on directly over your cor- set so as to get as close a duplicate of your figure as possible. ln using the finished dress- form remember that it represents your figure without lingerie. dress the form in the lingerie that you usually wear. make the necessary alterations at the outlet seams, fitting the lining very carefully. " . . the necessary equipment for dressmaking be sure to have the neck and armhole exactly right. stitch the seams through the bastings. if you can't remove them afterward, it doesn't matter in this case. press the seams open. (chapter .) it is not necessary to bind or overcast them. run a strong basting around the armholes and neck to keep them from stretching, turning the neck edges under three-eighths of an inch. make up the single sleeve you cut with the rest of the lining, following the directions given with the pattern. baste it into the lining and try it on to be sure that it is the right length and sets comfortably on the arm. fit the sleeve as close to the arm as possible. then rip the sleeve out. stitch and press open the sleeve seams. stitch the fronts of the lining about an eighth of an inch back of each fold edge. mark the waistline by a line of colored thread through the waistline perforations. place the lining on the dress-form, leaving the front edges open temporarily. pad between the lining and the form with tissue-paper, cotton rags or wadding until it fits per- fectly. be careful in padding not to stretch or draw the lining or to let the padding get in bunches. pack it until the front edges just meet and then pin them together. then sew them with an overhand stitch. (ill. .) if you have prominent or uneven hips or a round abdomen, place the wadding where it is needed. vvhen you pad below the waist- line, pin the wadding to the form so that it will not slip. \vhen you have padded the front out to its right propor- tions. turn up the lining and cover the padding at the hips with a thin piece of lining material, tacking the covering to the dress-form. place a piece of lining material inside each armhole, turn in the armhole edges three-eighths of an inch and fell them to it. (ill. .) f r a figure that varies quite decidedly from the average it is better to use a special dress-form. alter your pat- tern and make up the lining as described in the earlier part of this chapter. send your finished lining to a firm that makes dress-forms and have a special form made from it, but a size smaller than your lining. when you get the form, put the lining on it and pad it as already described. or a woman of this type of figure can get an adjust- able dress-form. get it a size smaller. adjust it to rep- .. resent _\- our figure. cover it with your lining and pad it as |||_ _ the |eeve_p°rm (llrvflletl here. a woman who sews for a number of people will have to use an adjustable form with a fitted lining for each person she sews for. l\'iark these linings distinctly with the name of the person for whom it was made. the form will have to be adjusted and padded each time a lining is used. in using a dress-form, the skirt can be put on the form and the form placed on the table. lt is easier to work with in this position. in fitting a coat the form should be dressed with the waist and skirt over which the coat will be worn. the sleeve-form. take the finished sleeve of the lining and pad it firmly and evenly. place a piece of lining material over the padding at the wrist, turn in the wrist edges three-eighths of an inch. and fell them to the piece of material. (ill. .) slip a piece of lining material in the armhole of the sleeve. turn in the edge of the under portion of the sleeve three-eighths of an inch and fell the fold edge to the lining material. (ill. .) pad the upper part of the sleeve until it looks as nearly as possible like the arm. turn in the upper edge of the pier-e of lining three+>ighths of an inch and fell it to the upper part of the sleeve. (ill. .) you can use the sleeve-form for either the right or left arm, and you will find it very useful for trimming or draping sleeves. chapter butte.rlck patterns what they are, what they do, how to buy the right size, how to buy your materials, how to use your pattem correctly utterick patterns are always in advance. they are the smartest in style, and give the prettiest versions of new fashions. they are the easiest to use and are fully guaranteed in every way. - they are designed by a stafi whose headquarters are in paris and new york. this staff is in constant touch with the work of the most famous french dressmakers such as worth, doucet, paul poiret. madame paquin, dtnuillet, chéruit, agnes, jeanne lanvin, jenny, premet, beer, redfern and martial et armand. during the paris season the butterick staff attend the french races, the smart restaurants, the opera and the new plays where the newest fashions are shown, in order to adapt them immediately to amer- ican needs in the butterick pattern. the paris social season is in the spring, the london season in the early summer, the deauville and biarritz seasons in midsummer, the new york season from november until lent, the palm beach season in january and early february, and the nice and monte carlo season in m arch. it is therefore possible for the butterick staff to work directly at the sources of the fashions which would be imprac- tical if all these seasons occurred at the same time. more butterick patterns are sold in paris than all other makes of french patterns. the smart frenchwoman uses butterick patterns because she is in a position to compare them with the fashions of the rue de la paix and knows the butterick patterns give her the latest french styles. what they are- the butterick pattern gives you the actual shape of every new fashion and for every type of garment for women, young girls, children, boys and babies. and for every kind of garment that a woman should undertake to make for the men in her family. the butterick patterns give the professional dressmaker patterns that she can not afford to make herself. if she is sufiiciently expert to be able to draft a good pattern her time is worth several hundred times the small amount which she pays for the butterick pattern. if she is not expert enough to make a pattern, the butterick pattern made by the highest grade of professionals saves her the ruinously expensive mistakes that she would make if she attempted to cut her own patterns. how to buy the right size. it is absolutely essential that you buy your pat- tern by the right size. in no other way can you be sure of securing the perfect lines of the original design. the right size will save you time because it means that there will be no unnecessary fitting. it will save your material. a size too large takes more mate- rial than you require while a size that is too small might make your dress unweaz-able. insist on being measured each time you buy a pattern. new corsets or an unsuspected change of weight may have altered your bust, waist or hip measure. before buying a pattern put on your best corsets and lace them properly. wear a waist or dress that fits nicely. never be measured in old corsets, over your coat, or in a clumsy dress or a negligée. the bust measure only is used in buying waists, blouses, dresses, coats and underwear (except petticoats and drawers). buy them all by the same bust measure. if you buy a~ thirty-six bust waist buy a thirty-six bust coat or chemise. don't buy a larger size for your coat or a smaller size for your underwear. a coat butterick patterns ll patter n makes allowance in the size of the waist or dress underneath; under- wear patterns make the proper provision in size to allow for the fact that they are worn under a waist or dress. a thirty-six inch bust pat- tern fits a figure which mea- sures thirty-six inches in the bust. the pattern itself does ‘ \ not necessarily measure thir- r~c»=s\, ty-six inches. the proper _s:|.ow ' . now“ r amount of fulness_ s allou ed wa,“ i, in a blouse to give it the "-‘" ’ right softness on the nonmu. wmsr |.| n -" figure. in a waist the right amount of size is al- lowed to give the correct . . . style efiect. a thirty-six ills. and . measuring a woman's busl. waist. hip and arm inch bust soft blouse will be larger than a thirty-six inch bust close-fitted basque but both of them will fit correctly a woman who measures thirty-six inches at the bust. in buying a pattern you can not rely on the size that you buy in ready-made clothes. with some manufacturers sizes run large and with others they run small, and do not fur- nish you a reliable guide in buying a pattern. be measured. the bust measure should be taken over the fullest part of the bust close up under the arms and straight across the back, with the tape-measure drawn easily but not snug. (ills. and .) the waist measure should be taken at your normal waist- line with the tape-measure held snug but not tight. (ills. and .) skirt patterns, rlrawers and peflicoals should be bought by the hip measure taken seven inches below the normal waistline for women, and around the fullest part of the hip for misses and small women. the tape should be easy and not snug. (ills. and .) the sleeve pattern should be bought by the arm measure taken easily around the arm just below the armhole. (ill. .) _ at the top of every pattern you will find instructions as to how to buy that particular pattern, that is, whether it should be bought by the bust or hip measure, etc. fol- low these instructions in buying your pattern. skirt patterns should be bought by the hip measure. (ills. and .) if the waist is small in proportion to the hips, it is an easy matter to take in the skirt a little at the top. if the pattern is small for you at the waist—and this will happen only in rare cases— a slight allowance can be made for the necessary waist size when you cut out your material. a skirt pattern should never be ordered with a hip measure smaller than that of the figure to be fitted. if a plaited skirt is too large or too small at the waist, the plaits should be made either deeper or shallower to fit the belt. |u.e. the underarm measure if the skirt is gathered at the top, the gathers simply is t°l<@" "°", o"° |"ch °'°‘" . tha ’llthlelhlh need to be drawn a httle closer or let out as much as |';|';'€',’ ' ; "r°|,:w°',',tf e i the new dressmaker needed. if the skirt is plain at the top and gored, each seam should be taken in so as_to make the alteration as small as possible in each place, sloping it gradu- ally to nothing at the hipline. or the waist size can be increased as illustrated and explained in chapter “altering skirt patterns." page . in a circular skirt with one or more darts, the waist size can be made smaller or larger by taking in or letting out the darts. in a circular skirt without darts, if only a small reduction is required, it may often be eased into the belt. if the waist needs to be made very much smaller it may be necessary to make a small dart at each hip. if the waistline needs to be made larger it can be done by raising the skirt a trifle ills. and l . measuring a boy's breast and waist ills. and . measuringa child's busl, waist and hip on the belt all the way around. a very little will increase the waist size a good deal. mlsses' patterns for dresses, blouses. coats and underwear, except drawers and petticoats, should be bought by the age unless the girl is large or small for her age in which case the pattern should be bought by her bust measure. skirt, drawers and petticoat patterns should also be bought by the age if the girl is of normal size. it she is large or small buy her drawers or petticoat patterns by her hip measure. small women's patterns for dresses, blouses. coats and underwear, ex- cept drawers and petticoats, should be bought by bust measure. skirt, drawers and petticoat patterns should be bought by hip measure. juvenile patterns should be bought by age unless the child is small or large for its age. in that case order the girl's dresses, coat and underwear, except drawers, by the bust measure. the drawers should be ordered by the waist measure. the proper way of taking a child's measurements is shown in the illustrations , and . boys’ patterns should be ordered by age. boy is large or small for his age order his blouse, suits and coat by his breast measure, his shirts by his neck measure, and his trousers by his waist measure. illustrations and show the proper way of taking the breast measure is taken boys’ measurements. ifa around the body close under the arm with the tape drawn close but not tight. the measurement for an overcoat should be taken over the clothing the coat is to cover. the waist measure should be taken at the normal waistline with the tape-measure held close but not tight. head measure. in ordering hats for children order hat patterns by the age unless the head is large ? § in/// ”// % measuring a child_ head butterick patterns i or small. in that case measure the head as shown in illustration . men's shirt patterns should be bought by the neck mea- sure. you can get his neck measure from his collar, a comfortable shirt, or his own neck. if you buy his shirt patterns by his collar size find out whether he prefers his shirts m inch or /, of an inch smaller than his collar or the same size. all three sizes are correct, it is a matter of individual preference. if you are measuring from a shirt that is comfortable, measure from the center of the buttonhole of the right end to the center of the buttonhole of the left end. if you measure his bare neck, measure it where the neck band comes. do it carefully and hold the tape-measure easy. add % inch to his actual neck measure for his shirt size. butterick shirt patterns allow for all shrinkage of the silk and cotton materials. wool materials should be shrunk before cutting. buy his nightshirt and pajama patterns by the same neck measure as you would a regular shirt. don't buy a larger size; the night- shirt and pajamas patterns have the necessary allowance for an easier fit around the neck and through the body. dolls’ patterns, when you measure a doll measure its ."|' | - a d°" length from the top of its head to the sole of its foot. . (ill. .) fr 'g*o,*;§;;*',,'s°f§§ how to buy your materials. the effect of a dress depends very largely on choosing the material that is suitable for it. for example, you would never choose chifion for a circular skirt on account of the fact that chifion would stretch badly when cut on the bias, and that it is so soft that it would not give the flare at the bottom which is characteristic of the circular skirt. you would not choose a stiff silk that would give the bouffant efiect in a style period when fashions were soft and clinging. nor would you use a soft, clinging silk when it is desirable to have the boufiant effect given by a stiff silk. a material that has had a great vogue and that has become passé should never be used for a new dress for it will give the dress an out-of-date appearance. the same thing is true of colors. for certain staple materials like serge and gabardine, the accepted colors like black and navy blue are always worn, but for the most part it is necessary to inform yourself each season as to what is new and correct. this information is given each month in the delineator and every season in bu'i'l‘erick fasmons. materials suitable for the pattern are also given on the back of the pattern envelope. the quantities on the pattern envelope will tell you what width of material you can select. never choose a material narrower than those given on the envelope. the widths given are the ones in which you can cut the garment without ugly piecings. narrower widths are not given because they would be undesirable. the pattern envelope will tell you exactly how much material you would need for any size and in every suitable width for the different views on the pattern envelope. for that reason you must always buy your pattern before you buy your material. if you buy your material first you will do it by guesswork and you will get either too much or too little. if it is too much you are wasting material and money. if you get too little, one of two disagreeable things might happen. you might not be able to get more ma- terial when you went back for it, or you might find that the amount you bought origi- nally was a quarter of a yard too little for your sleeves, making it necessary to get three- quarters of a yard of new material, where a quarter of a yard more material in the first place would have answered if it had all been cut in one piece. buy your pattern first and decide which view you will follow in making it up so that you can find out exactly what material you will require. it will take less material, for example, if you are going to make a dress with the short sleeve of one view instead of the long sleeve of another. the pattern gives the quantity for each view. in planning the lengt_h of your skirt and before cutting your material, it is necessary to decide whether the lower edge is to be finished with a hem or facing. butterick patterns i the new dressmaker for ladies’ skirts do not allow for a hem and the quantities given on pattern envelope do not include enough material for a hem. in some cases a facing can be made from pieces that are left over. as a rule a skirt can be cut from less material if a facing is used but in some cases a hem is preferable while in other cases a facing is better. for a sheer material a hem should be used, if possible, as the seam joining a facing to the lower edge of a skirt will show through a transparent fabric. a hem is the best fin- ish for the bottom of a plaited skirt as a seam in the lower edge would be bulky in the plaits. if the lower edge of a skirt has an inward curve as is usually the case when a skirt is much narrower at the bottom than the top, it is better to use a bias or shaped facing as a hem would be tight at the upper part when turned up. if a hem is desired, allowance for it must be made in buying the quantity of material and in cutting by the pattern, unless the skirt pattern is too long for you. if you are two or three inches below average height the pattern will be too long for you and the quantities given will allow you to use a hem. the use of patterns. after you have bought your pattern take it home, open it and identify the different pieces by the diagram on the back of the envelope. if the two sides of the pattern are exactly alike you will find that the pattern is for just half the garment and that each piece is to be cut double or twice. a front gore pattern is cut double with its front edge on the fold of the goods. if one side is difierent from the other a pattern will be given for each part that is differ- ent as in the case of a skirt which is draped on one side and not on the other. the two side gores are either cut singly or from a double thickness of the material. after you have identified each piece of the pattern decide which ones you are going to use and put the others back in the envelope. a waist, for example, will often have two sleeves, and you must choose before cutting which sleeve pattern you prefer. you must also decide whether you will use a body lining, a collar for the high neck, etc. al- ways put the pieces that you are not going to use out of the way so that you will not make the mistake of cutting out things you do not need, and wasting your material. the butterick pattern has a unique service of the greatest value in the deltor with its illustrated lay-outs for cutting. these lay-outs show how to lay out for cutting every size in which the pattern is cut and on material of every width suitable for the garment. if there are two or three ways of making a garment from the pattern, the lay- outs cover each method of making the garment. the purpose of these lay-outs is twofold. in the first place they are intended to show a woman the most economical way of cutting this garment correctly with the least pos- sible waste of material. in the second place they show her how to place each piece of the pattern on the correct grain of the material. if any piece is cut on the wrong grain it will look badly when the garment is worn. if a sleeve is cut on the wrong grain it will crawl around the arm and never stay in the right place. with the new butterick illustrated l a y - outs any woman can cut her gar- selvedge ment just as an ex- - - _ h % =---::.=,-wig; tailor would cut it. th i s question of the grain or thread of the ma- terial is very im- portant. all materials are finished at the outside edges with a woven border called a selvedge. (lll. .) the material itself is woven with length-. pert dressmaker or -< ' ' ti‘, cnosis witié r'¢'l ' . . ill. i . lengthwise and crosswise of material, lengihwise w ' ctosswisb and crosswise folds butterick patterns i threads. the lengthwise threads run parallel to the selvedge. (ill. ) crosswise threads run from selvedge to selvedge. (ill. .) ~ a lengthwise fold is a fold made parallel to the selvedge. (ill. .) a crosswise fold is a fold made straight across the material from selvedge to selvedge. (ill. .) a true bias runs diagonally across the material at right angles to the lengthwise and crosswise threads. (ill. .) ' true bias is obtained by spreading the mate- rial on the table and making a mark seven or eight inches from one corner on both the selvedge and the cut end. lay a yardstick across the corner, touching both these marks, and draw a line. (ill. .) make as many marks on both edges as there are strips needed, marking them the required width. then cut carefully, follow- ing the line and using sharp scissors. when the material for the bias bands is alike on both sides, as in the case of corded silk, for in- stance, be careful to have the cut strips all on the same bias. sometimes, in cutting, if the material is very pliable, the edges will stretch, and in time the cutting line will deviate from the original mark. it is well, in cutting many strips. to test the bias line occasionally, by laying the yardstick across the material, and cutting a new edge if the old one is not even. bias bands, folds, ruffles, facings, etc., must be cut on a true bias to give satisfactory results. for rounding corners or following curved lines, or making folds or rufiles hang gracefully, it is impossible to use successfully material that is . _ cut on the straight of the weave. to maintain "i °, lgi‘;'$kg‘,§i‘:°'°'“' a perfect bias, the strips should be of equal width throughout their entire length. -//// ///////.' /.>j(//z///'///z/, ? . .. a;('//// /////w/>.~v</,'// ¢:¢-;//./. . ////// :¢// :'/a'-'////-'/./-< ‘ aul.|\;.?iq '__ fi'ifli,. : .. -= /////.’a- ’///,’-'f:%’fl’a'/. ' x<//x//////////> .'//f¢;)> q ! :////aw/a-f ’//. ' i.{/,/_.g._//.- /.->_h</<///////, /// "’ ////>|/ ////£ ”: r ¢¢< ;.\'-'.e!</w//// / ;. .-/“< ,'§}/-','/.',¥‘,"/////"////x %?” '/, -: <///,/../»,'. *<':‘ l the new dressmaker large double perforations are used in cutting. (ill. .) they show u "l . l _ aum you how‘to lay the pattern on the o“_ar edoub|e right grai n of your material. these peflom-,°ns ;, large double perforations form a . always laid on straight line which is always placed the material lengtihwise or crosswise on the ma- m alflge sinfle lenglhwise and le;-i , _ ' ' . pawllel *° ‘he when they are laid on lengthwise peflorauon “ °"’°.d ° °’ they are parallel to the selvedge crossw|se from d selvedge i e ges' . . selvedge when they are laid on crosswise they run across the material from selvedge to selvedge. o many women take a ruler and draw a straight line through these perfo- u rations for it makes it a little easier to see that the line is the same distance from the selvedge from end to end. q these large double perforations must be laid on a straight thread of |||. |_ a smal l single the material so that the garment will p,,fl ,,,¢;on set well and have the best efiect when “ finished. if they are not placed ex- actly parallel to the selvedge or on a straight crosswise thread the garment q “ill twist and look badly. the large triple perforations are also used for cutting but they are always laid on the fold of the material, either a lengthwise or crosswise fold. (ill. .) some skirts are cut with one bias "|. _ lame -mple edge on each gore. others have two perlorations bias edges, depending the design of the skirt. the perforations in the pattern will show you just how that particular skirt should be cut. . after you have pinned your pattern . on the material it is advisable to take a ruler or tape and measure the cut- . |u_ | . ma|| doub|e . . . . lll. . single and double pelfomfions ting line to be sure that it is the same nokhes distance from the selvedge on each group of perforations. small double perforations are always used to mark the normal waistline in skirts, blouses, coats, etc. (ill. .) in some cases they are also used to indicate special out- lines at the neck, etc. large single perforations (ill. .) and small single perforations (ill. .) either alone or together are used for different purposes and their use is always shown in the illustrated instructions. notches (ill. .) are used at seam edges to show which edges should come together. edges marked with notches are put together with the duplicate notches matching. pin the pattern in place with small pins placed as close together as necessary to hold the pattern firmly. do not push the pins through the material recklessly, but take up as few threads as possible so as not to mark the material. in cutting you must use sharp dressmaking shears and follow the edge of the pattern exactly. if you cut with small dull scissors you will get a jagged edge that you can not follow in basting. if you cut beyond the edge of the pattern you will change the size of the garment. butterick patterns i illustrated instructions. in the pattern envelope you will find the deltor in which are the butterick illustrated in- structions. look these over and see how easily your dress will go to- gether. the illustrated instruc- tions show you with a series of pictures how to join every part of the garment, just where to haste, tuck, drape, etc. you do not have t l' &(l l ilg, confusing d.ll‘ tioijs i ’ |ll . busting through oullel periorations it' is all told in pictures which, with a few explanatory words, are impos- sible to misunderstand. you see at a glance what you are to do just as if there were someone at your work- table putting your garment together for you. ill. . basling a three-eighth; of an inch seam the illustrated instructions show you just how to use every perforation and every notch. if you have never used a pattern in your life the il- lustrated instructions make it possible for you to make any type of garment without any knowl- edge of dressmaking, because the knowledge is supplied you by an expert who has reduced it to pictures. outlet seams are marked by large single perfora- tions (ill. .) in basting them the basting line should run exactly through the center of these perforations. (ili. z .) ordinary seams are not marked by perforations but "il “" - rl.‘ h'.‘.‘"d w'°" are basted exactly % inch from the seam edge. (ili. .) m°'h° ’ °l l°""'"“l'“ d°"‘ the outlet seam is deeper than the ordinary seams. it is made so on purpose so that it can be let out if it is necessary to make any slight alteration to suit the individual figure. they are general- iv used at underarm and shoulder seams, and very often in the seams of sleeves. in so many cases women's shoulders are not exactly even or there are some slight variations from the average at one point or another of the figure. these outlet scams give you a chance to alter the garment in an easy, simple way. ordinary seams. a % of an inch seam allowance is made on all edges not cut on the fold of the goods. or finished with a hem. in basting, the seam lines must be followed exactly. (ill. m.) if you make them deeper or narrower you will alter the size of the garment. darts are marked by v-shaped lines of perforations. a dart is made by bringing the two lines of a dart perforations together and basting through the perforations. (ill. .) the new dressmaker depth of the plait will depend on the amount of difference between your figure and the length of the pattern. if you find that your underarm measure and that of the pattern are the same, but that you are shorter-waisted than the pattern, the difference is in the upper part. decrease the length of the upper part of the pattern by laying a plait across the front and back, half-way between the under arm and the neck. (ill. .) if you are long-waisted instead of short-waisted the lining pattern can be altered at the same points, by cutting the pieces of the pattern and separating them sufficiently to give you the length you need. (ill. .) in laying plaits across the pattern the edge of the pattern should be evened off after the plaits are laid. if an alteration is made in the length of the lining a corresponding alteration must be made in the pattern of the outside of the waist or dress, taking out or putting in the same amount and ' ll . l . . ill. . to lengthen the waist lining in t e same p aces lengthening or shortening the two-seam sleeve patterl\ls—your arm may measure exactly the same as the sleeve pattern, but its length might be made up of a long upper arm and of a short forearm. in that case the elbow of the pattern would not come in the right place on your arm. or your arm may be perfectly proportioned, but it may be longer or shorter than the average, in which case an alter- ation would have to be made in both the upper and lower part of the sleeve pattern to make it the right length for you. for a two-seam sleeve pattern measure along the inside of your arm from the armhole to the bend of the elbow, and from the bend of the elbow to the wrist. you will need both these mea- surements, so as to be sure that the sleeve elbow will come in the right place. measure your sleeve pat- tern along the inside seam of the upper part from % of an inch below the arm- hole edge to the small double perfora- tions which indicate the elbow. mea- sure from the elbow perforations to within % of an inch of the wrist edge. the ‘/ of an inch on each edge is the seam finish._ lll. . shortening the sleeve pattern compare your arm measurements with the measurements of the pattern. if the pattern is too long for you above the elbow lay a plait across the pattern a little above the elbow. (ill. .) if there is an inch difierence in length the plait should be % of an inch deep. if the lower part of the sleeve is too long for you lay a plait across the lower part below the elbow. (ill. .) the same alterations should be made in the under part of the sleeve pattern, making the plaits the same depth that you made in the upper part of the pattern. when the plaits are laid the edge of the pattern will become uneven. if the arm is very full the space between the elbow and the greater width of the upper part of the sleeve should be filled lll. . lenfllheninfi the sleeve pattem out, giving you an even line. if the arm is not large you can trim fi the extra width and get your even outline in that way. altering the length of patterns l if the sleeve pattern requires lengthening make the alteration at the same places in the pattern, cutting across the pattern and separating the pieces as in illustration . correct the outline of the edge in the same way as when the sleeve is shortened. lengthening or shortening a one- seam sleeve pattern 'or a kimono sleeve pattern—one-seam sleeves and ki- mono sleeves fit the figure quite difierently ill. l . measuring the arm for a unc- seam sleeve or a kimono s|ee from the two-seam sleeve and so have to be measured in a different way. ln using either of these sleeves have your arm measure taken from the center of your back along the outside of your arm to the wrist with the arm bent. (ill. .) in the case of a one-seam sleeve pin the sleeve pattern to the back pattern with the armhole edges lapping % of an inch. if there is a cuff pin it to the lower part of the sleeve lapping them % of an inch. turn up the cufi in case the cull‘ is double. (ill. .) com- pare your measurements with the measurements of the pat- , tern, and if the pattern is long or short for you, alter it as shown in illustrations and . a sleeve of this kind has no elbow curve, so that it is ill. . shortening a one-seam ill. . lengthening a one-seam sleeve pattern sleeve paflem ill. . measuring a one-seam sleeve pattern not necessary to alter it above and below the elbow. it is simply a ques- tion of adding or subtracting length at the correct point. if the pattern is an inch too long for you lay a %-inch plait across the pattern. (ill. .) if it is too short slash the pattern and sepa- rate the pieces. (ill. .) if your arm is full you can correct the outline by filling in below the plaits and above the slash. if it is of average size you can trim down above the plait and below the ill. . measuring a kimono sleeve paltem slash- the new dressmaker ill. . increasing the size of collars ill. - decreasing the size of collars and neckbands and neckbands in the kimono sleeve pattern measure from the center of the back below the neck to within % of an inch of the lower edge of the sleeve. (ill. .) this % of an inch is a seam finish. the alterations for lengthening or shortening a kimono sleeve are exactly the same as for the one-seam sleeve. (ills. and .) increasing or decreasing the size of the neckband and collar- if the neckband of a pattern is not the right size for your neck it should be altered at the center back. if it is too small cut it through the center and separate the pieces sufii- ciently to make it the right size for you. illustration shows this alteration for neck- band and a turndown collar. if the collar pattern is too large for you lay a plait across the center back. (ill. .) lengthening and shortening gored $klrt$—have your measure taken from the normal waistline at the center-front to the distance from the floor at which you wear your skirts. this length varies with different fashions. add an inch to your measurement for the give and take of making the skirt. the front-length measurement of your skirt pattern will be given on the pattern envelope. com- pare your measure with the length of the pattern. lf the pattern is too long for you, lay a plait straight across each gore about six inches below the hipline. (ill. .) the hipline is seven inches below the normal waistline. (ill. .) if the gores are cut with one straight edge, measure the plait at the straight edge. if both edges of the gore are bias, measure the plait at the line of large double perforations that mark the straight thread of the material. if the figure is full, the edge of the gore on the bias side should be filled out from the folded plait to the hal- ob (-# r uni /i i : ni‘oi -_,_..* ii=;_l_a.' .e._ t ' mcuas frui normal waistline .-_!l'_’.':'_"_e.---.-- wanes from norhmo mcnss from ills. and . lenglhening and shortening gored skirt patlerns altering the length of patterns hip. (ill. .) if the figure is slight, this extension which comes from the plait can be trimmed ofl'. to lengthen a gored skirt pattern, cut across each gore six inches below the hipline and separate the pieces as much as necessary. (ill. .) in very rare cases it is sometimes necessary to alter the length of a skirt patter n as much as four or five inches. in an extreme case of this kind it is better to make half the alteration six inches below the hip as shown in the illustrations and , and the other half at the lower edge of the pattern, turning up the lower edge to shorten it and adding to it to lengthen it. in a circular skirt the pattern should be altered at the lower edge. lengthening or shortening a straight skirt pattern—the length of a straight skirt can be altered at the bottom, turning up the lower edge if it is too long and adding more length in cutting if it is short. draped skirt patterns. tunic skirt patterns, etc.—if it is necessary to alter the length of a draped skirt pattern or a tunic skirt pattern, or a pattern with tucks or marks for trimmings, alter it according to the instructions given on the pattern envelope. the position for the alteration will vary with the skirt. chapter altering waist patterns for figures that vary from the average fora figure broader at the back than at the front, for square shoulders, for sloping shoulders. for a full bust, for a small bust, for round shoulders, for an over erect figure ltering a pattern for a figure broad in back in proportion to the front. several women may have exactly the same bust measure but the bust size may be distributed in different ways. the first type of figure to be considered in this chapter is the figure that is broad across the back in proportion to the chest measure. usually this type of woman is hollow-chested. if her back is broader than the average, she has discovered it in making her own clothes. the alteration for this type of figure is very simple. slash the back pattern from the shoulder to the bottom on a line with the back edge and separate the pieces as much as is necessary to fit ill. i. if a woman has ill. . the alteration square shoulders the lin‘ is made at the shoulder ing wfll wrinkle across seam the chest \i\\ . .\ lll. . for a figure broad at the back in proportion to the front the figure. (ili. .) this will make the shoulder of the back longer than the shoulder of the front. (ill. .) half of this difference in width should be sloped off the armhole edge of the back. (ill. .) half the difference should be fiiled in at the armhole edge of the front, letting the allowance slope to nothing at the notches. (ill. .) the dotted line in illustration shows you where to fill in and where to slope ofl. altering waist linings and waists to fit square or sloping s hou ld ers. illus- tration shows how a waist lining will draw across the chest on a square-shouldered figure. the alter- ation is so simple that it dot-.=n‘t have to be made in the pattern but n va altering waist patterns try it on again and if it fits perfectly take it ofi‘ and rip it apart. the edges of the side-front seams will be jagged where the lining was lapped. even them off, following the original seam line. correct your paper pattern, slashing the front and side front, lap the edges as much as in the lining, and paste the edges together. alterations for an unusually large or small bust may be made on a french lin- ing; a liningwith one or two darts, or a lin- ing with a straight or curved front edge. altering a pattern for a rou nd-shouldered figure. the lining must be made up in cheap material, fitted to the figure and the alterations transferred to the paper pat- tern itself. place a strip of the lining material about inches wide across ill. . lithe rigine is ill. so. the lining will your shoulders from one am, to the round-shouldered require more size across othen then put on the trial lining which will run in wrinkles from the underarm to the side-back seams and stand out across the back (ill. ) because of the round shoulders. have some one cut the lining across the shoulders to the side-back seams (ill. and from the seams to within % of an inch of the underarm seam. the lining will spread apart and drop to the right place on your figure. (ill. .) have some one pin the cut edges of the lining to the piece beneath it. baste the pieces underneath and try it on again. if it sets satisfactorily, cut it apart and use the pieces in correcting your tissue pattern. slash the pattern just where you slashed the lining, separate the pieces the same distance and place the tissue-paper underneath the slash. if you are only a little round-shouldered, you will not require as great a separation. for a very bad case of round shoulders a second cut should be made across the trial lin- ing about one-third the distance between the neck and first slash. slash across the center- back and side-back portions nearly to the arm- hole edge. separate the slashed pieces as much as the figure requires, generally / to /q inch. in cutting out the side back preserve an even curve along the back edge. the under- arm gore seldom needs any change. lining will wrinkle across the shoulders. (ill. y .) make up the lining in cheap muslin and put it on correctly. have some one slash it across the center-back portion and down to side back to within v; of an inch of the underarm seam. (ill. .) the edges of the slash should be lapped and pinned to remove the fulness in the lining. don't lap the edges too much or the shoulders will pull back. baste the slash, try the lining on and then rip it apart. “there it has been lapped the seam edges will be uneven. trim them off. alter your paper pattern, using the trial lining as a guide, slashing it and lapping and basting the edges. .u. ll chapter altering skirt, yoke and drawers patterns for figures that vary from the average altering cored skirts for figures with round or prominent abdomen or prominent hips- altering circular skirt patterns for figures with round or prominent abdomens or prominent hips—altering yoke patterns for figures that are large or small in the waist—altering drawers patterns for figures with prominent abdomens ltering a gored skirt pattern for a prominent abdomen. on fig- ures of this type a skirt pattern unless it is altered will stand out at the front and at the sides. these women as a rule have fiat backs. a small pad worn under the corset at the back will fill in the hollow of the figure below the waistline. for around or prominent abdomen or prominent hips it is advisable to cut half the skirt in cheap muslin before cutting your good material. in working with the muslin find out just what changes are necessary to make the skirt fit your figure. then it will be safe to cut your material. illustration shows the alteration that is necessary to make a pattern fit a figure with a prominent abdo- men. the front of the skirt pattern must be extended an inch or more at the top, this extension gradually de- creasing to nothing at the hip. in extending the gores the waist- line becomes smaller, so the side edges of the gore must be increased to keep the waistline the original mans mm size. (ill. .) this extension at the sides should slope to nothing at mu wmstune the hipline. (ill. .) lay your pattern on a cheap muslin, mark the allowance at the top and side edges of the go‘-es. mark the outline of lll. . allerin$ogored skirt patternto fil the original pattern on the muslin ap'°"""e“tabd°"‘°" with colored chalk so that you will have the original shape as a guide in fitting, but cut the muslin by the new larger outline. cut out the muslin, put it together and haste the skirt to an inside belt. try it on. if it takes a good line on your figure and does not swing toward the front it is safe to cut your good material just as you cut the muslin. do not use the muslin for a cutting pattern for its edges stretch and become unreliable. always cut from a paper pattern. a woman with a round abdomen should take the side-front gore of the pattern and mark the hipline on it seven inches below the normal waistline. (ill. .) at the hip- line on the back edge of the gore take up m of an inch. (ill. .) this % of an inch will change the entire balance of the gore, making the pattern hang straight instead of swinging toward the front. if it is necessary in a skirt of many gores you could do the same thing to the next side- gore, but do not carry this alteration back of the hip. you can increase the size of the dart-shaped plait if necessary until the back edge of the gore above the hip forms a altering skirt patterns | abdomen will pull the drawers toward the front. if the drawers are lifted at the back to correct this tendency, the entire garment will be made shorter. in cutting drawers for a prominent abdomen allow an extra inch or two at the top, tapering the allowance away to nothing over the hip. in circular drawers the upper edge of the drawer pattern must be slashed and spread to give the drawers the original waist- line, which is made smaller in making this allowance. this alteration is practieally the same as altering the top of a circular skirt for this type of figure. (ills. and .) chapter materials—sponglng—steam ing—cutting—etc. right side of material—sponging—steaming—nap or pile—cutting stripes. plaids, figures and diagonals—cuiting a kimono sleeve garment—handiing velvets—silks and chiffons he right side. most materials have a right and wrong side. in double-fold materials the right side is folded inside to protect it from becoming shop-worn. in materials where it is difiicult to tell the right side from the wrong the selvedge is usually smoother on the right side than on the wrong side. in serge or diagonal weaves the twills run downward from left to right on the right side of the material. sponging. almost all the wool materials should be sponged before they are used. sponging shrinks the material and if it were not done before the material was made up the material would shrink the first damp day and ruin the appearance and possibly the useful- ness of the garment. sponging also prevents the ordinary spotting from rain, drops of water, etc. it is a necessary protection to your material. there are certain wool materials such as velours, duvetyn, wool plush and materials of similar character that should not be sponged. very thin, open-meshed materials should not be sponged either, but most wool materials should be sponged either at the store where you buy them or at home. most large shops will do the sponging for you, but it is easy to do it yourself. if you are uncertain as to whether your material should be sponged or not experiment with a small piece of it first. if it shrinks too much or changes its appearance or color, do not sponge it. for sponging you will need a large table and ironing blanket and a strip of heavy un- bleached muslin the width of your material and one-half its length. before sponging your material cut ofi the selvedge or clip it at intervals. lay your material face down on the table. wet the muslin with cold water and wring it out. spread it out, pulling out all the wrinkles and lay it over half of your material. fold the other half of the material over it, roll the material and sponging cloth together ina tight roll and let it lie overnight, covered with a piece of muslin and some newspapers so that the moisture will be retained. in the morning unroll the material, pressing it dry on the wrong side as you unroll it. in sponging material of double width open it out its full width and sponge it in the same way, using a double width of muslin for the shrinking process. the heavier wash materials of the cotton and linen order should be shrunk in the same way before they are made up. voiles, fine mulls, organdies, swisses, etc., are not to be shrunk, for the shrinking changes them too much and they are not as pretty afterward. steaming. certain wool materials. such as velours and duvetyn should, be steamed ‘ instead of sponged. use the same table. ironing blanket and unbleached muslin as for sponging. lay the material face down on the blanket as for sponging. wet the muslin and lay it over the material as for sponging. hold an iron so that it just touches the material enough to let the steam go through the material. pass it over the muslin, but do not let it rest on it or it will mark the material. it must just touch the muslin. nap or pile. velvet, velveteen, panne velvet, corduroy and plush, and a few wool materials like broadcloth have a distinct pile or nap. except in the case of a kimono sleeve garment the nap or pile must i’l.ln the same way in every part of the garment. in materials with a pile such as velvet, velveteen, corduroy or plush, the material must he used with the pile running up so that the nap will fall out and show the full richness and materlals—sponglng—cutting—etc. depth of color. if the pile ran down it would flatten down and lose its appearance of thickness and depth. with pannc velvet in which the pile is purposely flattened the pile should run down. you can tell which is up and which is down by running your hand across the material. when the material feels rough the pile is running up, and when it feels smooth under your hand it is running down. some velvets have straight pile with no up or down. they can be cut either way. in broadcloth the nap must run down, otherwise it will roughcn up, become woolly and wear badly. in all materials with a nap or pile the material takes the light one way with the pile running down, and an- other way with the pile running up, so that if all parts of the garment were not cut with the pile running the same way the garment would look as though it were made from two shades of the same material. in kimono sleeve garments that are cut without a seam on the shoul- der or in one piece it is impossible to have the nap or pile run the same way . ‘ at the front and back get the best ill. |. matching cross stripes at underarm seam effect possible at the front, the back is less noticeable. in the pile fabrics let the pile run up in the front, in broadcloth and panne velvet have the pile run down in the front. cutting stripes and plaids. stripes, plaids and figured materials require more care in cutting than plain materials. an irregular plaid can rarely be used on the bias, consequently the ways of making it up are limited. a dress made of irregular plaid requires more material than one made of regular plaid. the darkest stripes should run across the bottom with the lighter tones up, as the shading in this direction is better. it must always be borne in mind throughout the cutting, that all pieces of the pattern must be placed with the upper part in the same direction on the material. an amateur had better use an even plaid. in the beginning decide which stripe, plaid or figure is best for the center of the front and back. in making a waist of striped or plaid material the stripes or plaids must match. it is advisable to cut and fit your waist lining first, if you are using one. then if alterations were made you can alter the pattern of the outside waist before cutting your material. if you altered it afterward the alteration would spoil your arrangement of the stripe or plaid. a plaid waist should be cut with as few pieces as possible. it can be made either on the straight or the bias of the material. before you cut out your ma- terial decide which stripe, plaid or figure will look best at the center front and center back. in considering the position of the lines of the stripes and plaids you must consider the crosswise as well as the lengthwise lines of the material so that it will look well on the figure. ln a plaid waist match the heavy lines of the plaid where the waist is joined at the underarm seam. (ill. .) arrange the plaids the new dressmaker cutting a kimono sleeve garment. often in cutting a garment with kimono sleeves the material will not be wide enough to cut the pattern without piecing. this piecing seam can be made to appear part of the design by trimming it to match the trimming of the garment. the seam can be hemstitched, fancy-stitched, piped, machine- stitched, and, in the case of thin materials, trimmed with lace insertion, etc., so that the seam will really add to the effectiveness of the sleeve. handling velvets, silks and chiffons. in using velvets, plushes, corduroy, or silk be very careful about using pins. use fine steel pins or needles, so as to mark the material as little as possible. ordinary pins make holes in silks and chifions and scar velvets, plushes, etc. a fine needle and silk thread should be used in basting velvets, etc., and also in basting silks, for cotton thread leaves a mark. when stitching velvets, plushes and corduroy, loosen the tension on the machine and lighten the pressure of the presser foot by holding the finger under the presser bar lifter. clip your bastings every four or five inches or even closer when you are ready to take them out. pulling long basting threads from silks, velvets or fine thin materials is likely to make a bad mark or tear the material. in stitching sheer materials like chiffon, silk crepe, crepe de chine. etc., that are likely to pucker while the stitching is being done place a narrow strip of tissue-paper under the material where you are going to stitch it. after it is stitched tear the paper away. _ when using materials that fray easily allow an extra quarter of an inch on all ordinary three-eighths of an inch seam edges. this extra one-quarter of an inch allowance must not be overlooked when you baste up your garment. no extra allowance is necessary on the outlet seams. (marked by large single perforations.) as soon as you have cut out the garment overcast the armhole and neck edges. in silk materials like taffeta, crepe de chine, charmeuse, satin and materials of similar character the selvedge edges are often used as a finish. of course this is only possible when the edge of the pattern is straight as in the case of a straight-edged tunic, straight- edged flounce, etc. the new dressmaker on the inside of the lining with a fold at the line that marks the closing. turn over both thicknesses and baste them very carefully. then stitch with one row of stitching % of an inch from the edge and another % of an inch inside of that. (ill. .) where no hem is allowed at the closing edge of the lining it is necessary to face it. cut two pieces of the lining material the same outline as the front or back where the opening comes, and about two inches wide. baste one on the outside of each front or back with their right sides together. stitch the seams and turn the facing over toward . the inside. stitch it just as you would a hemmed edge. ill. . hook and eye on hooks and eyes are then sewed on. (chapter , ends of bell tape page .) sew the hooks and eyes right through the lining allowing the stitches to go through to the right side so as to make the sewing strong and durable. be careful in sewing on the hooks and eyes on the second side to have them exactly correspond in position to those of the opposite side. inside belt. an inside belt is sometimes used in fitted linings. get the regular silk or cotton belting for this purpose and make it three inches longer than your waist measure. turn back an inch and a half at each end, sew on a hook on one edge and the eye on the other (ill. ), and hem the raw edges over their ends. (ill. .) mark the center of the belt and sew it to the center front seam if the lining opens at the back. if it opens in the front, sew it to the center back of the lining with the lower edge of the belt half an inch above the normal waistline. (ill. .) sew across the width of the belt with a long cross- stitch to the inside of the seam. finishing the neck and armhole edges of the lining depends on the lining material and on the waist material. in silk or cotton linings turn the edges under; clip them whenever necessary to make them lie flat. in the silk lining finish them with ribbon seam-binding sewed on flat like a facing. in a cotton lining use lawn binding in the same way. ill. . reinforcement, bound seams, inside bell narrow lace may be whipped to the edges. (ill. .) this is always done in a french dress or any good dress. if the lining is of net or georgette, narrow lace may trim the neck and armholes. (ill. ) apply the lace as explained in illustration , page , or the edges may be finished with a narrow bias facing (chapter , page ) of the lining material and narrow lace whipped to the edge, or the neck and armhole edges may be piooted. (chapter , page .) the top of a camisole lining used under transparent materials may be finished with a facing of the lining material. or an allowance may be made for a hem if the pattern has none and the hem used to form a casing. the lower edge of the facing or hem may be machine hemstitched. one or two additional rows of hemstitching may be put below as a trimming. lace may be whipped to the top if desired. (ill. .) work a buttonhole in the lining at each side of the center, run a ribbon through the casing (ill. ) and tie the ribbon in a bow. a wide band of lace may be used to trim the top. (chapter , page .) or the top of the camisole lining may be turned to the outside and covered with lace beading. ribbon is run through the beading and tied in a bow. the shoulder-straps of a camisole lining may be of ribbon or lace. (ill. .) the finish of the lower edge of the lining depends on the design of the pattern of the dress wmsrs _ | waist. if it is a fitted lining extending below the waistline and not attached to another edge, it may be finished according to the instructions for finishing the neck and armhole edges of silk or cotton linings on the preceding page. or the edge may be simply bound with seam-binding. the outside waist should be put together according to the deltor or illustrated instructions with the pattern. if any alterations were made in the lining the same alterations should be made in the outside waist. try the waist on to be sure that it fits properly. finishing the outside waist. the finish depends, on the material and the design of the pattern. the seams are finished difierently for silk, wool and cotton. (chapter .) the underarm seams of a kimono waist made of a non-transparent material should be clipped to prevent their drawing at the curve. they are then finely overcast or bound with seam-binding. if the material is transparent, cut away the seam to one-quarter of an inch width and overcast it finely, or have the seam machine hemstitched. (chapter .) piecing in a kimono sleeve where the material is transparent should be machine hem- stitched. (chapter .) in any other material it may be piped. (chapter .) in silks or satins the piecing seam may be machine hemstitched or fagoted. (chapter .) the collar. removable and attached collars for the open neck and the high collar are given in chapter , page i . finishing a collarless neck. in sheer materials the edge of a collarless neck may be picoted (chapter , page ) or bound with a bias binding (chapter , page ). in silk, satin, heavier cotton materials and linen the neck edge may be bound. in wool materials the neck edge may be bound with a lighter weight material like satin, or with braid. in any material which is not sheer the neck edge may be picoted. a soft finish is much used on silk and wool materials and on velvet. for this soft finish turn under the seam allowance on the neck edge and cover it with seam-binding sewed on flat like a facing. no sewing should show on the outside. in silk and wool materials if there are seams or closing edges or embroidery or trimming of any sort. the inner edge of the seam binding may be tacked to the seam, closing edge, etc. in any other case it should be left free and simply lie fiat against the edge. press the neck edge and since there is no strain on it the seam-binding will lie flat against the neck and stay in place. in velvet the inner edge of the seam-binding may be blind-stitched, for this can easily be done invisibly on this material. in heavier cotton and linen materials use seam-binding as a facing. the inner edge must be hemmed invisibly or stitched in place on wash materials. the sleeves are considered by some people as the most difiicult part of a costume. great caution is necessary to keep them exactly alike, from the time the sleeves are cut until they are finished and sewed in the armhole. if not correctly cut and basted, one sleeve may be larger than the other. if they are not stitched in the armhole exactly alike, one may twist while the other hangs without a wrinkle. the finish of the bottom of a dress sleeve is handled in chapter , page . in sewing in a set-in sleeve hold the sleeve toward you when basting it or sewing it by hand, for it is easier to control the ease or fulness in this position. the armhole. do not bind the armhole. after the sleeve has been sewed in, overcast the armhole seam unless the material is transparent and is to be machine hemstitched. in sheer material which is not hemstitched the armhole seam should be cut to about one-quarter of an inch width before overcasting it. the finish of the waistline of the outside waist is a matter of style. follow the information given with the pattern. the waist may be made separately or joined to the skirt. in both cases instructions for finishing it are given with the pattern. blouses and shirt-waists the joining to show through to the outside, or if part of the collar joining rolls to the out- side and shows, the daintiest effect is given by machine hemstitching the seam or by using valenciennes or cluny lace seaming in the joining. if the collar joining does not roll to the outside, the joining can be made with a narrow flat fell seam. (chapter , page .) a single or double collar should never be joined to the neck of a transparent blouse with a facing, for it makes a thick seam which will show on the outside. the outside of a double collar should be sewed to the neck edge of the blouse. the edge of the inside collar or collar lining should be turned in and felled over the sewing. the single collar can be put on with machine hemstitching or seaming. it is advisable to avoid a seam in the edge of either single or double collars in a trans- parent material, if possible. in the case of a single collar a hem is the best finish for the outside edge when it is plain. the collarless neck- instructions for finishing the collarless neck are given in chapter , page . the cuffs. when the design is suitable the making and finishing of the cufi may match the making and finishing of the collar. the joining of the cuff to the sleeve may match the finishing of the shoulder and armhole seams when the seam finish is suitable. the same general principles are applied to the cuff as to the collar, and are simply adapted to suit the design of the cufl‘. the cuffs may be closed with buttons and buttonholes, or with buttons and loops. (chapter , page .) or the buttons may be simply ornamental and the closing made underneath with hooks and eyes or tiny snap fasteners. (chapter . page .) the closing of the blouse depends on the degree of softness and dressilu-ss that you want to give to the blouse. the closing of the waistline is always made secure with a hook and eye, or button and loop. (chapter , page .) above, snap fast- eners are sometimes used (chapter , page ), or sometimes a waist is fastened with buttons and buttonholes, or sometimes buttons and loops. but quite often when the blouse laps a great deal at the waistline, and is soft and full, the only closing above it is made by a fancy pin at the open neck. for the back-closing blouse snap fasteners are not very secure. it is better to use small buttons and buttonholes. plaitings or frills are usually made of a single thickness of the material and may be finished with a picoted edge, a narrow hem or valenciennes lace, net or point d'esprit footing. if a hem is used it should be machine hemstitched, or hand hemstitched (chapter ), or hand hemmed (chapter ) or machine stitched. plaitings are very pretty in georgette, crepe de chine, cotton voile, handkerchief linen and batiste. organdy plaitings are very dainty on cotton voile, and net plaitings are often used on handkerchief linen and crepe de chine. when a blouse extends below the waistline and is to be worn inside the skirt, it is usually finished at the waistline with a casing through which an elastic or drawstring is run to regulate the size. (chapter , page ill.) the lower edge is finished with a narrow hem. if the blouse is worn outside the skirt the finish of the lower part depends on the style and material of the blouse. a blouse that comes just to the waistline is usually finished with a belt casing. (chapter , page .) shirt-waists shirt-waists are usually given a more mannish efiect in their making and finishing than a blouse-waist. materials. tub silks and satins, radium silks, cotton, silk or wool shirtings, the heavier qualities of crepe de chine, pongee, dimity, madras and linen are the best materials to use for shirt-waists. the new dressmaker the seams may be finished as french seams or as fiat stitched seams, or lapped seams. (chapter , pages and .) the front closing. shirt-waists are finished with a box plait or coat closing. the making of the box-plait closing on the right front is shown in illustration and the lll. . the finished box plait finished box plait in illustration . a hem is turned and the raw edge included in the fold of the hem. (ill. .) the coat closing is made by turning both hems on the wrong side, basting and stitching them. (ill. .) waist is a blind closing. if the the blind closing ill. . lll. . finished effect of coat closing to have a blind closing, a fly must be applied to the closing edge. the fly should be made double, folded length- wise through the center. and a seam turned in at each edge. the fold edges are basted together and then sewed in position. (ill. .) the gibson tuck in a waist ne- eessitates joining the shoulder seam first before basting in the tuck. this leaves the tuck free across the shoulder seam (ill. ), and in basting in the sleeves the tucks can simply be turned toward the neck out of the way as illustrated. a back yoke. a back yoke may be applied to the waist as shown in illustration t . the neckband. shirt-waists are sometimes made with a band finishing blouses and shirt-waists the neck of the waist and worn with separate linen collars. the neck requires care. it should not be trimmed out too much and the neckband should fit the neck closely, though not too tightly, or it ' \< _________’__ .__. ‘a . i . ' iil . . basting in a gibson tuck will be difiicult to adjust the collar. an interlining should be used in the neckband. in most cases it should be of a material about the same weight as the waist material. the material of the waist can often be used for an inter- lining. in wash materials and flannel a soft cambric makes a good interlining. cut two sections by the collar-band pattern and also one interlining. baste the interlining to the wrong side of one - of the collar sections. place the two "l . ' method of/applying yoke collar sections together with the right sides face to face. baste an even three-eighth-inch seam at the top and ends, turn the band right side out and crease and haste the edges flat. baste the inside section of the band to the neck of the waist with the seam on the right side. turn the seam up, turn in the remaining edge of the band, fully covering the seam and stitch the outside, continu- ing this stitching all around the band. . finishing the slash in the sleeve. for the slash in the sleeve sew the underlap piece to the back edge of the slash with the seam toward the right side. crease the seam on the lap, turn the lap; baste down, entirely covering the joining. and stitch. join the overlap piece to the front edge of the slash in the same manner. (ill. .) adjust the overlap so that it will conceal the underlap and baste it in place. stitch all around the overlap, following the shape of the point. at the top of the opening the stitching should cross the lap and catch through the underlap, securely holding the opening in correct position, as shown in illustra- tions and . a continuous lap is often used to finish the slash at the cuff opening. this lap is made by sewing a straight strip of the material continuously along both edges of the slashed opening, the strip of material being the same width all its length. (ill. .) the other side is turned over and hemmed by hand or machine-stitched, to cover the first seam. this lap is shown in illustration . when the lower edge of the sleeve is gathered this lap is turned under at the front or overlapping edge of the opening and extends on the other side to form an underlap. (ill. .) making and finishing the cuff. there are two sec- "l . method of adp|y_ “ohs for eecii cllfi- ing laps ° |eeve an interlming may be used in a cuff or not, depending on the chapter skirts for ladies and misses skirl patterns—pattern a|terations—cutting—foundation or drop skirt—lnside belt-putting the skirt together—aiterations —hanging a gored skirt—hanging a circular skirt — altering the length of a gored -skirt—p|acket—finish of seams—seam allowance at top of skirt—finish of skirt he skirt pattern should be bought by the hip measure. (chapter , page , instructions on getting the right-size patterns.) pattern alterations. before cutting your material compare the waist mea- sure given on the pattern envelope with your own waist measure, and if it is too large or too small it can be altered according to instructions given in chapter , page ll. compare the front length of the pattern below the regulation waistline with the length you want to make your finished skirt. you will find the front length of the pattern given on the pattern envelope. the regulation waistline is marked on the pattern. if the pattern is too long or too short for you, alter the length as explained in chapter , pages and . when you decide on the length of your skirt, you must also decide whether you will finish it with a hem or facing. advice on the use of hems and facings is given in chapters and . if you are a woman of average height, you will have to make an allowance for the hem in cutting. ladies’ patterns do not allow for hems ex- cept in special instances: if you are shorter than the average, the skirt pattern may be sufiiciently long to allow for the hem. misses‘ patterns give a three-inch-hem allowance. in the case of a tall girl, or of a small woman who is using a misses‘ pattern, it may be neces- sary to make an additional hem allowance if a hem is used. if your figure is irregular in any way, if you have prominent hips or a prominent ab- domen, etc., the skirt pattern should be altered as explained in chapter , pages - . cutting. before cutting your material read chapter on materials, sponging, steaming, cutting. etc. lay the pattern on the material according to the deltor layouts included in the pat- tern. if the pattern does not contain a deltor, follow the cutting instructions given with the pattern. if you are not familiar with perforations and their uses, read chapter , pages to . . cut out the skirt following the advice given in chapter . mark all the perforations with tailors’ tacks. (chapter , page .) the notches can either be clipped or marked with two or three stitches in basting- cotton. if you clip them, cut them so that you can see them distinctly, but do not make them any deeper than necessary. for your wash skirt the inside belt should be shrunken before it is used. foundation or drop' skirt. (‘hina silk is the best and most satisfactory material for the foundation or drop skirt. however, for wearing qualities many women prefer some of the lining materials which are mixtures of silk and cotton, or the better grades of percaline. for the transparent materials such as lace, net, chiffon, georgette or silk voile, brus- sels net is the best material for the foundation or the drop skirt. if the pattern has a foundation skirt, it should be made before the skirt itself. the deltor or illustrated instructions will show you, with pictures how to make the drop skirt. then make the outside skirt, tunic or drapery, following the deltor or illustrated instructions. the new dressmaker satin. (chapter , page .) the thinner silks may have machinehemstitched seams. (chapter , page .) for velvet it is best to bind the seams. (chapter , page .) for heavy cotton materials and gingham the seams may be pressed open or turned to one side and bound with lawn seam-binding. gingham may also be finished with any of the french seams. ‘ the seam allowance at the top of the skirt should be turned down on the inside of the belt and its edge covered with seam-binding. press the seams. (chapter , page .) finish the bottom of the tunic or drapery according to the instructions given in the deltor. finish the bottom of the skirt with a hem or facing. (chapters and .) sew on the hangers. chapter io dresses for ladies, misses, girls and children dress pattern—material—making a dress—joining a waist and skirt to make a one-piece dress—an unlined dress-sail r and naval suits—first short dresses—dresses made with closing under a plait—dresses made with yokes he dress pattern. always buy the dress pattern for ladies according to the measures given on the pattern envelope. directions for taking bust, waist and hip measures are given in chapter , pages and ll. sometimes only the bust measure is given on the pattern, which means that that is the only measure necessary to consider in buying the pattern, and that the style is such that there is sufiicient ease or fulness to permit of any reasonable alteration at the waist and hip. if, however, the bust, waist and hip measures are given on the envelope, all three must be considered in buying the pattern. be careful not to buy one that is too small at any of those places. for an extreme figure it is best to buy waist and skirt patterns separately instead of buying a complete dress pattern. buy the waist by the bust measure and the skirt by the hip measure. (see chapter .) in this way it is possible to get a pattern to meet the measures of the figure. dress patterns for misses should be bought by the age unless the girl is large or small for her age, in which case the pattern should be bought by the bust measure. materials. for directions on the use of material, sponging and cutting read chapter . making a dress. for either a one-piece dress or for a dress with a waist and skirt joined together, the same general rules apply to the making and finishing that are given in chapters and on waists, and chapter on skirts. the instructions in these chapters cover the making and finishing of every part of the dress except where a waist, blouse or shirt-waist is joined to the skirt at the waistline. joining a waist and skirt to make a one-piece dress. when a waist and skirt are to be put together, they are made separately and completely finished before they are joined. the inside belt of the waist, if there is one, however, should only be basted to the waist, and the inside belt of the skirt should be basted to the skirt but not sewed fast. when the waist and skirt are finished, put them on with the skirt over the waist and pin them together. take them off and haste them together at the waist- line. try them on again to be sure that the waistline is in just the right place. ii’ there was a belt-stay in the waist, take it out and fell the skirt belt to the waist or blouse. an unlined dress should be worn over a slip. dresses for girls and children the pattern. instructions for buying a pattern for girls and children are given in chapter , page . the same general rules for making and finishing that are given in the chapters on waists and skirts for ladies (chapters , and ) apply to making children‘s garments, though of course girls’ and children's dresses represent a very simple type, and the work is kept as simple as possible. sailor and naval suits. the making of these dresses is handled in chapter , page the new dressmaker first short dresses. the general rules for making infants’ clothes (see chapter , pages and ) apply to the first short dresses. they are very simple in construction. dresses made with a clos- ing under a plait. this closing is often used in a plaited dress. the closing, cut under a plait and finished with laps for buttons and button- holes, is shown in illustration . the slash for the opening is made under the plait a seam's width from the sewing. the laps are made double. and when attached should be a little narrower than the plait which covers them. by referring to the illustration, the method of join- ing the laps to the edges of the opening will be readily understood. dresses made with yokes. a yoke can be joined to a dress as shown in illustration . cut the yoke and turn the edge under a seam's width, clip- ping the edge where necessary to make it lie flat. baste the yoke over the top of the front of the dress. to the wrong side, baste a bias strip of material with its edges turned under. place two rows of stitching across the yoke, stitching from the outside. they will catch through the bias fac- ing that is basted underneath, and which covers the seam, making a neat finish on the inside. this fidlsh is de- ill. . allaching yoke io front iii. . the closing under a plait sirable for a dress made of any material which is not transparent, as it makes it unnecessary to line the yoke. if a lining is used, however, it is cut like the yoke pattern, and the top of the dress por- tion is enclosed between the tnrned-un- der edges of the yoke and its lining. smocking is a trimming much used on the better class of children's clothes here and abroad. it is used for dresses, rompers, coats and little boys’ suits. it is very pretty in colors on dresses of fine white batiste, nainsook, plain lawn, handkerchief linen, cotton voile, very fine cotton crepe and silk mull. it is also used on the heavier cotton materials in white or plain colors, on chambray, serge, broadcloth, crépe de chine, etc. it is very easy to do with the butterick transfers, which not only give the design of the smocking but instructions for working it. the new dressmaker , ill. . setting in the sleeve to sew the rating badge on the sleeve properly. close the underarm seams and the sleeve seams as notched, using fiat felled seams. (chapter , page .) a hem is turned at the bottom of the blouse and if the pattern instructions direct, ill. l. basting on collar an elastic is inserted to hold the blouse in place. the collar is joined to the neck with the seam toward the inside. (ill. .) the collar is marked with notches showing where it joins the blouse, and in basting it on, the edge should be stretched between the notches to fit the cor- responding edge of the blouse. thus causing the collar to roll closely about the neck. the outer edges are turned under three-eighths of an inch and basted down. at the end of the slash in front, the turned- under portion tapers away to a point. the outer facing is placed on the collar so carefully that the roll of the facing and collar will come exactly together and the ends are slipped under the fronts. (ill. .) baste along the roll. the neck edge of the facing is stretched sufiiciently to make it lie smoothly when the collar is rolled back. after pinning the collar facing around the neck and down the front, roll the collar and facing over and roll the fronts back. put your hand under the collar and smooth it outward, so that it does s the new dressmaker lll. . emblems and chevrons may be repeated on the front of the blouse or shield, or a simpler design—a star or anchor, for instance—may be used if preferred. the navy regulations state what material shall be used for the rating badge. its decoration usually consists of a spread eagle above a specialty mark, and a class chevron. for blue clothing, the eagle and specialty marks can be embroidered in white, and for white clothing they can be worked in blue silk. the position of the rating badge worn lll. . boatswain's mate firs!-class by petty ofiicers is governed by naval uniform regulations. the chevrons show the class of the ofiicer, while the specialty marks indicate his position in the service. in using these emblems on a blouse, one might select the spe- cialty marks worn by the father or brother who is enlisted, or even an insignia indicating the trade or professional calling followed by a member of the family, such as engineer, electrician, etc. the emblem may be placed on the shield also, and a five-pointed star should be embroidered on both corners of the collar. excel‘- lent butterick transfer patterns can be purchased for the emblems, stars, etc., used on sailor suits. ill. . rating badge for chief master-at arms sailor or naval suits the neckerchief or tie worn with the blouse is a square of black silk tied in a square knot, leaving ends from four to six inches long. it is folded diago- nally and then rolled up, with the two overlapping corners folded into the material and held together by an elastic, as shown in illustration , while the other c o r n e r s a r e t i e d at the lower end of the collar in a square knot with a cor- ner extend- i n g f r m each side. (ill. .) ill. s . detail of tying knot the skirt. if front openings in the skirt are de- sired, both edges of the front gore are underfaced to the depth of a placket opening, with a straight strip of ma- terial about one and onehalf inches wide. the front edge of each side gore should have an underlap to the same depth, about one inch and a half wide when finished. join the gores together with stitched felled seams, continuing the stitching along the opening. if the skirt is to be plaited, the plaits will give sufiicient material for the under- lap. (chapter , page .) for a back lacing, the back plait is stitched separately from the skirt and the fold edges worked with six or eight eyelets (chapter , page ) and laced with black silk lacing or silk tape. (ili. .) the upper edge of the front gore is finished with ill. . the neckerchief tied ill. . front pladcel of skirt a straight belt two inches wide. a continuous belt of the same width is attached to the side and back - > gores of the skirt. the belts are cut single and ill. . regulation naval lacing lined, with an interlining added if it is necessary. three buttonholes are made at each side of the front gore, two on the skirt part and one on the belt. (ill. .) the sailor blouse may be used with a boy's suit. instructions for making trousers will be found in chapter . coats and capes cutting. when the material is ready, lay the pattern on it following the deltor layout for your size and width of material. if there is a nap, be sure to place the pieces so that the nap will run the same way in all the pieces. otherwise if the nap runs up in some places and down in others, part of the coat will look darker than others and it will look almost as if it were another color. the deltor gives layouts for both materials with a nap and without it when both are suitable for the design. for directions for cut- ting materials with a nap or pile and for cutting stripes and plaids read chapter , “materials, sponging, steaming, cutting, etc.,” pages - . follow the deltor layout carefully in placing the pieces on your material, for if they are cut on the wrong grain of the material the garment will draw and stretch. pin the pattern on the material very care- fully, and with sufiicient pins to hold it firmly, and cut it out with sharp dressmaking shears following the outline exactly. (chapter , page .) mark all the perforations, except the ones that mark the grain line, with tailors’ tacks. (chapter , page .) the notches can either be marked with two or three stitches in basting cotton or they can be clipped. in many materials basting cotton makes a clearer mark and does not nick the edge of the material. the interlining. the coat always requires more or less interlining. the kind of interlining material and the amount used varies with the type of the coat and with the current styles. the deltor or illustrated instructions will tell you the right kind of in- terlining to use, how much to use and where to place it for each individual pattern. this interlining is not used for warmth, but to give the material sufiicient body so that it will not break when the coat is on the figure, and make the material look poor and flimsy. the interlining materials most generally used are soft pliable canvas, cotton serge or cambric for wool materials. in a linen coat use butchers’ linen, cambric or muslin. for a silk coat the interlining should be cotton serge, sateen or cambric. all inte -linings should be shrunken before they are used. (chapter . page .) if the interlining is not shrunken beforehand it will shrink on the first damp day and will draw in and wrinkle the coat. the interlining should be cut by the coat - -- pattern following the instructions given in ill. i . stitching on the stand of the collar the deltor or illnstrated instructions. baste the intcrlining to the wrong side of the coat following the deltor or illustrated instructions. careful basting and plenty of it are essential to successful coat-making. the importance of basting can not be overestimated in this work. it is one of the vital points in tailoring. putting the coat together. baste the seams of the coat with the notches matching. the deltor or illustrated instructions will show you exactly how to put the coat together. try the coat on an_d if any alterations are necessary make them before stitching the seams. stitch all the seams of the coat. if they are to be finished with stitched or lapped seams (chapter , pages - ), press them before they are finished. (chapter , page .) lap the edges of the interlining flatly over each other. they should be catch-stitched. lll . ioi. paddinq stitches for the strictly tailored collar cut an interlining of tailors’ canvas. use the collar pattern as a guide, but cut the canvas three-eighths of an inch smaller at all edges than the pattern. the canvas should be shrunken before it is used (chapter page ). the “stand” of the collar—the part next the neck that stands up when the coat is worn—is marked by perforations.. it is a crescenvshaped section which should be covered with parallel rows of machine stitching about a quarter of an inch apart. (ill. .) padding stitches. the canvas and cloth on the turnover part of the collar, and the new dressmaker lll. i . tape and weights in the lapel or revers on the front. must be held firmly by many small stitches called “padding stitches.” (ill. .) these stitches are about half an inch long on the canvas side and just barely caught through on the right side. hold the collar or lapel firmly over the hand, the canvas side upper- most, and, in stitching, roll and shape the section in the direction in which it is to lie. (ill. .) the stitch should be started at the line of the fold of the lapel or collar and worked in successive rows to the edge. the edges should be turned under, caught to the canvas and pressed. on a coat which is sometimes worn rolled high there should be no padding stitches in the revers, as they would show when the coat is worn with the collar turned up. baste the collar, canvas side up, flat on the coat. accord- ing to the notches in the collar and in the neck. (ill. .) stretch the neck edge of the collar between the notches so that it will set smoothly on the coat. the upper or turnover part of the collar must lie flat, joining the turned- over lapels at the top of the fronts, to form the notched collar. when the coat has advanced thus far, try it on. fold over the lapel corners at the top of the fronts and see that the collar is the correct size and fits properly. if it does not, it may be shaped by shrinking, stretching and pressing. the front edgesof the coat should lie close to the figure at the bust, and a well-fitted coat should hold itself in shape to the figure at this point, even when unbuttoned. if the coat is inclined to flare away at the front line, pin one or two small dart-like tucks about one-quarter of an inch wide at the coat‘s edge and running out to nothing about two inches inside the edge, to shape in the edge and take out the stretched appearance. mark these tucks with chalk. remove the pins and slash in the canvas at each chalk mark. lap the canvas the same space that the tucks were made, cut away one edge to meet the other, lay a piece of cambric over the slash and sew the cambric to hold it to shape. the cloth will still have the fulness that has been taken out of the canvas and must be gath- ered on a thread, dampened and shrunk out with the iron. cut away the interlining to within % inch of the front edges of the coat. cut the hem allowance from the bottom of the inter- lining, turn the edges of the coat over on the interlining and catch- stitch them. taping the edges. narrow linen tape, well shrunken, should be sewed to the canvas toward the inside of the coat at the crease of the lapel, drawing it taut to prevent stretching. (ill. .) the edges of the lapel and the front coat edges should also be taped (ill. ), drawing the tape snug at these edges to give them a good shape. press the fronts carefully. (chapter .) weights. flat lead weights about the size of a quarter are tacked in the bottom of the coat to weight it properly. cover them with the lining satin so they will not wear through the lining. ‘(ill. .) an additional interlining. if required for warmth, is made of outing flannel or the regular silk-and-wool interlining that comes for the purpose. (ills. and .) cutit with the ills. i and i . the interlining for warmth coats and capes pattern of the coat as a guide, letting it extend an inch or two below the waistline. (ills. and .) slash the interlining at intervals along the bottom so that it will not bind the coat. do not put the interlining together with ordinary seams, but tack it inside the coat, letting one seam edge of the interlining overlap the one next to it. cut facings for the collar and fronts from the coat pattern following the instructions in the deltor or illustrated / _'/ instructions. the front facings must be cut to the shape of / ' the front after the edges have been altered and taped. lay ',. the cloth on the fronts and over the lapel corners; pin it care- fully in place, holding the front and lapel in to their proper shape; then cut it to the required width. it n(-ed extend only about three inches inside of the line that marks the center of a , the front. the collar facing, if of cloth, must be cut on the q ‘ width or crosswise of the material and must not have a seam ‘i ‘ i‘ / i in the center of the back. l ‘~ ', fit the collar facing to the canvas collar and join it to the /’ front facings, matching the notches on the collar and the _l .‘. front facings. press the seams open and haste to the canvas collar and to the front of the coat, turning in the edges of the w facing. (ill. .) collar facings of velvet are sometimes used, but instead of being applied directly over the interlining the edges ill. i . the collar facing of the velvet are turned under and catch-stitched to the under side of the cloth collar. if a velvet collar facing is used it should be made of a seamless bias strip of velvet. one-eighth of a yard of velvet cut on the bias is usually enough for a collar facing. all pressing and shaping of the collar must be done before putting on the velvet facing. the shawl-collar facing is sometimes cut in one with the front facing. the collar proper is cut and joined as just described, stitched to the body of the coat and pressed. the two facing sections are joined at the back and the seam pressed open. the facing is pinned in position. the outer edge of the facing is turned in even with the fold edge of the coat and basted. baste the free edges of the facing in place, being careful to allow sufiicient ease for the roll. fell the edges to position on the under side unless the neck is sometimes worn high in which case the felling stitches would show through. if the coat is to be worn high slip-stitch the edges. the coat collar which is not tailored. cut the interlining like the pattern. the deltor or il- lustrated instructions will tell you what kind of interlining is to be used. trim off the seam allow- ance on the edges of the interlining which are not to be joined to the neck. baste the interlining to the upper section of the collar. turn the outer edge and ends of the collar over on the interlining and catch-stitch them. (ill. ). turn under the edges of the under section of the collar one-eighth of an inch more than you turned under the edges of the upper section and baste to the upper section one-eighth inch from the edges. (ill. i ). catch the under section to the interlining about three-quarters of an inch in from the outer edges and also at the line where the collar rolls over. fell the edges to position. (ill. ). baste the collar flatly inside the neck edge of the coat and fell the coat to the collar. give the coat a careful pressing. (chapter , page .) ill. i . the collar which is not tailored |". |o . the |me,_ the sleeves. baste the seams of the sleeves and try them on. ;,(in; in the |eeve if they need any alterat'on in size around the arm, makc it at the seam the new dressmaker marked by outlet perforations. a bias strip of interlining, or whatever is used in the fronts, should be basted into the wrist just above the turning line of the hem part, and the cloth turned over and catch-stitched to it. (ill. .) if a vent or opening is provided at the outer seam of the sleeve, the extension on the upper part is turned under for a hem; and the lower part, neatly faced with the lining, forms an underlap. this opening may be closed by buttons used as a decoration or by buttons and buttonholes. finish the edge to match the edges of the coat. if stitching at cuff depth is desired, it must be made before closing the outside seam. the cuff. cut the interlining like the cuff pattern, of the same interlining material as used in the collar. trim off the seam allowance of the upper edge and ends. baste the interlining to the upper section of the cufl‘, turn the cufi edge over the interlining and catch-stitch them. ill. i . makingacuff (ill. .) turn under the outer edge and ends of the un- der section of the cufi one-eighth of an inch more than the upper section. baste the under section to the upper section with its edge onaeighth of an inch from the edges of the outer section and fell the edges to position. (ill. .) put the cuff on the sleeve following the instructions given in the deltor or illustrated instructions. baste the sleeves into the armholes. try the coat on to see if the sleeve sets nicely. then stitch it. the buttons. when sewing on the buttons sew them through the coat and canvas interlining but not through the facing. (chapter , page .) the lining is the final step of coat-making; the outside must be entirely finished, the pockets put in, and all the ornamental stitching done before beginning on the lining. silk, satin, crepe de chine and foulard are unquestionably the only satisfactory linings for a coat. only the greatest necessity for economy warrants using a silk substitute as coat lining. the lining may match coat in color or a fancy ' silk or satin may be used accordingly to the style. cut the lining from the same pattern as the coat, allow- ing for any alterations which have been made in fitting. cut the lining of the fronts to extend to the front facings only, and cut the back pieces each one-half an inch wider than the pattern to allow for a small plait in the center back. leave good seams, as the lining must be quite easy in width as well as length. (ill. .) if it is tight it will draw the outside of the coat and make wrinkles. baste a small plait at the center back to avoid any possibility of tightness. with the back piece of the lining basted in the coat, the two outer edges will be raw. catch these raw edges fiat with a loose basting-stitch to the in- side seams of the coat over which they lie. now take the next piece of the lining and baste it through the center to the corresponding piece of the coat, then turn under the edge toward the back and baste it down like a hem over the raw edge of the back piece, notching the edges of both seams at the waistline and immediately above and below ' it, so they will fit the curves of the coat. |||_ |() . lining me ( ,; repeat this method with each piece of the lining. turn it up at the bottom, allowing a little of the cloth to show (ill. ) but do not let the lining draw. after all the edges are turned under and basted over the preceding pieces and over the raw edges of the facings in front, and over the edges of the collar at the neck, they are neatly felled down to the cloth. (ill. .) be careful not to catch through to the outside. the lining of the sleeves is cut like the outside and the seams are stitched and pressed open. if the sleeves are to be interlined, the interlining should be tacked to the sleeve lining. it is used on the upper part of the sleeve only, and should stop three inches below coats and capes the upper edge and three inches above the wrist edge. (ill. .) the lining is slipped inside the sleeve and hemmed down at the hand and on the small opening at the back of the wrist if there is an opening allowed in the sleeve pattern. it is then drawn up in place and basted through the cloth of the sleeve about five inches from the top. draw up the sleeve lining, turn in the raw edge, and baste it to the coat lining all around the arm- hole and fell it in place. the half-lined coat the half-lined coat. top coats, storm coats, motor coats, etc., should only be lined to about twenty-five or twenty- six inches from the neck. (ill. .) you need a lining in the upper part to cover the interlining and to make the coat slip on and off easily. there is no real need for a lining in the lower part and it wears out so quickly, from rubbing against your skirt, that it is really better not to use it. the seam edges. when a coat is lined to the waist only, the seam edges in the lower part of the coat must be finished neatly. (chapter .) heavy materials like wool, velvet and army cloth are really self-finished, for they are so closely woven that they will not fray and can be left raw quite satisfactorily. tweed, cheviot. mixtures, etc., will fray and must be bound. the seams should be bound with ribbon seam-binding, the color of the coat. seam-binding comes in difierent widths and you can get it wide enough for even a heavy coating. put the seam-binding on by hand with an easy running stitch, sewing it neatly and evenly. (ill. , page .) the seam-binding should run up well above the line of the lower edge of the an unlined coat an unlined coat needs inter- lining to prevcnt its breaking on the figure. the interlining for the front of the coat should be cut and put in according to the deltor or illustrated instructions. the interlining in the front of the coat should be covered with a facing of the coat material. the part of the interlining left exposed back of the facing should be covered neatly with a lining. in cloth or linen the raw edges of the interlining and facing of the side fronts should be bound together. in silk they may both be turned under three-eighths of an inch, facing each other, and stitched. in either case, these edges should be left loose from the coat; they should lie against it, but ill. i i . the sleeve lnlerlining lll. l l l. the hull-lined coal chapter l house dresses, negligees, kimonos, bathrobes, aprons, bathing-suits and rompers patterns—materia|s—culting—putting the garment together—seams—finish he pattern. buy these patterns by the measure given on the envelope. this is the only measure necessary to consider in buying these patterns. when a design is cut in fewer sizes than usual it is because the garment is of a type which is more or less easy in fit, that is, it should not fit as closely as a dress. never buy a pattern smaller than your measure. in buying romper patterns buy them by the bust measure if the child is large or small for its age. chapter gives instructions for measuring ladies, misses, girls and children. many figures vary in the length of the waist, skirt and arm. before cutting your material measure the figure at these places. (chapter . pages - ) and compare your measures with those of the pattern (chapter , pages - .) if the pattern is long or short for you, alter it as explained in chapter . the proper place to alter each pattern is given in the deltor on the pattern envelope. materials. read chapter , page on shrinking materials before cutting your material. cutting. if you are not thoroughly familiar with butterick patterns read chapter . lay your pattern on the material following the layout given in the deltor for you? size, width of material and the view of the pattern that you are going to use. if no delto is given with the pattern follow the cutting instructions on the pattern envelope. after cutting out the garment mark all the working perforations with tailors‘ tacks. (chapter , page .) the best way to mark the notches is to take two or three stitches in basting cotton for each notch, or the notches may be clipped, in which case do not make them any deeper than is necessary to see them distinctly. putting the garment together. the deltor or illustrated instructions will show you with pictures exactly how to put the garment together. try the garment on and if any slight alteration is necessary. make it at the place pro- \ 'ded for alterations in the pattern. baste in the alteration, try the garment on again and stitch the seams. the materials suitable for each class of garment in this chapter, and the correct finish for each garment are given below: house dresses materials- the materials most used for house dresses are gingham, chambray, cotton poplin, madras, seersucker, linen-finished cotton materials and striped cottons. the finish for house dresses must be suitable for hard wear and frequent laundering. the seams may be finished with flat-stitched seams (chapter , page ) or with french seams (page ). armholes should be finished with flat-stitched seams (page ) or overcast (page ). the finish of the edges and the trimming of house dresses change from time to time as new ideas are introduced. the deltor gives the newest finish for this type of garment. the new dressmaker negligees, kimonos, etc. materials- crepe de chine, georgette crepe, lace, wash silk, wash satin, silk mull, silk and cotton crepe de chine, cotton voile, dotted swiss, wool batiste, wool albatross and challis, are the materials most used for negligées or kimonos. corduroy is used for warm wrappers. the choice of the materials depends on the dressiness of the negligée, etc., the use it is to be put to or the need of the woman who is to wear it. tea gowns in dainty materials and attractive colors are used by many women for tea, luncheon, and dinner at home with their intimate friends. seams. for all materials except corduroy french seams are used (chapter , page ). for corduroy use flat-stitched seams (chapter , page ) unless the wrapper, etc., is lined. in that case use plain seams and press them open. the nicest corduroy negligées are lined with a thin silk. china silk makes the best lining. , in a more elegant negligée of crepe de chine, georgette crepe or silk mull, the seams may be machine hemstitched. (chapter , page .) the edge finish and trimming will be found in the deltor. the styles, trimmings and finish change constantly and the newest ideas suitable for each design are given in the deltor. bathrobes material . the materials most used for bathrobes are blanket robing, blankets, eider-down, flannel. flannelet and corduroy for warm bathrobes. when warmth is not essential terry cloth makes a very satisfactory bathrobe. the seams. in heavy materials such as blanket cloth, blankets and eider-down, if the fabric does not fray, the seam edges may be turned to one side and stitched again m or % of an inch from the seam stitching. the edges are then cut ofl‘ close to this stitch- ing. if the material does fray trim the seam edges down to % of an inch width and bind the edges separately with lining material. turn both edges to one side and stitch them through the garment along the inner edge of the binding. in fiannelet french seams (page ) may be used. flat-stitched seams (page ) may be used in any of the materials mentioned. the lower edge and armholes are finished like the other seams except where french seams are used. in that case use a regular hem at the lower edge of the bathrobe. in joining the collar to the neck if the material is bulky stitch the under section of the collar to the neck with the seam toward the wrong side of the robe. clip the seam to prevent its drawing the neck and turn it up. cut ofi the seam allowance on the neck edge at the outside section of the collar and bind it. baste and stitch it to the neck of the bathrobe over the first sewing, stitching along the inner edge of the binding. the edge finish and trimming will be found in the deltor. apr ons aterials- gingham, chambray, percale, madras, seersucker, linen-finished cottons, flowered sateen and cretonnes are the material most used for aprons. the finish of aprons like the finish of house dresses must be made to stand hard wear and frequent laundering. in bungalow aprons use flat-stitched seams (page ). french seams (page ) may also be used for bungalow aprons and other aprons. the edge finish or trimming will be found in the deltor. now that mod- ern conveniences have made it possible for so many women to do their own house- work there is more interest in aprons and new ideas in trimmings are introduced each season. the deltor gives the newest and most attractive finish for each design. house dresses, negligees, arc. bathing-suits ' | 'he same general principles and rules followed in making waists (chapter ) skirts (chapter ) and bloomers (chapter , page ) are used in making bathing-suits. materlals- the materials most used for bathing-suits are surf satin, tafieta, surf cloth, brilliantine, or jersey cloth. rompers the mate-rials most used are gingham, chambray, cotton poplin, galatea, seer- sucker, linen and linen-finished cottons. seams for rompers must be finished to stand hard wear and constant laundering. if the effect of the romper is at all soft use french seams (chapter , page ). for little straight rompers or the body of a two-piece romper where a tailored effect is desired use flat-stitched seams. (chapter , page ). ’ another way of giving a tailored effect to rompers is to cut the seams to about % of an inch width and press them open. baste lawn seam binding fiat to the inside of the body to completely cover the seam, stitch along the edges of the seam binding to give the efiect of a tailored seam from the outside. armholes may be finished as flat-stitched seams, (chapter , page ) overcast (chapter , page ), or bound with lawn seam binding. making and finishing undergarments putting the garment together. put the garment together and baste it, following the deltor for putting together or the illustrated instructions. try the garment on and if necessary make any slight alteration. although there is a particular daintiness and charm about hand-made underwear. much fine and beautiful work may be done on the machine. the saving of time is so great that when a number of pieces are to be made this method is usually given the preference. a few of the smaller pieces—a corset cover, chemise or a pair of drawers— can easily be made by hand, but the amount of work on gowns, petticoats or combination garments inclines one toward the machine method. one must understand something of the mechanism of the machine. it mustbe kept clean and well oiled. the number of the thread, the size of the needle, the length of the stitch, and the adjustment of the tension must be adapted to the material. no. cotton is the best for white work, except for tucks and hems and all outside stitching on very sheer and fine materials, when no. or no. may be used. every make of machine has a table giving the sizes of needles that should be used with certain number threads, which it is wise to follow. remember that a sewing cotton requires a looser tension than silk. the hemming and tucking attachments are great time-savers, but many women prefer to gather rufiles, pufis, etc., by hand and stroke them. in making underwear it is important that there should be no raw edges. this not only makes it neater and daintier, but it makes it stronger and better able to stand frequent laundering. it is washing that wears out underwear more than the actual use. as invisible as possible. french seams are best on this account (chapter , page ). in fact, french seams are used on all underwear, whether it is sheer or not, because they show the \ least. these seams should be made as narrow as possible. in " seams. in sheer materials it is necessary to make the seams materials like batiste, silk muslin, net and georgette the seams may be joined with a narrow lace seaming. the method that is used for this seam is shown in illustration , chapter , page . ill . i | . binding the in all underwear. seams should be as narrow as possible. in mate- gbome, ," rials like thin silk, net, georgette, silk muslin and batiste the seam edges may be cut very narrow, rolled and whipped together. the method is the same as in ill. , page , only both edges are rolled instead of one. in all materials that suggest daintiness machine hemstitching may be used for the seams and for trimming. (chapter , page .) in the heavier cottons and silks where a tailored finish is desired fiat fell seams (chapter , page ) are used. they should be made as narrow as the material will permit. flat-stitched seams (chapter , page ) are the strongest seams for underwear and are often used for drawers, especially for children's drawers and for pajamas. they are always used for the pajamas when a mannish tailored effect is desired. a fell seam is used to piece the material in cutting unusually wide garments such as drawers, etc. the edges may be hemmed (chapter , page .) faced (chapter , page ) or trimmed in the various ways suggested in this chapter. for bloomers, both french seams and flat-stitched seams are used. a strong flat seam is especially good for gymnasium wear. it may be made by stitching the seam and pressing it open flat. the curved part of the front and back should be slashed half-way to the stitching every little way, so that the seam will be perfectly flat and will not draw. trim ofl’ the corners of the slashes to give a curved edge (ill. ) and finish the edges of the seam with a narrow ribbon binding or with a bias binding of sateen or percaline the shade of the material. use flat-stitched seams in piecing. binding the seam. the seams of bloomers may be bound with ribbon binding sewed on by hand with a running-stitch or stitched on. or the seams may be bound with sateen or percaline cut in bias strips an inch wide. baste the bias binding on the right side of the seam edges, turn it over the raw seam edge turning in the raw edge, and baste on the under side, keeping the turned edges even on both sides of the seam. stitch the new dressma_ker close to the inner edge of the binding. this type of binding is more serviceable than ribbon binding for a garment that is to receive hard wear. taping seams. if the bloomers are used for gymnasium the strain on the seams will be very great. they can be reenforced with firm black linen or cotton tape about % of an inch wide. baste this tape directly h... h .-.. . ... ....-, ...- em.-, ....-. $ ; ;;;§f;;' : d" ;i§§;“ m<;gu; f ggglggpgf seam and garment close to each seam edge. (ill. .) this will give the effect of a tailored seam from the outside as shown in illus- tration . be sure the tape is in one continuous piece from waistline in front to the waistline in back and from the lower edge of one leg to the lower edge of the other. trimmings. the daintiest and at the same time the most effective trimming for lingerie is hand-embroidery. it is used on all the most beautiful french underwear, and is very lovely to look at, and yet adds very little to the cost of the garment. it is the only trimming that does not wear out, and it never requires mending. for every-day wear the simple scallops and eyelets which can be used in place of beading are very satisfactory. more elaborate designs can be used on finer lingerie for evening wear, etc. one can get very beautiful effects by combining hand-embroidery with lace. all the best designs of difierent kinds of embroideries suitable for underwear are to be had in butterick transfers which are illustrated in n eedle-a rt. tucking made either by hand or by machine is used on all types of underwear. it may be either plain or fancy tucking. (chapter , page .) double bands of net or georgette are hemstitched to underwear of silk or batiste to finish the edges and to form a finish and also a casing for a ribbon. they are also set in garments below the hems, and have ribbon run through them. satin bands are used on garments of georgette, net, silk muslin, etc. novelty braids, particularly rickrack, are stitched to the edges of garments. they form a beading as well as a finish for the edge, since the points are only caught on one side of the braid. edallions of silk, georgette and net, many of them embroidered, are set in gar- ments of a contrasting material. narrow crocheted edges, often forming a beading, are used on many of the bet- ter class of undergarments in all materials, even satin. needle-art gives these edges both in crochet and tatting. cross overcasting and double overcasting (chapter , page ) such as are used as a trimming in waists and dresses are also used as a trimming on underwear of geor- gette, batiste, nainsook and silk muslin. shaped hems and facings are used at the edges of garments of all materials. they may be made of either the material of the undergarment or of contrasting material, and are either set in with machine hemstitching (chapter , page ) or else are feather- stitched in place (page ). these hems and facings may be shaped at either the inner or outer edge. rows of narrow bias bands of the same material or of contrasting material are used around necks and at the lower edges of fiounces. they are very pretty in fine striped or checked material on a plain material and are stitched on by machine or hemstitched. rawn-work and hemstitching are very lovely on handkerchief linen, batiste and voile, and are used a good deal on the better class of french underwear. they are very dainty. making and finishing undergarments | et plaitings are used at the edges of garments of georgette, silk, silk muslin and batiste. ibbon and satin plaitings are used on garments of georgette, net, thin silk and batiste. little colored flowers usually made of satin, georgette or ribbon are used on finer underwear, especially at the top of flounces. rosettes are also used on fine underwear. viany silk garments are finished with bandings and cordings of the underwear materials. edges are often finished with picot and sometimes have several rows of machine-stitching above the edge, either straight, scalloped or in points. ace is used on almost all underwear. it is usually a machine lace, though on the finer underwear certain real laces are used, such as valenciennes, irish, filet and binche. the different ways in which you can use lace as a trimming are given in chapter , pages - . uffles are frequently used for trimming on petticoats and drawers when full styles are in fashion. (see chapter , pages — .) chapter i maternity clothes and the layette. skirts-—-inside belts—waists and bl uses—waist linings—coals—capes— suits—materials—colors—c rsets—shoes-lingerie and underwear—the layette aternity clothes have two objects: one is to make your condition unnoticeable. the other is to give you every physical advantage possible. if your clothes make you feel conspicuous and awkward you will shrink from going out and will sufi°er from lack of exercise and legitimate amusement which would keep you in a happy, contented frame of mind. under such conditions you would be likely to become morbid. and your depression might seriously afiect the physical condition of your child and his character and disposition. if you keep happy and contented yourself you stand a better chance of having a happy, sunny, normal child. your clothes must be the right weight so that they will not tire or strain you. they must be the right size so that they give your figure proper support without compressing it or retarding its development. ' clothes that are designed solely for maternity wear are apt to look the part, and call attention to a woman's condition. at this time you do not want to be conspicuous in any way. you want to look as much like other women as possible so that there will be nothing to draw notice to you. it is much better to choose current styles that can be adapted to maternity wear and use them in preference to the special maternity clothes. your things will be prettier and smarter and of more use to you later. the slight alterations that you make for maternity use can be changed back to normal lines after the baby is born. you should avoid anything that is extreme or bizarre or that will enlarge your figure unnecessarily. skirts with plaits, long soft tunics, or soft fulness are admirable, for they give you the size you need at the waist. you should not usea skirt that is extremely narrow. it might become too small for you before the baby is born. if you select such a style it is advisable to add sufiicient width to it in cutting. sklrts—a skirt can be adapted to maternity use by allowing extra length at the top in front. the allowance should be three inches deep at the center front and slope to nothing to the hip. as your skirt grows shorter across the front you will let out this allow- ance to keep it even at the bottom. a skirt that is short across the front and pokes out calls immediate attention to your condition. until you need this extra allowance it can be turned under and its inside edge covered with seam binding. the inside belt of skirts and dresses should be of elastic webbing. new belts should be put in from time to time so that the belt will always be easy. it should never compress the figure. the point of the elastic webbing is not to allow the belt to stretch to your new proportions; it is to allow for the transient changes in the figure, the temporary inflations that come and go during the day. waists and blouses—in selecting waists either for separate blouses or as part of dresses, choose soft styles that do not fit the figure too closely. long overblouses when in style are very good, because they have plenty of size at the waistline. surplice waists, especially when they are made with sashes, adapt themselves to your changing figure with the tying of the sash. waists with soft fulness when they are used as part of a dress made with a soft skirt should be joined to the skirt before either the waist or the top of the skirt is gathered. a casing should be placed at the waistline and the fulness of both the waist and skirt drawn in with the same drawstring. (chapter , page .) maternity clothes waist linlngs—it is better not to make dresses and waists with waist linings which would have to be altered from time to time. instead you should wear a brassiere that sup- ports your figure and keeps it neat and trim. a brassiere should not be worn at all snug, for it must not compress the figure or prevent its development. surplice brassieres are ex- cellent, for they adjust themselves each time they are put on. or you can use the fitted brassié-re with under-arm seams laced wi th elastic cord which can be let out when necessary. coats. capes, sults—for the street a long coat or a cape is usually better than a suit. for some seasons suit styles are excellent for maternity wear. the coat should not be close fitting. it should have plenty of width at the waistline, and if necessary it should be cut with extra width allowed on the front edge of each front so that it will not become too small. materials and colors—it is advisable to choose materials that are as light in weight as possible especially for coats and street dresses. as far as possible wear the light-weight silks and satins even in winter in your dresses. get the necessary warmth from your underwear and your wraps. coats and wraps of course must be warm for cold weather, but you can choose materials that are warm and light. do not choose loud or light colors for maternity use. the quiet colors are less notice- able and the dark colors make you look small. avoid anything with large figures or con- spicuous stripes, checks or plaids. in summer you will want to wear white and light colors during hot weather, because they are cooler than dark colors. but in other seasons the dark colors are more practical for the street. use light colors for the house. corsets—as soon as you find that you need them get the best maternity corsets that you can afford. the muscles of the abdomen require additional support at this time and if you wear poor corsets or go without corsets altogether you run the risk of getting per- manently out of shape and perhaps losing your figure altogether even after the baby is born. if you keep well corseted the chances are that your figure will come back to its original lines. with your corsets you must wear hose supporters. a round garter is very dangerous. for it checks the circulation and might induce varicose veins. shoes—your shoes should have fiat, rather low heels so that you will not run the risk of turning your ankles and getting a fall. in wet or slippery weather be sure to wear rub- bers. if you fall or wrench yourself you might bring on a miscarriage. lingerie and underwear—for maternity wear you will probably need lin- gerie at least two sizes larger than the underwear you ordinarily use. instead of petti- coats it is advisable to wear princess slips, for the weight rests on the shoulders instead of at the waistline. if you use combination drawers and corset cover you must allow extra length in the lower part in cutting them. slash the pattern just below the hip and sepa- rate the pieces about three inches before you cut your material. in your envelope che- mises you will need extra length at the end of the tab. make a three-inch allowance on the tab in cutting. nightgowns should open down the front. in winter wear wool or part wool union suits, and many doctors advise long sleeves and drawers that come to the ankle. it is very important to keep the body an even warmth. if you take cold at this time it is likely to go to the kidneys and cause trouble later. you should place yourself under the care of a good physician as soon as possible and follow his advice in regard to exercises, diet, etc. under normal conditions a certain amount of exercise is very desirable. it keeps you in good general condition. you ought never to lift heavy things, or reach up for anything that might strain you. violent exercises of course are taboo. the layette ll baby clothes should be white, and as fine and dainty as possible. pale shades of baby pink and blue can be used for ribbons on dresses and caps, for linings in lingerie caps and for the linings of summer coats of batiste, handkerchief linen and crepe de chine. maternity clothes with on the front and lower edges of shirts. in s m e cases the flannel is turned only once and a loose button- hole r crochet- stitch in soft saxony wool or silk floss is made over the edge. this finish is shown in ill. . d i a p e r s - there are three kinds of diapers- bird's-eye linen, cotton diaper cloth and stockinet. they are twice as long as they are wide and are finished with narrow hems at each end. you will need three pieces of the diaper cloth, eighteen, twenty and twenty-four inches wide. if you like, you can buy the diapers ready made, sterilized and ready to use. petticoats —an infants’ petticoat is finished accord- ing to the material of which it is made. the princess petti- coat is the best style for the baby, for it is the easiest to put on, the weight hangs from the shoulders, it keeps the body an even warmth and it is loose at the waistline. (i . .) some lll. i i . pellicoat joined lo single body ill. ll . f lgmnel skirt in princess style, closmg on the shoulders ill. i . pellicoal joined to double body women prefer a petticoat gathered to a band or body, but the princess style is safer and is used at the best baby hospi- tals. flannel should be made of fine flannel. the seams should be stitched and fin- ished as shown in illustrations or on page . the u n d e r a r m seams are finished in the regulation manner with catch-stitching or feather-stitching. the bottom of the skirt may be embroidered, scalloped or trimmed with feather-stitching, or the hem can be finished as shown in illustrations and on page . the princess petticoat is fast- ened on one or both shoulders by ribbons or buttonholes. the neck and armhole edges may be bound with ribbon or tape or finished with a scalloped edge worked in white embroi- dery silk. (ill. .) if the petticoat is to be embroidered don't cut out the neck and armhole but mark the outline of the pattern with a colored petticoats' maternity clothes or cambric, and are trimmed with tucks (chapter ), feather-stitching (chapter ), french knots, or with ruffles edged with lace orwith rufiles of embroidery (chap- ter ) or a deep hem (chapter ). sllps—day slips are made of batiste, nainsook, lawn, fine cambric or cross-barred dimity trimmed simply with a little narrow lace at the neck and sleeves. babies wear them in place of dresses most of the time, for under afghans and blankets a dress shows very little. night slips are made like the day slips but without the lace and are usually of fine cambric (ill. ). many hospitals use a flannel nightgown which is worn in place of the nightslip and flannel petticoat. a slip should be - put together with ill - the |ip narrow f r e n c h seams. in the model shown in ill. , the neck is finished with a bias binding. a narrow tape is run through the binding so that the neck can be drawn up to the right size when the slip is worn. make an eyelet in the outside of the neck-binding just in front of the underlapping hem. pass the ribbon through this opening so that it will meet the other end that comes from the opening of the overlapping hem (ill. ). the neck and sleeves, which should be gathered into narrow bands at the bottom, may be edged with a frill of lace. the back is cut down through the center to the depth given for the opening in the pattern instructions. each edge of the opening is finished with a tiny he m. a plait is then made deep enough to bring the opening back one-half inch from the edge (ill. ). it is held in place by a slanting row of stitching at the end of the opening. dressf.s—the baby will need a handsome dress for christen- ing robe made of lawn, nainsook, batiste or handkerchief linen. the christening robe is generally made with a yoke and panel in front and this part of the dress can be of all-over tucking, or very fine embroidery. the simpler dresses are made of lawn, nainsook, dimity and batiste and are trimmed with smocking, hemstitching, featherstitching, french knots and tucks. fine little dresses are made of batiste, fine nainsook and handkerchief linen usually with a small embroidered yoke and with an embroidered or lace-trimmed rufile at the bottom. ill. i . finish of closing a dainty yoke may be made by over-handing together alternating rows of lace insertion and embroidery insertion. fine tucking rolled and whipped to lace insertion also makes a pretty yoke. narrow seaming or hemstitched beading may be used to join the yoke to the dress. the material on each side of the seaming should be rolled and whipped (ill. , page ), to the yoke on one side and the dress on the other. or the seaming can be joined to the dress and yoke with tiny french seams. the shoulder seams may be joined with the seaming in the same way, and the seaming may be used as a finish for the neck and sleeves. the material on the lower edge of the seaming should be joined to the neck and sleeve edges as described above. the material on the outer edge of the seaming should be cut away close to the seaming and a narrow french valenciennes lace whipped to the seaming to finish the neck and sleeves. this makes a dainty finish. baby clothes should be made entirely by hand and in the dresses the seams should be put together with narrow french seams or fine entre-deur. (chapter , ill. .) for maternity clothes ' material are a pretty part of the layette. the piqué or other silk. the cap-strings are always separate and are made of hemstitched lawn, ba- tiste or handkerchief linen. they are pinned on with baby pins and changed every day. in winter a baby will need a ready-made veil of fine knitted silk or brussels net edged with satin ribbon. the kimono or wrapper is a very practical garment and may be made of flannel, cashmere or any light- weight woolen material. a very pretty little garment may be made of french flannel, dotted or plain, with a shaped band of contrasting silk or flannel. (ill. .) the garment is collarless, and the neck and front edges, as well as the sleeves, are finished with shaped bands. ' the band is basted to the inside of the ill. i . applying a band wrapper, along the neck and front edges. after it is stitched on, the band is rolled over on the outside of the wrapper and basted in such a manner that it extends a trifle beyond the joining seam. the other edge of the band is turned in and basted flat to the material (ill. ) and is held in position bya feather-stitch. when a straight band is used, one long edge is joined to the wrapper with the seam toward the outside; the other edge is then turned under and basted over the seam as shown in illustration . french knots and various fancy stitches, scallops or little trailing vines of embroidery can be used very efiectively in the trimming of these wrappers. silk or satin ribbon may be used for the straight band. some of these kimono wrappers are lined throughout with soft india silk. the wrapper design mentioned above is perforated in the correct length for a house sack. this convenient little garment is made like the wrapper in every par- ticular, except the length. a dainty little sack is made of white cashmere lined with pale pink india silk. both the outside and lining portions are cut exactly alike, the seams stitched and pressed open. the sack and lining are then basted together, with seams turned toward the inside. the sleeve portions are gathered separately at the top. sew the outside material of the sleeve in at the armhole. turn the raw edge of the sleeve lining under. gather it and hem to the armhole. a tiny turnover collar may be added with the same kind of finish. the edges of the sack may be turned in and secured with a row of feather- stitching, or they may be buttonholed together by a scalloped edge. the feather-stitching is given in chapter , “trim- ming stitches." little shoes and slippers made of a washable material is cut according to a slipper pattern, following the directions given on the pattern envelope. the sole and upper part of the shoe may be lined with flannel. the outside mate- rial and the flannel lining are seamed separately and the seams pressed open. they are then basted together with their edges even. the upper and lower edges of the slipper are bound with a bias seam binding. the upper part and the sole are overhanded together on the wrong side and the shoe is turned right side out. the ankle straps are then lined with cambric. work the buttonhole in the right-hand strap of one slipper and in the left-hand strap of the other. flat bows run through tiny buckles, or rosettes of baby ribbon, can be used to trim * the b t@es- u|. i . straight band the new dressmaker blankets, afghans, etc.—the blanket should be inches long and the width of the material. the handsomest blankets are made of double-faced eider-down. the edges bound with wide satin ribbon with the sewing line covered with french knots or feather-stitching. blankets and afghans are always white, pink or blue, or white with pink or blue, or pink and blue together. the knitted afghans are made of wool. two thicknesses of shetland wool in pink or blue, or white with pink or blue, put together with a satin ribbon binding makes a dainty afghan for summer. there are always new and charming ideas in afghans and the best ones with directions for making them will be found in needle-art. a very nice blanket can be made with two thicknesses of cheese-cloth with one thickness of cotton wadding between them. the edges are bound together with ribbon or scalloping and the three thicknesses are caught together with satin bows or knots of baby ribbon. the baby will need little jackets, wrappers, sacks and bootees. you will find an excel- lent collection of them in the butterick catalogue and publications and very exquisite french designs for embroidering them are given in needle-art. these things, however, should be left toward the last, for you are very apt to receive them as presents. they make interesting work for the last few weeks when you are more or less confined to the house and do not feel like doing other things. chapter i sewing stitches knots‘bastings—even bastings—uneven bastings—combination bastings—diagonal bast- ings— running stitch—backstitch—the half backstitch—the combination stitch—overcast- ing~—overhanding—catch-stitch slant hemming stitch—straight hemming stitch—blind hem ming—slip stitch-loose french tacks—tailors' tacks make a knot, hold the threaded needle in the right hand. take the end of i the thread between the thumb and first finger of the left hand, stretching the thread tightly. wind it around the top of the first finger, crossing it over the end held between the finger and thumb. roll the first finger down the ball of the thumb about half an inch, carrying the thread with it, and with the second finger push the knot thus formed to the end of the thread. if a larger knot is required, wind the thread around the finger twice. bastings are temporary stitches used to hold two or more pieces of ma- terial together while putting in the per- manent stitches. the thread should be smooth and rather fine. careful bast. ing is essential to successful sewing and dressmaking. there are four kinds of bastings. even bastings start with a knot on the right side so that they may be easily removed. pass the needle over and through the material, making the stitches and spaces the same length. to fasten the thread, take two stitches over the last one made. (ill. .) uneven bastings are made by the method just described for even bastings, except that the stitches and spaces are of unequal length. the stitches taken upon the needle are about a third shorter than the space covered by the thread. (ill. .) combination bastings are used on seams where extra firmness is de- sired for close fitting. they are made by taking alternately, one long stitch and two short stitches. (ill. .) diagonal bastings are slant- ing stitches used in dressmaking and tailoring to secure the outside material lll. i |. diagonal baslings to its lining, particularly where the lining s sewing stitches overhanding, top, or oversewing, as it is sometimes called, is used to join folded edges or selvedges. (ill. .) baste the pieces with the folds or solvedges ex- actly even and sew with close stitches over and over the edges, taking up as few threads as possible, so that when finished the seam will be smooth and fiat and not form an awkward ridge or cord on the wrong side of the garment. catch-stitch, sometimes called cat- stilch, is a cross-stitch used to hold down seam edges. it is the preferred finish for the seams of flannel garments, for it does away with the clumsiness of a french or felled seam, takes the place of overcasting and prevents -aveling. place the edges together and run a seam, taking an occasional backstitch. trim off one edge close to the line of sewing and press the other edge flatly over it, holding the work as shown in illustration . make a knot and insert the needle under the edge at the lower left corner, cross the edge and take : . small stitch a few threads to the right. cross back again and insert the needle. taking a similar stitch through all the thicknesses of the material. always point the needle to the left and make the cross-stitches cncase the raw edges. the stitch is done from left to right. if preferred, these seams may be pressed open and catch-stitched, working the stitches over the raw edge at each side of the seam. thus holding both down as shown in illustration . a quicker method of catch-stitching is seam and millinery shown in illustration . this stitch has not the strength of the first method and is only used in millinery and in dressmaking where the work is concealed. this style of catch-stitching is done from right to lcf t. the slant hemming stitch is used to hold in place hems, facings, fells, etc. _ - . j ‘_p . each stitch slants on both the right and wrong side of the material. (ill. .) place the hem over the forefinger and under the middle finger of the lef t hand and hold it down with the thumb. be- gin at the right hand and insert the needle through the fold leaving a short end of the thread to be caught under the stitches. pointing the needle toward the left shoulder take a slanting stitch. taking up one or two threads of the material and the fold of the hem. at the end of the hem fasten the thread by taking two or three lll. l l. slant hemming slilcii stitches on top of each other. lf a new thread is needed start as at the beginning, tucking both the ends of the new and old threads under the fold of the hem and secure them with the hemming stitches. in hemming train the eye to keep the stitches even and true. take very small, almost sewing stitches tailors‘ tacks are used in cutting out garments to mark seams, perforations, etc. they are used to give a clean exact line for the sewing. when laying out the pat- tern on the material cut the pieces, and then with a double thzead mark all the perforations as directed in the pattern instructions. baste through both thicknesses of the cloth, alternating one long and one short stitch. leave the long stitches loose enough to form a loop under which a finger can be passed. (ill. .) then cut every long stitch and separate the two pieces, cutting the threads that still hold them together as you go along. there will then be enough stitches in each piece to indicate the sewing line plainly and both pieces will be marked exactly alike. for waists or coats, or for any curved outline, the tack stitches should be quite short. in using tailors’ tacks for marking long tucks or plaits in skirts, etc., the loose stitch may be an inch and a half long and not left in a loop, its length supplying the necessary thread for pulling through between the two pieces of cloth. ill. i . tailors_ tacks chapter i _ seams french se-am—tumed-in french seam—fell french seam—flat fell seam——lapped fell seam—roll seam—p|ain seams pinked—piain seams bound—joined seams—ordinary tailored seam—b|'oad seam—cord or tucked seam—'eli seam—d uble-stitched well seam—open welt seam—slot seam—doub|e-stitch slot seam—strap seam—lapped or imitation strap seam—raw edge lapped seam f r e n c h s e a m is a double seam used to encase raw seam edges. baste the two edges evenly together on the right side of the garment, and sew close to the edge. (ill. .) - -i.. . trim oi‘! the ravelings and .' ‘ ' - - - - - - - - -* turn the wrong side of the ' ‘ - garment toward you, creas- ing at the seam. make the second sewing a sufiicient depth to cover the raw edges. (ill. .) this seam is used for thin materials and for dainty garments where it is not desirable |||. | . fremh °.',m to show stitching on the right side. it should be used on edges that are easily turned. a turned-in french seamisused when the lines of a garment are such that this seam is more practical than the regu- lar french seam. it is used on edges that are very much curved, and on edges that have been basted at the finished sewing line and can be finished more easily this way. make the usual plain seam on the wrong side of the gar- ment. turn in both edges of the seam toward each other, turning each side the same amount. (ill. .) baste the edges together and then stitch them or finish them by top-stitching. (chap- ‘ i ter , page .) l -' - .'_ ,‘...-<'.'__’,- 'h.. . , f-.. f,.....h se..,“ ' a rem. french seam is made with seams the usual plain seam on the wrong side of the garment. the edge that is toward you should be trimmed down to % of an inch width. turn the other edge toward you v of an inch and bring it to the seam line. (ill. .) finish it with a hemming stitch, illustration , or by machine, or with small running stitches. a flat fell or stitched seam has one edge hemmed down covering the other raw edge. it is used principally for wash garments such as muslin underwear made in medium- - weight materials, for flannels, tailored waists and working aprons. baste the seam edges together on the lll. l . hal fell or hat stitched seam wrong side ol’ the garment and sew the seam with combination stitch. if the edges are bias, sew from the broad part of the piece to the narrow part to prevent the material from raveling and stretching. remove the bastings and trim the edge toward you close to the sewing ““ "- "“* " line. (ill. .) turn the other edge flatly over it, pressing hard with the thumb nail. make a narrow turn, baste and hem. (ill. .) this seam can be stitched by machine if preferred. lll. l . lapped fell or stilched seam a lapped fell or stitched seam is used on flannels, tailored waists or where there is no right or wrong side. lap one edge of the seam over the other with the seam lines exactly over each other and baste through the seam lines. trim off the ravelings from the edges and turn the edges under so that they meet. (ill. .) the edge on each side may be sewed with a hemming stitch or by machine. (ill. .) . g. rolled seam a rolled seam is used in sheer materials where an unusually narrow joining is required. and the material is likely to ravel or fray. hold the seam edges together and trim off all the ravelings. begin at the right end and roll the edges tightly between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand keeping the edges rolled for about %; inch ahead of the sew- ing. whip the roll very close together making the stitches come under the roll and not through it. draw the thread tight. (ill. .) this seam will form a small roll. tailored seams n tailored garments keep the cloth smooth at the seams‘ and make the stitching as even as possible and press carefully. plain seams pinked — in plain seams of very closely woven material that does not fray or ravel, the edges of the seams may be simply notched or pinked, and pressed open. (ill. .) plain seams bound—plain seams of jackets. cloaks and other garments made of heavy material that will fray should be i . bound with satin, silk or farmers’ satin. this is cut in bias "‘| §,l,;,,,,e;‘ ,g,§]<'f,£,p'am ' - the new dressmaker is used it is better to cut them on the bias. and when the material is cloth the better result will be obtained if the straps are cut crosswise or bias of the goods. for a finished strap that is five- eighths of an inch wide, the strips are cut one and one-fourth inches wide. join the two raw edges with loose over- hand stitches as shown in illustration , page ; spread out the strap with the line of joining directly on the center, and press. when making strap seams it is desir- h. i "” seam able to graduate the thickness at the seam as much as possible. for this reason, cut the seams either wide enough so the edges on the underside will extend beyond the edges of the strap, or cut them narrower so the edges of the strap will extend beyond the seam edges. baste the straps carefully over the seams, with a line of bastings run along each edge. (ill. .) when it is neces- sary to piece the straps for long seams, avoid having the joining seam in ‘a prominent place on the garment. ,»->- ¢-¢»- a lapped or imitation strap seam is the most practical finish for unlined garments. the edges at the seams are lapped and the raw edges turned in with a row of stitches finishing it alike on the right and wrong sides. (ill. .) i _l i i i ii i i i | ' ‘ ill. i . l uppcd or imitation strapped seam a raw-edge lapped seam is used in making garments of heavy, closely woven material that will not fray or ravel. the seam edges must be cut very accurately and smoothly. baste the edges evenly. lapping them the full allowance, and stitch as near the edge of the upper lap as possible. a second row of stitching five-eighths of an inch from the first gives it a neat and tailored finish. the seam on the under side should be trimmed ofi evenly. (ill. .) one should be very careful in deciding on the style of seam used on a tailored _ - . garment. -tweeds, homespuns, friezes, _ t and all other rather loosely woven “l . ' raw edge lapped seam woolen materials should be finished with bound seams. in linens, pongees and crashes one should use the cord, bound or lapped seam. broadcloth, meltons, kerseys, covert, and other heavy driving cloths can be pinked, as they are so closely woven that they will not ravel. to have a good tailored look the machine- stitchings on any seam must not be too fine. the thread and needle should be of medium thickness and the stitch should correspond in size. chapter i hems hems—napery or damask hem—french hem—square corners- mitered corners—circu|ar hem—plain hem hem is a finish for the edges of garments, household linens, etc. it is made by tur- n- ing the edge of the material over twice. (ill. .) the first turning should be narrow and must of course be perfectly even. the depth of the second turning depends on where the hem is used and the effect you want to give. mark the depth of the second turning on the mate- rial with pins, using as a marker a card notched the desired depth of the hem. fold the material on the line with the pins and if the hem is wide baste it at both the top and bottom. "l - hem a napery or damask hem is used on napkins and table-cloths. turn under the edge of the material twice for a narrow hem. fold the hem back on the right side, crease the material along the first fold, and overhand the fold and crease together. the needle is inserted straight, as shown in illustration . open and flatten stitches with the thumb-nail. if a square is used, turn the opposite side in the same manner. hem the sides before folding back on the right side. no basting is needed for this hem. take small stitches so that the work will look well when the hem is turned down. directions for hemstitching will be found on page . square corners are used in hemming squares or obl n.gs. turn ill. . napery or dammk hem under the hem on one edge and then turn under the hem on the edge at right angles with the first. crease the line where the fold of the second hem crosses the first hem. open both hems and cut away the first hem to within a seam's width of the crease and the fold of the hem. (ill. .) turn under the hems again and hem the overlapping edges of the second hem to the under side of the first hem (ill. ) but not through to the right side. finish all square corners in this way. mltered corners are made by joining two bias edges to form an angle. turn the edges as for hems, and crease. open the material, fold the corner toward the center, and crease where the lines cross. cut the corner ofl’, allowing ill. i . folding for square corners the new dressmaker ill. i . hemming square comers ill. i . hemming mitered corners ii lll. i . reversing seam for french hem a narrow turning (ill. ). fold the hems down all around, bring the mitered corners together, and hem the side (ill. ). hem the corners, but do not catch the stitches through the mate- rial underneath. french hem the seams must be stitched to within twice the depth of the finished hem, as shown in illustration . clip the seam at ill. . folding for mitered corners this point to the stitching, turn the lower edges toward the right side and stitch the remainder of the scam. press open, turn the hem to the right side, baste and feather-stitch (ill. ), or finish in any desirable way. french hem on lannel skirt ill. i . hems a circular hem is often used on a skirt or garment that is not straight at the lower edge. if the material is soft in texture, the top of the hem is simply turned under and a gathering-thread run in close to the turning. (ill. .) draw the gathering-thread till the top of the hem is the same size as the part to which it is to be sewed. (ill. .) blind-stitch it or machine-stitch it to the garment. if the material of the garment is of heavy weight the upper edge should be gath- ered without turning it under (ill. ) and the raw edge should be covered with a strip of seam-binding. (ill. .) the lower edge of this seam-binding should be sewed to the hem but not to the garment. before sewing the top of the hem in place slip a piece of muslin cut the shape of the bottom of the garment under the ~ hem and press the hem flat, shrinking ll|. . acircular hem with the edge out - much of the fulness as p $ ib @- t umed under the piece of muslin will prevent the ful- ness in the hem from making marks on the garment during the pressing. the piece of muslin need not be the full width or size of the gar- ment or hem. it can be a comparatively short piece and can be moved as the pressing is done. after the hem has been pressed in this manner, hem the upper edge of the seam binding to the garment with invisible stitches. a hem for a slightly gored or straight skirt. the hem edge is turned under in the usual way. if an invisible sewing is desired. the turned-under edge of the hem is stitched close to the turning and then blind-stitched neatly and carefully to the garment. lll. i . covering the raw edge of a circular hem with seam-binding chapter tucks and plaits tucks—nun's tucks—curved tucks—cross tucking—laying plaits—stitching plaits— supporting lnlaid plaits tucks should be marked with a measure so that they will be of even width. nun_s tucks are wide tucks usually two inches or more in width. the method of making all tucks is the same more or less, but the wider the tucks, the greater the lll. i . tucks difiiculty in keeping the tucks and the dis- tance between them even, especially when the bottom of a skirt is circular. in such a case the tucks must be marked and basted before the stitching is done. cut the gage from a piece of cardboard, and from the end measure down the width of first tuck, making a slash and a bias cut to meet the slash. (ill. .) make a second cut as shown in illustration , al- lowing for width of space and second tuck. it is quicker and more accurate to make a gage of this sort in measuring short spaces, such as hems, tucks and the spaces between them, than to use the tape mea- sure, as sometimes the eye becomes con- fused at the small marks on the tape, and mistakes are made that will prove quite serious. curved tucks—(‘urved tucks are sewed on a curved line which makes the under side fuller than the upper side. mark the edge of tuck with tailors’ tacks (page ) or pins, fold material on this mark and baste quite close to the edge (ill. .) mark the depth of the tuck from this edge, using a gage to keep the tuck an even width and baste. in sewing the tuck the extra fulness must be eased on the under side of the tuck as you sew. be care- ful to distribute this fulness evenly so that it does not fall in hunches or draw the edge of the tuck out of place. cross tucking is an effective trimming for waists, blouses, dresses, etc. all ill. i . curved tucks the new dressmaker tucks running in one direction should be made first. the cross tucks should be the same size and should be placed the same distance apart as the first tucks, so that when the tucks and cross tucks are finished they will form perfect squares. (ill. .) cross tucks may be of various sizes, but pin- tucks placed about an inch apart (measuring from the sewing of one tuck to the edge of the next) are particularly dainty. plaits in laying plaits in a garment it is advisable if possible to lay the plaits before the seams are joined. in stitching plaits it is best to leave at least one seam of the garment open, and if it is a skirt, remove it from the belt, for the work can be more easily handled under the machine if it is open and flat. after stitching the plaits as desired, baste and stitch the seam. if it is a skirt. put it on the belt, press the plaits and try the skirt on to get the correct length. a hem is the best finish for the bot- tom of a plaited skirt or dress. (chap- ter , page .) be careful to get the plaits even, with- out any draw, especially where the edges come bias. as each plait is flattened, it should be basted a little distance from the fold edge, as shown in illustration , to keep it in shape. this will be found a great convenience later in working on the garment. when a plaited skirt is made of heavy material or is lapped very much at the waist in fitting, it may be made less bulky by cutting away the surplus ma- terial after the plaits are stitched. the under-lapping material is cut away to within an inch or so of where the stitch- ing finishes. (ili. .) from that point it is cut across the top of the plait. (ill. .) the raw edges left in this way are bound with a bias strip of lining or ribbon seam binding, that will finish across the top of each plait (ill. ,) except where the seams that join the ill. i . the box plaits basted in place ill. i . plaits cut away on reverse side of skirt and plaits breadths form the inner fold of a plait. in that ease the binding will continue down the raw edges of that seam to the bottom of the skirt. in cases where the plaits are not stitched the entire length, the thread-ends on the under side must be securely tied, as shown in illus- tration . gored skirts that have a side plait or an in- verted box plait let into the seams some dis- tance up from the bottom, are sometimes troublesome because of a tendency of these plaits to show below the bottom edge of the skirt since there is nothing to which they may be attached. this trouble may be avoided ill. i tying threads in the manner shown in illustration . the seam edge and the edge of each of these plaits are bound, and after the skirt is finished a tape or strap of lining is sewed to the top of each plait and is carried from one to the other all around the skirt. (ill. .) the tape will generally be found sufiicient stay, but in a woolen skirt of heavy cloth an additional tape or strap may run diagonally from the top of each plait to the next seam and be securely sewed there to the wrong side of the skirt. this stay also is in illustration . nun.‘ _ a a i _, , ; - w dnwncb ill. i . supporting lnlaid plaits i the new dressmaker edges of the plait with binding ribbon or a binding of thin silk. a placket-hole at the under fold of a piait is often used. cut through the crease or under fold in the plait to the regular placket depth. bind both cut this method allows the plait to serve as a placket underlap. the outer fold of the plait may be stitched (ill. ), leaving the under portion of the plait free. illustration shows the posi- tion of the hooks and eyes or the patent fasteners on the under fold of the plait. if the plait is in a skirt that fits at the top so that there is likely to be a strain on the placket, hooks and eyes are the strong- est fastenings. but if it is a plaited skirt where the plaits fall free and there is no strain on the placket,‘ snap fasteners may be used. the placket- hole at the cen- ter of a habit back is practically the samc as for the skirt with an inverted plait closed at the center-back seam. (ill. .) a placket-hole under a strapped seam is shown in illustra- tion l . the right-hand fold of the strap is stitched flat to the skirt. the left-hand edge of the strap is turned under and stitched to itself, following the same line of stitching that holds the rest of the strap to the skirt. (ill. .) the hooks are sewed to the left edge of the strap. notice that they are set close together and a trifle back from the edge. a strap placket must be held firmly to keep the line of trimming absolutely straight. for the same reason it is just as well to add a row of patent fasteners just back of the hooks. (ill. .) ill. . finished placket on habit- back skirt ill. . placket finish of strapped seam lll i . reverse side | underlap the underlap should be an inch and a half wide and an inch longer than the placket-hole. finished. (ill. .) it should be made of the skirt material and its edges bound with seam binding or silk. blind loops are used instead of eyes and should be worked on the skirt in corresponding positions to the eyes. the fasteners are sewed to the lap. the placket-hole in a skirt set in the same belt with its foundation skirt is made by the same methods as an ordinary placket. ln such an instance, the placket opening of the skirt and foundation skirt are finished separately. whatever kind of placket is used, one should be particularly careful to see that the hooks and eyes or fasteners are so arranged that they will keep the holes securely closed. nothing looks worse than a gaping placket. and any woman who takes a pride in her personal appearance will pay special attention to this part of her dressmaking. plackets i ill. i . underlap and facing stitched plocket slit in skirt underwear plackets underwear plackets are made in the following manner. if there is no seam, cut the opening in the garment the desired length. it should be long enough to slip easily over the head. cut for a lap a strip of material lengthwise of the goods. it should be twice the length of the placket opening and three and three-quarter inches wide. fold the ends together and crease through center; open and fold the sides together and crease. cut out one section to within a small seam of the crease as shown in illustration . baste the long straight edge of the lap to both edges of the opening, making a narrow seam. run it almost to a point at the lower edge of the opening. (ill. .) make a narrow turning on the three edges of both the narrow and the wide part of the lap. double the wide part back (ill. ), baste the edge over the line of the sewing, and hem. this forms the underlap. turn the narrow part back on the line of sewing, baste the free edge to the garment to form an underfacing, and hem. the end of the underlap is turned under, basted and stitched across. the finished closing is shown in illustration . this placket has an outside row of stitching. it is usually employed for drawers, petticoats, etc. ill. . underlap and facing strip for placket . __k, . _ - ‘f ‘- ill. . finished plocket ill. . folded to position lll. . feather-stitched hem at placket a feather-stitched hem on a placket used on flannel petticoats is shown in illustration . pockets i h {j .\§ - ._ ._ / i , ‘ _ _ %/~ vain s~.i. .\ - ‘ \ | ' \ .\ ill. . inside view ol a slash pocket ill. i . outside view oi a slash pocket pocket line and about an eighth of an inch from it. (ill. .) tie the ends of the threads firmly so that the stitching can not pull out, and then cut through the pocket line with a sharp knife, cutting through both the facing and the garment material. push the facing through the slit. (ill. .) rebaste the facing from the outside, letting it form a head or cording an eighth of an inch deep at the edges of the pocket. it should be stitched on the upper edge of the pocket hole from the right side. cross-stitch the pocket edges together to hold them in shape until the garment is finished. turn down the upper edge of the pocket facing as close to the stitching as possible, and press flat to wrong side of garment. (ill. .) (‘ut from strong cotton or drill a pocket piece about twelve and a half inches long and two inches wider than the pocket opening. shape one end of the pocket like the curved pocket opening and insert it between the lower pocket facing and the garment. close to the opening. (ill. .) baste it in place from the wrong side. turn the garment portion over to right side, and stitch through both fac- ing and pocket close to opening. turn under lower edge of pocket facing and stitch it to pocket (ill. ). but not to the garment. now turn up the pocket about four and a half inches from the opening and baste it in place with its upper edge toward the top of the garment. from the right side. stitch through the garment and the pocket along the upper edge of the pocket opening. turn under the edge of the upper part of the facing and hem it to the pocket (ill. ). do it from the right side. pushing the pocket and facing through the slit. the sides of the pocket are closed with a row of machine stitching about three- eighths of an inch from the edges. (ill. .) the ends (ill. ) are finished with an arrow- head (page ). - a perfectly straight opening has a ill. | |. forafitraighl po¢k€! opening facing of material applied as directed above. {ills and .) two pocket pieces are i the new dressmaker cut of pocketing or drill, the lower four and a half inches long, the upper piece five inches long. both pieces should be an inch wider than the opening. the pocket pieces are slipped under the facings, basted and stitched from the right side. (ill. .) strengthen the ends of the opening on the right side with a bar tack or arrow-head. (chapter , page .) the raw edges of the facings are turned under and stitched to the pocket pieces (ill. ). the upper pocket piece is then turned down over the lower and basted and stitched to it around its three open sides. the raw edges may be hound or overcast. . ! e .- l.'.i i ] hi in! i-i ii i‘ tl y . 'lrw--.--.-.--. _ !_-e_.-.~-.-. lll. i . the in-and-out lap pocket is used a great deal for tailored garments » this pocket is illustrated on the preced- _ t i» “'. " »>-i ‘~ » - ‘_ - ing p ,ge_ a ‘q ‘ii! ‘@- in a pocket with an in-and-out lap the latter is finished completely before the pocket is begun. cut the piece for the lap from the cloth, being careful to have the grain or stripe of the goods match when the lap is laid on the jacket in the position it will have when the pocket is completed. (ill. .) turn in and baste a seam on three sides. run two rows of even stitch- ing around the edge from the right side, the first ‘ow one_eighlh of an inch from the lll. i . in check. stripe or plaid material the lines edge. then aldd a lining of silk‘ s ip_ in the lap should match the lines in the garment stitching it on by hand. now lay the finished lap face down on the goods with its raw edge down, and even with the line of bastings that indicate the pocket opening. the rest of the work is the same as for the pocket described above. in this case, however, the section of the facing strip which is supplemented by the lap is cut away. an open pocket is made similar to the one having an in-and-out lap. the lap is made straight or on a slant (ill. ), not quite so wide as for a loose lap, and is joined to the garment at the lower edge of the slit in an upright position and is attached to it at each side. a bound pocket opening should be bound with a bias strip of self or con- trasting material about % inch wide and % inch longer than the pocket open- ing. turn under each end of the strip m of an inch. (ill. .) mark the line of the pocket through the pocket perfora- tions with tailors’ tacks. (page .) place the strip on ___ . the outside of the |u. . bastingon the bindrng m. | . the bound pocket opening um r rmtgslwum mwurmrmr ui lilll "hi ‘mr rm |() the new dressmaker iil . basting the lining to the collar to finish a removable collar. a removable collar for the open neck of a garment not made of sheer material is usually finished with a bias binding about }/ an inch wide finished. sew one long edge of the binding to the neck edge of the collar (ill. ), turn in the other long edge of the seam allowance and baste it over the first sewing. (ill. .) then stitch or hem it by hand as shown in illustration . ill. . finishing a removable collar if closed at the left side, the entire collar, except the small portion at the back, is sewed to the neck. the neck of the lining at the left side, which is free, is bound with seam-bind- ing. fora waist with a front closing, bind the left side of the neck with seam-binding, pin the collar around the right side, with the center of collar at the front edge of the right front, and the right end of collar at the center-back seam. (ill. .) when the removable collar is for a waist of sheer material it is best to finish the neck edge of the garment and collar with picot edging (chapter , page ) or with a narrow rolled hem. (chapter , page .) for the rolled hem a thread should be run in the neck edge of the collar before rolling it, to keep the size and prevent stretching while rolling the hem and work- ing on it, for the edge is bias. standing collar. if the collar is to be of woolen or silk like the gown, it should be lined with a piece of soft, light silk. turn over all the edges of the collar and baste. slip-stitch the lower edge to the neck. lll. . the standing collar collars, cuffs and belts ill sew the collar to the neck, being careful not to catch the stitches through the outside material. sew three hooks on the left end of the collar on the inner side (ill. ) and one to its lower edge about half-way between the center front and back. cut the facing (preferably of silk) the same shape as the collar. turn in the edges of the facing and hem it to the collar on the left side, and to the neck of the right side of the waist. work three buttonhole loops at the right of the collar, and one in the left side of the waist at the neck. the collar and facing are shown in illustration . collars and cuffs for coats and suits and cape-ls. instructions for making these collars and cufis are handled in the chapter on the making of these gar- ments. (chapter .) the bottom of a dress sleeve should be finished with a hem or bias facing or seam-binding sewed on fiat like a facing, or with a trimming suitable to the garment. an unlined cuff is sewed on a dress sleeve in the same way as an unlined collar. (ills. and .) a lined cuff which turns back is sewed on in the same way as a lined collar. (ill. .) a removable cuff is finished in the same way as a removable collar. (ill. .) the cuffs for a mannish shirt-waist. the making and sewing on of a man- nish shirt-waist cuff will be found in the chapter on shirt-waists. (chapter .) a beilt may be cut double, the edges turned in toward each other, basted and stitche . it may be cut in two portions, an outer portion and an under portion or lining, the edges turned in toward each other, basted and stitched. it may be cut in two portions, an outer portion and an under portion, which may be laid with the right sides face to face and stitched together on three sides. it is then turned right side out and the open edges slip-stitched together. a casing is used for a garment that must be comfortable at the waistline, knees, ankles, etc. in some instances the casing is formed by a hem stitched on both turned edges. in other cases a casing is applied on either the right or wrong side of the garment. an elastic or drawstring is drawn through the casing to adjust the garment as desired. a casing is a straight piece of material with its edges turned under as shown in illus- tration . the width of the casing depends on the character of the garment and where it is used. for example, you would require a wider casing at the waistline of mohair serge bloomers than at the waistline of a very fine batiste blouse. the casing can be made of the same material as the garment if it is suitable. in the case of mohair serge or ~ ‘_ ~" h _. any other material that would make a ‘lt ‘ " '. - . clumsy casing you can use a piece of strong i ' ' silk or lining material for the casing. ‘ the casing is sewed flat to the garment at both edges either by hemming it (ill. ) or stitching it by machine. q ~ v a belt casing is a double belt alittle larger than the waist size. the ends are left open and an elastic or tape is run through the casing to regulate the fulness around the waist. this belt casing is us- ually stitched where the belt joins the blouse and again just above the folded lower edge of the casing i ill. . sewing on a casing buttonholes. eyelets. buttons. patent fasteners. etc. i make a loop that will slip easily over the but- ton after the two raw ends of the loop are tacked together. these ends may be tacked to the back of a button (ill. ), or sewed between an edge and its facing (ill. ), depending on the style efiect re quired. — .. * .- eyelets are holes made and worked in a m. . eyelet garment to hold a cord or buttons. the method of making them is shown in illustration . pierce the eyelet-hole with a stiletto. make running stitches around the circle, place the hole over the forefinger of the left hand and buttonhole the edge, covering the running stitches. (ill. .) work from right to left, as shown in the first figure of illustration . methods of sewing on buttons are shown in illustration . always use a coarse single thread in preference to a fine double one. in placing buttons in posi- tion, lap the edges of the garment, and push a pin through at the outer end of the buttonhole. this will bring the button exactly opposite the buttonhole. make a knot in the thread, push the needle through from the right side so that the knot will be directly under the button. place the button in position. bring the v . thread up through a hole in the =-- - » n... button and down through the hole lll. . sewing on bullons diagonally opposite as shown in the second figure of illustration . place a pin under the thread on top of the button, in order to keep the thread loose, and make a cross-stitch through the remaining holes. (ill. .) repeat the stitches until the button is securely fastened. remove the pin, draw the button away from the material as far as possible and wind the working thread tightly several times around the threads between the button and the material, thus forming a thread shank for the button. if a button is too closely sewed to the garment, it will not have room to rest easily in the buttonhole and will crowd the latter out of shape and make the spacing seem irregular. the loose sewing and the winding increase the durability of the work and lessen the strain on the button. the first illustration shows another way of sewing on a button in which the stitches are not crossed. this method is used in dress and coat making, as the stitches are considered more ornamental. the third illustration shows the method of sewing on a shank button. make the stitches parallel with the edge when sewing on this button so that the strain will come on the shank. covering button-molds—cut a thin piece of sheet wadding the shape of the mold but about /g of an inch smaller all around. (ill. .) lll. . covering bulton-molds p ,° it on lop of the m ld- (ill -) i the new dressmaker cut another piece of sheet wadding a little larger than the mold and place it over the mold on the first piece of wadding. draw it up on the under side of the mold with a few crosswise stitches to make it lie flat. if the outside material of the button-mold is heavy the wadding may be omitted. for the covering cut a piece of the outside material the same shape as the mold, and a little larger than the button but not large enough to quite come together on the under side. (ill. .) if it comes together the button will be bunchy and clumsy. gather the cover about one-eighth of an inch from the edge with fine running stitches (lli. ) and lay it over the padded side of the mold. draw up the gathering thread. the gathering must be smooth and tight over the mold without any folds or wrinkles, especially at the edges. -<.l‘> i ii ' iil. . sewing on patent fasteners a few stitches across the back will hold it (ili. ). if the button is to be used to fasten agarment the back should be lined with a piece of the covering material. cut the lining the size of the mold and the same shape. turn the edges in and fell it neatly to the back of the button. till. ). put the facing on the back of the button so that it is slightly full. this fulness serves as a shank. (ill. .) if a button-mold is covered with heavy cloth the lining should be of satin or some other thin ma- terial in the same color for the cloth would be too bulky. if the button is to be used as a trimming, the lining may be omitted. for molds which have a hole in the center and which are covered with material which is not too heavy, the covering may be just large enough to cover the mold with only as much material in the back as can be forced into the hole with one's needle. sewing on patent fastf_ners—patent fasteners are used where an especially flat closing is desired and where there is no strain on the closing. where there is a strain, as at the center back of a waistline or at the closing of a close fitting skirt, patent fasteners don't hold as securely as hooks and eyes. the edges of the closing may be finished with a hem or facing. place the upper edge over the under edge in the position they will be in when finished, and mark the position of the fasteners by running a pin straight down through both edges about one- quarter or three-cighths of an inch from the edge. separate the edges a little and mark both the upper and under edges just where the pin passes through the material. if you use these marks for the center of the fastenerthe two sides of the fastener will match exactly. the heaviest part of the fastener is used for the under part. several stitches should be taken through each of the holes around the edge of the fastener, enough to hold it securely. (ill. .) when a fastener is sewed through one thickness of material as at a trimming line, ribbon binding or tape should be used underneath the material to relieve the strain. . sewing on hooks and eyes—before sew- mg on hooks and eyes, stitch each edge of the closing one-eighth of an inch back from the fold edge and again three-eighths of an inch from the ill. . sewing on hooks and eyes chapter trimming stitches machine hemstitching—french hemstitching—plain hemstitching—lmilation hand-hemstiich- ing—double hemsiitching—beading and fagot-stitches—drawn-work—rolled f.dges—com- bination running and cross stitching—diag nal stitch—d uble overcasting—cr ss double overcasting—running stitch used as a trimming—blankei-stitch—feather-stitching—bar tacks—arrow-head tacks—crow's-foot tacks achine hemstitching is used on blouses, dresses, lingerie, etc., to put together seams, finish hems and put on trimmings such as bands, etc. it is neat, durable and gives a garment a dainty, finished look. it is also used as a trimming either in straight rows or in a fancy design. prices for the work vary, but it is not expensive. it can not be done at heme, as the machine required is too costly, but any plaiting establishment or the salesroom of a sewing-machine company will do it. the line or seam for machine hemstitching should always be basted in self-colored thread so that the basting need not be removed. (ill. .) removing the basting lll. . basie with self- cuts the hemstitching. only one mark is necessary for colored thread french hemstitching. seams on which machine hemstitching is used as a trimming or finish should be basted flat with both edges of the scam turned toward the left side (ill. ) and pressed. an invisible seam for transparent materials can be made by machine hemstitching an ordinary seam. (ill. .) the seam is basted in the usual way and the hemstitching is done on the wrong side of the garment just outside the basting. (ill. .) the seam edges are trimmed ofi. (ill. .) in machine hemstitching keep the garment as nearly flat as possible. seams that are not to be hemstitched should not be basted or sewed until after the hemstitching is done, for if they are left open it will be possible to keep the garment much flatter. if a cufl‘ is to be hemstitched to a sleeve, leave the sleeve seam open until the hemstitching is done. . ‘uh-uncuuu-uuuuii l ill. . machine hemslilching lll. . machine hemslilching lll. . a foundation ls used as a seam finish for an invisible seam under bias edge s trimming stitches ll a foundation for machine hem- stitching is necessary under bias edges such as shaped collars (ill. ) under thin materials (ill. ) and for french hem- stitching (ill. ) (several rows of hem- stitching placed close together). the foundation for such materials as net, georgette crepe, chiffon, lace, etc., may be mousscline de soie or very thin lawn. the foundation for machine hemstitch- ing done on the bias of the material can be a straight strip of the same material or of the foundations mentioned above, about one- half inch wide basted underneath the line lll. . afoundationlornel,elc.,maybemousseline to he hrimstitehed. (ill. .) if no material ° -we °' ‘/'="/ thi" lbw" ~='_ ,,. . i .‘ ,. mm ill. - mar-hine- lilchil', done ||l. . french hemstitching also ill. . picot edging ls machine on the bi“ requires a foundation hemslitching cut through the center @- for a foundation is at hand, baste the article to a piece of firm paper and stitch it by mi -hine along the line for the hemstitching. (ill. .) this stitching keeps the edge from stretch- ing and gives the operator the correct line for machine hemstitching. the paper shoiild be torn away before the material is sent to the operator. paper can also be used in this way under straight edges of thin material when you do not wish to use a foundation. french hemstitching (several rows of hemstitching placed close together) re- quires a foundation when it is done on either thick or thin material. (ill. .) the foundation can be of the same material or of the foundations mentioned above. the seams or foundations are cut away close to the hemstitching after the hemstitch- ing is done. on edges other than seam edges when there is a single thickness of material leave about three-eighths of an inch of material outside the line of hemstitching. picot edging is simply machine hemstitch- ing cut through the center. (ill. .) it makes a very dainty and yet strong finish for edges of col- lars, sleeves, tunics, ruffles, sashes, etc. hand-hemstitching is a line of openwork made by drawing out parallel threads and fastening the cross threads in successive small clusters. draw as many threads of the material as desired at the top of the hem, and baste it on this line. hold the hem toward you and work on the side on which it is turned up. "|. . plain hemsukhing .illustrati_on shows the position of the hem with the stitching done from left to right. trimming stitches i blotting-paper between the two edges, loosen the tension of the machine and stitch a quarter-inch seam through all the thicknesses. (ill. .) when the seam is stitched, cut the paper close to the stitching and pull it out. the stitches between the two edges of the material will then look like illustration . the edge toward the hem is turned down and the hem is stitehed by ma- lll. . drawing the threads chine, close to the turning. the raw edge of the garment i , =-= === is turned in and _‘_° "" stitched by machine. drawn-work makes an exquisite trimming for lingerie _. lll. . take frocks and blouses, a “'<h l" ""° |" w koowmhe and for dresses for |ll. . run the hleedle material and \ o'pp°si'le glide_ taking children and young under four or five through the the same number ‘ threads loop girls. it is also used stitches on lingerie. cotton voile is the best material to use for drmvn-work because the threads pull easily. this material pan be used for dresses, blouses and underwear. batiste and handkerchief linen can also be used, but it is a bit more difiicult to draw the threads. for household linens, drawn-work adds to the beauty and value of the linen and can be used alone or with hand-embroidery. llls. and . for twisted-thread drawn-work ill. !. fagot drawn-work‘ .= *, '". drawn-work can only be done on " . the straight line of the goods, for it is .> - "’ "" ."" done with the drawn threads. it can “lg j._ w, '. never be done on a circle or curve. " ‘ _ to prepare to draw the threads de- -_i —.{"._ cide on the length of the drawn-work. ‘~ measure up the required number of mg inches and place a. mark. draw one ’ ‘" thread from this mark, then with the points of a sharp pair of scissors cut rwross the desired number of threads. (ill. .) pull out a. little of each thread with a pin and pull the thread. on voile two or three can be drawn at a time. when the threads are drawn. run the needle under four or five threads (ill. ), using number sixty cotton for the blouses and number sixteen twisted i the new dressmaker embroidery thread for a dress. draw it down in front of you. this will form a little loop. take a little stitch in the material and through the loop; pull the thread tight to form a knot. (ill. .) take up the next four or five threads. (the thread be- tween the stitches should be loose, but the knots should be tight.) work all along one side, overcast the end of the work, and turn, working down the opposite side, taking up the same stitches. (ill. .) this is plain drawn-work. for the twisted threads used so efiectively on illustrations and , hemstitch both edges as directed above, then weave the threads as follows: join the thread in one end of the work. *run the needle under the first three threads, turn; run the needle over the third and under the second and first thread. turn; run the needle under the second and fourth threads (ill. ), turn; run the needle under the second. (ill. .) now pull the thread and repeat from *. for the fagot drawn-work used as a border in the wide drawn-work and on a dress, draw the threads as usual and hemstitch one edge, taking up ten threads; take a little overcasting stitch between each knot and bring the thread out in the center of each thread. when the row is finished, turn and work back, taking half of the first group in the first stitch and the remaining half of the first group and half of the second in the next stitch (ill. .) the fagot-stitch is a style of hand-made trimming that is always popular ill. - simple faaotstiuh and attractive. (ill. .) the simple beading stitch or any of the more elaborate stitches shown in the illustrations, which are very effective for trimming dainty lingerie, may also be used as a beading through which to run narrow ribbon. for fagoting, the design of the work should first be traced on a piece of stiff paper. or, as in the case of a yoke or collar where a fitted shaping is required, a fitted pattern should be cut of stiff paper, and the ribbon, braid or folds of the ma- terial basted evenly in position, following all the curves. when the fagoting is to be applied to the garment in fancy design, |il_ _ ;,,,,,|e beading sfikhes and the material underneath the stitches cut away afterward, the entire piece of work should be smoothly basted over paper, and the line of spacing which represents the fagot-stitching outlined with chalk or trac- ing cotton. the simple fagot-stitch is done by crossing first from left to right. and re- crossing from side to side between the folds of the material, taking a small stitch in the edge. the needle in crossing ‘each time passes under the thread of the preceding stitch, thus giving the threads a slight twist at the edge of the material. (ill. .) simple beading stitches are shown in illustration on this page. to make the upper design, a huttonholed bar, take a stitch directly across the space between the two folds and work the buttonhole-stitch over the thread back to the start- ing-point. then stick the needle into the edge of the fold near the hole of the first stitch to keep the bar from twisting,and on the under side pass on to position for the next bar. in the lower design the thread is carried across as in the other case, and. returning, one loose buttonhole-stitch is made over the thread. over this same loop run two closer buttonhole-stitches. then make a second loose buttonhole-stitch over the first thread, trimming stitches i and again, as before. the two close button- hole-stitches over this loop. catch the needle into the edge of the fold, and pass on to the next stitch. the link bar is not so difiicult to make as it appears, and really can be done more quickly than the plain buttonhole-bar. more elaborate beading stitches are shown in illustration . the upper design is a combination of the link bar (described in the preceding paragraph) run diagonally across the open space, and a simple twisted stitch run straight across from the apex of each of the triangles thus made. to make the second design from the top in illustration , bring the thread up from one edge of the fold over to the opposite edge, take a stitch from the under side and draw the thread taut. then insert the needle threeaeighths of an inch from that point, allowing the thread to form a tiny loop. insert the needle again directly opposite the last hole, and from this point make five buttonhole-stitches in the loop. now catch up the edge of the fold just where the first plain stitch began, and “l elaborate beading mches on the under side bring it over to the second . plain stitch, and draw it up for the next loop. , in the third design in illustration the thread is first carried across from one fold to the other and left rather loose. then the thread is brought up through the same fold one- quarter of an inch from the point where it was just inserted. make five buttonhole- stitches in the loop formed of the thread in crossing, and insert the needle in the op- posite edge. now carry the thread over again to form the next loop, running the needle into the same hole. bring it up one-quarter of an inch below this point, and continue as before. to make the buttonhole cross-bar stitch illustrated in the fourth design ot' illustration , first make a buttonholed bar as described in the paragraph on simple beading stitches but do not draw it tight; rather let it curve a trifle. then proceed as if for the next bar, but when crossing catch into the pre- ceding bar at the center buttonhole-stitch, and then continue to the opposite edge. make an even number of buttonhole- stitches on each side on this thread. allow a small space between the cross-bars. rolled edges are used as a trimming on waists and dresses of thin materials and also on children's clothes. they are worked with twisted embroidery silk on silk ma- terials and with mercerized cotton on cotton materials. either self or contrasting colors may be used. hold the right side of the material toward you. begin at the right end and roll the edge toward you between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, keeping the edge rolled for about one and a half inch ahead of the sewing. fasten the thread at the right and take slanting stitches over the roll. the stitches should be about one-quar- - ._ . . ‘ . _ , ter of an inch ap i't- d not draw the lll. . combination running and thread tight. (ill. .) q ; ‘,-kt, i the new dressmaker where two edges are joined as in a waist with a fancy lining both edges should be rolled separately. place the rolled edge of the outer part directly beneath the rolled edge of the under part. (ill. .) sew them together with running stitches about one- quarter of an inch long just below the lower roll. cross-stitch, french-knot embroidery, braiding, bead- ing and embroidery are worked from transfer designs. designs for every kind of fashionable hand trimming will be found in needle- art. every transfer gives illus- trated directions for making the stitches suitable for that design. ill. . ‘diagone.lslilcl, used-asatrimmingm combination running a.nd cross-stitch is used as a trim- ming aiid around the edges of waists, dresses and children's clothes and to hold the hems of facings. (ill. .) work two rows of running stitches about three-eighths of an inch apart. make the stitches about five-eighths of an inch long and the space be- tween the stitches one-half an inch. fasten your thread at the extreme right and bring the needle out at the lower left-hand corner of the space, near the running stitch. insert the needle at the upper right-hand corner ill . double overeating and bring it out at the lower right- hand corner of the same space near the running stitch. insert the needle at the upper left-hand corner near the running stitch. this completes the first cross-stitch. (ill. .) take a long slanting stitch at the under side of the garment, bringing the needle out at the lower left-hand corner of the next space. work a cross-stitch in each space according to the in- structions just given. tri mming stltchf.s such as double overcasting, cross double overcasting, diagonal stitch, etc., may be worked in rope silk, wool or fine chenille on garments of silk or wool. in mercerized embroidery cotton these stitches may be used on garments of cotton materials. *_....__.-.__ " diac,onalstltchisiisedas a trimming and to hold hems and facings at the edges of necks. arm- holes, tunics, etc. as many rows may be used as desired. use a butterick smocking transfer with the dots three-eighths of an inch apart. stamp two rows of dots for every row of diagonal stitches. (ill. .) fasten the thread at the right * and bring the needle up through the first dot in the lower row. insert the needle one dot to the left in the upper row and take a stitch straight down bringing the needle straight up through the dot directly beneath in the lower row. repeat from * till the end of the row. (ill. .) this trimming works up quickly and is very effective in contrasting color. ill. i . cross double oveicasting i the new dressmaker lll. . the blanket- slitch especially pretty. it can also be used in the same way on thin dresses and in wool on serge dresses and on crepe de chine. the blanket-stitch is also used to protect the edges of heavy woolen materials and to prevent them from fraying. it is used on silk, serge and voile dresses, instead of over- casting the edges of the seams. the plain blanket-stitch is used for overcasting seams, but as a trimming you can use either the plain blanket-stitch or variations of it shown in illustration , shown on page . in working a blanket-stitch do not use a knot but secure the thread by running lll. . feather-stitching one or two stitches toward the edge, holding the thread under the left thumb. insert the needle the depth required, bringing it out under the edge, allowing the thread beneath to form an edge_ (] _ _) |ll. . s mpledesi$n the feather-stitch is one of the most frequently used of all ornamental stitches, for it can be worked with the coarsest of yarn or the finest of silk or linen thread according to the nature of the material on which it is used. it makes a most satisfactory trimming. the single, double and triple combinations are shown in illustration . |||. , wwath d iqn i the new dressmaker if the material is very sheer, it is a good plan to have a small strip of paper, not quite the width of the fold. to slip along within the fold as the work progresses. if pressing is necessary, use only a warm iron. crepe folds are cut on the straight of the “i- “ ll"h°d mi'“"°' ' f°|d goods, so that the crinkles will run diago- nally. i tallors' straps are folded bands used to strap seams, or as an ornamental trimming on tailored garments. they may be cut on the bias if of velvet or taffeta; crosswise if of woolen; length- wise if of cotton materials. fold the strip at the center and catch the raw edges together with loose whip-stitches as shown in illustration . spread out the fold and press it well. baste into position on the garment and stitch by machine on both edges. he . _ . ill. . making tailors' t|'ap cording s a very useful trimming and is made with bias strips and germantown or eider-down wool. the bias strips should be about an inch and a quarter wide. fold the strips lengthwise through the center and run a seam a quarter of an inch from the fold edge. with the strips still wrong side out, slip the ends of several strands of germantown or eider-down wool far enough into one end of the tube-like covering so that you can sew them securely to it. then with the loop end of a wire hairpin push the wool farther and farther into the covering, at the same time turning the covering right side out. (ill. .) lll. . pushing the wool through when cording is used to form a motif, stamp the motif on ordinary wrapping-paper. the cordings are first basted in place on the design with the seam upper- most so that the right side of the motif will be next |||. g _ qmd mom the paper. they are then sewed together at the points of intersection and contact. (ill. .) a corded tuck is shown in illustration . the illustration shows the cord being put into the tuck for trimming. mark the trim- ming line for the cord with colored thread. hold'the cord underneath with the left hand and enclose it in a tuck, sewing it with fine, even run- ning stitches as close to the cord as possible. (ill. .) cord piping is shown in illus- tration . a bias strip of material is used for the pipings. the cord is run in the same way as for tuck | l_ _ coyded twk cording and the piping is applied to chapter applied trimmings, ruffles. embroidery and lace—parti ruffies—embroidery used as a facing—embroidery joined in a tuck— embroidery inserted by mai-_hine—embroidery inserted with rolled hems—embroidery milered—whipping on trimming—inserting lace— inserting lace above a facing—mitering lace-:—shaped pieces of inser- tion—lnserting lace medallions ruffle used as trimming may be whipped and gathered. roll the raw edge and overcast the material as far as it is rolled, taking care to make the stitch below the roll, not through it. (ill .) draw up the thread, making the ruffle the desired ful- ness. divide the rufiie in quarters and mark them with colored thread. make correspond- ing marks on the edge to which the rufile is to be attached. roll the edge of the gar- ment and overhand the ruffle to it, taking a |||. . whipping and gathering stitch in every whipped stitch of the rufiie. to insert a ruffle in a hem turn the ‘v ‘_, hem toward the right side of the garment and crease the fold hard. divide both rutfie . ' and hem in quarters and mark each division with colored thread. insert the edge of the i rufile in the hem close to the fold (ill. ) with ;,__ _~ the right side of the ruflie to the right side of the garment and the corresponding marks together. baste and stitch one- quarter of an inch from the fold. turn the hem back to the wrong side of the garment, fold the second turning, baste and hem. (iii. .) ll|. . finishedruiiieon righl ide t cover the joining of a applied trimmings. ruffles. embroidery and lace i ruffle, divide both rufiie and gar- ment in quarters and mark with pins or colored thread. gather the rufile and baste it to the garment. turn the raw edges up on the garment and cover with a narrow bias band which can be bought by the piece with the edges turned ready for use. (ill. .) this finish may be used on either the right or wrong side of the garment. frequently this finish is used on berthas or scalloped edges that are not lined or faced. ill. . iii. . embroidery facing embroidery joined in a tuck . ‘ y i _ uaqautafnirrnvlflxlr ill /_ /nun {. ..» l ' . ' fie i _ lil. . --we h” ii ¢ inserlion inset with rolled hem iil . . ban overing joining of ruffle embroidery edging used as a facing is shown in illustration . the plain mate- rial above the embroidery is applied as the facing. crease the edging off at the depth it is to extend beyond the garment. baste the ma- terial along the crease so that the seam will come toward the inside of the garment. then stitch the seam. now turn the edging down, fold in the raw edge at the top, and hem down as a facing. the facing should be no wider than necessary to make a neat joining. to join embroidery in a tuck, make several tucks in the plain material above the embroidery if it is wide enough. then measure carefully the amount for the space be- tween the tucks, the under part of the tucks, and the seam. cut away the superfluous material and join the edging to the garment. crease the tuck with the seam directly in the fold so that the raw edges will be encased in the tuck. when the materials of the garment and the embroidery are similar, and there are several tucks above and be- low the seam, the joining is imperceptible (ill. ). embroidery may be inserted by differ- ent methods. when a straight-edge insertion is used, the plain material may be cut away at each side of the embroidery. the material of the garment is then cut away under the embroi- dery, leaving a small seam, which is rolled and whipped to the embroidery as shown in illus- tration . a rolled hem may be used as a dainty finish in joining trimming of any kind to a gar- ment of sheer wash material. hold the wrong side of the material toward you, and, after trim- ming ofi all ravelings, begin at the right end and roll the edge toward you tightly between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, keeping the edge rolled for about one and a half inches ahead of the sewing. (ill. .) chapter applied trlmmlng—part ll gathering-—shirring—tuck shirrings-—cord shirrings—scalloped or snail shirrings—simple ruche—three-tuck ruche—box-plaited or gathered ruches—single ruche with one cord shining—double ruehe with one cord shirring—double ruche with two cord shirrings— puff ruche—corded puff trimming—variation of plain puffings with cords—box plaiting with corded piping—quilling or side-plaited trimmings used. plaited trimmings may be made of very soft materials or of materials with more body. any of the materials may be cut double. soft ribbons requiring no finish at the edges may be used efiectively for these trimmings. most materials for the ruchings and pufiings may be cut bias or straight. chiffon should always be cut lengthwise or crosswise, never bias. silks and satins lie in softer folds if they are cut bias or crosswise. if the edges are to be frayed, the materials must be cut lengthwise or crosswise. cross- wise is preferable, for the threads are closer and make a thicker fringe. if net is to be used with raw edges, it should be cut on the line of the straight threads which run lengthwise, or bias. you can easily determine the direction of these threads on the piece you are using by stretching the net a little in different directions. net is more easily hemmed if cut as above, but for a double ruche it may be cut lengthwise, crosswise or bias. different materials require different amounts of fulness for shirred ruches. a soft fabric such as chiffon requires three times the length of the finished ruche. tafieta. messaline and such materials which have a little more body require only about twice the finished length. for the shirred trimmings given in these chapters the softest materials should be the width of ruches—on the single ruches you must allow from one-quarter to one-half inch for each cord, the amount depending on the size of the cord. if the edges are to be hemmed or rolled, suificient allowance should be made for that finish. for a doublc ruche calculate the width of a single ruche and double the amount. clean even edges are important, especially if the ruche is to be frayed. the best way to get a good edge for strips cut crosswise or lengthwise is to pull a thread of the mate- rial. the edges of single ruches may be finished in different ways, depending on the material. taffeta may be frayed (ill. ), pinked (ill. ), picoted (chapter , page ) or finished with tiny hems. messaline and crepe de chine can be frayed, picoted or hemmed. chiffon may have its edges picoted, or rolled, and whipped tightly with fine stitches in the same or contrasting color. (chapter . page .) net may be picoted, hemmed with a same or contrasting color, or if it is a fine mesh, it can be cut in such a way that the edge needs no finish. strips should be joined as neatly as possible. some nets can be seamed with an applied trimmings i ill. . simple shining evenly: long ones on the right side and short ones on the under side of the material. each successive row of gathers has its long and short stitches parallel, respectively, with those of the preceding row. the threads are all drawn up evenly, and fastened at the ends. shirring is made of successive rows of gatherings. it is used as a trimming. there are several dif- ferent kinds of shirring, the use of which must be determined somewhat b_v the character of the material and the style of the garment. before be- ginning. it is best to mark the sewing lines with a colored thread to be sure to get the rows even. this thread can be drawn out when the shirring is finished. a simple shirring is shown in illustration . the top edge is turned in and the first row shirred in close to the edge. the thread should should be gathered twice so that the gathers will stay in the proper place. the second row is made with the stitches directly in line with those ol’ the first row and one- quarter or three-eighths of an inch below them. (ill. .) if there is much fulness to be gath- ered, the spaces between the stitches may be lengthened. gaging or french gathers is a style of shirring generally used where a quantity of matc- rial must be adjusted to a coniparatively small space. (ill. .) the stitches in this case are made ill. . tuck shirrings lll. . scallop shinin§ be amply strong, with a good big knot at the end; for if the thread is weak and breaks, or the knot pulls through, the shirring will progress slowly, and the material will suffer unnecessarily in the working. shirring can also be done very successfully on the machine by using the gathering lll. . cord shining the new dressmaker applique embroi- df.ry—shaped pieces of con- trasting color can be appli- quéd on waists, dresses, etc., as a trimming. usually the pieces are of the same material but in different color, but in some cases you can also use contrasting materials. some of the drr-sses etc., which are trimmed with squares, diamonds and circles . of a contrasting material * have a little embroidered motif in the center of each applied piece. quaint figures of colonial ladies, oriental children, etc., are used on dresses and waists. some of these are applied from contrasting mu.- _ "na" terial. . cut the pieces in any shape - . . and size that you fancy and l——- ' - ‘-~'—- turn under the edges % of an ill. . appliguc embroidery inch. be very careful not to stretch them. baste them to the garment. the edges may be blanket-stitched to the garment (ill. -bl. felled down (ill. -c) or fastened with small running stitches (ill. -a). thc blanket-stitching takes the most time but it is also the most effective. sewing on marabou —'i‘he marabou must be sewed to a double strip of ve '.v thin material the color of the marabou. you can use (‘hina silk or fine lawn. the width of the strip should be regulated by the width of the marabou. three-fourths or oll&l a.lf an inch is about right when folded. fold the strip of material lengthvn'se with the edges lap- ping just a little. lay the niarabou flat on the table with the least attractive side upperrnost. there i" always one side that is a little better than the other. be sure the marabou is flat and that there is no twist to it. lay the strip over the stem of the marabou with its raw edges next the stem. pin it in place at in- tervals and then sew it with stitches "l . . sewing sm-p mambo“ about _}.-q an inch long. (ill. ). take two stitches in each place so that they will hold firmly. (iii. ). in sewing the marabou to the garment sew both edges of the strip with running stitches. the strip eiiablcs you to handle the marabou easily, keep it even, and prevents it from twisting. handling fur—pelts should always be cut with a knife from the wrong side so as not to cut the hair. joiniugs should be made so that all the hair runs one way. fur should be sewed with an ordinary short needle and strong cotton thread. num- ber cotton is about the right weight. lay the pelts edge to edge and sew the edges together with an overhand stitch. (chap. , page ). be careful to sew through the pelts only, without catching the hair in the sewing. the hair can be pushed through to the right side with the needle and after the sewing is finished the fur can be brushed gently to make the hair lie smooth. in this chapter darning and mending reenforcing—running darn—woven darn—broken stitch—drop stilch—set-in piece- underlaid piece darned ln—sl ting—mending tissue or tailors’ tissue—triangular tear—palches—flannel patch—hem patch—overhanded patch arnlng is a simple remedy for many cases of prevention as well as cure. a few general directions will apply to darning in all its various phases. neatness and the careful selection of materials most appropriate for the work are the chief require- ments for successful darning. whether the material to be darned is cotton, silk or wool the darning thread should correspond in thickness and color to the thread in the fabric, and the needle should be neither too coarse nor too fine. for reenforcing worn places before the hole has come through, particular care should be taken to make the work as inconspicuous as possible. a thread or raveling of the material will do better than one of sewing silk; as the latter, no matter how well matched in color, will be sure to have a luster that will bring the stitches into prominence. the drawn thread need n t be long; short ones can be worked in just as well. . baste the part to be mended over a piece of medium stiff. glazed paper, or table oilcloth. use a ngedlegs fine ashthe thread , ____ . will permit. darn back and forth wit as ne stitc es as pos- . sible, following the grain of the goods and keeping the threads |“' ,;,o::,e§|:(;mnga loose so that they will not draw. (ill. .) the ends of th.e- threads are not fastened, but are clipped ofi close to the gar- ment when the work is finished. a running darn is used when the garment is worn too thin to be mended satisfactorily by reenforcing. insert the needle a short distance from the edge of the worn or thin part, and parallel with the thread of the weave. run it under a few threads and overa few, to the opposite side of the worn place. (ill. .) returning, i"lj.i the needle over the threads that were taken up, and under those over which it passed in the first row. continue the process until the whole thin surface has been given a new body. in illustration , white thread was used in order to show the stitches. when the part to be mended requires still more body than ‘ can be given by the running darn, a piece of the material may "'- - a r"""ins d"! be laid on the wrong side, and while applying the running darn, this piece is occasionally caught up by the needle to hold the piece securely in position. a woven darn is necessary when a hole has been worn through the material. the threads in this case are woven both lengthwise and crosswise with the weave of the gar- ment. (ill. .) baste the part with the hole over a piece of paper or table oilcloth taking care not to draw it out of shape nor to let it bag. do not trim ofi the frayed or worn edges. the unevenness around the edge, which these frayed ends create in the process of darning, darning and mending i helps to make the darned place less conspicuous. the length- wise threads are run in first. starting well in from the edge of the hole at one side, take up a few small stitches, cross over to the opposite side and again run a few stitches into the edge. keep the threads taut, but not tight enough to pull. returning. leave a tiny loop at the turning-point, to allow for shrinkage of the darning threads. continue back and forth till the hole has been covered. now begin the crosswise threads in the same way; darn over and under the lengthwise stitches. alternating with each return thread. (ili. .) the frayed edges are caught in the weave as they happen to come, and are firmly secured between the latticed threads. (ill. .) § f stockings are darned on the right side to keep a smooth surface next the foot. a darning-egg or ball, held in the left hand, is slipped under the hole, with the stocking stretched smoothly, but not tightly, over it. the darning is done with the right hand. in a woven darn the darning threads in a stocking usually run up and down with the rib, and then across, but when the hole is at the knee or heel, where greater elasticity is desired, the threads are run across diagonally. a broken stitch or two in a stocking can be easily remedied if attended to at once. with a silk thread, pick up the broken stitches and draw the edges together, and by a web-like weaving close the hole. a dropped stitch is more easily remedied by the use of a crochet-hook than by darning. slip a fine c ochet- hook through the little loop at the lower end of the hole; catch up the first thread and pull it through the loop. continue until every dropped thread has been caught, -i - ‘,. ~'.u._ . then securely fasten the last loop at the end with a few ill. - picking up e sewing stitches. illustration shows the position of the dwvved lii¢h crochet-hook picking up dropped stitches. to set in a piece with the ball stitch is a way of extending the usefulness of the stocking when the hole is too large to be neatly darned. for this purpose keep on hand the leg portions of stockings of which the feet have been worn out. baste the part to be mended over a piece of paper and trim ofi the ragged edge. (‘ut a piece from a stocking-leg, matching it in color and texture, with the ribs running like those in the stocking, and con- forming in shape to the hole, but a trifle smaller. b a s t e t, h i pi( eq iii. i. selling a piece.in a slocking into p s i_ with the ball shlch tion on the paper and join the two edges, the needle passing in close stitches, alternat- ing, over one edge and under the opposite, until the piece has been securely and neatly worked into position. (ill. l.) the stitch in this method will be seen to form a kind of lacing, and is called the “ball-stitch". it must be done evenly and closely, but not tightly enough to raise the edges. (ill. .) an underlaid piece darned in is a better method of closing a hole when the stocking or garment is very loosely woven darning and mending i a patch may also be set in with mending tissue in cases where it is undesirable to have any stitches showing. the hole is trimmed to a square or oblong shape, and a piece cut the same shape, but a seam's width wider all around. lay the garment over an ironing-hoard, as directed above, and, between the edges of the hole and the lapped edge of the patch lay strips of the mending tissue. be careful not to have any of the tissue extending beyond the torn edge on the right sidc, as it will make an ugly mark after being pressed. illustration shows a hole neatly mended by this method. a patch is generally used for mending. flannel or heavy woven underwear, particu- larly if the garment is too much worn to war- rant the time and work necessary for a careful darn. a flannel patch is a piece of the material hasted on the wrong side of the worn or torn part and catch-stitched to the gar- ment with small stitches all around the edge. the worn place, or the ragged edge of the hole, is then cut away from the right side, and the edge can,h-stitched all around in the same manner. (ill. .) a hemmed patch is used —unless the hole is so small that it can be neatly darned- for mending material that requires frequent laundering. such as muslin underwear, bedding ‘- :;‘ ':_$ ,,..»... ’i.a--.&¢ .-....-.-u.,_-.. . .-.,-.;..-..-.-,........... ‘ q . _ _. . '..‘o- -"»-" or household linen. if the material is striped or figured. the patch should be cut so that the lines will match. pin the patch into position on the underside of the piece to be mended. (‘rease a seam all around and baste it down. now cut out the worn part, allowing a narrow seam at the edge. (‘lip the edge a trifle at each corner, turn in the seam, and baste it down. then with fine stitches sew the patch down all around on both sides of the material. (ills. and .) an overhanded patch is used on material that is seldom washed, and where the_raw edge on the wrong side is not objectionable. the sewing in this patch is not so noticeable as in the hemmed patch, for it has but one line of stitches. in cutting the patch be sure to match the stripe or. figure. the piece should be large enough to cover the hole well when it is basted over it with tailors‘ tacks. (directions for tailors‘ tacks are given on page .) when the patch has been basted and cut apart, it will be seen that chapter | remodeling materials-dyeing—cleaning—remodeling waists—skirts—coats—suit.s children's clothes—boys’ clothes t the beginning of every season when you are planning your clothes, look over your wardrobe and decide what you have that is worth remaking and will fill some definite place in your outfit. do not make over any clothes simply because you have them. if you are not going to need them for the present brush them thoroughly and put them away carefully until you want them. things that are genuinely worn out should be thrown away or given to the salvation army. do not try to make them over for they are not worth the time and effort. materlals—wo l materials that are too shabby to be made over can often be used for interlining winter coats and jackets. wool materials and some silks that are shabby on the outside but comparatively fresh on the inside can be turned if the wrong side is nice looking. it may not be exactly like the right side but if it is presentable it can be used. satin, plush, velvet and silks that have a design on one side only can not be turned for the wrong side is not wearable. plush and velvet can be steamed to freshen them, remove the wr nkles and raise the nap. silks and satins can be steamed to remove bad wrinkles. (fhapter , page .) small pieces of material can often be combined to make hats for children, or if suitable used for collar and cufi facings. when combinations of materials are in fashion remaking is a simple matter. wool materials can often be combined with satin, taffeta, foulard, or with plaid, stripe or check silk or wool materials. silks, satins, plushes and velvets can be used with georgette crepe, chifion, silk voile, lace, or tulle. plush and velvet can also be combined with silk and satin. gingham can be used with chambray, and the heavy cotton and linen materials with batiste, handkerchief linen, etc. in summer materials one can usually combine white with a color, or a plain color with plaid, check, stripe or figured material. if one feels inclined to take a little trouble one can completely disguise a last year's suit or dress by changing it to another color. dyeing is a very simple thing, but there are certain hard and fast rules in regard to it that must not be disregarded. in the first place you can not dye a silk or wool material with a dye intended for cotton and linen. neither can you dye cotton and linen with a silk and wool dye. in the second place, you can't change dark colors into lighter ones. in the third place, the material must be prepared carefully for the dyeing. if there are any grease spots or stains they should be removed as thoroughly as possible. (chapter .) afterward the material should be washed for two reasons. the first is, that if the material is put into the dye soiled, the dirt will mingle with the dye and the result will be muddy instead of bright and clear. the second is that as much of the old dye should be taken out or “discharged," as it is called, as possible. otherwise it will be impossible to predict how the mixture of the two dyes will turn out. cottons and silks can be washed in soap and boiling water, but it is not safe to use soap to any great extent on wool materials. as it softens the wool. boil the materials about half an hour, changing the water as it becomes discolored. keep up the washing until the water remains clear—a sure sign that all the dye has been discharged that is likely to do any harm. it is best to dye the material while it is still wet from the washing as it absorbs the . remodeling i add to it at the bottom by a band or a fold. or it may be pieced at the bottom and the line of piecing covered by wide braid, bias bands, etc. linen or piqué skirts can often be lengthened by bands of embroidery insertion or by bias bands of the material. these skirts are very apt to shrink around the hips. they should be ripped from their belts, raised and refitted. they will have to be lengthened. coats—coats should be remodeled by an up-to-date pattern. if they require piecing, try to let it come at a seam and cover it with a stitched or braided band. (‘oats of fur fabrics that have become shabby can often be cut down into coatees when they are in fashion, or into children's coats. when they are too badly worn to remake in that way there are often unworn portions that can be used for neck-pieces and mufis, or for collar and cuff facings for a coat or suit. suits are apt to wear out in the skirt first. in a suit of a plain colored serge, gabardine, twill, velours, taffeta, satin or linen, a new skirt can often be used, made of the same mate- rial in a plaid, check or stripe. if the suit material harmonizes with the jacket you will have a very smart-looking costume. the great french dressmakers frequently make new suits in combinations of this kind. sometimes the skirt material is used for collar and cufi facings on the coat. remodeling for children’s clothes——quite frequently it is easier to cut down a coat suit for one of the children than to remodel it for the mother. but do not use a material that is old and somber for a child, without relieving it by a trimming that is bright and youthful-looking. a black-and-white pin-checked wool or a dark serge is apt to make a dull frock for a little girl, but if it is trimmed with bands of contrasting material in a suitable color it becomes childish-looking and pretty. children's clothes—(‘hildren grow so fast that the problem of remaking generally includes lengthening and enlarging. one-piece dresses can often be lengthened by dropping them from a yoke which gives them new width in the shoulders and also gives them new sleeves. skirts can be pieced under tucks, folds, bands, fiounces, etc. they can also be dropped from an empire waistline to a normal waistline or they can be lengthened by a band at the bottom. vvhen middy blouses are worn over a skirt, the skirt can be pieced at the top to lengthen it. the blouse will hide the piecing. frequently children's dresses can he made into jumper styles. new blouses will give new sleeves and new width through the body. in making over half-worn garments into presentable and at the same time durable clothes for boys, such as suits, reefers. and overcoats, a tailored finish is the first require- ment. it means neat work, even stitching and careful pressing. for the pressing you will need heavy irons, evenly heated. and a piece of unbleached muslin that can be dampened and laid over your work. in ripping apart the old coat or suit that is to be remodeled for your little son, notice carefully all the small devices of interlining, canvas and stitching that the tailor used in making the garment. you can repeat many of them in your own work. if you use the old canvas and find that it has grown limp, you can re.<tifien it by dampening it thoroughly and ironing it with a heavy iron thoroughly heated. full directions for making boys’ trousers are given in chapter . “boys” and men's clothes," and chap- ter . “pot,kets." chapter , on “(‘oats," will give you the additional information you will want for finishing the jackets or overcoats. i the new dressmaker chloroform. these solvents are highly inflammable, and must, therefore, never be used in the same room with an open light or flame. lay the material, right side down, on a piece of clean blotting-paper or brown wrapping- paper. rub around and around the spot with a piece of the same material which has been dipped in the cleaning-fluid. be careful to approach the spot gradually and keep rubbing around the edge of the spot which is damp with the cleaning-fluid so that no ring forms. if you do not approach the spot gradually, the grease will spread over a large surface. ether and chloroform are less liable to leave a ring than gasoline or naphtha. - a good mixture for removing grease-spots is made from equal parts of alcohol, benzin and ether. grease can also be removed from silk or woolen materials by spreading french chalk over the spot and allowing it to stand for some time. this absorbs the grease. shake the chalk ofi the garment and if it leaves a mark dissolve the remaining particles with benzin or ether, being careful to rub around the edge of the spot which is damp with these fluids until they have completely evaporated, to prevent a ring from forming. powdered french chalk or fuller’s earth may be used by placing the powder over the stain and holding over a heated iron. the heat will dissolve the grease, and the powder will absorb it. grease can also be removed from most materials by placing the material, right side down, over a piece of brown wrapping-paper and pressing over the wrong side of the material with a hot iron. the heat of the iron drives the grease from the material into the paper, because grease has a tendency to go from a warm spot to a cooler one. to remove grease from white goods. wash with soap or alkaline iyes. colored cottons or colored woolens may be washed with lukewarm soap lyes. machine-oil stains may be removed in the following manner: moisten borax and rul) it on the stain from the outside toward the center, taking care not to spread it. pour water through the material. washing with cold water and a pure soap will remove most stains of machine-oil. ' blood-stains may be taken out by washing with soap and tepid water. they may also be removed by covering the spot with wet laundry starch and allowing it to stand. afterward it should be washed. to remove fresh ink. fresh ink can be removed from almost any material by stretching it tightly over a bowl or deep vessel and pouring boiling water through the spot with force from a height. or, if still moist, rub either salt, meal flour or sugar, and wash in cold water. in white materials lemon-juice may be put over the spot and covered with salt. then place the article in the sun for a while, and wash. the process may be repeated, if necessary, until the ink-spot is entirely removed. another method of removing ink-stains from white materials is to let the material soak in javelle water, made from one-half pound of sal soda, two ounces chlorid of lime and one quart of water. after soaking a few minutes, wash in clear water. to remove copy or india ink from white materials. make a strong solution of oxalic acid and cold water. soak the spot for a few moments in the oxalic acid and then soak it in ammonia. if necessary, repeat until the stain disappears. rinse thoroughly in cold water. to remove iron rust from white materials. lay the article in the sun and apply oxalic acid to the spot with your fingers wet with water. when the spot is removed, rinse the garment thoroughly. also wash your hands well after using the acid. it is practieally impossible to remove iron rust from colored fabrics, as the acid used in removing the spot takes out the color so that the remedy is worse than the rust. the new dressmak er index page altering bors’ patterns . altering length of patterns - altering skirt, yoke and dra\'er patterns foa figures that vary from t -ie average . altering waisr patterns for fig- - ures that‘ vary from the average . . . - applied trimmings - applique embroidery . . . . . . aprons . . . . . . . . . . . . . aa \moi.e . . . . . . . . . . . . arm measere . . . . . . . . . . arrowhead tacks backstitch . . . . . . . . . . . ball-srirch . . .baimed buttonholes bar-tacks . . . . . . . . . bas'i‘ ngs............ bathing-suits . . . . . . . . . bathrobes (ladies and m sses) . bathrobes (men's and boys’) belts . bias bindings . . . . . . . . bias srmrs . . . . . . . . . . . bias trimmingb - blanket-stitc . - blind loors. blood-stains . . blouses . . . . - bound buttonholes . . . . . . boys’ patterns . . . . . . . . . boys’ surrs . . . . . . . . . - box plaits . . . . . . . . . . . braid . . . . . . . . . . busr measure . - bu'i"rebick patterns . . - buttonholes - buttons - cares............. care of the clothes . casings . . . . . . . . . catch-stitch . . . . . . . . . . children's dresses . . . . . . - children's coats . . . . . . . . cleaning . - page coats and capes. . - collarless neck . . . . . . . . collars . . . . . . - coi.lars (detached) . . . . . . . collars (ladies’ and missi-:s’ c a'r-s) . . . . . . - collars (men's and bovs’ clothes) . . . . . . . . . combination stitch . . . . . . . coaded facing . . . . . . . . . corded tuck . cornmo cord piping . . . . . . . . . . corn seam . . . . . . . . . . . _ corn shirring . caoss tucxing . . - crosswise fold . . . . . . . . . crosswise of material . . . . . caow's-foo'r tacx . . cufes (blouse). . . . . . . . , cm-‘fs (coat) . . . . . . . . . . cuffs (shirtwaist) . . . - curved tucxs . . . . . . . . . cutting matemals . - darning - darts . - del'i‘ ii. . . . . . . . , , detached collar (shir'.rwaist) . diagonals........... doll patt :rns . . . . . .' . . . dra\vn-work . - dresses . . . . . . . . . - dresses (infants) . . . . . . . dress-fomu . . . . . - dm~:ssmaking equipment . - dyeing . emblems and chevrons . - embroidery trimmings . . - - equipment for dress ua <ing . . . - eyelets facings . . . . . . . . . . . . facings (ladies’ c-oats) . . . . . fac ngs (men's and boys’ coats) . fagor-srirch - feather-stitch . i the new dressmaker page page seams, simple . . . . . . . . . - tailors’ butt nholes . . . . . . seams. tailored. . . . . . . . - tailors’ cushion . . . . . . . . set*in sleeve . . . . . . . . . tailors' strap . . . . . . . . . sewing-room . . . . . . . . . . 'i‘ailors’ tacks . . . . . . . . . sewing stitches . . . . . . . . - tailors’ tissue . . . . . . . . . shirring . . . . . . . . . . . . tears . . . . . . . . . . . . . shirt waists . . . . . . . . . - trimming stitches . . . . . - sxmrs, . . . . . . . . . . . . - trovseas . . . . . . . . . . - sleeping garments . . . . . . . tucxs. . . . . . . ‘ . . . . . . - sleeve board . . . . . . . . . tucx seam . . . . . . . . . . . sleeve foam . . . . . . . . . . tucx shirbing . . . . . . . . . slot seams . . . . . . . . . . . ' small women's patterns . . . . undergarments . . . . . . . . - smocking . . . . . . . . . . . . use of butterick patterns . . - s >onging materials . . . . . . square corners . . . . . . . . waists, lined . . . . . . . . . - standing collar . . . . . . . . washing clotiies . . . . . . . . stand of coat collar . . . . . . weights . . . . . . . . . . . . steaming materials . . . . . . weights in coats . . . . . . . . stoting . . . . . . . . . . . . welt pockets . . . . . . . . - strap seams . . . . . . . . . . welt seams . . . . . . . . . . stripes and pla ds . . . . . . - whipping on tbimming . . . . . 'i‘a lored c a t (ladies, misses, yoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . etc). . . . . . . . . . . . . - yoke (sailgr) . . . . . . . . . ta lored coat (men's and bors) - yoke (altering yoke) . . . . . tailored seams. . . . . . . . - . . -.:.,:.._v l .p'-,‘l_ x . . ‘ ‘. . . . . . :,,., . lr..'.{.:l(~ . . _ . _v u _‘ - v_ .-> _< ..it _ . <vl. .l !)&lil.)|t-vooq-\. r... __-~.bl i cofl ifl tlb o q ll . iv€y "(rn copyright anna hedges talbot . ) . . . . ul id‘. _ _ << _ _ . . t» &|v!l .lu ll.l_l ' lll.<l|.. . . .%»! i. $.v.‘.,...). \ ., ..__\ . .\ i\ll.ll l . - .li‘ ‘|l.-..‘ww||<<!l l.lr l!| al|v . .--. . . . , , , _ <. ~ _ )..il.)r . -. .. ) - . . . . . . . l l-lwnlr l < .l\ . .rr.¢w.\... . ‘ l ; , . . ...._&.....r . .. _. . < , . . . .. .. .. h .. .. .. . ¢fi...rr.... .....:rvm.u . -n...:u..i~£.fi.... . . . and ‘ child’s apron made from mcn’s shirts—page . . child’s underskirt made from woolen stockin,q:¢—pagc . and . child‘s drcss made from man’s shirt--page . . lnfant’s bootccs madc from kid gloves page . . lnfant‘s shirt made from knit underwear-page . . child's sleeping cap made from short ends of yarn. . . thrift clothing clothing to be made over by school pupils should. be sterilized, fumigated, or otherwise thoroughly cleansed before being handled. health depart- ments or dyeing establishments treat effectively large collections of clothing, and render them clean and safe for the hands of the pupils. the disposal of the remodelled garments, when the collection is made for war relief purposes, may best be decided by each school or locality. suggestions for the conservation of clothing partly worn clothing may be remodeled and made into practical, attractive garments for children. all material to be remodeled, should be carefully ripped, brushed, sponged and pressed, or washed and ironed. note:- use white soap for flannels or flannelette, and soap bark for colored and wool materials. all suggestions are for partly worn clothing. ' i. skirts on waist make loose waist with low neck and large arm- holes. use drilling, sateen, flannelette or coarse cotton. button down back. finish neck and armholes with bias facings. use one and one half widths of flannelette for small skirts, two widths for larger garments. fell seams. turn two inch hems. thrift clothing purpose by interlining with sheet wadding and tuft- ing with odd bits of wool or baby ribbon. . baby gowns may be cut from the lower part of bathrobes. fell the seams of heavy material, use french seams on thin cloth. use kimona or set in sleeve. child’s apron age years (fig. ll material may be cut from a man’s shirt which is badly worn at the neck and sleeves. directions fold back of shirt in middle, place pattern for front of apron well down on shirt, so as to use best part of shirt. cut back of apron from shirt fronts, saving but- tons and buttonholes. use fiat fell for seams. finish pockets, arm holes and neck with white bias tape. childs apizon age - years !"’\-ky be. ckjt f'fzoi*'\ a !"\a!*| ' _§h\q.t \k/|'h(-" |§ eadly \a/ ' "! tt¢.l i t childj ul‘lde.c .sl~<|fzt ° age - years made from long .>t (,i<\h< $‘ ?|<;- -’ . thrift clothing child’s underskirt age to years (fig. ) material made from woolen stockings. dirrctio ns cut off worn feet of six stockings. slit each up the back seam, sew the six flattened out stockings together making the top of the hose the bottom of the skirt. this is already hemmed. hem placket. put on a band or finish for drawstring. may be made from four stockings if a large size. wool drawers (fig. ) cut from the firmest part of the old garment. use fell seams—half back stitch, lay flat and hem. do not sew on machine as it cuts the material. make continuous placket of muslin. finish legs with hem or with blanket stitch or crocheted edge. face top with muslin strip or with a muslin band. thrift clothing . baby nightdress (fig. ) make a kimona slip of flannelette or flannel from men’s shirts. open half way down front. face one side and use extension piece for button side. french seam. finish neck with bias facing of same. finish sleeve and bottom with one inch hem. run tape in bottom of hem that it may be drawn up for warmth. sewing aprons (fig. sa) these aprons may be made from the good portions of muslin sheets, men’s shirts, women’s cotton dress skirts. infant’s boots - size to months. (fig. ) material made from tops of long kid gloves. bootees similar to these sell for cents in the stores. infants boot) . thrift clothing . direetio ns cast on stitches on each of needles, join. knit , purl etc. continue for inches. knit plain for !”; inches. knit stitches, knit and together etc. knit plain rows. _ knit stitches, knit and together etc. knit plain rows. knit stitches,knit and together etc. knit plain rows. knit stitches, knit and together etc. knit plain rows. knit stitches, knit and together‘ etc. knit plain rows. knit stitches, knit and together etc. knit plain rows. _ l knit stitch, knit and together etc. knit plain row. knit and together etc. bind off by slipping end ofyarn through remaining stitches, fasten. wristlets (fig. ll ) double wearing, easy to slip on. conservation of time money and wool. m aterial: one half hank of yarn / lb. four red cross needles no. or four needles standard gauge no. librarg of the university of wisconsin i .- i copyright, , by international educational puausnmc company copyright in great britain all rights reserved printed in u. s. a. puss or international tnxrnoox coummv scum-ron, pa. i preface this book is arranged for the convenience and ready reference of students, homemakers, and dressmakers, giving historical information, descriptions and uses of laces, textiles, embroideries, and findings, and showing their values, purposes, and uses in dressmaking work. it is not enough to know how to cut and fit garments unless one knows how to complete them artistically by using the proper materials for the need or the occasion. detailed illustrations and instruction are given for the mending of practical, every-day garments, as this work is required in the average home. in the study of this part of the text, it will be evi- dent that thrift and economy have been prominently considered. to mend well is not only an economy but one of the womanly arts that have come down through the ages, few women considering themselves too distinguished to do their own mending. information is given for household sewing, including the making of draperies, bed coverings, scarfs, and art needlework, as well as the miscellaneous articles that a housewife may need to mend, remodel, or replace. a dictionary of trade and sewing terms completes the volume. by a careful study of this part, fashion news will be more easily and more accurately interpreted and the vocabulary of the modiste and the fashion writer will be better understood. a mystery often surrounds dressmaking work, which some persons attribute to the terms used. to make all such words, clear, and to provide aready reference for those interested in dress- making work, this dictionary of trade and sewing terms is supplied. vi contents chapter vii page embroideries, finnings, shopping hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. embroideries—findings—sh pping hints. chapter viii mending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mending conveniences—da.rning—patching—stockinet mending- using mending tissue—misce laneous mending. chapter ix housnnoua sewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. aspects of homernaking—table linens—pure linen—-—linen sub- stitutes—size of linen pieces—linen supply—economy applied £ linens—kitchen linens—bathroom linens—mattress covers and pads—sheets—pil ow cases—monograms on bed linens—bed- spreads or counterpanes—b ankets—comfortab es—pieced and ap- pliquéd qui ts—d i ies, runners, scarfs—cushions—se ecti n of curtains—types of curtains—types of windows—measuring for curtains—preparing materia s—al wance for finishes—finishing cur- tains—curtain fixtu.res—upholstery covers—woven rugs—braided, crocheted, and knitted rugs—mending rugs. chapter x definitions of trade and sewing terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. chapter i development of textiles origin and growth . tne preparation of materials for body covering, chief of which are cotton, flax, silk, and wool, whether for ornament or for warmth and comfort, has demanded consideration from the earliest times. primitive women, who were concerned with providing shelter and clothing for the family while the men were engaged in seeking food and in warfare, played an important part in the early development of the textile industry. at first, women made clothes from the leaves and bark of certain trees or from the skins of animals, depending on the climate in which they lived. in tropical countries, the inner bark of one kind of tree was pounded until it was sufficiently thin and pliable, and then -it was decorated and used for garments. when skins were worn, the hair or wool was generally placed next to the body; so, in some cases, such as in wool, the fibers felted from the oils of the wearer's body. this marks the beginning of one form of textiles. later, the dried skins of animals were tanned to make them smooth. . probably weaving originated through the using of the reeds and grasses that primitive folk found in their wandering life. these were twisted, knotted, interlaced, and tied to make mats and baskets. gradually, the fibers of plants and the coats of animals were woven, the first woven articles being used for floor coverings. with the occupations of men and women becoming somewhat stable, a pastoral life gradually came into existence and brought with it more desire for personal adornment. weaving thus became an important industry and experienced many improve- ments. lid - development of textiles during the agricultural era which followed, flax and cotton plants were widely cultivated and sheep were raised for wool. by degrees, life became more settled, households were established, and private ownership became the rule. in fact, by the time that america was going through her colonization, each home was a unit in itself, the mother and daughters spinning and weaving, while the father and sons prepared the fibers and made and repaired the machinery and tools. . the textile industry received considerable impetus through the various inventions that helped to perfect spinning and weaving. at first, only human power was used; then horse and water power - were employed; and finally steam and electricity replaced both of these. with the increase of the demand and consequently of the production, the industry left the home and entered-the factory. thus, women have gradually given up the making of cloth except as they are employed in factories to do certain parts of the work. spinning . early development.—the origin of spinning, which is a process of drawing out and twisting fibers in such a manner as to produce a continuous thread, is difficult to trace. one story is that of a shepherd boy who, while watching his sheep one day, noticed a bunch of wool hanging on a nearby bush. in his idleness, he began to twist the fiber and, as he twisted it, he drew the fibers apart and found that he could make a long thread from these comparatively short fibers. some authorities entirely discount this story, claiming that, due to necessity, primitive woman was the inventor of spinning. whatever its origin, it was with this invention that the true art of textiles began. . in the beginning, the spinner held the fibers in her left hand and twisted and drew them out with her right into a continuous thread, which she wound on a stick, called a spindle, as shown at a, fig. . she had no means of keeping the fiber in order or even of cleaning it before it was spun. very soon, however, the distafl made its appearance and shortly after it came the whorl. on one end of the distafi, which was a stick to inches long, the fibers were loosely fastened, as shown at b, the other end being held development of textiles under the left arm or stuck in the belt of the spinner so that both hands were left free to work with the fiber. the spinner soon found that it was much easier to spin with a full spindle than with an empty one, so she conceived the idea of weighting it with a whorl and it then consisted of a stick with a weight on the lower end, as shown in fig. . with these twoimprovements in equipment, the spinster, as she was called, would draw out the fiber from the distaff with her left hand, attach the end to the spindle, and give the spindle a sharp twist with her right. she would then allow the thread and whorl to twist ~in the opposite direction. after twisting a considerable length, she would wind the yarn on the spindle, fasten it to prevent its unwinding, and begin the process again. the rock, a later improvement, was merely a dis- taff made with a standard, as shown in fig. , so that it stood on the floor beside the spinster. f . . at the present time, the navajo indians of arizona have an interesting method of spinning. with a slender stick for a spindle, the point of which is stuck in the ground, the spinner, sitting on the ground, pulls out‘ the fiber and twirls the spindle to twist it. the yarn, when first spun, is very slightly twisted so that it must be gone over several times before it is ready for _§_ use in a loom. . kinds of spinning wheels.—up to the th and th centuries, the distaff and weighted spindle constituted the spinning equip- ment. then, they were replaced by the spin- ning wheel, the spinners of india fastening a wheel to a spindle and making it rotate by means of a band. this first spinning wheel f"=- known to history was called the gharka wheel f °- of india. it was a very crude instrument and spun only very coarse yarns, but it had the advantage of providing a more rapid method. - development of textiles . the great wheel, wool wheel, or muckle wheel, as shown in fig. , was the next to make its appearance. it was called the great wheel because it had a large wheel. as it was used extensively in scotland, it received the name of muckle wheel, muckle meaning great in the scottish dialect. the term wool wheel was applied because it was best adapted to the spinning of wool fiber on account of the shortness of the fiber and the slow, intermittent motion of the wheel. to spin with this wheel, a portion of the fiber was drawn out and attached to the spindle; . then the great wheel was struck with the hand fi<=- or a wooden peg, the blow causing it to revolve, turn the spindle to which the fiber was attached, and twist the fiber. to wind up the yarn, the wheel had to be revolved in the opposite direction. when the spindle was full, the thread was wound off on a reel. it has been estimated that spinners who worked at this type of wheel walked as many as miles a day as they spun. the principle of the great wheel is still used in our modern wool manufacture, but the mechanism has been so greatly improved that practically all of the work is now done by the machinery. . the flax, or leipsic, wheel, shown in fig. , which is the one we ordinarily see as an heirloom, with its distaff, spindle, and flyer, and which is adapted to flax spinning, was a complicated piece of machinery when compared with the great wheel. it was a labor-saving invention in that it had a treadle for transmitting the power and permitted the spinner to sit down ,¢‘ _ while spinning. the flyer, which was not found it on the great wheel, revolved very rapidly, twist- ~ ing the fibers and winding them on the bobbin. - f" however, the spindle's motion was held back by the spinner, who changed the yarn from one hook to the other of the fiyer and gradually filled the bobbin evenly. the motion of this wheel is continuous, that is, the fiber is drawn out, twisted, and wound up at the same time. fm . cardlng.—in -order to have a smoothly spun, clean yarn, it was necessary to clean the fiber and make it fine and soft before spinning. this was done by means of carding. primitive development of textiles woman used her fingers for carding, opening up and straightening the fibers into a soft lap. later, cards, which were flat brushes containing bent wires set closely together in strips of leather tacked to the wood, were made for this pur- pose. with two of theseicards, one in each hand, as shown in fig. , fibers could be made very clean and fluffy and laid out to form parallel strands. . in , lewis paul in- fm vented a machine for carding, which consisted of revolving cylinders covered with wire cloth. john lees, in , invented an apron feed, a device that made it possible to put a large quantity of fiber in the machine at one time. richard arkwright was responsible for an invention by which the fiber was delivered from the carding machine in laps, but a short time after the apron feed was invented a funnel was attached to the card, thus making the raw material into a sliver. after being carded, either by hand or by this machine, the fiber was ready for spinning on either the great wheel or the flax wheel. . improvements in splnning.—about the middle of the th century, there came an increased demand for materials. while the improved machinery made it possible to card the fiber ready for spinning and to weave the cloth on power looms, still the yarn was spun by hand. this, of course, held up production. to john wyatt is due the honor of producing the first yarn spun with- out the use of the human fingers, a feat he accomplished in . his machine drew the fiber through two moving rollers, which also used the flyer of the flax wheel. . up to this time, but one thread was spun at a time. james- hargreaves, an englishman, was the first to work out a method of spinning a number of threads at the same time. the idea came to him one day when he saw a spinning wheel overturned, leaving the spindle revolving in a perpendicular instead of a horizontal position. seeing at once the possibility of having a number of spindles revolving in this position, he made his spinning jenny, which spun eight threads at one time. it had an intermittent motion like the great wheel, but it spun thread that was not strong development of textiles _—-q enough for warp. hargreaves’ invention made him very unpopular with his fellow workmen, who persecuted him bitterly, for they felt that he was taking their work from them. . the next improvement in spinning was arkwright’s water frame, which was brought out in . this machine was too heavy to be driven by hand, so that mule or horse power was required. later, water power was used, which gave it the name of water frame, and in steam was employed. the action of the water frame was continuous like that of the flax wheel and that used today in ring spinning. in fact, the principles of both the modern mule and the ring-spinning frame are the same as those of the great wheel and the flax wheel. the differences lie in the mechanism that has been devised to take the place of the hands. . samuel crompton, in , patented his spinning machine under the name of the mule-spinning frame. containing the good features of both hargreaves’ and arkwright’s inventions, it was more valuable than either of these before steam power was used. later, when steam could be utilized for power and when whitney invented his cotton-ginning machine in , cotton spinning received a great impetus. it was when water and steam were used for power that the textile industry was taken from the home to the factory. but the principles of the machines used today in the largest factories are practically the same as those set forth in the inventions of hargreaves, ark- wright, and crompton, with merely the substitution of machinery for the hand work formerly done by spinners. weaving nature and history . weaving is the process of interlacing into a fabric two sets of threads or strips of pliable material that cross each other at right angles. the threads that run the entire length of the material and form the foundation for weaving are called warp threads, as indicated in fig. . the threads that cross and interlace with the warp threads are called weft, woof, or filling, threads. at development of textiles each side, the weft, or filling, threads, are woven very closely and bind the warp threads into a firm edge, which is called the selvage. as the warp threads have to bear a very great strain, they are very strong and nearly straight, as can . w .__wn.__.. _ readily be determined by observing and we-ff testing the ravelings. weft, or woof, : - - y threads are often softer, less wiry, and of less even weave than the warp threads. a sharp sound usually accompanies the tear- ing of material across the warp threads, whereas a dull sound results if a lengthwise . _ tear, or one across the weft threads, is made. . . history of weaving. — textile weaving dates back into prehistoric times, for in the earliest written records are to be . found occasional references to a weaving industry well developed. silk, wool, linen, ff" , and cotton of rare quality were all in use in * ‘ ' those early days; in fact, the textiles that were woven in various parts of the orient have perhaps never been excelled in richness of fabric, splendor of color, and intricacy of design. ‘even though everything points to an early and flourish- ing industry in weaving, very few of the looms of antiquity are preserved to us either in picture or in literature. in their pottery painting, the greeks have handed down the looms of penelope and circe, whigh are examples of the early greek looms. a picture of an early egyptian loom is also available. both the egyptian and the greek looms are vertical, or hold the warp threads in an upright position. the chief difference between these two looms is that the egyptian began to weave at the bottom, while the greek wove from top to bottom, small weights being attached to each warp thread. fm. . the vertical loom existed until the th century. then the horizontal loom, which is shown in fig. , and in which the warp threads lie in a horizontal position, took its place. development of textiles . the invention of the fly shuttle, in , by .]'ohn kay meant a great deal i power weaving. in , he made some improve- ments on it and, in , his son invented the drop box. both of these inventions made the work of weaving easier and quicker. later, when cartwright brought out his power loom, in , and steam was applieflqto arkwright's spinning frame, the work of making textiles by power was established. . principles ’ weaving.—in weaving, whether done on a primitive loom or on the modern power loom, three operations are included: shedding, picking, and battening. . shedding is the process of raising the warp threads as needed. at first, it was accomplished by raising each warp thread with the hand and slipping the weft thread through the space made. after a time, a simple contrivance known as a harness was devised, by means of which one set of warp threads could be raised at one time, the weft slipped through, and then the other set of warp threads raised. . picking is the process of throwing the weft threads across the warp. in the primitive methods, picking was accomplished very laboriously without even the use of an elementary shuttle. later, however, the shuttle came into use and by means of it the weft threads were carried through the shed very quickly and easily, . battening is the process of pressing the weft threads against the finished cloth to make a firm fabric. variepies of weaves . the two ways in which weaving is done produce two main classes of weaves: straight-line warp weaving and curved warp weaving. . straight-line warp weaving includes the three founda- tion weaves: (l) the plain, taffeta, or tabby, weave; ( ) the twill, or diagonal, weave; ( ) the satin, or sateen, weave. . the plain weave, as illustrated in fig. , is the simplest of all weaves and, if coarse yarns are used, may be made on a two- harness loom. in it one weft thread merely passes over and under development of textiles -" . the satin, or sateen, weave, shown in the satin in fig. , is an important one for it is used in all fibers. in reality, it is a ll inl in ill {' '-‘."-“t '-‘sw . rl illa ili~ isl "‘-‘w-"‘l‘!‘: ii-i-n iii iiiii ioi iiici iii form of twill, as shown in fig. , but the interlacing of the fibers is done so that the twill does not show and a smooth, lustrous surface with many loose, or floating, threads is produced. the satin .weave differs from the sateen weave in that the warp threads form its surface, whereas in the sateen weave the filling, or weft, threads form the surface. usually, the satin weave is used for silk and wool fibers, and the sateen, for cotton. it is also an excellent weave for a combination of fibers, such as silk and cotton, as in cotton-backed satin. besides in satin and sateen, the satin weave is found in such materials as galatea, venetian cloth, messaline, and foulard. . curved warp weaving includes the leno weaves, the pile weaves, the double-cloth weaves, the figure weave, and the lappet weaves. . leno weaving, which is shown in the marquisette in fig. , consists of weft threads with the warp threads wound around them, fm. as shown in fig. . this weave is used extensively in curtain scrim, but as it will not permit of having its threads drawn length- development of textiles wise, such material should not be purchased with the idea of hem- stitching it by hand. the leno weave is found also in silk grena- dine and marquisette. when it is closely woven, it is durable, but often it is very open and loose. . the pile weave, _ shown in the velvet in . fig. , is the one in f!°- which the beautiful velvets of the world are produced. in this weave, the ground may be a plain, a basket, or a twill weave. as shown in fig. , there are generally two sets of warp threads, asat a and b, which are held by the weft threads, as at c. one set of warp threads forms the pile, and in weaving these are held loosely so they may be drawn over wires to form loops, which are afterwards cut to produce the pile surface. plushes, corduroys, bolivia, chinchilla, rugs, and carpets are other examples of this weave. some of the plushes and velvets are in reality double cloth, being cut between the cloth. in another group of pile fabrics, such as terry cloth, which is used for towels and wash cloths, the pile is in the form of loops of threads instead of ends. these materials should not, under any circumstances, be confused with those that are napped, such as outing flannel or broadcloth. the nap is produced by brushing the loosely woven cloth until a rough appearance is obtained. in duvetyn and velour, the fabric is matted, but in the case of broadcloth, it is pressed after napping to give it a smooth, mirror-like appearance. . the double-cloth weave is used in fabrics that are woven with two sets of warp and two sets of weft threads. special warps and a double harness are needed for weaving of this kind. often, double-cloth materials are held together by means of catch- ing an occasional weft thread through to the opposite surface, and thus they become reversible, as heavy coating, polo cloth, rugs, and double-faced ribbons. other times they are made by fastening two materials together with glue or mucilage. again, they may development of textiles be woven so as to be fastened on one or both edges to make tubular materials for lamp wicks, hose, and bags. . the figure weave is a combination of the three foundation weaves—plain, satin, and twill. the simple figure weaves, such as diaper patterns, huckaback, and granite, are done on a regular loom, but for intricate figure work, such as is found in damasks and brocades, the jacquard loom is required. brocades have a right and a wrong side, whereas damasks are figured on both sides and are therefore reversible. . the lappet weave consists of a plain weave with patterns woven on the surface to resemble hand embroidery. it is done by means of an attachment called a lappet, which is applied to a regular loom. the extra threads on the wrong side are cut off after the pattern is applied. lappet weaving produces many pretty materials, dotted swiss being the principal example, but they are not very durable as the process through which they pass during the weaving weakens them considerably. . bedford cord and piqué have characteristics peculiar to themselves. they are sometimes known as cord weaves, but they may be called “backed” fabrics because they carry an extra set of warp threads at the back of the fabric. the one set of warp threads weaves in the usual way with the weft, while the extra set carried at the back of the fabric interlace with the weft threads at regular intervals, producing a lengthwise ribbed effect of a rather wide wale. sometimes, a crosswise rib is produced by reversing the warp and weft, the weft forming the filling at the back of the material. . certain materials, such as bobbinet, maline, and tulle, contain weaves that cannot be classified as any of the regular textile weaves because of their construction. they have two sets of threads that correspond to the warp and weft of other materials, but these threads are woven on lace machines that permit varying degrees of tension and therefore cause the weft, or bobbin, threads to become twisted with the warp threads. to distinguish them from other materials, they may be designated as lace weaves. development of textiles knitting . knitting is the process of making fabrics by looping a single thread, either by hand or by machine, each succeeding line of the thread being looped into the one before it. this art has been known for centuries, our grandmothers having knitted by hand large quan- tities of wool into stockings and mittens. the moder n knitting machine has a great number of hooked needles, which open and close automatically and hold each loop as the knitting is done. if one loop is dropped, the whole web is threatened with destruction. knitting yarn, which is softer and less twisted than weaving yarn, produces an elastic material that is used principally for underwear, hosiery, gloves, scarfs, etc. sometimes it is plain and other times, ribbed, the ribbed varieties being more expensive and usually better wearing than the plain ones. the chief knitted fabrics are tricolette, jersey, and stockinette. some materials, such as eiderdown and chamoisette, have a knitted background through which soft yarns are passed to make a fuzzy surface. cloth finishes . it must not be thought that a fabric is ready for use as soon as it comes from the loom or the knitting machine. just the contrary is true, for it is then in an unfinished condition and is called raw thread. it must be treated in various ways, depending on the nature of the material and the finish to be applied. . practically all materials must be scoured, or washed in hot water and soap, in order to remove any dirt, oil, or other foreign substance, such as size, a starch-like dressing put into certain warp yarns to make them easier to handle. often it is necessary to burl materials after weaving, that is, to pick out any knots, burrs, and similar imperfections found in them. . singeing consists in treating the surface of material to make it smooth after taking it from the loom. this _is done by passing it over heated metal rollers to remove the loose nap. . fulling is another operation through which many woolen materials are put to give them a stronger and firmer body. this development of textiles process shrinks the threads and makes the fabric compact and smooth. in the case of broadcloths and other nap-finished mater- ials, the fulling is carried on until the fibers become densely matted and cover up the weave. tweeds, on the other hand, are fulled only to the extent of giving them a dressed surface, and certain other materials merely have their texture strengthened in the fulling. during the fulling process, the material is frequently taken out, stretched, straightened, and inspected. when it has been sufi‘i- ciently filled, it is freed from the soapby being rinsed, first in tepid water and finally in cold water. . to raise- the nap of woolen material that has been fulled, it is teasled; that is, the surface fibers are pulled out or broken to produce an unequal nap. for this purpose, a thistle-like plant covered with a hook-like growth and called the teasle, is employed in the production of high-grade fabrics, although a metal device, also, is used to nap materials. after the nap is raised, it is cut to make it uniform. sometimes the nap is pressed, and again it is allowed to stand upright. . many materials are put through a process called calender- ing to give their surface a smooth, even finish and sometimes to glaze them, as in sateens and silesias. calendering is accomplished by running the material over warm cylinders, pressure and steam being employed in the process. the glazing of materials is brought about by putting them through rollers that move at different velocities. bleaching . before materials can be dyed or printed, they must be _freed of their natural coloring matter and any oily substances that they contain. sometimes it is found sufficient to scour the fabrics, but usually bleaching is also necessary. . the process of bleaching consists of freeing textile fibers and fabrics from their natural color in order to whiten them. in ancient times, bleaching was done by exposing the material to the direct rays of the sun and wetting it at regular intervals. this method, while followed for many years, and even now used in some parts of ireland, proved unsatisfactory because of the change- development of textiles able weather conditions, the length of time required, and the possibility of losing much of the material through theft. the increase in the demand for cotton materials created a need for quicker and better bleaching methods. the use of power- ful chemical preparations has practically supplanted the former methods, especially where large quantities of material are to be bleached in big manufacturing plants. chlorine is generally used for the vegetable fibers, that is, for cotton and linen, and sulphur- ous acid for the animal fibers, silk and wool. in the case of linen, grass bleaching is sometimes combined with the chemical treat- ment. dyeing and printing . the final step in the preparation of material for the market is dyeing or printing or both. dyeing is the art of fixing coloring matter in the substance of a textile by immersing the fabric in the color solution, while printing consists in applying color to only certain portions of a fabric by means of a machine. in some materials, these processes are combined. as would naturally be expected, printed colors are not so lasting as dyed ones, although many attractive and unusual designs can be produced by the printing method. . origin of dyeing.—dyeing was known in the most ancient times, for we find mention of it in the oldest writings and some of the mummy clothes found in the pyramids contain borders of colors. however, it is thought that dyeing was not a common art in those early days, for dyed materials were put to only certain uses and were worn chiefly by persons of unusual distinction. the early dyers used only the products of nature or very simple preparations, such as brickthorn berries, gall nuts, sumac, sandal- wood, madder, cochineal, and logwood. these natural dyes are still used in the east for the dyeing of the yarn for oriental rugs, a fact that accounts for the wonderfully soft and beautiful colorings of these rugs even after long use, the natural dyes fading in tones of the same hue. . origin of artificial dyes.-——-it was not until , when perkin, an englishman, discovered the first coal-tar dye, mauve, that synthetic dyes, or artificial coloring matter, came into use. - development of textiles this discovery produced a revolution in dyeing methods, for the products of coal tar, the pitch distilled from bituminous coal and condensed in the manufacture of coal gas, chief among which is aniline, have formed the basis for practically all dyeing materials since. many other discoveries followed, chemists producing from time to time materials that closely resemble the natural dyes in effect although they bear no similarity to them in chemical composition. in fact, these synthetic dyes have nearly supplanted the natural ones. - a very important step in the history of dyeing was the discovery in , by a german chemist, of a way to transform an extract of aniline into alizarine, a coloring matter identical with madder, one of the most ancient of natural dyestuffs. when this material was available for the trade, it practically drove the natural product, madder, from the market. . methods of piece dyeing.—dyeing cloth with coal-tar dyes is done in three ways: by direct, basic, and vat dyeing. . direct dyeing consists in subjecting the cloth to a dye bath and, by means of frequent turnings of the cloth, transferring the color to it. dyeing of this sort is not likely to produce such good results as that done by the other methods. . basic dyeing is that which requires the services of a mordant to make the dye permanent. by a mordant is meant a substance that will fix colors. to accomplish this, it must both penetrate the fiber of the material and combine with the dye-matter in such a way as to form an insoluble compound in or out of the fiber. various substances, such as tannin, gelatine, gluten, albumen, soda, and lead salts, are used as mordants. the most common method of dyeing with a mordant is to work it into the cloth and then to apply the coloring matter. the art of the dyer consists in com- bining the cloth, the mordant, and the dye so as to obtain a color that will be chemically combined and permanent. . vat dyeing has long been in use in germany but has only recently come into use in the united states. this form of dyeing is interesting in that the cloth may not have the desired color when it is removed from the dye bath but assumes the correct color on being exposed to the air. indigo is one of the colors that develop by oxidizing, or exposure to the air. development of textiles . methods of fiber dyeing.—in contrast with these methods of dyeing in the piece are several methods of dyeing fibers before and after they are spun. dyeing in the wool consists in dye- ing the wool after it has been washed and scoured and before it is dry. dyeing in the slub means the dyeing of wool after it is carded and combed but not twisted. dyeing in the skein is the dyeing of yarn after it has been spun and is in skein form, a form of dyeing used for ginghams, wool plaids, and novelty effects. . dyeing figured material.—practically all the dyeing methods that have been explained produce plain-colored materials. if a figured or striped material is to be manufactured, it is usually dyed by means of resist or discharge dyeing. . resist dyeing is used for material containing a combina- tion of fibers, such as cotton and wool, or for fabrics in which a stripe or a design of another color is found. one of the fibers or colors is treated so that it remains unchanged in the dye that colors the other part. in the case of the batik work of java, which is a form of resist dyeing, the part that is not to be dyed is covered with wax, which is later removed. . discharge dyeing consists in dyeing the material in the piece and then removing some of the coloring by means of chemicals in order to produce figures, dots, and stripes. considerable experiment is required in discharge dyeing to determine the right bleach for each dye. . printing of fabr cs.—printing, which has come to be a science in itself, is done chiefly in the case of such materials as calico, voile, percale, and galatea. the cloth is first prepared by singeing, bleaching, scouring, and starching it. then it is printed by being put through a machine that contains engraved copper rollers bearing the design, a different roller being required for each color that the pattern contains. if a dye is used that will mix with the cotton without the use of a mordant, the process is very much simplified. when a mordant must be used to fix the dye, it is usually applied first by means of a roller over which the cloth is run. the cloth is then dried by steam-heated cylinders, after which it is relieved of its acid by various processes so that its mordant is left in the l d -a development of textiles pure form. a thorough washing in soft water completes the prep- aration for the dyeing. with the material properly cleaned and containing only a faint outline of its pattern, it is immersed in a bath of alizarine, from which it comes out a completely printed fabric. this solution has the power to produce all the colors that were printed on the material by the mordants. a final boiling in soap and water to brighten the colors brings the fabric up to its finishing processes—calendering, folding, or rolling for the market. . block printing.—the earliest form of printing was known as block printing. now it is used chiefly in art work, having been superseded by machine printing in the manufacture of fabrics. in block printing, the design is cut out on a block of wood, the parts that are to make the impression being left prominent and the rest of the block being cut away. the color is supplied to the block, which is then pressed firmly on the fabric in order to transfer the design. as can be imagined, this is a process that, while it produces extremely beautiful, artistic effects, is too slow to be used commercially. fabric characteristics . right side of materia s.—many materials appear practically the same on both sides and, therefore, may be used without any concern as to keeping a particular side outermost. when materials are not alike on both sides and there is doubt as to which is the right side, there are various ways of determining it. usually, the right side has a smoother and more finished or more attractive appearance than the wrong side, and any design in the fabric stands out more prominently on the right side. if only one side of a fabric is glossy, this may generally be taken as the right side. if any novelty of weave or finish is more apparent on one side than on the other, the more unusual effect is, as a rule, consid- ered the right side, even though this is sometimes contrary to the general rule that the smoother and more finished side should be kept outermost. . in fabrics of twill or ribbed weave, the ribs, in most cases, stand up more prominently on the right side. when both sides of a twill weave appear very much the same, the right side may be development of textiles determined by observing the manner in which the diagonal lines run. to determine the right side in this way, hold the piece of material up against you with the selvages up and down. in this position, the diagonal lines should run from the left down toward the right. most double-width materials are folded in the piece with the right side in so as to prevent counter soiling. . materials having “up and down” and ' right and le -t.”—materials are said to have an up and down when they have a nap, a pile, or figures that are not the same on their opposite ends and are not arranged in reverse positions, which causes them apparently to “run” in one direction. as a rule, a napped fabric should be developed so that the nap runs in the same direction in all parts of the garment, although there are exceptions to this rule mentioned in the instruction book that deals with the cutting out of garments. the manner in which the pile runs in a fabric may be determined by running the hand over _,‘ - it in the general direc- tion of the lengthwise threads; when the hand is moved against the i pile, it causes a feeling or appearance of rough- ness, but when the hand is moved in the same i‘ direction as the pile, the i ‘ feeling is of smoothness. . in figured ma- terial, the correct posi- tion of the figures may be determined by their appearance; the portion of the figure that appears broader or heavier is usually regarded as the lower end, except in the case of natural figures or familiar objects, which should maintain their natural or familiar positions. materials are said to have a right and left when they have stripes, plaids, or figures, as in fig. , that appear heavier or darker on one side of the design than on the other. chapter ii cotton production and manufacture . cotton is a downy vegetable fiber obtained from the boll, or seed pod, of the cotton plant. this plant grows from to feet in height and is native principally to the island and seacoast regions of the tropics, although it is raised successfully in other places. a sandy soil and a warm climate are necessary for its growth. the earliest cotton was produced in india, dacca muslin being among the first cotton fabrics ever made. india was the center of the cotton industry for hundreds of years and still produces cotton in large quantities. it was from this country, in the th century, that cotton was brought to america. although the united states was the last to take up cotton growing, for almost a hundred years it has exceeded all other countries in the production of this fiber, and at present it raises about three- fourths of the entire world's crop. . c assification.—the cotton plant, the botanical name of which is gossypimn, is a member of the mallow family, its flowers closely resembling the hollyhock of our gardens. numerous classi- fications have been made of its varieties, some authorities giving a large number, but the majority place all cotton in four classes, namely, herb cotton, gossypium herbaceum; shrub cotton, gossy- pium hirsutum; tree cotton, gossypium arboreum; and lintless cotton, gossypium barbadense. growers and buyers of cotton, however, prefer to classify it according to its place of growth, their chief classes being sea island, egyptian, upland, indian, and peruvian. the characteristics of these classes are as follows: cotton . sea island cotton is grown on the islands along the coast of the carolinas, georgia, and florida. it has long, silky, fine fibers and is used for making the finest cotton thread, such as that utilized for laces, sewing thread, silk mixtures, and silk imitations. . egyptian cotton ranges in color from white to brown, the brownish color being due to the coloring matter in the nile. its fiber is unusually long, from % to % inches, and it is used to some extent in the manufacture of spool cotton. its greatest use, however, is in the manufacture of fancy knit goods, such as the better grades of hosiery and underwear, it being next in value to sea island cotton. . upland cotton is grown in the united states on the uplands of some of the south atlantic states. it is a cotton that varies greatly according to the cultivation of the plant and the character of the soil in which it is grown. the fibers of this cotton range from % inch to % inches in length and form a source from which we obtain the bulk of our cotton for use as sheeting, gingham, calico, _ and similar materials. . india cotton is used for making very coarse yarns, such as those used in denims and drilling, as it is shorter and weaker than the american upland cotton. - the united states uses very little india cotton; its greatest markets are japan and european countries. . peruvian and brazilian cotton, or south american cot- ton, as it is sometimes called, has fibers of a harsh, wiry char- acter, which make both of these varieties useful in the adultera- tion of wool. the fiber is about the same length as that of egyptian cotton. . growth of p ant.—cotton is planted some time from march until may and matures from august until the frost comes, often as late as november or december. it is ready to pick as soon as the boll bursts open and shows its downy center. the picking is practically all done by hand, for although machines are sometimes used, they are not very satisfactory because they cannot distinguish between the ripe and unripe bolls and not all the bolls ripen at the same time. each picker picks from to pounds of cotton a day. cotton . cotton ginn ng.—after being picked, the cotton is taken to a ginnery, where the seeds are removed from the fiber by the cotton gin. this device, invented in by eli whitney, has played a very important part in the history of the cotton industry. up to the time of its invention, the seeds and fiber were separated by hand, but this was a very slow process for no one was able to clean more than pounds of cotton in a week. now, with the modern gins in use, two men can remove the cotton from the wagon and attend six gins, which clean , pounds in a day. the cotton gin consists of a series of saw-like teeth that draw the fiber of the cotton through holes too small to permit the seeds to pass. the lint is carried on by rollers, whereas the seeds are sent to the oil presses, these being frequently installed in the gin houses, where the seeds are pressed through special machinery and yield cotton-seed oil, the hulls being used for fuel and fertilizer. . sorting, baling, and pening.—after cotton is ginned, it is generally made into bales of pounds each and shipped to a manufacturing center. owing to the difference in the length and the condition of the fiber, the cotton must first be graded. to do this, the bale is broken and the cotton is placed in a machine known as a cotton opener, which tears the cotton apart. with the fibers opened, they are sorted according to length and whiteness. bale breaking and opening are not necessary operations if the cotton is hauled from the gin directly to the cotton mill and it is to be graded at once. . carding, combing, drawing.—the cotton passes through several intermediate steps that prepare it for the carding process. by means of a machine containing a card and a comb, the action of which has been compared to that of a comb and brush on the hair, the fibers are cleaned of their impurities and laid approximately parallel. from the card, which delivers the cotton inthe form of a sliver, it is run through the combing machine, if it is intended for very fine material. otherwise, it goes straight to the drawing frame, which combines several slivers and draws them out so that they are the size of one. after going through the drawing frame several times, the fibers are sent to the fly frames, where they are drawn still smaller and twisted very slightly. then the yarn is wound on bobbins. cotton . spinning.—the next step in cotton manufacture is spinning, which is usually done on an upright frame by the flyer or the ring system. a humid atmosphere is more satisfactory for cotton spinning than is a dry one. consequently, england is more suitable for this work than america, although large quantities are spun in both the southern and the new england states. the chief purpose of spinning is to unite and draw out the fibers and to twist them into yarn. there is a difference between the spinning of yarn for warp and that for weft. since the warp yarn must be stronger than the weft, longer fiber cotton with a harder twist is used for it. for the weft yarn, the short fiber is employed. the invention of the cotton gin by whitney made possible a large supply of cotton for spinning. also, improvements in spinning wheels gave a great impetus to the industry. in fact, spinning was practically taken out of the home and made a problem for factories, where it has been kept ever since. i . dyeing.—as soon as the yarn is spun, it may be dyed at once, when it is known as “dyed in the yarn”; or it may be woven first and then dyed, when the material is called “dyed in the piece.” most of the cotton yarn is dyed before weaving. sometimes, the yarn is bleached and mercerized before dyeing. . weaving.—before cotton cloth is woven, the warp threads are sized to increase their strength and to make them with- stand the wear of the loom. the warp is then placed on a warp beam and each of the warp threads is drawn through its particular heald, or vertical wire containing an eye, in the harness and its space in the reed, or a heavy frame set close with straight wires, between which the warp threads pass. the reed presses the weft threads up close to the finished piece to make it firm and even. two operators are required to thread a loom for the first time, but after it is once threaded, the ends of the old warp may be tied to the ends of the new with a weaver’s knot and the new warp drawn through. the-pattern to be followed in the weaving is, of course, worked out before the warp is threaded in the loom. the principle of weaving is practically the same in all looms at the present time. the harnesses automatically raise and lower the warp threads and with each opening of the shed, which is the space between the warp threads, the shuttle flies through, leaving a cotton trail weft thread; then the harnesses raise another set of warp threads and the shuttle flies back. the majority oi cotton weaves are plain, but twill weaves are seen in some materials, such as drilling and khaki. . cotton finishes.—the varied finishes given to cotton materials account for the large variety of cotton materials on the market. nearly all cottons are sized to some extent, the kind of material used for sizing depending on the eflect desired. thus, organdie is sized to give it a very crisp appearance and percale is treated with mucilage or gum to give it a glossy finish. . by calendering, or putting the cloth between heated steel rolls and using warm dressings, a high luster may be obtained, as in the case of sateen. mulls are softened by means of oils; cre- tonnes are treated with clay to give them a solid appearance. . mercerization is a finish given to various cotton materials. it is done in either the yarn or the cloth, usually before bleaching, and consists in treating cotton under tension with a solution of caustic soda to provide a high luster. unless the yarn or cloth is stretched very 'tight when treated with the soda, it shrinks both lengthwise and crosswise and takes on a crinkled appearance. at one time, this was the method used for maufacturing cotton crepe. . printing.—in cotton manufacture, printing is an impor- tant process. it consists in impressing, or stamping, a design on the surface of a woven fabric or on the warp threads before the weaving is begun. the designs in calico, percale, organdie, and many other figured cotton materials are produced by means of printing. purchasing cotton materials tests -‘on quality . before you buy cotton fabrics, there are several tests that you should make in order to determine their quality.- because of the comparative cheapness of cotton fiber, it is seldom adulterated, but an inferior grade of cotton is often made to appear heavier by the addition of dressing. to test a thin fabric for the presence of dressing, when making a purchase, simply hold it up to the light and examine it. in this position, the starch that it contains will cotton show between the threads. or, rub the material in the hands to remove a part of the dressing and thus determine the firmness of the cloth. in the laundering process, such material loses both its weight and its firmness. so, if you wish to make the most convinc- ing test for the presence of dressing, wash a sample of the material and compare it with the original piece. . fastness to sunlight and washing is a very important quality of cotton material. to test for this, cover one end of a sample with a piece of cardboard or something else that will keep out light and expose the uncovered end to sunlight for several days. if the color remains unchanged, the fastness of the color to light is practically assured. then wash the sample in a warm soap solution, repeating this process several times. if the color still remains intact, you may rest satisfied that it is fast. guaranteed, fast-color material is more expensive at the out- set than materials which are not guaranteed, because of the special dyeing process required to produce fast colors. however, the additional expense is justified by the attractiveness of the material throughout its life. . dark-colored materials that have not been properly dyed have a tendency, when worn, to crock and discolor other garments or the skin. to test for this condition, rub a sample of the material briskly on a white, unstarched cotton fabric. if the color in the dark material does not rub off with this treatment, you may feel quite certain that the dyeing was properly done. . in buying material that is desired for long service, examine its warp and weft threads. these should be in good proportion as to strength and firmness, for the unequal tension produced by threads that are too decidedly unlike will soon cause the material to split or wear. besides considering the strength and firmness of the fabric, test its quality by untwisting one of its threads and noticing the length of the separate fibers. long fibers provide additional strength and have good wearing qualities. table of cotton materials . the materials, or fabrics, made from cotton are large in number and variety. in order that you may become familiar with most of them, all those in common use for home dressmaking are cotton usual width price name weave inches pa - yard description calico. plain and c. up closely woven, thin cloth, usually with figured designs printed on one side. used for inexpensive dresses and aprons. often called cotton print. cambric... plain and c. to c. fine fabric with a glazed finish. used for handkerchiefs, linings, and undergarments. kid-fin- canton, or ish cambric is narrower in width cotton, and cheaper in price. flannel. . twill c. to c. heavy cotton with long nap on the right side. used for children's underwear, interlining, etc. canvas. . . . plain to c. to $ a coarse, firm material. used for stiffening coats, facings, etc. ; also, for making mail bags, tents, and sails. there is also an open- weave canvas used in embroi- dery work known as cross-stitch canvas. challis. . .. plain and c. to c. a fine fabric, both plain and fig- - ured. used for inexpensive dresses and for comfortables. chambray. plain and c. to $ light-weight material with colored - warp and white filling. used for dresses, aprons, and sunbon- nets. cheesecloth plain and %c. to thin, light-weight fabric. used for c. wrapping cheese, butter, etc.; also, for dish towels and for window decorating. colored cheesecloth is used for masquer- ade suits and dresses. chintz. . . . plain to c. to $ material similar to cretonne, usually glazed-finished. corduroy.. pile c. to $ a durable, ribbed fabric in white and colors. expensive qualities have cotton warp and silk pile. used mostly for outing suits, lounging robes, and children's coats. coutil. . . .. twill to c. to $ a stout material, sometimes in fig- ured weave, used for corsets, brassieres, bed coverings, and draperies. s . cotton usual width price inches pet yard description crepe.. . .. plain , , c to $ a crinkled, light-weight fabric. used for underwear, blouses, and dresses. some grades have floral and japanese designs. used { plain } for kimonos and lingerie robes. cretonne.. twill to c. to $ a medium-heavy cloth, usually printed in floral and striped designs. used for upholstery and draperies. fancy crinoline.. plain and c. to c. an open-weave fabric filled with- sizing. used in cuffs, belts, coats, and hats for stiffening. damask . .. figure , , , c.to $ . a figured fabric used for table linen and towels. see damask, table ii. twill , , c. to c. strong, durable fabric in plain colors. used for overalls and for furniture and floor coverings. diaper. . . . figure to c. to c. soft fabric, generally made with small diamond or bird's-eye pat- tern; used for towels and under- garments. dimity. . .. plain and c. to $ corded or crossbar, light-weight material, plain and figured. used for infants’ garments, and for aprons and lingerie dresses. drilling . . . twill to c. up coarse, firm cloth. used for men's outing suits and for interlinings. duck . . . . . plain , , , c. to $ a heavy-weight, highly finished and fabric. used for outing skirts and coats and for tents and awn- ings. flannelette plain to c. to c. a soft fabric with a slight nap. comes in white and colors. used for sleeping and baby garments - and for kimonos. flaxon. . . . plain , , c. to $ a mercerized lawn of fine quality. used for blouses, dresses, and lin- gerie. flaxon is a trade name. gabardine. twill c. to c. a stout material used chiefly for tailored dresses and skirts. see gabardine, table iii. galatea. .. twill , , c. to c. a heavy, firm material for boys’ clothes, outing skirts, middy blouses, and dress-form coverings cotton usual width pefrétfm description inches muslin .. . . n ainsook . . organdie,or organdy . outing flannel . . plain plain plain c. to c. soft open weaves in fine and coarse qualities. used for dresses and curtains. coarser qualities iden- tical with scrim. to c. to $ very soft, sheer, light material in white and colors. used for dress foundations and blouses and for inexpensive party dresses. firm quality sold under the trade name of seco silk. to c.to$ . a firm and loose weave, bleached and unbleached. unbleached often referred to as raw muslin. used for undergarments where durability is desired and for sheets and pillow cases.- c. to $ a light-weight, soft, bleached, mus- lin suitable for dainty lingerie and children's garments. c. to $ very fine, sheer, crisp material, - in white and colors. used for dresses, aprons, collars, and cuffs. “permanent-finish" organdie re- tains crispness after laundering. and ; ;c.to c. similar to flannelette, with a nap to percale . . .. percaline. . piqué..... poplin. . .. plain plain plain cord plain on both sides. stripes, and checks. used for sleeping and infants’ garments. c. to c. a close, firm fabric, plain and in colors. used for dresses, shirts, and children's clothes. c. to c. closely woven fabric with glazed or watered finish. used for linings and for drop skirts. to c. to $ a firm fabric in lengthwise corded effect. used for dresses, vests, cravats, and children's coats. to c. to $ fabric having fine crosswise ribs. used for draperies, dresses, and children's coats. also made in silk and wool. c. to c. firm material woven with heavier weft than warp, giving it a ribbed effect. used for draperies, dresses, and children's coats. , , and made in colors, . cotton usual width inches price per yard description scrim..... seersucker . silesia . . . .. silkaline. . . soisette . . . swiss..... tarlatan. . . terry cloth ticking . . . velveteen. . voile . . . . . . leno plain plain plain plain plain plain pile twill pile plain to c.to$ . rough-surface fabric made with knotted yarn. used for summer suits and dresses. c. to c. closely woven material, with lus- trous, smooth finish, like that of satin. used for underskirts and linings. heavy quality known as surf satin. c. to c. open-mesh weave in white, cream, and ecru; light in weight and transparent. used for draperies. c. to c. a thin fabric with an irregular, crimped surface. used for dresses, coats, and underwear. c. to c. a light-weight fabric, similar to percaline; soon loses its luster. used for linings. c. to c. a thin, soft, glazed fabric. used for draperies and comfortables. c. to c. soft, mercerized fabric. used chiefly for negligée shirts and pajamas and sometimes for com- fortables. soisette is a trade name. a soft dress muslin, usually in cross-bar and dotted effects. used for dresses and curtains. to c. to c. open-mesh, slightly stiffened fab- ric. used for christmas stock- ings, as a stiffening in garments, and for fancy costumes. to l c.to$ . cloth woven with a raised loop giving a rough surface. used principally for towels, draperies, and bath robw. and c.to$ . firm fabric in stripes and in floral and herringbone patterns. used for pillows and mattress covers. and $ to $ a cotton velvet, with short, close pile. used for dresses and chil- dren's wraps and for draperies. to c.to$ . material having hard-twisted, warp-and-weft threads woven in open mesh. extensively used for dresses. to to c. to $ chapter iii linens nature a.nd uses . linen was probably the first textile woven by man, for it is known to have been in use centuries before the christian era. and the treatment given to the fibers in these early linens was so excel- lent that napkins discovered in the wrappings of mummies were not only well preserved but were able to withstand several washings. the phenicians are said to have carried linen production into ireland, where it has always been an important industry, linens from ireland being in great demand because of their beauty. . linen has ever been regarded as the textile of luxury, for its rather high price, due to its methods of production, prevents it from being used as commonly as many of the other fabrics. it is used less frequently, also, because textile manufacturers have so perfected cotton materials, producing almost indescribable colors and weaves, that, whenever it is possible, cotton, which is much cheaper and does not wrinkle so easily, is substituted for linen. however, because of its sterling properties, there are some uses for which no substitute can be found for linen. this textile is practically free from lint, absorbs water very rapidly, gives up its moisture just as quickly, is easily cleansed, has exceptionally good endurance, can be had in the finest of fabrics, has threads that are smooth, strong, and lustrous, and is pure and hygienic for constant service. in addition, because of the length of its fiber, linen does not possess the fuzzy surface that characterizes cotton and that even- tually results in a gray and dingy look through the constant accumulation of dust. - linens . the cost of linen is well justified for household and surgical purposes, as well as for wearing apparel, handkerchiefs, neckwear, and fancy work. because of its long history, its reliability, its purity, its expense in production, its exclusive use for many needs, linen should receive a respect which can hardly be accorded to any other fabric. and every effort ought to be exerted to prolong the life of a piece of linen to the fullest extent. table- cloths, napkins, and other household linens should be laundered with the greatest care, as well as mended to make them last as long as possible. housewives of today may well emulate the women of olden times, who spent more time caring for the treasures they had acquired and less time in procuring new things than we do. production and manufacture . cultivation of plant.—linen is made from the fiber contained in the stalk of flax, an annual plant that may be produced in nearly all climates. practically all european countries cultivate flax for the fiber, while india and the united states cultivate it for the seed and its products. when full grown, the flax plant, which has an erect, slight, and willowy stem, ranges from to inches high, and has small flowers that vary in color in the diflerent varieties from pale yellow to bright blue. in the cultivation of flax, successive plantings are not made in the same ground, for it requires well-cultivated and well-nourished soil, an interval of from to years being allowed between flax plantings in belgium. it is planted early in the spring, and as soon as it is a few inches high the women and children begin to weed the plants. in late july the harvesting begins, the flax being in the best state for fiber when the leaves and the stem of the lower part of the plant turn yellow and the seed pods begin to open. instead of being cut, the flax plants are pulled up by the roots a handful at a time so as to save all of the precious, long fiber possible. l . removing leaves and seeds.—the manufacture of flax into linen consumes much time and, for the finer grades of linen, requires much hand work. after the flax is harvested, it is allowed to dry and the seeds are then removed from the stalks. then the stalks are rippled, that is, they are separated from the leaves and any seeds that may still be attached by being drawn through a large iron comb. i-d l- linens . retting.—the next process through which the flax is put is called retting, the purpose of which is to separate the fiber from the bark and the woody core. it is accomplished by cold water, steam, dew, or in a chemical way, but the most satisfactory method for color and strength is by cold water. this is sometimes done in the neighboring streams, as in the river lys in belgium, this being one of the best known flax-raising districts in the world. . when the cold-water method is employed, the flax is put in open crates of wood, which are covered on the four sides with jute burlap, often from , to , pounds being put into one crate. the crates are covered with fresh straw, are floated in position in the stream, and then are weighted down with stones and sod until they are entirely covered with water. they are left in the water until the flax is sufficiently fermented, usually or days, the crate then rising above the water and bubbles appearing on the surface. sometimes, for very fine fiber, the flax is removed from the water after days, dried for a part of a day, and then put back for further action. . a different method is that practiced in ireland, the flax being placed in stagnant pools of water. but the color of the linen is not so good when this kind of retting is done. - in russia, the fiber is left on the field to be retted by the dew. retting is also done with the use of chemicals, but as these are apt to harm the fiber, this method is used less often than the natural ones. . breaking and seutching.—after being retted, the bundles are allowed to dry for a short time and are then turned inside out so that the air will reach all parts of the flax. as the fiber dries, it bleaches and becomes pretty well separated from the bark and woody pitch. it must be put through still more processes, known as breaking and scutching, or beating, before it is thoroughly cleaned of the particles of straw and dirt that cling to it. the linen hackle performs the service for linen that the card does for cotton in its manufacture; that is, it lays the fibers in order and removes all the short lengths of fiber that are known as tow, which is rescutched, spun like cotton, and used for coarse cloths. some- times the scutching is done by hand and sometimes by machine, but hand-scutching is considered less wearing on the linen. linens . hackling and drawing.—for very fine yarns, the fiber is sorted and cut into three divisions. the middle cut is the best and is known as cut line. before being spun, the fiber is combed many times and then put through a series of hackling machines to clean it more thoroughly and to separate the line from the tow. at the end of this treat- ment, the line is smooth, fine, and glossy. after being sorted and cut, it is again put into a machine and combed through fine wires, until it is made into a continuous ribbon or sliver. this process, which is called drawing, is repeated in other machines according to the fineness of the thread desired. . spinning.—the spinning of the flax, which is the next ‘ process, is done by the wet, dry, or semidry method, depending on the purpose for which it is to be used. the tow is treated differently from the line, it being spun much like cotton. dry- spun flax is more silky and has a greater firmness than that produced by wet spinning, but it is not so fine. the thread produced by wet spinning is twisted tighter and the flax is more subdivided, but these points are an advantage for certain classes of thread. care must be used in wet spinning, however, to have the yarn dried quickly in order to avoid the forming of mold. . sizing, bleaching, weaving.—with the spinning of the thread completed, it is usually sized to give it strength, and then it is often bleached wholly or partly before it is woven. the weaving, as can well be understood, depends on the purpose for which the linen is to be used. sheetings, lawn, and cambrics are done in plain weaves, while towelings usually show twills. damasks are generally woven on the jacquard loom, and these cloths can be used on either side. . finishing processes.—the finishing of linen cloth does not vary greatly for the different weaves. after being woven, the web of cloth is bleached. chemical bleaching, dew bleaching, and grass bleaching are in use. in ireland, where grass bleaching is the method used, the cloths are spread out on large grass plots, wherethey become a snowy white upon being subjected to the rain and sunshine. in addition to being bleached, linen is often washed, blued, starched, and mangled. linens . dressing is needed to some extent in even the best linens to bring out their designs. in poor grades, it is used to cover the defects of the linen. different dressings are used to obtain different effects in the finished material. . beetling gives linen its “leathery” feel. after the cloth is dampened, it is placed on a roll and is struck with a series of wooden mallets to give it the flat appearance that is so familiar to every one. the final processes include calendering, pressing, inspecting, folding, marking, and packing. . countries producing linen.—the linens produced in the various countries seem to possess distinctive characteristics. linen from ireland has the distinction of being the purest white of all linens, and while it is not always showy, it possesses the best appearance and wearing qualities. the dazzling whiteness of irish linen has been compared to new snow on which the sun is shining. these qualities are perhaps due to the climate in which the flax is raised, as well as to the method of bleaching, nearly all irish linen being bleached on the grass, where it is subjected to sunshine and rain. belfast, ireland, is noted for its excellent wear- ing irish linen. in scotland is produced linen that is much in favor, too, as it is usually sun- and grass-bleached, this method of bleaching being less injurious to the fibers thanbleaching methods in which chemicals are employed. scotch linens, as a rule, are much heavier and more showy in pattern than irish linens. the linen made in france is noted for its beautiful patterns, and especially is this true of french table linens. the french, as a rule, spin their linen thread round and fine with the result that they are able to produce some unique weaves and designs. many linen dress fabrics are produced in france, too. belgium grows the finest flax of any country in the world, and the belgians weave many beautiful linens as a result of having splendid material with which to work; also, they manufacture the finest linen threads used in lace making. it is said that the belgians use more dressings in their linens than do the irish. the linen produced in germany and austria is silver white in color and very fine in texture and is produced in beautiful designs. germany produces great quantities of unbleached table linen, also, which many prudent housewives buy and then bleach. the bleach- linens ing is done by placing the muslin, every time it is washed, on the grass, where it is allowed to dry and at the same time is acted on by dew and sunshine. the united states imports practically all its linen, and this fact accounts to a great extent for the seemingly- high price of pure linen in america. in this country, the raising of flax has not reached a point to be profitable, except for the seeds and the making of linen thread and coarse linen toweling. america is recognized everywhere as the chief cotton-producing country, but europe claims all honors in regard to linen fabrics. experiments in flax production, however, indicate that flax can be raised in the northwestern part of the united states. new york state, also, has produced flax from which linen has been woven. purchasing linens tests for linen . it is often a very difficult matter to distinguish between linens and fine cotton fabrics, especially when the cottons are slightly starched and ironed with a gloss. consequently, much care should be exercised in the purchase of linens. many authorities contend that only with a microscope or by means of certain chemi- cal tests is it possible to distinguish linen from fine cotton. of course, such tests are impossible to make when shopping; neverthe- less, until the government passes laws that insist on pure, unadul- terated cloth, certain precautions must be taken in buying linens. and there are a few tests that can readily be applied and that should be familiar to every housewife. . because of the absorbing quality of linen, some kinds may be tested by pressing a dampened, or moistened, finger on the wrong side of the material. if the moisture is taken up quickly and shows through considerably, this is a fairly good indication that the material is linen. if the material is cotton, the frayed warp and weft threads will take up the moisture before it can penetrate the material. it takes an excellent cotton fabric to withstand a test of this kind. linens . another test for linen that may be quickly made consists in pulling out a thread and jerking it in two. if the thread breaks easily and the ends appear fluffy or fuzzy, similar to cotton twine when it is broken, the material is cotton. if, though, the thread breaks hard and the ends show an uneven, drawn-out break caused by the flax threads, which form the strand of warp or weft, not being broken off abruptly, it is almost certain that the fabric is good linen. pressing the material firmly between the thumb and fore- finger will help to determine whether it is all linen or contains some cotton, for if it fuzzes up, it gives evidence of cotton. . a drop of glycerine on unsized linen makes it appear transparent, but does not have this effect on cotton. this is, there- fore, a very good, as well as a very simple, test. . a test that may easily be made and that will aid in deciding definitely whether a given fabric is cotton or linen consists in plac- ing a sample in a strong solution of washing soda. both cotton and linen will shrink in this solution, but cotton will become a light gray, whereas linen will turn a faint yellow. another test is to drop the sample into a boiling solution of caustic potash, which may be purchased in any drug store, and let it remain there a few minutes. if it is linen, it will turn dark yellow, while if it is cotton it will remain nearly white or turn a light yellow. . the tests given for finding the amount of dressing in cotton can be followed to very good advantage when testing linen cloth, namely, holding the material up to the light or rubbing it in the hands. if the linen is colored, the tests given under cotton for exposing the material to the light and washing it may also be employed. . table of linens . table ii gives the name, the usual width, and the usual price per yard of all linens in general use. in connection with each kind of linen are also mentioned its nature and the purpose for which it is commonly used. as is true of similar tables of materials, this information will be of valuable assistance to all women in the selection of linens for garments and other purposes. linens table h linen materials name art linen.. butcher's cambric. . . canvas . . . . crash... . i crash towelingi damask... diaper. . . . dress linen glass toweling handker- chief linen holland. . . huckaback round- plain plain satin figure plain plain plain plain figure usual width inches price per yard $ and $ . to $ , , c. to $ . , ¢. to $ c. up to $ . to $ to c. up , , , c. to $ , and c. to c. and $ to $ to $ to $ , , , c. to $ c. to $ description to c. to $ smooth fabric with fiat thread, for stenciling and embroidery. a coarse, durable weave of long- fiber linen. used for butchers’ aprons, fancy work, dresses, and suits. also made in cotton. sheer, crisp fabric. used for lin- gerie dresses and handkerchiefs. a coarse, firm material. used as a body in tailored coats and some- times in upholstery. a coarse weave with even weft threads. used for towels and fancy work. firm, glossy linen generally made in brocaded figures. used for towels and table linen. see diaper, table i. a plain, firmly woven material in either white or colors. used for blouses, dresses, and towels. a soft, fine, loosely woven material, usually having blue or red stripes or checks. used for towels. a sheer, fine, fabric; launders well. generally made of irish linen. used for handkerchiefs, neck- wear, blouses, and dresses. coarse, firm weave. used for win- dow shades and in photography. absorbs water; weft threads promi- nent; warp threads often of cotton. used for towels and fancy work. fine, sheer fabric made of short linen fibers. used for handker- chiefs and baby clothes. thread sheeting. . . plain plain plain , , , $ to $ , to $ to $ soft-finished material, made with round, hard-twisted yarn. suit- able for drawn work, hand hem- stitching, and hardanger work. used for pillow cases, sheets, towels, wash dresses, and suits. linens shrinking and setting colors in wash fabrics . cotton materials, particularly ginghams, chambrays, and percales, as well as linen fabrics, almost always shrink and often lose their colors when washed for the first time. therefore, it is generally advisable to shrink them and set their colors before making them up into garments. if you attempt to keep correct proportions in cutting and fitting and at the same time make allowance for shrinking, you are likely to encounter difficulties, because it is hardly possible to estimate the exact amount of shrinkage. however, some materials, particularly soft, sheer fabrics, lose much of their “new- ness” in washing; so, instead of following the definite rule that all cotton materials must be shi- i k and have their colors set before washing, you will do well to exercise your own judgment about the matter. also, the style that is to be followed in making a garment should influence your decision in regard to shrinkage, for this will not prove so noticeable in some designs as in others. . for material that requires only shrinking, water alone is used, but for material that is to be shrunk and at the same time have its color set, a mordant, or color-setting substance, is required. because of the different chemicals that are used in dyeing each color, it is impossible to form specific rules to follow in setting any color. therefore, before you use any solution, try out its effect on a sample of the material, letting it dry after the solution is used and then washing it to determine whether or not the color runs. you may find it necessary to experiment with several solutions, especially if the salt solution here suggested does not prove effective. . using salt to set co ors.—common salt is a very prac- tical color-setting substance, because, in addition to being generally effective, it is comparatively cheap and on hand in every household. for materials containing more than one color, you will find that a salt solution is especially desirable, as other mordants are usually effective for only a limited variety of colors, while salt may be used for almost any. the effect of a salt solution as a mordant, however, is not always lasting and in some cases it is advisable to use a different solution. you can generally tell what to do by observing the quality of the material and the nature of the color, for, as a rule, in the more expen- linens sive cotton fabrics having soft or rather subdued colors, a salt solution is all that is needed to set the color. if you prefer not to shrink the material before using it and find, in washing a sample of it, that the color is practically fast, you may postpone the use of the salt solution until the garment is ready for laundering and then leave it in the solution for a short time before ‘washing it. . to make a salt solution for setting colors, follow the pro- portion of cupful of salt to gallon of cold water. after preparing enough of the solution to cover all the material that is to be treated, place the material, folded as it comes from the store, in the solu- tion, but lift each of the folds so as to make sure that every part of the material is thoroughly soaked. let it remain in the solution for hours. then rinse it well in clear, cold water, taking care not to unfold it, and carefully press the water out with the hands. you may run it through a wringer if you fold it lengthwise a sufficient number of times to permit it to be laid out flat in the wringer and thus prevent the crowding of the material and the wrinkling that would naturally result, but do not, under any circumstances, wring it out by twisting. after the water is pressed out, unfold the material and hang it up to dry in a shady place, being very careful not to pull the straight edges out of shape. never hang a colored fabric in the direct rays of the sun, because such sunlight will take the life out of the color and often cause the material to become streaked. after the material is dry, press it on the wrong side. it will then be ready for use. material that requires simply shrinking should be handled in the manner just described, except, of course, that plain water should be used. it is not necessary to leave the material in the water any longer than complete saturation requires. . additional color-setting solutions.—following are recipes for other solutions that prove very effective for some colors. .use these in the same way in which you would a salt solution. a sugar-of-lead solution is generally recommended for delicate colors, especiallyl lavender, but it also proves effective for many darker colors. to make this color-setting solution, follow the proportion of ounce of sugar of lead to gallon of boiling-hot water. try to dissolve every particle of the sugar of lead, but should any insoluble substance remain, strain the solution in order linens to prevent the formation of streaks in the material, which may be impossible to remove. wait until the solution is cold before placing the material in it; also, let the material remain there for or hours before rinsing it. sugar of lead is poisonous if taken internally, so extreme care must be exercised in handling it. an alum solution is usually effective for green. to make it, fol- low the porportion of tablespoonful of alum to gallon of water. a vinegar solution in some cases proves very effective for pink, and in other cases it is much better for blue. in making such a solution, follow the proportion of % cupful of vinegar to gallon of water. chapter iv wool wool production . rigin.—wool is the soft, hairy covering of sheep and certain allied animals, clipped from the animal and manufactured into fabrics of various kinds. whether it was first produced by the egyptians or the greeks is a question of doubt, but it is sufficient to know that the sheep has been a domesticated animal from prehistoric times, for its bones have been found with those of human beings in ancient tombs. all down through the ages, to the time when cotton manufacture became an important industry, wool was the leading staple of commerce, figuring con- spicuously in the prosperity of many nations. now, it follows cotton in importance among textiles, but its production and manufacture are still leading industries in various parts of the world. . wool supply.—the wool fiber varies greatly as to length and nature, some of it being short, soft, dull, and crimpy, and other varieties being long, silky, and lustrous. the merinos, which include the spanish, the saxony electoral, and the french, or rambouillet, are prominent among the short-fibered sheep, while the leicester, lincoln, cotswold, romney marshes, and devons are among the long-fibered producers. besides sheep, the llama, the alpaca, the angora goat, the cash- mere goat, and the camel are all sources of wool fiber, some of them producing inferior grades and others, as the cashmere goat of the himalaya mountain regions, yielding the most expensive wool grown. . australia, south america, and the united states have long been the leaders in wool production. australia is noted for the -wool in a bundle and put into a large sack, which, after being packed full, is fastened securely and shipped to the market. . s rting.—when the fleeces arrive at the mill, they are very dirty and greasy, and often contain burrs, straw, and even anthrax germs. the wool must first be sorted into its different grades by a worker known as a wool sorter. this is a very dis- agreeable task, but it is an extremely important one, for on it depends much of the beauty of the finished yarn. in separating the fleece, which is a hand process, the sorter places it in piles or bins according to its quality. from these, it goes to the cleaning machines, each process forming a part _of a train of machines which prepare the wool for spinning. . dusting.—very often wool contains so many impurities that it must be relieved of some of them before it can be washed. in some mills, it is put through the duster, which opens the fleece by means of coarse teeth, or spikes, and then removes much of the dirt by means of a fan. . scouring.—when the fleece is taken from the sheep, it contains a greasy substance, known as yolk, which is caused by the animal secretions and the perspiration of the skin. the removal of the yolk is accomplished by the scouring process, which consists in putting the wool through various baths of warm water and certain chemicals, such as potash, ammonium carbonate, and soda, each mill having its own formula for the desired results. much care must be used in scouring or the fiber may be harmed. from the last bath, it comes out thoroughly rinsed and then, unless it is to be dyed wet, it is dried, first in a cylindrical container by means of a whirling motion, which drives out excess moisture, and then by being carried over hot pipes or by mean of hot air. - . carbonizing.—when wool contains a great many burrs, it must be put through a process that removes these before it can be carded and spun. carbonizing, which consists of treating the wool to a solution of sulphuric acid that is not strong enough to injure the fiber and yet will singe the vegetable matter, is con- sidered the best method of removing the burrs. the wool is then rinsed in a solution of soda and water and finally baked until the vegetable matter is destroyed. to remove the dried vegetable material, the wool is dusted. wool . b end ng.—with the wool relieved of its impurities, it is usually blended to produce a combination of colors or of varieties of fiber. this is a process that requires considerable experience, for the blender must understand the mixing of colors in order to produce the desired effects. . ing.—by this time, the wool has lost practically all of its natural oil and it must be reoiled in order to pass through the remaining processes easily. the oiling may be done by hand or the wool may be sprayed_with machinery as it passes from one machine to another. various oils are used for this purpose, chief among which are olive oil and tallow oil. manufacture of woolens . after the oiling of the wool fiber, the processes for the manufacture of woolens and worsteds begin to differ. when wool fiber is intended for woolens, such as underwear, flannel, broadcloth, and similar materials, the processes through which it passes are fewer in number and of a simpler nature than when it is to be made into worsteds. this is due to the fact that, for woolens, the fibers need only be cleaned and mixed, whereas for worsteds they must also be combed sufficiently to make them lie entirely parallel. . picking.—the fibers are usually in a rather entangled condition after scouring and drying, so they must be put through a machine that opens them and then mixes them in preparation for the next process. this is known as picking. . carding.—the process of carding, which usually involves the use of three machines, is the most important one in the manu- facture of woolens. the first machine is sometimes provided with an arrangement whereby the fiber is mixed, and it always contains some means of combing the wool into a fine, even feed, or sliver, so that it passes easily into the next machine. in the second card, the wool is often transformed into a wide sliver and then laid diag- onally into the feed, which deposits it so that one layer is half over the other and still alongside of it. in the third machine, the wool is fed from the side of the sliver so that it becomes well mixed and is prevented from lying in the parallel rows that the teeth wool of the card naturally produce. from the last card, the fiber is put through rub rolls and then wound on bobbins in a slightly twisted form ready for spinning, or it is sent to the drawing frames where it is further prepared to be spun. . sp nning.—the mule frame is generally employed for the spinning of woolen yarn because its intermittent motion makes it especially adapted to the twisting of soft, short yarns. in the spinning frame, the yarn is wound on bobbins ready to be woven. . weaving.—if the yarn is to- be dyed before weaving, it is first wound into skeins and then dyed. either undyed or dyed, it is woven into materials of various kinds, including broadcloths, flannels, chinchillas, blankets, as well as numerous sorts of knitted and crocheted goods. the chief characteristic of woolen weaves is that they are soft and practically concealed. . finishing processes.—after woolen cloth is woven, it must be put through certain finishing processes before it is ready for the market. fulling shrinks it and makes it appear more closely woven. napping, which is done by a machine having wire- cloth rollers, raises the nap of the material. then, it is often sheared if a smooth, glossy material, such as broadcloth, is desired. pressing and calendering follow, after which the material is bolted and ready for the market. - manufacture of worsteds . the chief diflerence between woolens and worsteds is that in the making of worsted yarn the fibers must be combed to make them lie parallel before they are twisted into thread. this involves much more work and the ya.rn must be put through many more processes than for woolens, so worsteds are usually more expensive fabrics. they are characterized by a firm, even, close-twisted yarn and by weaves that are usually distinguishable, as in the case of serges. . carding.—the process of carding, while it forms a part of the manufacture of all worsteds, is not so important as in woolens. for very long yarn, the fibers are put through only one carding process for the purpose of straightening the fibers in preparation for the comb. if a short yarn is to be used, it must be carded oftener. wool . g ing.—the purpose of the gilling machines is to prepare the fibers for the combs. often, a number of slivers are united and then they must be straightened and laid parallel so that they can be fed properly into the combing machine. . combing.—the combing of the fiber is the most important step in worsted manufacture. the comb separates the fiber into the long, straight wool, which is called tops, and the short, curly wool called noils. the tops, which are the ones used for worsteds, are sent to another machine that lays the long fibers as nearly parallel as possible. the noils are removed and then either com- bined with pure wool for certain materials in the mill itself or sold to other manufacturers. when the wool leaves the combing and gilling machines, it is in the form of a good-sized sliver wound into a ball that can be easily unwound. . drawing and doub ing.—the yarn must be consider- ably reduced in size to make it suitable for spinning, so it is put through the drawing and doubling machines. these processes are repeated as many times as necessary to make the sliver the right size. in some yarns, a slight twist is given to the wool at this time, but in many the twisting is not done until just before the spinning. the wool is next wound on bobbins. . sp nning.—in the spinning of worsted yarns, two methods are followed: the english and the french. the english system oils the wool before combing and consequently produces a smooth, lustrous, tightly twisted yarn. the french method uses very little oil and so is often called dry spinning. it uses a much shorter fiber than the english system and produces a soft, dull, loosely twisted yarn. . finishing processes.—from the spinning frames, the yarn comes on bobbins and is ready for dyeing, weaving, and sizing. if it is to be dyed before spinning, it is run off into skeins or hanks and then wound again after the dyeing. sizing, which strengthens the yarn and which is done in the case of most single yarns, may be done either before or after weaving. as worsteds depend for their beauty on their weave, the weaving of them, as well as the finishing processes of napping, shearing, boiling, steaming, and pressing, differs somewhat from that of woolens and at the same time requires much care and skill. wool purchasing wool materials tests for wool . all wool fabrics should be carefully examined to see whether they are absolutely clean and free from signs of shop wear, such as faded lines on the outside folds, spots, dust streaks, or pulled thread. such goods may often be bought at a lowered price and, if time is not at a premium, may be cleaned, sponged, and pressed so that they appear satisfactory. the color of wool fabrics, also, should receive attention. note whether they are dyed evenly and whether the color is such that it will withstand the sponging and pressing required in both the making and the renovating of the garment. it is always well to examine material by daylight or “day ight lamps” in considering its color. . fiber test.—sometimes wool materials are adulterated by cheaper materials, such as shoddy, cotton, and the waste from silk and wool machines. if you wish to know whether a material is all wool, ravel a little of it and examine the fibers. you will find that wool fiber is kinky, whereas other fibers are usually straight. then try breaking a thread. the wool fibers pull apart rather than break, whereas cotton fibers, upon breaking, have tufted, fuzzy ends. . physical condition.—much can be told from the “feel” of a material. a pure-wool fabric feels soft to the touch, whereas a wool mixture feels harsh and stiff. it is true, of course, that worsteds are stiffer than woolens, but there is a vast difference between the “feel” of worsteds and that of a wool material contain- ing cotton or other substitute. every effort should be made to trainthe hand to recognize the “feel” of the best wool, for this ability comes chiefly through experience in handling materials. . design and wea~ve.—in the selection of wool materials, the design and weave should be carefully examined. a good plan is to place the cloth between you and the light, for then the design can be seen to advantage and any imperfections it may contain can be easily detected. l d wool . the weave of woolen fabrics affects the wearing quality, the color, the construction, and the success of the finished garment itself. a close, twilled weave make a firm, durable material, while loose, open weaves are apt to loseitheir shape and wear poorly. on the other hand, the close weaves, although they wear better and are less likely to catch on rough surfaces or sharp projections, become shiny rather quickly. looseness of weave can be detected by pulling the material back and forth. if, when pulled apart, the threads separate easily and show daylight through them, you may consider the weave too loose to wear well. weakness in the material may be due to imperfections in weaving or to too great a difference between the strength of the warp and the weft threads. exposing the material to the light or pressing it firmly with the thumb and the fingers will help to detect such weaknesses. crushing the material in the hands and rubbing it together will show, with a fair degree of accuracy, how the fabric will wear, for roughness of the surface will be brought out just as in wearing. materials having cords or ribs running one way are weaker than those in which the cords or ribs run in both directions, for if cords are to be brought out prominently one of the threads must be combined with threads that are finer and more loosely woven. . test for shoddy.—until recent years, shoddy was looked down on because it was thought to be only waste thrown off in wool spinning. this, however, is a mistaken idea, for shoddy is in reality the shredded wool of old cloth reduced to short fibers for the purpose of being used again. a small amount of shoddy mixed with new wool is not a serious detriment, provided the shoddy is good, for some very splendid materials contain shoddy. the best shoddy is made from clippings of new cloth, such as those received from tailoring establishments, but discarded wool of other kinds is cleaned by manufacturing processes and then worked up again into actually serviceable materials. the necessity for testing wool materials for shoddy is not that they should be avoided, but that their price be commensurate with the shoddy used. the distinguishing feature of shoddy is that it has very short fibers, so short that they cannot be combed. this is one of the ways by which it can be detected. sometimes, shoddy is felted on the back of poor broadcloth to make it appear thick and wool heavy. whether or not this has been done can be determined by brushing the back of the material. if a dust is raised, the use of shoddy is a certainty. an excessive amount of shoddy in material makes it less elastic than pure wool. so, examining a fabric to determine its elasticity is another test for shoddy. table of wools . table iii is given to help in the selection, purchase, and use of wool fabrics. as in the case of similar tables, the weave, the width, the usual price, and a brief description are given for each material mentioned. in reusing materials, especially wool fabrics, many women find uses not mentioned here, for this table, like the others, considers the appropriate uses of only new fabrics. these however, need not serve when economy must be taken into consid- eration. table iii wools i name l weave umiilczvelsdth pefgiffrd description albatross.. twill to c., soft, loosely woven, crepe-like $ to $ . material, sometimes made- in fancy weaves. closely related to nun's veiling. used for shirred and draped dresses. - alpaca. . . . plain to ¢. to $ strong, elastic fabric_ with the gloss of silk, and having fine cotton and wool-like hair filling. used for men's summer suits, and for skirts and coat linings. armure. . .. figure to $ to $ similar to alpaca and used for the same purposes. woven in bird's-eye and diamond effect, sometimes in two colors. astrakhan. pile to $ . to $ a woolen or silk material in imita- tion of real astrakhan. used for coats for men, women, and chil- dren; for caps, muffs, and scarfs. barathea. . plain to $ to $ fine, soft, close weave in pebble or broken- rib effect. generally made with silk or cotton warp and worsted filling. excellent for dresses and light-weight suits. wool usual width inches price per yard description bedford cord . . . . bengaline. . bolivia cloth . . . . bouclé . . . . brilliantine broadcloth brocade . . . camel's hair . . . . . cashmere. . cord plain pile twill plain twill figure plain twill to $ to $ light-weight, all-wool material with even warp and weft in plain colors; sometimes called tamise; in very light-weight, called chiffon batiste. used for afternoon and evening dresses. to $ . to $ material with lengthwise cords, that is, raised surface with plain stripes between; in cotton and wool. used for tailored skirts and suits. $ to $ firm, light-weight goods having silk warp and heavy woolen fill- ing forming ribbed effect heavier than poplin. also made in cotton and silk. $ . to $ a soft, all-wool material woven like velvet. used for coats. $ to $ medium-weight fabrichavingrough but soft surface produced by nub, or loop-yarn, filling. used for coats. $ to $ wiry, silk-wool fabric, similar to alpaca, but of higher luster; made from angora-goat hair. used the same as alpaca. this is the fine weave of mohair. $ . to - smooth, soft-finished, closely woven $ . fabric with a nap. generally popular for dresses, suits, and coats. and $ to $ soft material woven with raised patterns. used for dresses and wraps. sometimessilk and wool. to $ . to $ a fabric with a hairy surface made entirely or partly of camel's hair. in cheaper grades, cow hair is used. used for coats, over- coats, and horse blankets. and $ to $ a soft fabric in beautiful shades and sometimes woven in figures, especially paisley. attractive for women's dresses and for chil- ren and infants’ wear. to to to to h wool usual width price name weave inches per yard description karakul cloth. . .. pile and $ . to $ made in imitation of persian lamb- skin, which has short hair tightly curled to the body. used for coats and for muffs and stoles. kersey.. .. twill to $ to $ a stout, heavy cloth with a close nap. does not fray nor stretch easily. used for suits, capes, and overcoats. lansdowne twill to $ . to $ a very fine, wiry material made - with silk warp and worsted fill- ing. used mostly for dresses. matelassé.. figure to $ to $ material having raised designs similar to quilting. used for suits, coats, and trimmings. also comes in silk. melton.... plain $ to $ thick, heavy, short-nap material, finished without pressing or gloss- ing. usually in dark colors. does not clean well. used for outing suits and overcoats. merino. . .. twill and $ to $ . thin, light-weight fabrics. used for dresses and shawls. mistral. . . . plain $ . up twisted, warp and weft threads woven with nub yarn to give a crepe effect. used for dresses. mohair.... plain to c. to $ a glossy, wiry material of which brilliantine and sicilienne are varieties. generally made with a cotton warp owing to the fact that the hair filling slips in the weaving. used for suits, skirts, novelty linings, and braid. suitings.. varied to $ to $ originallyof plain,homespun weave with rough, irregular filling of different colors. the name is frequently applied to all weaves, especially to checks or brocaded nun's veil- effects. used for skirts and suits. ing.. .. . . plain and $ to $ soft, light-weight fabric. some- to times called wool batiste; coarser weaves called nun’; cloth. very satisfactory for shirred dresses as it drapes well. wool usual width price name weave inches per yard description ottoman, wool. . . . plain to $ to $ a firm fabric in ribbed effect. used for coats and suits. panama... plainand and $ to $ a light-weight, smooth-finished, basket to wiry fabric made of hard- twisted yarn. used for skirts and light-weight suits. poiret twill twill to $ . to $ a firm, twilled, worsted having an appearance much like french serge except that its twill is more pronounced, as in gabardine. used for dresses, suits, and coats. polo cloth. plain $ to $ double-faced, soft, and loosely woven, woolen cloth; it has an evenly cut nap. used for coats. poplin. . . . plain to $ . to $ medium-weight material having fine, crosswise ribs. used for skirts and suits. prunella... twill and to $ . to $ a soft, fine, closely woven fabric. satin used for dresses, light suits, and clergymen's robes. satiri- weave prunella used for shoe tops. ratiné.. .. plain $ . to $ a loosely woven fabric, the weft threads of which are looped to give a rough, uneven weave. used for dresses and suits. rep . . . . . . plain to c.to $ . firm material woven with a cross- wise, corded effect. used for skirts and suits, for men and boys’ clothes, and for draperies. serge. . . . . twill to c. to $ soft, durable material that tailors well. popular for suits, coats, serge, and dresses. also made in silk. cheviot. twill to c.to$ . fabric having a pronounced di- agonal weave. used for skirts serge, and suits. french.. twill to $ . to very fine, soft weave; easily tai- $ . lored; wears splendidly, but in wearing produces a shine more readily than other serges. used serge, for dresses, skirts, and suits. storm... twill to c.to$ . hard, fine weave with nap. it is usually a coarser material than french serge. wool usual width price d - ti inches per yard escnp mn sicilienne.. plain to c. to $ coarse weave of mohair. see mohair. silvertone . plain $ . to $ a velour-like fabric having a limited quantity of real or artificial white silk mixed with the stock and producing a shimmering effect. soleil. . . . . twill to $ to $ a smooth, highly finished fabric in ribbed effect. used for dresses and light-weight suits. tartan. . .. twill and to c. to $ soft cloth similar to serge but basket woven of different colors to pro- duce checks and plaids. some- times in plain colors. also made in basket weave in plaid designs. used for dresses. tricotine. . twill to $ . to $ a soft, firm material showing a very narrow, inconspicuous, diag- onal twill that gives a knitted effect. tussah. .. . plain to $ . to a light-weight, lustrous cloth used $ . for dresses. tweed. .. . plain to $ to $ rough, unfinished, open texture, in homespun effect. usually several shades are mixed, and the pattern is not defined. very serviceable for suits and coats. velour . . . . plain to $ . to $ soft, closely woven, smooth fabric. used for suits, coats, and capes. velour has a close-shorn nap. venetian. . twill and $ . to $ fine, smooth fabric used for skirts satin and coats. whipcord.. twill to $ . to material in raised, corded effect $ . and sernidiagonal weave. cord varies in width from extremely narrow to § inch. used for skirts wool and suits. taffeta. . . plain to $ . to fabric having a closely woven, $ . smooth weave. similar to pana- ma but of a much finer quality. used for dresses, skirts, and suits. _ zibeline.. . plain to $ to $ material filled with glossy hair, which gives a §- to }-inch nap. used for suits and overcoats. . _..p...--~ --..¢-m ~ --¢e¢ e- e--n--n¢.¢mn._ .¢n-- -¢e..-¢..._¢_¢¢ .\ .io.¢.. m._. ¢n¢~ .- n_.... ¢....n...p--n¢¢¢-c.¢n--nn-¢¢ --...-----¢m -¢m-.-..--... ..-u _-. .----¢.. ----~¢ -- nn¢p.nm¢n¢.-."m.- - --- .. -¢. . ---¢---n --n¢ -¢n ¢--¢n¢ ¢¢-n¢-¢q ¢.n¢f¢¢n..l ¢--¢n ..n ¢wn- ’- -- n -.-n;-¢ nn .¢ .,¢e-¢¢p.n..¢-m -p; \|'¢"n- ¢ - -- n-¢" n -m¢-¢_“--n nli¢-n - ¢¢ ¢n lnn¢¢ ¢..- . .n . ..m - . - .¢nm¢n--n.;.¢- n.,.n"¢¢ - ... na¢annn ;n¢p¢-. - .nnn¢n- -n¢-¢_¢¢"n ¢"""'"¢fln-¢ ‘¢-- .¢¢'¢-...-.¢mnm.._m ¢ ¢me-¢e-¢._-.n-¢¢-n¢..._ ¢--o¢¢--¢-m -_¢.§¢¢ -"¢¢...n ¢u- .... --p.¢;¢....- mp.. . --¢..n.--..-~n-¢--n-~..---¢n-¢n-nn ..mn-n---n .. ml 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' ' ,,_,',,,,.- . -»~- -pug-oo¢~ow~na¢.v---: :-uvqsaaocvu-q‘ uqpev- ......-w. ,,~,~,-pup’, ,.. .,,,- ....,_-, , .-.-» - ¢n.- -w. -..---_n¢.p. i- - .--° h r ~.-a¢-u-¢ua-- ii.-i. .% .qlu¢fll-$ . ‘ ew.i.-'.s-»‘....-w-'-..‘'-as fi...pp.-.-_'. ¢\v-&%v\".\- fl%--y-\! - -m.w..'-'-'w.‘'-~..._.-.. .w....‘.'-.'-i- ;'-' _am@.'-§ .’-.r._‘‘.ji'ur. :’ -ex..-asa'-:mnvavr. .,.'-.-...--o.-.w .,.,::.....,.‘ 'w- ia?- \- .\»q---\ ---\fi’vv.- -vj a-¢ ¢\k\-¢-fl¢¢ - *ov\- ._v- a-..".¢-i-- - --‘--.-#- -\ -- _ _ .‘' _\--''-- ¢-$ ,)-'?§_ \ ' .-j- '-o~o.v-' ¢ . :~p -. ’ . - .' - - _ - . ‘._¢~-§._-_-- - - .- . l;_ -’? . - . _ - . _ ' - _ . - - _- - - - - -.%v\’- -j-- -_.’ - -- - - * _ i . ._ ._ j ¢_ .'|-.» -- ‘ _._.:-._ ¢ . _. --- :---;.. ._'_ - - . w’¢.. wide vvale ------ ‘ ;au.»lua£ni-».».’-m |»m-e - - l :- .\‘ . ~~'-_.‘ '_. ..a~‘ ti --. m-xi->.=.r ¢ ¢ ¢ - _- .¢ ¢ soleil wool examples of wools . in presenting new materials each season, manufacturers often make use of certain features that have been popular in the past. they effect changes in materials by using softer or firmer yarns, by introducing nub, or knotted, yarn in weaving, by chang- ing the width of the ribs or cords, and by varying a pebbled surface slightly. such differences produce new fabrics that carry trade names. the most popular of these remain in demand long enough to become commonly known and eventually are adopted as standard fabrics. as it requires some time for such materials to become standard and as novelty fabrics appear each year, which are bound to be \i whipcord fro. short-lived because of their impracticability, it is sometimes neces- sary to group materials, as in figs. and , under names that represent effects, rather than to give the actual names of the materials. such names may appear in various grades of fabrics and often cover cotton, silk, and wool materials, but they are a help in classifying materials and aid the shopper greatly in explain- ing to salespeople the kind of fabric desired. i . among woolen materials, there are certain standard fabrics having characteristics that distinguish them from all other goods. wool the names of such materials are sometimes used in classifying new fabrics. examples of the best known of these are shown in figs. and . a careful study of these illustrations not only will help to acquaint you with the appearance of these fabrics, but will enable you to classify new materials that have similar features. double-faced chinchilla fro. . the term double-faced fabric covers a variety of materials, many of them being produced in different effects. in fig. appears double-faced chinchilla, which shows the characteristics of all such goods. chapter v silk silk culture . rigin.—because of its interesting history and the place it holds in the industrial world today, silk is a textile of the first rank and deserves unlimited attention. just how it became known is a matter about which there is doubt, but tradition has it that the wife of one of the emperors of china discovered the possibilities of the silkworm in b. c. in addition to her discovery, she devised a method of reeling the silk and weaving it into cloth. for this work she was deified by the chinese people and is still wor- shipped, after all these years, as “the goddess of silkworms." at the annual festival held in her honor, the feeding of the worms is an important feature of the ceremony. . spread of culture.—for hundreds of years, the source of supply of silk and the method of manufacturing it were kept secret in china. the material, however, was sold to the persians, who, in turn, carried it to southern europe and sold it to the greeks and afterwards to the romans. the people who bought the silk believed it was made from fleeces growing on trees or from flowers, in accordance with the slender facts concerning cotton and flax. during the reign of the roman emperor, iustinian, he commanded two nestorian monks to go into china and return with the secret. although in china it was a crime, punishable by death, to sell silkworm eggs or allow them to go out of the country, these two monks, while apparently engaged in their pious occupations, studied the whole industry and secreted several thousand eggs in their hollow staffs. these, together with a thorough knowledge of silk the industry, they carried back to rome, where, during ]ustinian's reign, the silk culture became a royal monopoly. later, it spread into greece, sicily, spain, france, and, in fact, over all of southern europe, where it still continues to be a thriving industry. attempts have been made to raise silkworrns in america, but these have not been successful enough to indicate that their produc- tion will ever become a profitable industry. silk manufacture from raw silk imported in large quantities from europe and asia is america's part in this great work. . life history of si kworm.—silk is a substance formed by certain worms in great quantity at a particular time in their life history and secreted beneath the mouth from two long sacs along the inside of the body. the silkworm, which belongs to the family bombycidaz, or spinners, exists in four states—egg, larva, chrysalis, and adult, or moth. the egg is very tiny, scarcely % inch in length, and when first laid is yellow. the hatching, which takes place when the mulberry trees begin to leaf, requires about days, the worm that emerges being black and no longer than its shell, and having sixteen legs. at first, the worms merely pierce the leaves of the mulberry and suck the sap, but very soon they become large enough to eat the leaves themselves. the worm holds thefleaf with its three pairs of forward legs and cuts from the edge a piece to be eaten. thisgcutting causes only very slight noise in the case of a single worm, but sounds like the falling of rain when a large number of worms are feeding at the same time. . the skin molts four times because the worm grows so rapidly that the skin cannot keep pace with it. in the molting process, the worm stops eating, grows a little lighter in color, and fastens itself firmly to some object by its last five pairs of legs. then it holds up its head and the front of its body for about two days. the skin breaks at the nose, permitting the head to emerge and the worm, by moving its body, to work off the old skin. after the last molt, the worm is about % inches long, a wonder- ful growth considering the size of the worm when hatched; then it begins to spin its cocoon in a quiet corner, the glossy filament emerging from two orifices and thus making a double thread that hardens upon being exposed to air. the worm moves its head in the shape of a figure in one part of the cocoon; then it moves to another section and spins in the same manner. within a day's . silk the threads from four to eight cocoons are gathered together and as the reeling proceeds, are easily made into one thread, for the natural gum of the silk makes them stick together. if the reeling is done by hand or by foot power, the silk is called re-reel silk, but if power machinery is used, the silk is known as fllature silk. there is much waste in this process, for neither the first nor the last threads can be used. . doubling and twisting.—after being reeled, the silk is skeined and sorted according to color, and then pressed into oblong packages called books. it is then wrapped and shipped to a manufacturing plant, where it must be sorted according to fineness. the skeins are soaked for or hours in warm soapsuds to remove as much of the natural gum as possible; then they are dried, the thread is wound on bobbins, and these are sent to the doubling machine.’ in the doubling process, which is known as silk throwing, threads from a number of bobbins are wound on one bobbin in order to make the thread stronger. . it is sent to the spinner next, where the threads that were brought together by the doubling process are twisted into one. the way in which the threads are twisted depends on the purpose for which the silk is to be used. single filaments of reeled silk that have not been twisted are called singles. if the silk receives only a slight twist in spinning, it is known as tram, but if it is tightly twisted, it is called organzine. tram is used principally for filling, while organzine is used for warp. . spun silk.—in addition to reeled silk, which the long filament makes, the waste product is gathered and used for spun silk. for this, the short fibers taken from the outside of the cocoons, silk from imperfect cocoons or those from which the moth has escaped, and various other sorts of waste silk from reeling are col- lected, boiled to remove the gum, and then cut, combed, and spun in a way similar to cotton. though of an inferior grade, spun silk has many uses, such as for knitted fabrics, for fancy effects in cotton and wool materials, and for embroidery and knitting silks. . dyeing.—after being reeled or spun, the yarn must have all of the gum removed in preparation for dyeing. the greater part of the gum, of course, is removed in the first cleaning, but every particle of it must be extracted in order that the fiber may be silk dyed smoothly and evenly. after the boiling-off of the gum, a lustrous, creamy-white fiber remains. degurmning takes away a great deal of the weight of the silk so that a certain percentage of weight must be added if it is desired to replace its original weight and thickness. in most piece-dyed silks, the materials are dyed and finished after the boiling process without being weighted. however, many silks are weighted by means of salts of tin, iron, and lead, particularly if they are dyed in the yarn. in the case of blacks, a large additional weight is often added. after the silk fiber is dyed, it is wound on bobbins preparatory to warping and weaving. . weaving and finishing processes.—the weaving of silk does not differ greatly from that of the other fibers. the jacquard loom is used extensively for the fancy brocades. finally, the silk is put through the finishing processes, which consist of dressing, mangling, and calendering. pure silk does not require dressing, it being finished by pressing alone. the silk and cotton materials and the poorer grades of silk are the ones that require both dressing and pressing. . printing.—the printing of silks is an important part of the manufacture of this material. this is done either directly on the warp threads after the fabric has been woven, engraved copper rollers or blocks being used as in the case of cottons, or in the piece, when it may be done direct or by the discharge or the resist process. stencils are used to a great extent by the people of asia in their printing. purchasing silk tests for silk . to know the nature of silk is a valuable aid in silk selection. the quality of silk fabrics may be determined by pulling out threads from the warp and the weft and applying a lighted match to them. the way in which the sample burns indicates whether it is pure silk, weighted silk, artificial silk, or a cotton and silk mixture. if it is pure silk, the burning fiber will appear to melt, boil, form tiny bubbles along the burned edge, and give off an odor like burning hair or feathers. if the sample holds its original form more or less and simply glows when burned, you may be sure that the silk silk is weighted. artificial silk burns with a quick flash and leaves no glob- ular ash. if it is cotton, the fiber will flash up, then smolder and all but refuse to go out, giving off an odor like burning leaves. even though the silk may bubble and burn completely, great care should be used before purchasing it, for while some light-weight china silks are pure silk, they are so very thin and the weave is so fine that they do not wear well. . another test for silk is to crush it in the hand and rub a fingernail diagonally across it. if it crushes and wrinkles when squeezed in the hand or if the threads loosen or spread when the fingernail is drawn across it, it is not a good fabric to buy, for it will not give satisfactory wear. . still another test for silk is.to hold the goods up to the light to see whether or not it contains pinholes, which are generally caused by the action of metal salts used in the weighting of silk fabrics. because of the weighting process, the quality of fiber, and not the weight, should be of the first importance in the selection of silk. if a garment that will give good wear is desired and a fairly good quality of silk cannot be purchased, a much wiser plan is to purchase a different kind of material. very cheap silks are decidedly unsatis- factory in every way, and they are rarely worth making up. . a good test for velvet is to press the finger firmly on the nap. if it is all silk, the fibers will brush up and the finger prints will vanish; if it is cotton, the finger prints will show to some extent, no matter how much brushing is done. table of silks . the most beautiful and most regal of all dress fabrics is silk, a fabric that, in its purest form, is more durable than linen, as warm as wool, and usually exquisitely lovely. to assist in the purchase of silk materials and to afford a wider acquaintance with their kinds and uses, table iv is given. here, the names of the materials are arranged in alphabetical order, and with each one are given the weave, the width, the usual price, and a brief description. constant reference to this table will help to acquaint you with the various kinds of silks and their characteristics and enable you to appreciate their value and beauty. silk usual width inches table iv silks price per yard description bengaline. . brocade . . . canton crepe. . . . charmeuse chiffon. . . . fancy plain twill plain to and and a heavy, soft fabric with a semi- lustrous, pebbled surface. plain and colored. used for hats and dresses. a fabric having heavier effect than poplin. cotton is used in the filling. used for coats, suits, and trimmings. $ . to $ a fabric showing raised patterns of flowers; often enriched with gold and silver. used as trimming and for elaborate evening gowns and wraps. $ . to $ a highly fiinished material made with fine silk or cotton warp and heavier filling forming light cross-ribs. heavier than crepe _de chine. used for dresses and wraps. $ to $ a soft, dull, satiny fabric. used for dresses, especially draped dresses. a very soft, flimsy, transparent material. used for trimmings, overdrapes, and waists and as a foundation under lace dresses. $ . to $ . $ . chiffon t-affeta.. . china silk. crape..... plain plain plain and to , , $ to $ a light-weight taffeta of good quality, with a soft, lustrous finish. used for fancy work, party frocks, street dresses, and suits. - c. to $ a thin, transparent fabric with a luster. used for linings, under- wear, and sometimes for dresses. $ . up a thin, semitransparent fabric, finely crinkled, and having either irregular or long, parallel ridges. black in this material gives a very somber appearance and hence is used extensively for mourning purposes. silk usual width price name weave inches per yard description ciré. . . . . . satin to $ to $ smooth, high-luster fabric with lacquer-like finish. used for crepe de hats and dress trimming. chine.. . plain $ . to light-weight or medium-heavy, . washable, all-silk fabric with a lustrous, finely crinkled effect. used for waists, dresses, linings, crepe and underwear. meteor. . twill $ . to $ a lustrous silk crépe with a fine- duchess twilled face. used for dresses. satin.... satin and $ . to $ a close, firm but soft fabric of high luster. used for dresses and evening wraps. faille . . . . . plain and $ . to $ a fabric having a light, crosswise grain or cord and a slight gloss. used for suits, dresses, blouses, hats, and children's coats. foulard. . . twill and $ . to $ a soft, serviceable silk, plain and figured, for dresses and blouses. fur cloth.. pile to $ . to $ deep-pile fabric made to resemble various kinds of fur. tussah silk, silk fiber, and mohair are generally used in making it. used for coats and trimming. gauze. . . .. leno and c. to $ fine, transparent goods, flimsy but very strong. used as backings to lend support and for over- draping and veils. sometimes georgette called gossamer. crepe.... plain to $ . to $ sheer material similar to chiffon, but woven of a harder and more durable thread and having a crepe-like surface. used for - dresses, blouses, negligées. gloria..... twill to c. to $ a fine, closely woven fabric hav- ing a soft luster. the filling may be cotton or wool. used for umbrellas and men's shirts. gold cloth. plain and $ . to a shiny material made of metal $ . warp and silk weft. used for trimmings. gold tissue. plain $ . to similar to gold cloth but soft and $ . transparent. used for overdrap- ing and trimming. ~ silk usual width price name weave ipnches per yard description gros de londres. plain and $ to $ highly finished, pliable fabric hav- ing fine, fiat ribs running cross- wise. used for dresses and hats. grosgrain.. plain to $ up a stout, durable, corded silk; cords run from selvage to selvage; comes in colors. used for coats and trimmings. habutaye.. plain c.to$ . a fine, washable japanese silk; smooth and even in texture. used for summer dresses, waists, skirts, and automobile coats. japan silk. plain c.t $ . o this name covers a variety of japanese or jap silks, but is commonly applied to cheaper qualities of habutaye. heavier and coarser weave than china silk. used for blouses, summer dresses, and kimonos. khaiki. . . . plain - c. to $ fine, light-weight jap silk. used liberty for dresses and scarfs. satin . .. . satin and $ to $ a very soft, closely woven material. used for linings and trimmings. louisine... plain and $ to $ . a plain, durable silk; soft glossy basket texture. used for dresses, coat linings, and trimmings. madras . . . plain and to $ to $ a durable wash silk, usually striped. figure used for tailored blouses and men's negligée shirts. maline.. . . lace c. a soft,thin,perishable, gauzy fabric, similar to net in weave. used for neckwear, trimmings, and as drapery for evening gowns. sometimes called tulle. marquisette leno $ . to $ an open-mesh fabric, appearing much like voile. used for over- drapes and evening gowns. messaline.. satin $ . to a closely woven satin; soft and $ . brilliant. used for dresses;also, for petticoats and linings. moiré... .. plain to $ . to a watered effect produced on a $ . corded or ribbed fabric. used for coats, dresses, suits, and trimmings. silk usual width price name weave inches per yard description mousseline de soie._ plain ()¢_to$ _ () a transparent material. when slightly stiffened, it is sometimes called pineapple cloth. used for yoke and collar foundations; similar to gauze. mull . . . . .. plain to oc_tq $ very soft, sheer material. used for foundations of dresses and blouses, and for inexpensive party dresses. heavy quality sold under the trade name of seco silk. . qttomam _ plain to $ to $ thick, corded, lustrous silk. used for wraps and as a trimming peau de rather than for dresses. cygne. . . plain $ to $ a fabric of soft, lustrous finish in pebbled effect. used for dresses, suits, and coats. peau de soie plain $ . to $ a soft, durable fabric with dull, satiny finish, showing fine cross- ribs on one or both sides. used for tailored dresses and for trim- persian or ming. paisley. . satin and , , $ to $ a silk of many colors and designs. plain used chiefly for dress ornament. plush. . . . . pile $ . to $ a rich fabric with a pile face and a coarse, woven back. plush pile is longer than that of velvet. pompadour used for coats, capes, neck or dres- pieces, and muffs. den. . .. . plain $ to $ a flowered silk, usually taffeta; sometimes in rich colorings. used for party dresses, linings, and fancy work. pongee. .. . plain , $ to $ a plain, washable, light-weight fabric, having a slightly rough surface. usually made of the natural raw silk. used for sum- mer suits, dresses, and blouses. poplin..... plain and $ to $ a rich warp fabric having well- pronounced crosswise cords due to heavy weft. comes in many varieties. satisfactory for suits, dresses, and children's coats. silk name satin...-... satin, skinner’s satin, wash . . . shantung. . silver cloth - silvertissue weave usual width price per yard description inches satin satin satin plain plain plain ‘twill and $ . to $ firm, basic weave with a glossy, smooth luster on the face and a dull back. comes in many va- rieties. used for dresses, coats, linings. $ . to $ heavy, durable satin with luster. used chiefly for linings and dresses. soft, white or light-colored satin used for collars and lingerie. it has the advantage of giving a good appearance after washing. a heavy grade of pongee silk. a rough, plain, washable fabric of natural color. used for dresses and blouses. a shiny material made of metal warp and silk weft. used for trimmings. the cheaper grades are imitations of the metal cloths, and the more expensive ones are made of metal but are transparent. soft, pliable fabric without dress- ing. used for dresses and hats. safin surah is a high-luster silk. and $ to $ $ . to $ , $ . to $ . , $ . to $ . $ . to $ surah.. . .. taffeta. . . . tulle . . . . . . velvet . . . . velvet, chiffon. . plain lace pile pile a fine, smooth, glossy fabric with considerable body; alike on both sides. may be plain, figured, striped, or plaid. most popular silk for general purposes. fine, fluffy, machine-made net. used for rnillinery and for drapery on dresses and party frocks. , , $ . to $ has a short, soft, thick pile face and a plain back. may be all silk, or all cotton, or have a silk face. used for dresses, suits, coats, and trimmings; extensively used for rnillinery purposes. to $ . to $ the lightest, softest velvet known. used for elaborate dresses, suits, evening gowns, hats, and wraps. and $ to $ $ ~ silk name velvet, croise. . . velvet, lyons . . . velvet, mirror. . velvet, n acrc- . . . velvet, panne . . vestings. . . voile . . . . . . weave pile pile pile pile pile figure plain usual width inches price per yard description , , $ . to $ has coarser back than lyons vel- to , , , to $ to $ $ . to $ $ to $ $ . to $ . $ to $ $ . to $ vet; so woven as to hold the pile firmly, making it suitable in all cases where a durable velvet is desired. it is used extensively for trimmings. has a short nap that is not secure in its back, or foundation. used for draperies and bows, for which it seems especially adapted. a shimmery velvet, made of long, soft pile pressed in dilferent directions. used as trimming and for n illinery purposes. a velvet with a back of one color and a pile of another, which gives a beautiful, changeable shading. used for evening gowns and wraps, and as trimming, espe- cially for millinery. velvet having a soft pile pressed downward in one direction. used for gowns, wraps, and hats. heavy, fancy materials usually in highly colored, persian effects. used for vests and trimmings, and for men's ties. open-mesh, semitransparent silk or silk-and-wool goods. used for overdrap_es, evening dresses, and fancy blouses. chapter vi laces history of lace . from its very beginning, lace has been regarded as woman's treasure, and its production, as the fine art in which she has most excelled. both old age and youth alike are conscious of its charm and beauty, realizing innately the power of this network of threads to enhance their appearance and provide a softening touch. and never has the value of the raw material entering into a product been so much increased by skill and industry and with so slight an expenditure of tools as is true of hand-made laces. just consider, a little fiaxen thread, a needle, a design drawn on a piece of parch- ment, plus the skill and infinite patience of a woman, and the result is a product almost beyond price—“a thing of beauty and a joy forever.” lace made by machine can never aspire to the distinction won by most of the hand-made varieties, but it is very often so dainty and so good an imitation that it not only demands our attention but arouses our respect and admiration. . while very few of us will ever have the privilege of possessing many, or perhaps any, pieces of good hand-made lace, we need not be deprived of knowing its characteristics, for there are excellent collections of these laces in the museums of art throughout the country, which are open to all for study and enjoyment. by examining these collections, or even by making a careful study of clear, distinct photographs of them, we may come to know the difference between a well and a badly designed piece of lace, whether hand- or machine-made. it is all too true that the machine can not entirely give us the beauty _and variety of texture we find in a needle-point or a bobbin- made ground or toile; still, we can learn to select the best pattern laces available and also to distinguish the qualities in lace that give it enduring worth and make it a continual pleasure as long as it lasts. . whether made by hand or by machinery, lace is an open- work fabric or network of linen, silk, cotton, or similar threads made with a needle or bobbins or by machinery and usually ornamented or figured. most women know these facts regarding laces, but not every woman is familiar with the names of the laces, their wearing qualities, and the appropriateness of their design and weave to certain garments. it is the purpose of this chapter, therefore, to give a brief history of the evolution of lace, to illustrate its various kinds, and to give an explanation of their distinguishing features and uses, so as to enable the woman unfamiliar with laces to gain a knowledge of them, and thus be in a position to select laces in an intelligent manner and to keep them in the best possible condition as long as they are useful. _ by having a correct idea of the different weaves, their wearing qualities, and the purpose for which different laces are used, a woman will be able to recognize nearly any kind of lace when she sees it; and, aside from knowing what to select for her own use and how to help others, she will understand better the descriptions of gowns in fashion publications, which frequently contain excellent suggestions for the artistic use of laces of all widths and qualities. . origin of laee.—as the term is now understood, lace was first made and worn in the th century. the place of its origin has been much disputed, several different countries, notably italy, france, spain, flanders, and even the far east, claiming the distinc- tion. the frailness of the specimens that remain makes it somewhat difiicult to trace the history of this beautiful fabric, but these, together with pictorial art and sculpture, have practically settled the question that to italy belongs the honor, for it is definitely known that needle-point lace was made and worn there before . investigations indicate that bobbin, as well as needle-point lace, was made in belgium by barbara uttman at about the same time. lace derived its origin from netting, and not, as is often thought, from embroidery. . growth of lace making.—at first, the lace-making industry was confined to the religious orders, it being made by both monks and nuns. gradually, however, the nuns taught the art to laces their pupils and in this way it spread among the other classes of people. numerous countries, france, spain, belgium, germany, and england, gradually took up the making of lace, each one producing certain varieties and becoming proficient in the making of them. wherever lace has been produced, the industry has thrived at times and declined at others, the severity of the laws passed concerning it being largely responsible for this change. therefore, while one would expect a story of continuous prosperity in so beautiful a craft as lace making, its development has been continually arrested and hampered. consequently, while we like to think of lace as a simple, graceful, womanish fabric, it has often been influential in affecting the finances of a whole nation. . for many years, lace was made chiefly out of silk and linen thread, but in cotton thread was first substituted for flax. this produced a less artistic lace, but it afforded increased facility for the makers, as they found the cotton thread cheaper, more elastic, easier to handle, and less liable to break. . during the th century came also the invention of machinery for the making of net having a fast mesh, that is, one that would not unravel, for in john heathcoat invented a machine that produced bobbinet. at first, only -inch strips, which had to be joined together, were made, but gradually machinery was perfected that would produce -, -, -, and -inch widths. with the introduction of machine net, all the traditions of lace making were upset, and by lace makers produced all kinds of simple motifs which they applied to net, thus demolishing the old methods of lace making and practically ending the history of old laces. . another notable event in the history of machine-made lace was the application of the jacquard attachment to the lace machine. this device had been used for the weaving of silk, cotton, and linen goods from the time of its perfection in , but it was not until that it was successfully applied to lace making. from this time on, machines were able to duplicate practically every pattern of hand-made lace, so laces steadily grew in production and decreased in price. . lace making at present.—after the first novelty of the machine-made lace had worn off, a slight reaction in favor of old lace set in both in england and on the continent. in france, laces laces were cleaned, cut, and adapted to modern fashion. thus, within the last half century, the taste for good lace has again become almost general in both england and france. the reason for such a reaction is not strange after all. while almost every descrip- tion of lace is now made by machinery and produced so perfectly that it is often difiicult for the practiced eye to detect the differ- ence, still we can never overlook the fact that the finest and most artistic machine-made laces can never possess the intricacy of pattern nor the beauty of design that characterize laces made by hand. . in america, however, the hand-made lace industry has not progressed so well as in foreign countries, although in this country rapid strides have been made in the manufacture of lace by machinery. the reason for this should be clear. the intricacies of hand-made lace designs require long, tedious hours of labor, and as such work in europe is done mostly by peasants, who work for very low wages, the cost of production is not so great there as it would be in america, where a higher standard of wages is the rule. in this day of commercial rush and competition, the time expended in making a bit of hand-made lace is hard to realize; yet, to see a piece of real hand-made flemish lace without associating patience and labor with it would display lack of conception, for some of the designs made by the belgians are marvelous so far as beauty and workmanship are concerned. methods of making lace . to understand thoroughly the varieties of lace and their uses, it will be necessary for one to become familiar with the principal ways in which it is made. as has already been explained, lace refers to ornamented open work of threads of flax, cotton, silk, gold, or silver, and occasionally hair or aloe fiber. these threads are looped, plaited, or twisted together in several ways, the method used determining the name to be applied to the lace as follows: . hand-made lace, or lace made by hand with the needle and with bobbins. this includes: . needle-point lace, or lace in which the threads are worked by hand with a needle. laces . bobbin lace, or lace made with bobbins. this is made on a pillow, often being inaccurately described as pillow lace. . machine-made lace, or lace made by machinery. imi- tations of both needle-point and bobbin lace patterns are produced in machine-made lace. machine-made lace is of two varieties, which are: . woven lace, in which two sets of threads are used—warp and weft. . embroidery lace, in which a pattern is embroidered on a ground, which is often burnt out afterward. . needle-point lace.—in the true sense of the word, needle-point lace is made with the needle alone, although there are a number of laces to which the term “point" is applied that are com- binations of both point and bobbin lace. it originated as an evolution of cut work and developed into net lace. in the making of needle-point lace, the design is drawn on parch- ment, which is kept straight by being stitched to heavy linen. threads are then laid along the lines of the pattern and sewed down - through the linen and parchment. by means of fine stitching done with a needle and a single thread, the entire design, both the solid filling and the open work, is worked on the threads already laid, the button-hole stitch being generally employed. . bobbin lace.—the method of bobbin-lace making is an exceptionally interesting study and one of the most important in the field of hand-made lace. the lace is made on a pillow ‘or cushion by twisting and plaiting threads wound on bobbins. it is soinetimes called pillow lace, but this is not a distinctive title for it since needle-point and knotted laces are also supported on a pillow. the chief characteristic of bobbin lace, in addition to its being made with bobbins, is that the threads in it are plaited. in fact, it is the plaiting and twisting of the threads that help to characterize bobbin lace. at first, instead of pillow, bobbins, and pins, the hands were used, each finger serving as a peg. occasionally, the hands of several assistants were required to furnish sufficient pegs for a broad border. . as with needle-point lace, the pattern is first drawn upon a piece of paper or parchment, which is then pricked with holes. the pricked pattern is placed on the cushion, which is sometimes laces. a circular pad backed with a flat board in orderithat it may be placed upon a table and easily moved as the worker may wish, and other times a well-stuffed short bolster, flat at both ends. on the upper part of the pattern are fastened the ends of the threads unwound from the bobbins, which thus hang across the pillow. these bobbins are thrown and twisted with regular precision in order to form the fabric of the ground and pattern. the wider such hand-made lace and the more intricate the pattern, the more bobbins are required to do the work; and as this work means the expenditure of much time and the exercise of skill, the price of such laces increases with the width and the intricacy of the design, the wider laces being more expensive in proportion to their width than the narrow ones. . many bobbin laces are finished with bead edging, which consists of tiny buttonhole loops of thread edging the lace. this needle-point edge is, in effect, applied to many kinds of machine- and hand-made laces. it adds much to the attractiveness of a lace design, as it tends to impart the daintiness so much sought in laces. bobbin lace finished in this manner is frequently referred to as needle-point lace. bobbin-made lace has a fine, soft quality - that distinguishes it from needle-point lace, which has a much harder and crisper appearance. . woven lace.—as early as , efforts were made to invent machinery that would produce lace and thus take the place of the hand workers. william lee, a weaver in nottingham, england, struggled to produce a machine for this purpose, but his efforts met with opposition from the authorities because they con- sidered machinery to be a detriment to the interests of the working classes. however, continued efforts by other inventors finally resulted in the production of the heathcoat machine in , which made successful net. john leavers, of nottingham, england, greatly improved this machine, and although it has had improve- ments since his day, it is still called by his name. the application of the jacquard attachment has made it possible to duplicate the patterns of hand-made laces. . as the leavers machine makes a woven lace, it requires two sets of threads, warp and weft threads. the warp threads are held in reels, while the weft threads are wound on flat bobbins laces and run at right angles to the warp threads. the bobbins are made flat to allow them to pass between the warp threads and the two sets are twisted together by means of both a mechanism that controls the tension of either set of threads at will and an oscillating mechanism. as the tension on each set of threads can be made tight or loose, the slack threads on one are permitted to twist about the other as the pattern requires. nottingham, england, and calais, caudry, and lyons, france, produce large quantities of woven laces. . embroidery lace.—the other variety of machine-made lace, which includes plauen and st. gall laces, is made on an embroidery machine called the schiffli machine. the industry first started by the making of oriental laces. eventually, it was discovered that by using a ground of one material and an embroidery thread of another, the lace could be treated to an acid bath that would destroy the ground without affecting the pattern. the schiffli machine works on the same principle as the sewing machine, having two threads, one carried underneath on a bobbin and the other on top in a needle. the early machines were operated by hand, several needles being controlled by a pantog-raph, an instrument for reproducing the design, but later it was found possible to use a jacquard attachment to reproduce the pattern and greatly increase the number of needles on the machine. plauen in saxony and st. gall in switzerland are the centers for the manu- facture of this kind of lace. varieties of lace lace tnnms . in the subject of lace, as in most subjects, it will be found that there are many terms that are purely technical; that is, terms that pertain exclusively to this particular subject. these must be understood if a thorough understanding of laces would be had. to make them clear and at the same time enable you to take up the following examples of laces in the most intelligent manner, an explanation of the terms most frequently met with is here given, arranged in alphabetical order for easy reference. l d - laces a jours.—the filling or ornamental work introduced into enclosed spaces. applique.—either needlework or bobbin lace in which the pattern is made separately and sewed onto a net ground. bead edge.—another name for beading, which is the simple heading on pillow lace. bobbins.—small elongated reels, either wooden or bone, on which thread is wound for the purpose of lace-making. often they are weighted with such articles as beads, coins, seeds, etc. brides, brides claires, and bars.—small strips used to connect the parts of a design and employed instead of a groundwork of net. they consist either of threads overcast with buttonhole stitches or of twisted or plaited threads. brides rnees.—brides ornamented with picots, loops, or pearls. cartisane.—a strip of parchment used to give a raised effect to the patterns in lace. it is covered with silk or gold or other metal thread. as it is not durable, the less it is used the more the lace is esteemed. continuous inner pearl.—a stitch used in honiton and other braid laces to ornament the inner side of any leaf that is not filled with stitches. cordonnet.—the thread used to outline the designs in lace. sometimes, it consists of a single thread, other times, of several threads worked together, and again, of a thread or horsehair over- cast with buttonhole-stitches. couronnes.—the cordonnet is sometimes ornamented with stitches known as couronnes. the english form of this term is crowns. dentelé.—a french term meaning a scalloped border. engrélure.—the edge of a lace by which it is sewed on the material it is to decorate. same as heading or footing. entoi age.—the french term for a plain mesh ground. entre deux.—the french term for insertion, whether of embroidery or lace. fil ings.—these are fancy stitches used to fill in enclosed spaces in needle-point and bobbin laces. fond.—the groundwork of needle-point or bobbin lace as distinguished from the pattern. other names for it are champ, entoilage, reseau, and treille. laces gimp.—the pattern of lace which rests on the ground or is held together by brides. it is not the same, however, as the material gimp, which was formerly called guipure. grounds.—two forms of ground are found in laces—the bride and the reseau. the bride ground consists of bars that con- nect the ornaments forming the pattern. the reseau ground is a net made either with the needle or with bobbins. guipure.—formerly, a lace-like trimming of twisted threads. now, it is applied to all laces having a tape-like pattern on them. insertion.—strips of lace or embroidered muslin or cambric on which both edges are alike. jours.—ornamental devices found in various parts of lace. in venetian point lace, jours are introduced in the center of the flowers. mat or math.—t he closely worked portion of a lace; the toile. passement.—the pricked parchment pattern upon which both needle-point and bobbin laces are worked. pearls or purls.—bars or brides. pearl edge or purl edge.—a narrow edge consisting of pro- jecting loops and sewed to lace as a finish. - picot.—tiny loops worked on the edge of a bride or cordonnet or used to beautify a flower, as in the case of rose point. pillow lace.—bone lace, or bobbin lace, made on a pillow by twisting or plaiting the threads with bobbins. point lace.—properly, only lace made with the point of a needle, needle-point lace. however, the term is often misapplied, numer- ous laces, such as point d’angleterre and honiton point being made with bobbins and not with the needle. point de raccroc.—a stitch used to join reseau ground. point plat.—a french term for fiat point lace having no raised cordonnet or outline cord. pr cker.—a short instrument with which holes are pricked in the pattern used for bobbin lace. reseau.—ground of small, regular meshes made both on the pillow and with the needle. samp ers.—small samples showing patterns of lace. they originated in the th century when not every one could buy pattern books because of their scarcity and high price. they were also used to show the skill of the worker. sprig.—a detached piece of lace which is appliquéd to a net foundation or joined with other sprigs by means of bars. s laces h .pv"ui'.\pdq.vi.-v""- """'*~--vnnnnnnpl' .|. '’ - ¢ - “ machine-made alengon fm. ties.—like bars, ties are the connecting threads worked across spaces in needle-point and bob- bin laces. to le.—the substance of the patterns of lace as distinct from the ground. trei le.—another name for the ground or reseau of lace as distinguished from the pattern which they surround. examples of typical laces . following are the names and descriptions of a large num- ber of laces together with illus- trations of many of them. not all the laces in existence are in- cluded here, but practically all of the laces that are used by the woman who sews are dis- cussed. with these illustrations and descriptions firmly fixed in the mind, no woman should be at a loss to recognize any kind of lace when she sees it; rather, she should be able to make proper selections for garments on which lace is to be used, and she should know whether it will give the service she desires of it. . in studying the laces here mentioned, it should be re- membered that the manner in which they derive their names is by no means consistent. many of them are named according to the locality in _which they have been, or are, made, or the nation- laces ality of the people who make them, as antwerp lace, brussels lace, armenian lace, bohemian lace, belgian lace, and so on. the same kind of lace is made in many countries, but the threads of which it is made vary to some extent, owing to the process of manufacture of the thread itself in these different countries. then, again, the implements used in the manufacture and the method of making have much to do with the naming of laces, as bobbin lace, point lace, and so on. . alengon lace, often referred to as point d’alengon, is a needle-point lace having a sheer net ground and a pattern that is outlined with a thread covered with buttonhole-stitches to produce machine-made all-over net machine-made all-over lace fic. a cord effect. this lace, which was the first to use a net ground, has a closer, firmer pattern than any other lace and a very clear, fine ground. when hand-made, it is very expensive, but the machine-made variety, an example of which is shown in fig. , is inexpensive and is used extensively on ready-to-wear garments. . algerian lace is a narrow, flat, ornamental lace of gold and silver threads. it is used in outlining designs on garments and in draperies and fancy work. . all-over lace, fig. , is any lace that has both edges finished the same and a pattern that repeats the entire width and machine-made antique fm. - y ":¢:"‘-o .%‘ -- . .. ¢¢-¢_. -i~ i-i»v‘~_-.';_ -p ._..».---._._ ‘. " :_.»x ~i! u-o-t¢‘-te ¢ou_. ‘ .q§| - v---.i|\ vvvqvo-v-§vvi§§\-v\vi. i-:‘\._v.i t§p' l ' d‘ -v¢viy¢--vr v-vvqv\-r’~v\ -qi._i!-. v-.v- -v.. .-~'- ..._ ..'$-.¢- . ¢¢¢¢- / . .v':q--vi vvvy -- iuv-.-i ¢ --i! - .-ifl. _ \-.’ -’¢‘;-v ¢\¢ -;p\-n‘’--...,- i-)!.. |»-. _.-¢| -§-\ -.¢-q \.-¢..-¢\ v - '»'~i‘--\‘ -obi; i-_ »-'.\----vy>.\--vg-y .- ---\ \-\-.---\-\. v-\iv » -. ._-i¢._¢¢._‘ .')v»-» »|\g!v~§ -‘. ‘-- q-: ---¢i ¢_ ¢‘ -.- -.._._¢ --._'.._.' -x¢- -¢v ‘.i. v|-~ -..- ‘ -\|i\-s------n-. - - ---- (_i ~ -_.”--¢.v _ _.. s.-" - - . . ~ ’- '-- .m-:-.--- ,. . - . .¢.- '‘ -.. ii ~z machine-made appliqué fro. laces length. it comes in beautiful designs in silk, and is made also in very cheap grades. sometimes it contains merely a dot, and again, an elaborate pattern. it is used for dresses, blouses, fiounces, yokes, and sleeves, as well as for millinery. . aloe lace is a coarse kind of lace made from the fibers of the aloe by the peasants of albissola, italy. this lace is not much in demand as it becomes mucilaginous, or gummy, in washing. although it is usually executed in tatting, the threads are sometimes twisted and plaited. such work is also done by the natives in paraguay, south amer- ica. tatting is done in aloe thread at manila, philippine islands. . antique lace, fig. , is a hand-made bobbin lace of heavy linen thread in large, open, square, knotted mesh. it has the appearance of a coarse form of darned work done on an open- mesh weave, and is often referred to as darned lace. antique lace usually has rare patterns, all kinds of designs being worked in the net by darning, machine-made arabian _ _ fm and, as t s hand-made, it is expensive. imitation antique lace is sometimes used for draperies and similar purposes. . antwerp lace, a bobbin lace resembling mechlin, was first made at antwerp in the th century; it is sometimes known as flanders lace, also. it was made in order to supply the increased demand for mechlin lace. in one variety, the design is worked on a ground and in the other the sections of the design are merely attached by means of brides or bars. the chief charac- teristic of this lace is a pot or a vase of flowers, which varies in its size and its details. n l,-;.'-y'_;- -|- _n i _| -! t wr/_| y! iq‘ i - ’ "of _ ‘w ‘ ' .’ -“_s',*_f.'-‘ ¢','_i' ’¢ \ hand-made baby laces machine-made baby laces fic. laces . battenberg lace, fig. , is a form of renaissance lace but of a coarser quality, and consists of a braid, or tape, usually of fine linen thread, woven together with linen thread into all kinds of designs. it is made by machinery and by hand. machine-made batten- berg is very cheap, but _the hand-made is ex- pensive, the price being governed by the delicacy of the pattern. the hand-made pieces are used as collars and cuffs on women and children's coats, and the coarser designs, for draperies and fancy work. . blonde lace was originally a heavy, closely woven bobbin lace produced in spain and made of unbleached silk, from which it took its name. later, the term was applied to silk laces in white, black, and col- ors made at chantilly, france. it has a ground of fine, twisted silk and a toile, or pattern, worked entirely with a broad, flat strand that produces a soft, silky effect. rs; n ~rs~ >*'-" - §?,i-'-:v i ,;_.‘ ‘v-v. ? machine-made bohemian , bgbbjnet, fm- , is the net made by the bobbin as distinguished from that made by the needle. modern bobbinet is a machine imitation of the original hand-made bobbinet. it has hexagonal, or six-sided, holes but no designs and is used for dresses, dress foundations, overdrapes, and draperies. the price of laces bobbinet depends on the firmness of the mesh, the coarser weaves being less expensive than the finer ones. a kind of bobbinet, called tosca net and shown in fig. , is more open than ordinary bob- binet, but it is very firmly woven, and consequently very durable. . bohemian lace, fig. , is a bobbin lace that is made in bohemia and may be recognized by the tape-like effect in the pat- tern. as a rule, this lace is too coarse in weave and design to be suitable as dress trimming. it is hand-made bruges machine-made brussels fi . fio- both hand- andqmachine-made, the machine-made variety being very effective for it often imitates the designs of the old bohemian laces. . bruges lace, fig. ,"consists off fine lace tape woven together with fine thread. the real lace is made in much the laces same way as duchesse lace, but it is, as a rule, somewhat coarser. the fine weaves of this lace are suitable as dress trimmings, and the coarser, cheaper grades are used for table-cover finishes and draperies. . brussels point lace, fig. , is a lace of exquisite fineness in which the designs are made seiparately and then assembled and ap- plied to a net ground. formerly, the ground was worked with bob- bins around the flowers, but later the flowers were sewed to a machine net. at one time, brus- sels lace was smuggled into -england and called point d’angleterre to avoid the duty. the earliest brussels point resembled alengon lace in that the designs were outlined with a cord, but this outlining thread was not covered withibutton- hole-stitches nor was the lace so close and firm. in the lace trade, brus- sels point is a name given to very fine laces, regardless of the pat- tern. it is called rose point when its pattern contains rose motifs, and point gaze when its designs are of a very fine, open, delicate kind. ‘ machine-made applique- carrickmacross fro. . carriokmacross lace is of two kinds—appliqué and guipure. a ppliqué c arrickmacross, fig. , is made by placing sheer laces material over plain net and applying designs to the net with the buttonhole-stitch or the chain-stitch, and then cutting away the surplus material so as to leave the outline of the design clear. guipure carrickmacross, fig. , which is a heavy lace, closely resembles cut work. it is made by working the outline of the design over a foundation and then connecting the motifs or designs with crocheted brides, or loops, or loops ornamented with petals or picots, as in irish crochet lace. the centers of the flowers, in hand- made carrickmacross, are cut away and the openings filled with lace stitches and the detached parts of the pattern connected with bars. hand-made carrickmacross, which is rather expensive, machine-made guipure carrickmacross fro. is used for whole dresses and as trimming for dresses, and the machine-made is used for inexpensive curtains. . chantilly lace, fig. , was named from the town of - chantilly, france, but it is now made in the towns of bayeaux, grammont, and calvados. it is bobbin lace characterized by fineness of ground, light, open-work flowers, and thick, silky threads outlining the patterns. black chantilly, which is said to have no rival in the lace realm and has a fine ground and elegant floral patterns, appeared in the th century made out of a grenadine, or non-lustrous silk. § q- u -. .' .-.' . " ; ’_ -§ s., -m'i- hand-made chantilly - f . machine-made chantilly _.-a-{. u-- laces the imitations of chantilly follow closely the designs of the original laces, and while they are not equal in quality to the real lace and are generally made of cotton thread, they are extremely effective. _ chantilly lace is used for dress trimmings, flounces, overdrapes, and dresses. it is expensive at the outset, but it is very durable and may be used again and again. . cluny lace, fig. , is a coarse-thread bobbin lace made of a heavy, strong, tightly twisted thread in linen and cotton. it machine-made cluny fic. is named from the museum of antiquities in the hotel cluny, paris, because it is supposed to have an antique look. it is similar to torchon lace, but is distinguished by its geometrical designs, which often take the form of wheels and paddles. the machine-made cluny has reached such a degree of excellence that it is sometimes difficult even for experts to detect the difference between the real and the imitation. however, there are three distinguishing points: ( ) machine-made cluny is made of two l ) -s laces sizes of thread and hand-made, of one; ( ) its threads have a crinkly, irregular look instead of a straight, taut one, as in hand- made; ( ) the thread used is generally cotton, while linen thread is used in the hand-made. fine weaves of cluny lace are used in lingerie blouses and dresses; the coarser weaves, for pillows, centerpieces, and so on. the durability of hand-made cluny makes it inexpensive, even though the original cost may seem exor- “"' € f""'f""'\'\ ,~ . - bitant. wis riiiivlliiai r" , i; \l ii i|"/i ale. - . craquelé net, fig. , consists of a firm thread woven in zigzag effect and producing a mesh that is sometimes used in shadow lace of good quality and resembles the crackle in old pot- cmqmé net tery. it has beautiful designs, f . _ _ - which make t attractive for overdrapes and all-lace dresses. it is more expensive than plain net. . crochet lace is lace which, in the hand-made variety, differs from other hand-made laces in that it is made with a crochet hook and but a single thread. it is similar to needle-point lace, but does not equal it in fineness. in their designs, crochet laces usually imitate needle-point laces, such as venetian and honiton. irish crochet, fig. , is probably the most popular variety of crochet lace. the distinguishing mark of this lace, which is difficult to imitate, is the crochet-stitch or the buttonhole-stitch, which is followed by every thread of the work. as shown in the illustration, thisfilace comes in a heavy variety known as heavy irish crochet, the designs of which have an outlining cordonnet, and a fine, fiat variety, known as baby irish and in which the cordonnet is omitted. this kind of irish lace is closely imitated, as shown in fig. , in both pattern and width. real irish lace is distinguished by its thread, linen thread generally being used, and it has a stiff, starchy feel rather than a soft, puffy one as in the imitation. the best irish lace is made in ireland, but much of this lace, and good qualities, too, comes from armenia, austria, germany, italy, china, and france. irish lace of both kinds is used chiefly as trimming for women and children's dresses. laces ing qualities are good. it has some exquisite patterns and is therefore suitable as trimming for elaborate gowns, especially bridal robes. the motifs of duchesse lace are imi- tated in princess lace, but not much similarity is seen because these motifs are applied to a net ground in princess lace. . egyptian lace is a fine, hand-made, knotted lace that is some- times ornamented with beads. it is expensive and therefore rarely used. when it isused, it is made to serve as trimming. . english point lace, often referred to as point d’angleterre, is an extremely beautiful lace equal in design and mak- ing to many of the point laces of france and italy. the mesh is always made with bobbins, but the pat- tern is usually made in needle-point. raised’ ribs, which are produced by twisting or plaiting the bobbins, are some- times seen on the leaves or other parts of the de- sign. the ground shows _ _ machine-made duchesse much variation, fine fio needle-point fillings often being used and bobbin-made brides, or connecting bars, also being employed. laces a mistaken idea that point d’angleterre originated in belgium existed for some time. this was due to the fact that at one time in england the importation of laces was forbidden. however, much more lace was needed to fill the demand than could be supplied in england, so the english lace merchants bought up the finest brussels laces. and smuggled them into england under the name of english point or point d’angleterre. the original lace, how- ever, is purely an english lace and the chief portion of the finest varieties was made in england. . fiber lace is made from the fibers of the banana and the aloe plant. it is a frail, expensive lace, and is not practical for many purposes. however, both banana-fiber and aloe- fiber lace are used as dress trimming, especially on sheer organdies and chiffons. . filet lace, fig. , is a darned or em- broidered net woven into squares with a contin- uous thread, there being a knot at each corner of the square mesh. it is perhaps one of the most attractive and practical of the lingerie laces, and is excellent for blouses and dresses. real filet machine-made filet _ _ _ --,o_ lace s expensive, but it wears indefinitely. chi- nese filet lace is coarser and consequently cheaper than the other varieties. beautiful imitations of filet lace may be purchased at very reasonable prices. . guipure lace was probably a bobbin or needle-made lace of gold, silver, or silk threads, but now this term is usually applied to all large-patterned laces having coarse grounds, flowers joined by brides or coarse stitches, and no delicate groundings, and ._i "'-) “$ - 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' - :,' machine-made hontion fro. laces includes duchesse, honiton, maltese, and venetian laces. the word guipure is derived from guipe, which means a thick cord around which silk is rolled. this padding, which was known as cartisane, was not durable as it would not wash and shrivelled up with heat, so the pattern was soon destroyed. in time, it was replaced by a cotton thread and gradually the lace came to be made with heavy tape rather than a rolled cord. . honiton lace, fig. , a pillow lace originally made at honiton, england, consists of round, heavy motifs or sprays of hand-made limerick fro. finely woven braid joined with a needle. honiton lace is either applique or guipure. the applique- h oniton is made by applying the motifs to a ground that is usually machine-made net. h onitzm guipure is characterized by large flower patterns joined by needle- made bars. it is similar to duchesse lace, but is heavier in effect. the chief use of honiton lace is as a dress trimming. the machine- made varieties .usually show a tape-like effect. . lille lace is a french lace that resembles mechlin, except that the sides of its mesh are twisted, whereas in mechlin they are braided. its designs are of a simple nature, being usually outlined machine-made macramé f . -_ _. . ._. _ ._ _ n,u- ¢ i '»’-¢---."-. - jitefntsf-. . . - --q-_g-r-r-r-¢ » - ¢ '- --ih -.r.-w - r- r-.r.~:n".r~?¢.~-» v» € iv‘, qx -;r,r; .i-q-.-— -r vj ¢p. -r. ( ? -’? .' q i. .- - . _ ‘ m: _ _ q “ - .~ii- q ; -fern , -zfl_ :’.. q!!! - “.“|-_.“"“,’_¢'”§-¢,-,, \_ ,|;§_¢,¢,(,. -;v.\--.¢.- ¢q .€,f|f.v;?a\.$:i!§.fi,€£fi‘jy l - - wiiviig a~i m'¢ g-.@-ite mfew -r-.,~ ‘-". - .f".@;-i_-.¢’w -£f **i€‘}§. . -. . .i .¢ > ¢ '.'*¢.,'@-,’)-.¢n-,_¢;j‘ _-i;. - ' -. - - -f machine-made maltese f . rpi€ -'ff"f|ff "p-i- -'f_{l"rff - - f--f" ?¢"-l_-_u |f\"“‘é-f-n"‘q..,’_¢" q _( ._& . - laces ‘ by a thread of flat, untwisted flax, and its ground is sometimes sprinkled with dots. . limerick lace, fig. -, is not a real lace but consists of delicate patterns embroidered on net or muslin with either a chain- stitch or a darning- stitch. real limerick lace is beautiful as a dress trimming, but as a rule it is expen- sive; machine-made limerick, on the other hand, is more ordina- ry in appearance and less expensive, but it makes an effective dress trimming. . -- . macrame lace is of spanish origin. it isa surviv- machine-made mechlin hand-made mechlin - fic. al of knotted point lace and is woven usually in geometrical designs down from the selvage,many ends being woven together and then tied to form the pattern. macramé cord, which is made out of close- twisted cotton thread, is manufactured for this purpose. fre- quently, the threads are allowed to hang loose and form a fringe. fine silk macramé is used for scarf and shawl ends and the coarse laces carpet-warp kind is used for finishing the edges of bedspreads, table scarfs, etc. macrame wears indefinitely, and the machine- made kind, which is illustrated in fig. , though rather expensive, is excellent when a heavy lace is desired. . maltese lace is a bobbin lace of more open w e a v e t h a n either mcchlin or valenciennes, but it is not un- like either of these laces. it has no regular _ ground and, as a rule, the patterns include a conven- tionalized mal- tese cross and d t s c a l e d “mosca.’_’ it is made both in thread and in black and white silk. the ma- chine made-vari- ety, fig. , is m d e r a t el y priced, wears well, and is used for dresses and lingerie garments. . mcchlin lace, fig. , is a very fibery, - i i a"’_i" iii-a;g n;=i§ -_’i piqiqu hand-made medici yirgwv.- ",o: _a~op ?; p :vi°'_l-\_ s~~~‘-q . '; p~ -_,c._ -, ‘- --~ = ‘ ’ - "a . ' ifia :.,- . -.. ‘lb. ¢ . ' fin'-":”*:€,\ yfll ,!‘~ - :§-,;"a- -“".*'_"" - machine-made medici fro. beautiful, bobbin lace. the patterns, which are chiefly flowers and buds and resemble those of brussels lace, are outlined with a thread of fiat, silky flax. the net ground has hexagonal meshes in which four of the sides consist of two threads twisted and the other two, four threads machine-made metal lace f . laces plaited. the making of this lace requires great skill, so it is rather costly, but it is closely imitated on the machine and the machine- made variety may be purchased at reasonable prices. mechlin lace makes a very beautiful trimming for non-washable dresses, the nature of the mesh and the fineness of the thread preventing it from washing satisfactorily. . medici lace, fig. , resembles cluny, but it is usually made of finer thread and has one of its edges finished with scallops. it is characterized by closely woven work alternating with an equal amount of open work. it is rather difficult to imitate this lace on the machine, and still there are some machine-made varieties that are very well done. medici lace is used for the same purposes as cluny lace. . metal lace, fig. , which is made both by hand and by machine, is developed out of gold or silver threads. the hand-made variety,which is very rare and conse- quently expensive, is a guipure lace, whereas machine-made metal n°“‘“g*‘a"‘ la“ lace consists of a net fm” foundation in which are woven all kinds of designs with metal threads. it is used as trimming for evening dresses and robes and in millinery work, many beautiful effects being created with it. . nottingham lace, one kind of which is shown in fig. , is a term that includes all of the machine-made laces made at nottingham, england, the center of the machine-made lace district. curtain laces are produced in large quantity, but there are also clever imitations of many hand-made laces, such as valenciennes mechlin, and chantilly. laces made at nottingham are both white and cream and are used largely for curtains, but the finer weaves are employed for dress trimmings. laces . oriental lace, fig. , is in reality an embroidered net from which the ground - lace s not cut away. in the making of this , two threads are used wh ich is heavy, yed to make top, and the is lighter, hold- ign un , one, g emplo ign on which the des or bein the des other, ’ derneath. tal laces come in ings. lace, fig. , lace characterized by der ien i ghly satisfactory rimm . paraguay, or teneriffe, -web effects woven ingle threads, which ing and are h as dress t s a spi of s //- are arranged into spider - . wheels and woven together. the very fine paraguay ‘‘; laces, which are expensive, i i are used as dress trimming; the coarser weaves, which are not so costly, are used ' fancy work. ,e we as fm &.w mw :~. aa en pw v a . d similar articles. plauen is a general ting in plauen, sax- but now made in many most of them tations of many of used as a finish for dress linings an term that includes all laces origina ony, other places. are imi oriental lace f ic. hand-made paraguay machine-made paraguay fi . laces the beautiful real laces, such as point de venice, but new designs are originated from time to time. these laces are produced on the schiffli machine by embroidering with cotton or silk thread on woolen material and then chemically treating the embroidery so as fro. plauen lace frc. to dissolve the wool and leave only the cotton or silk, which then takes on the appearance of lace. because of the method of making, such laces are somewhat frail and cannot be used where a durable lace is required. laces plauen lace is shown in fig. and other examples are found in the illustrations of machine-made reticella, fig. , and machine- made venetian, fig. . . point de gaze lace, fig. , is a very fine, delicate, gauze-like lace that bears a resemblance to alengon. part of the pattern is made in close. and part in open, stitch, the open work hand-made point de gaze fi . being ornamented with dots. it is distinguished from alengon, however, in that its designs are not outlined with buttonholing but are merely emphasized with a thread. . point de paris lace originally resembled brussels and had a distinctive hexagonal mesh and a flat design. now, the term is generally applied to machine-made cotton lace resembling l d - laces val but of simple pattern and inferior quality, as shown in fig. . its figures, consisting of flowers and leaves, are outlined with a heavy cord. . princess lace, fig. , is a delicate, beautiful lace made in imitation of duchesse lace, but often bearing little resemblance machine-made point de paris fm. to it because of its net ground. in the best type, the parts of the lace are made separately and then applied by hand to a machine- made ground. as in the case of duchesse lace, princess lace is used chiefly for dress trimming. . ratiné lace, fig. , is an inexpensive machine-made lace having designs that consist of a groundwork of heavy loops, resem- ._ ' . to a. ...... . ¢ w . » q» as» . . ¢ak- ¢. . mp» . . ._ . '‘. . .- i princess lace fm. laces bling turkish toweling. it is generally used on wash dresses that are made of heavy, rough material. ratiné lace fm. hand-made renaissance f . . renaissance lace, fig. , consists of linen tape woven h into motifs and the parts then fastened together with twisted bars, laces ’ spider wheels, and other flat stitches. it is lighter than batten- berg lace and not so rich in appearance. the fine weaves of renaissance lace are used for dresses, and the coarser weaves for draperies. . reticclla lace, fig. , was the earliest of needle-point laces, being originally a development of drawn and cut work. brides and picots were introduced and simple geometrical outlines followed. later, the foundation fabric or cut work was abandoned and the needlework constituted the entire design. the machine- made reticella resembles the real lace in design, but is in reality a plauen lace produced on the schifffi machine. real reticella lace is very expensive, but good imitations -rand.m;,, e rgficglla machine-made reticclla - fic. may be procured at a reasonable price. reticclla lace is used for collars and sometimes in millinery work; the finer weaves are employed as dress trimming. . shadow lace, fig. , is a thin filmy lace of fine weave, having an entirely flat surface and rather indistinct designs. it may be of any design or character so long as it is shadowy in appear- ance. . shadow lace is extensively used as a dress trimming, its soft, lacy appearance making it desirable for draping purposes. it is not an expensive lace, its price usually being regulated by the fineness of the thread and the design. ma¢hii ¢-made tatting fi . -- ’-- - "-qunl '. ' " machine-made german val f . of torchon are made of linen thread, and the cheaper qualities, which are commonly called beggar's lace or bavarian lace, of cot- ton. the coarser weaves of torchon are much used in fancy work, and the fine weaves are employed in lingerie dresses. torchon lace is inex- pensive when its wear- ing-qualities are taken into consideration. . t u e is a fine, gauzy machine net. it is fluffy and beautiful when fresh, but is so frail that it has a very short life. tulle is used on even- ing dresses, as a hat trimming, and in places where fluffy, airy bows are desired. it is sometimes called maline or illusion. . val lace, fig. , the common term for valenciennes lace, is a bobbin lace in which the ground and the pattern are woven together. its designs are flat, but they are very beauti- laces venetian laces are used chiefly for dress trimmings, but they are also seen on curtains. . wool lace, fig. , is a woven lace of varied designs, in which wool thread is used for either the warp or weft thread or for both. the example shown here is of the filet variety. lace of this kind is used chiefly for dress trimming. j ud ging lace . if one intended to make an exhaustive study of the subject of lace, it would be necessary to know how to determine, so far as hand-made lace is concerned, whether it is needle-point or bobbin, at what period it was produced, where it was made, etc. a study of this kind, however, would require more time than the majority of women can give it. and, too, only a few persons are fortunate enough to possess hand-made lace in any quantity, so it is not to be expected that many women will desire to make such an extensive research. usually, it will be sufficient to know, in regard to lace, whether it is hand-made or machine-made. sometimes it is not an easy task even for the experienced eye to detect this difference, but generally it can be determined by applying the following tests, which embody the chief points of distinction. . hand-made lace is characterized in the following ways: . in needle-point lace, buttonhole-stitches occur in infinite variety. these are never seen in machine laces for no machine has ever been invented that can produce this stitch in even its simplest form. . any padding that is required in hand-made lace is worked with a slanting stitch. . in hand-made lace, it is difficult to unravel the threads. in fact, in some varieties, the unplaiting is a tedious process. . _ the mesh of hand-made net is square, hexagonal, diamond- shaped, or a combination of hexagons and triangles, as in chantilly and similar grounds. -. machine-made lace may be distinguished by the following characteristics : . the threads have a twisted and compressed look. laces . if there are any raised ornaments, the padding is worked over and over straight. . the threads, upon being unravelled, come out easily. . the mesh ground is perfectly round and even. value of hand-made laces . rare, hand-made laces, unlike their clever imitations, have no fixed value on the market. the prices they bring depend on the condition of the piece, the rarity of it, and the amount of bidding that is done for it, most of these laces being sold through auction houses. however, some idea of what has been paid for some good specimens of real lace can be had from the prices obtained for a collection of laces sold a few years ago at christie’s in london. it will be noted_that venetian point laces are the most costly. a fine piece of rose point is almost priceless because it is very fragile and can be obtained in only small quantities. even the smallest piece is eagerly bought up by dealers or collectors. point de venice, -inch length, inches wide $ , . rose point, -yard length, inches deep . . . . . , . point d’alengon, yards, inches deep . . . . . . . , . point d’alen<;on, -inch length, inches deep. . point d’alengon, % yards, inches deep . . . . . . . gros point de venice, % yards, inches wide . . . reticella, yards, % inches wide . . . . . . . . . . . . . reticella, four short lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . old flemish guipure, yards, ll inches wide . . . old genoese, yards, yard deep . . . . . . . . . . . . . point d'argentan, yards, narrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . point d'argentan scarf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . mechlin, yards in odd lengths, narrow . . . . . . point d’angleterre, yards, inches wide . . . . . old brussels scarf in two pieces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . brussels applique, yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . point gaze parasol-cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . honiton flounce, yards long, inches deep . . . honiton lace, yards long, inches deep . . . . . . the authorities at the south kensington museum, london, have given the following prices on some specimens shown there: laces venetian point altar-frontal, feet long, feet - wide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .$ , . venetian chasuble, stole, maniple, and chalice veil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. , . venetian flounce, yards long, % yard wide . . . . . gros point collar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . brussels lappet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . drawn-thread jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . linen cut-work tunic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . uses of lace . laces have ever been particularly cherished by women; for their loveliness, the refinement they suggest, and perhaps their association with romance and history combine in their appeal to feminine fancy. although, in various periods, laces were used to adorn garments for men, modern ideas favor them merely for women's wear, and it does seem that their delicacy fits in very well with the charm and grace usually attributed to women. for women and girls of all ages, few fabrics or trimmings can be employed with greater becomingness than lace. filmy lace of delicately traced design brings out the loveliness of youth and softens the lines of age, while lace of more decided character, if artistically arranged, provides a notable distinction in a costume. . like other fabrics and trimmings, laces are not always in decided vogue, but each season favors some kinds of lace and intro- duces new uses for them. sometimes lace seems to be a dominat- ing note in fashions and it is used not only for trimming but for entire dresses, for wraps, for hats, and for many dress accessories. again, merely touches of lace will be noted, but its value in dress designing keeps it always an important factor in fashions and ever gives the assurance that an exquisite piece of lace is a treasure of practical merit. the revolving wheel of fashion gives preference first to one kind of lace and then to another, but invariably returns the various types, so that almost any kind of lace may be used again and again, or as long as its wearing qualities permit. . lace always has a place as a trimming for underwear, lingerie, and children's clothes. also, for household linens and decorations’, it is truly indispensable. laces . characteristics and uses of modern laces.—the large. coarse patterns of real lace that were the delight of our great-great-grandmothers were of a stout, heavy quality that would outwear two or more dresses, but it was difficult to work up these laces satisfactorily into dainty costumes because of the boldness of their design. this feature has been overcome to a great extent in modern laces, for, with the exception of the heavy varieties that come into favor every now and then, each season brings out seemingly daintier and prettier laces than the preceding one. unfortunately, though, it cannot be said that the wearing qualities of the laces have advanced correspondingly with the designs, for the filmy laces of today frequently give way before the fabric with which they are used shows noticeable signs of wear. without a doubt, however, the service that is required of garments nowadays is partly accountable for the shorter period of usefulness of the lace. . selection of laces.—-the way in which lace is selected for use at present is also different. up to about years ago, the woman of station who did not possess a chest or a roll of lace was rare indeed, and when she planned a gown she brought her lace forth to see whether some of the laces that she cherished could not be used in developing the garment. at that time, a lace- trimmed gown or one made entirely of lace was a prized possession—an extravagance worthy of note. today, even the women of moderate means need not consider a lace gown an extravagance, for a lovely variety of designs, improved methods of manufacture, and competition among manufacturers make machine-made laces very desirable from the standpoint of beauty as well as economy. buying lace to match the material, as is now the general custom, is perhaps the best way after all, for it is no small problem to choose a design in a dress that will use up some particular width, weight, or color of lace. then, too, it is really the more economical way, because if just enough lace is purchased for the gown in question there is no waste, while, if an attempt is made to use up lace patterns that are on hand, a beautiful piece of lace must frequently be sacrificed to have it conform to the design; or if the length of lace on hand is short, the dress might appear stinted as a result. . because of the nature of laces, their selection merits even more careful consideration as to color, design, texture, applica- laces tion, and purpose than the choice of other fabrics and trimmings. the application of laces, especially those of the more exquisite or handsome variety, is very important, for unless they are made more interesting by their arrangement and none of the beauty of their design is concealed, except by subtle suggestion, their use is hardly justified. . texture, as applied to the selection of laces, need not be considered so much for its suitability to type as for the effect it would give in the costume. if daintiness is the effect desired, lace of soft, fine character with delicately traced designs is needed to carry out this suggestion. sometimes, elegance would be pre- ferred and, as an aid to this effect, lace very rich in quality and appearance, with designs of a rather intricate nature, might be chosen. other times smartness or decided character in the costume might be aspired for; prominent or unusual designs in lace of a type that is in decided vogue might be used to excellent purpose for this effect. dainty designs that will be serviceable and practical are the ones to be sought in expensive laces that must be preserved for several years’ wear, for large, coarse patterns of lace not only are more difficult to make up attractively but also appear unduly conspicuous in seasons when their vogue is not pronounced. a gown of choice lace is well worth remodeling and should be preserved carefully until the time when fashion favors the use of such lace. then it is deserving of all the care, skill, and becomingness with which it may be fashioned. . the foundation of a lace dress is also of decided impor- tance, for if it is not right, it is bound to detract considerably from the beauty of the lace. as a general rule, a filmy lace of delicately traced design appears best when used with a foundation of self- color or one that does not contrast decidedly, while lace having large and comparatively solid designs is especially lovely over a foundation of sharply contrasting color that throws the designs into bold relief and gives a richly brocaded effect. l i‘ - laces care of laces necessity for care . laces, though many of them are exquisite and conse- quently of very great value, are subjected, through use and wear, to the ravages of dirt and soil, just as is the fabric of a garment. and since lace, even in the machine-made varieties, is usually a treasured possession, it should be kept just as clean and fresh as possible. nothing evidences carelessness in woman's attire more quickly than a soiled piece of lace, and nothing is more expressive of the right appreciation of this delicate fabric than the greatest care exercised to keep it in perfect condition. . the method applied to the cleaning of laces depends, of course, on the kind of lace. some laces may be washed in water with the proper sort of soap, while others cannot be submitted to this form of cleansing because of the material used in their making or the frailty of their texture. therefore, before attempting to clean a lace, make sure that you know what method to use and then follow explicitly the directions given for it. the chief point to remember in the cleaning of laces is that they should never be twisted nor wrung nor rubbed together harshly, for they cannot stand rough handling. rather, they should be squeezed gently and patted until all the dirt is removed even though this process requires longer time and considerable patience. cleaning washable laces . at best, washing is a somewhat difficult process so far as laces are concerned, so it is well to keep a piece of lace clean as long as possible before resorting to laundering. one method of temporary cleaning consists in laying the lace in a piece of blue tissue paper, sprinkling freely any soiled places with finely powdered magnesia, and then wrapping the lace up in the paper and putting it away for a few days. when the magnesia has been shaken out, the lace will appear quite clean. . washing durable laces.—in spite of the greatest care, however, the time will come when this sort of cleaning will not laces suffice and the lace must be subjected to a more vigorous treatment. a precaution to take is not to put off the cleaning of the lace too long, for if the dirt is permitted to work into the fabric it is very difficult to remove. the most satisfactory way to clean washable laces is with soft water and a pure soap, such as ivory or castile. if soap flakes can be obtained, these will be found very satisfactory for they dissolve quickly and are easily handled. for laces of durable quality, such as linen and heavy cotton laces, make a strong suds of soap and water and into it put level teaspoonful of borax to each quart of water. squeeze the lace gently in this until it is clean and then rinse it well in lukewarm water, handling it gently in the rinsing as well as in the washing. always lift all the lace up at once rather than pull it out by one end, for pulling the lace will break the fibers more quickly than anything else. . in the case of very frail laces, as well as chiffon and net, the same method may be followed, but much more care must be taken. make the suds only about half as strong and squeeze the lace very gently in it until the dirt is removed. if the lace is exceptionally frail, it may be put in a bottle with the warm suds and the bottle then closed securely and shaken vigorously for a few minutes. . still another plan to wash delicate lace successfully consists in winding it around a bottle after this has first been wrapped with cheesecloth so that the ends of the lace can be secured. when the lace is in place, it may be covered with another layer of cheesecloth if its delicacy is such that it would seem to require this extra precaution. place the bottle in warm soapsuds and let it stand for a while. then shake it vigorously so that the dirt may be removed. for lace that is very much soiled, put the bottle with the lace wrapped around it in cold water containing small pieces of soap or soap flakes and bring the water to a boil. as the water becomes dirty, remove it and replace with clean, cold water and more soap, repeating this process until the water does not show any more dirt. then rinse in clean cold water and set the bottle aside until the lace is thoroughly dry. . if the lace is too large to be wound on a bottle and too delicate to be washed in the ordinary way, baste it securely and -l laces after securing the flannel or the towel, lay the lace on it, right side down, and pull each part out very carefully so that it assumes its correct shape before the ironing is begun. have the selvage of the lace, if there is one, next to you, and in ironing, work away from the selvage toward the edge so as to shape the lace properly, the selvage usually being tighter than the edge. . to avoid the risk of scorching the lace, use an iron of moderate temperature. rub the iron over every bit of the lace until it is entirely dry. then pull out all picots and small points into their original form by means of a pin or needle. if a wrinkle should be pressed into the lace in the ironing, sponge it with a little starch water and then iron it out. if the lace has a raised figure, rub it gently on the wrong side with a lace awl or any blunt tool that is smooth and will not injure the fabric. this process relieves it of any stiff, starched look it may have and makes it as pliable as new lace. finally, pass the iron lightly over the entire piece of lace. . unstarched laces may have a little stiffening imparted to them in the ironing, which will make them look like new. to do this, place the lace right side down on the flannel or towel and rub it gently with a piece of material that contains sizing, such as organdie that has been dipped in water until it is soaked. or, a cloth dampened with thin starch water will do very well as a substitute. when the lace is damp enough, iron it slowly with a moderately hot iron so that the moisture will evaporate slowly. when entirely dry, remove from the board. . cleaning black lace.—black lace should not be washed as are other laces because it loses much of its color and takes on a gray look. however, it may be cleaned by putting it in strong tea and squeezing and working it just as if the tea were soap- suds. a small amount of gum arabic added to the tea will stiffen the lace and give it the appearance of new lace. coffee may be used for this purpose, but tea is generally preferred because it contains no greasy substance. very good results are also produced by dipping the lace in a solution of parts lukewarm water and part vinegar. laces cleaning non-washable laces . certain laces, such as silk and fine-mesh laces, are of such a texture that they do not permit of washing. however, there are ways of cleaning such laces, so it is not necessary that they be discarded just because they have become soiled. . perhaps the simplest way to clean non-washable laces is with powdered magnesia or french chalk. these can be purchased for a small sum at any drug store. lay the piece of lace out on a paper and cover it generously with powder. then fold the lace back so as to form two layers and cover again with the powder. continue to fold it in this way and to cover each layer with powder until it is thoroughly saturated. then put it aside for several days so as to give the powder a chance to absorb the dirt and grease that the lace contains. at the end of this time, shake out the powder, being careful to remove every bit of it. the lace will then be ready for use. . for dry cleaning, gasoline is undoubtedly the most satisfactory medium. for this purpose, purchase clean, high- grade gasoline, that is, gasoline that is free from dirt or any greasy substance. a precaution that must be taken with gasoline is that it should always be kept away from any flame or fire, for it is highly inflammable. also, it must be used very cautiously so that there will be no ill effects from it. a good plan is to work on the porch or before an open window so that the fumes may be carried off into the air. . to clean lace with gasoline, put it into a self-sealer fruit jar, either the -quart or the -quart size, depending on the size of the piece of lace, half fill the jar with gasoline, and shake vigorously. the shaking will loosen the dirt and permit the lace to come out clean and fresh. next, lay the lace out in the open air and pull it into shape while it is drying. when it is dry, lay it, right side down, on a well-padded board, place a piece of tissue paper over the wrong side of it, and press it. take care in the pressing not to stretch the lace, for it cannot be put on a garment in a smooth, even manner if it is stretched out of place in its cleaning or pressing. chapter vii embroideries, findings, shopping hints embroideries . embroidery is made in two ways, by hand and by machine. h and embroidery is, of course, that which is made by hand and is usually made for special orders or by those who desire it themselves. machine-made embroidery intends to imitate hand embroidery as closely as it is possible to do so and in many cases the imitations are very beautiful. this is the kind that is on sale in the stores. h and-finished, machine-made embroideries are very satisfactory and, while they have an appearance similar to hand-made embroi- dery, they are not nearly so expensive. . in purchasing embroidery, make sure of a substantial edge and endeavor to have its background in keeping with the weight of the garment on which it is to be used, avoiding always the use of a heavy edging on a light-weight garment. cheap, tawdry embroi- deries should not be used unless they are employed to decorate a garment of like nature; otherwise, they are an extravagance and, unless the design is suitable, are an evidence of poor taste in selec- tion. . embroideries divide themselves into several types because of the materials on which the design is worked and the thread with which it is done. . organdle embroidery is sheer, crisp embroidery made on different grades of organdie; the finer the organdie, the thread, and the design, the more expensive the embroidery, just as is the case with chiffon and fine voile embroidery. all of these embroi- deries serve chiefly for dress trimmings. embroideries and findings . batiste embroidery is generally considered a dainty embroidery suitable for fine work, such as trimming for infants and children's clothes, for undergarments, and for lingerie dresses. the grade varies so much, however, that one must be cautious about design, width, and texture to make sure that the embroidery is appropriate for the garment on which it is used. fine batiste embroidery is durable and one of the most generally used embroid- eries. . nainsook embroidery may be made on fine or coarse nainsook, may have a dainty or heavy design, and may be done with fine or coarse thread. fine nainsook embroidery is often used rather than batiste embroidery, especially when an attractive, appropriate design is available. it is less expensive and usually very satisfactory for wearing and laundering. . cambric embroidery is often called convent embroidery because it was made by the convent sisters long before machine embroidery became popular. real convent embroidery is beauti- ful and very valuable, but it is rarely procurable. the cambric embroidery used today is of fine or coarse quality and is made on a closely woven cambric. the design is closely buttonholed or “satin-stitched" by machine so that a durable finish is the result. such embroidery is occasionally popular for petticoat flounces, for pillow-case ends, for children's under- garments, and sometimes for collars and cuffs to be worn on tailored ..¢. ._ -~t .. blouses and dresses. “j..i........¢;§...f.....,;é.-,, . beading-.—beading _is _a " ‘ form of embroidery that is in constant demand. it comes in several different varieties and widths and has different uses according to the kind that is selected. fm. . seam beading, shown in fig. , consists of a narrow embroidery beading made on batiste, nainsook, or cambric. it is sold also under the names of izeining and entre deux. the chief use of seam beading is on hand-made baby clothes, blouses, and lingerie dresses, where it is used in joining the sleeves to the armhole, skirts to yokes, and for other similar purposes. embroideries and findings . double beading, shown in fig. , is that which contains openings between two beading edges, the openings being long enough to permit ribbon or tape to be run through. such beading is used for children's clothes, undergarments, and occasionally for trimming on lingerie dresses. n i i‘ i q i i q i i i i i i i n v n i v u u i i i u q.fi i i i i . i --'--""“"‘" .‘.“p‘!'!!!.'§-;'.. <—v-_-. --r.-v~~»r~ .. .._. ._ -.._ ._ ._. _ p._.___..._- - fro. f . . embroidery-edge beading, shown in fig. , contains openings for ribbon or tape but has embroidery-finished edges. it is used at the top of flounces, on yokes of night dresses, and for children's clothes. it is usually applied by being stitched flat between the beading and the inside of the embroidery edges. findings . a thorough acquaintance with dress findings, that is, the various small accessories such as buttons, lining, etc., used in dressmaking, and a knowledge of their use and convenience will save much time for the dressmaker in two ways. in the first place, she will know just what is right for a particular need so that she can use it rather than a substitute; and secondly, she can plan to have the necessary findings ready so as to facilitate her sewing. many women take much pride and satisfaction in having a stock of findings always at hand and, when any standard article is used, in replacing it on the next shopping trip. this is an excellent plan that can be recommended to all who do sewing on either a large or a small scale. a visit at least every season to a store having a well-stocked notion department is time well spent, for often new things are brought out by manufacturers to help in accomplishing certain ideas demanded by fashion. a definite acquaintance with such novelties, in addi- tion to saving time, makes possible the achievement of certain style effects that might otherwise be tedious. . to help you become familiar with findings, those in general use are here listed in alphabetical order as well as described and, embroideries and findings in most cases, illustrated. only standard findings are considered, for the novelties can always be found prominently displayed at the counters where notions, or findings, are sold. . be ting.—belting, which is an essential finding, comes in two general varieties, canvas and cambric. ‘ if the canvas belting is firmly woven, it requires no boning, but if it is of the soft variety, it is usually boned for stiffness. cambric belting is made of cambric cloth and is always boned for stiffness. . . both canvas and cambric belting are either straight or shaped and are sold by the yard at notion counters. the width varies from to inches, according to fashion requirements, straight lines requiring straight, narrow belting, and fitted lines, curved or shaped belting. - . boning.—in dressmaking, the term boning means the stiffening, or staying, of one part of a garment so that it will retain its shape and act as a support for another. whalebone was formerly used for this purpose, but it is rather expensive as well as some- what difficult to use. an excellent substitute for whalebone has been found in feather- bone, which is made of strips of feather quills woven together with linen thread. featherbone is not expensive, is very pliable, and may be sewed through readily and withoutinjury, thus permitting it to be secured in place with very little effort. hook-and-eye bone is a special kind of featherbone woven a little closer than the covered bone and made a little softer so as to permit easy sewing. it is used chiefly in waist openings, where it is generally inserted in casings. boning may be purchased by the yard or the roll, and may be had with silk, satin, or cotton covering. as boning is generally put in places subject to considerable wear and strain, it is advisable always to employ a very good quality. the cheaper grades are liable to break before a garment is worn out, making it necessary to replace them. . boning and stays for collars.—boning and stays for collars usually consist of narrow widths of covered featherbone in both black and white. in fig. are shown two varieties, that in (a) being covered with silk ribbon and the one in (b), with floss. embroideries and findings besides collar featherbone, which is sold by the yard, there are celluloid collar stays and, as shown in fig. , covered wire ones called serpentine. these are made to inches in length and fi . fro. are usually covered with silk or cotton thread. they may be purchased on cards having six collar stays on each card, or the serpentine variety, attached to a binding, as here shown, may be purchased by the yard. . tubular cording, shown in fig. , is very popular for holding out tunics and skirts when boufiant styles are in vogue. it consists of strands of a composition substance or of a metal- covered thread woven into a narrow, pliable, tubular strand. . bra ds.—braids and edgings are considered together because they are, for the most part, finishings, even though their uses may differ. f . . fancy braids are novelty trimming or finishing braids. these vary greatly in width and appearance and are often designed so elaborately as to be very handsome and expensive. rat-tail, or mouse-tail, braid is a round, smooth, slender, silk braid. braids of this kind, as well as fancy metal braids, are used when fashion decrees. . fifnishing braid, shown in fig. , is a narrow white tape about i inch wide, on which feather-stitching or some other fancy stitch is applied either in white or in colors. it may be purchased by the -yard piece at a very small cost. finishing braid is used as decoration or for finishing the top of ruffies instead of bias facing. fm. embroideries and findings . military braid, shown in fig. , is a silk braid varying in width from to inches and is sold by the yard or in bolts of yards. it is used extensively at times for bound buttonholes, as a binding for tunic edges, and as a trimming for woolen dresses and suits, especially tailored middy suits for children. . picot, or feather, edge is a very fine braid having picoted loops along one edge and is used as a trimming, as a finish, and in crocheting. its width varies from % to i inch. . rickrack braid, two varieties of which are shown in fig. , is used extensively for trimming underwear, pillow cases, and sometimes dresses. it is a cotton or mercerized braid, comes in white and in colors, and may be purchased in packages containing -yard pieces. . scallop-fini shed edging, shown in fig. , is a %-inch embroidered scalloped edge. under various trade names, edging of this kind usually comes in packages containing -yard lengths. it is very useful and durable for every-day underwear, for it is easily applied and wears as long as the garment itself. it makes a very neat finish on aprons, and is often particularly attractive when the color of the embroidered edge matches the colored figure in the material that is used for the body of the apron. fio. “-_d - n .--_.---_n.¢..-m---- vnq ¢ ---¢ - - fro. . skirt braid, shown in fig. , is a smooth, evenly woven, twilled braid that is made in only %-inch width. it is used \&“ ‘ to protect the bottom of skirts §¥: ?§;::;~§f"’§§£§§;§$..- \ . . from hard wear when they are long and full. braid of this . kind may be obtained in mercerized cotton or wool in all standard colors, and is sold usually by the -yard piece or the bolt. embroideries and findings . soutache braid, shown in fig. , is manufactured in both cotton and silk, but the width is always the same. it is sold by the -yard piece, and isiused for ornamenting dresses and suits. when applied by a sewing machine with the braiding attachment, a much more even and perfect result is obtained than when it is applied by hand. . button mo ds.—when buttons are desired only for ornament, they are often made by covering molds, one of which is shown in fig. , with material, and then they are used plain or decorated with beads or stitches. the molds, which may be had in either wood or bone, come in all sizes and are for sale by the string, by the dozen, or by the one-third dozen. v ,,.-..,,~k f . . buttons.—the first purpose of buttons is usefulness, and the second, ornamentation. because they often lend distinctiveness to garments on which they are placed, care should be exercised in their selection. they are made of various materials, including pearl, bone, and composition, and they are s (ll) ( ) fro. fro. made up with two or four holes, as in fig. , or with shanks, as in fig. . the shank may be of the same material as the button, as in (a), or it may be a metal shank, as in (b). cloth is often used as a shank for cloth-covered buttons, especially when they are to be sewed close to the garment or are used for trimming more than for service. . pearl buttons are usually thought of as wash buttons, though very beautiful pearl buttons, because of their luster, are often arranged, as in fig. , so that when the garment is washed, they can be removed as protection to the button. . bone and composition buttons are tailored buttons. the real bone button at present is rarely seen, for most of the embroideries and findings so-called bone buttons are made from the seeds of the american palm tree. these seeds, which are shipped to the united states from the tropics in great quantities, are easily dyed, polished, cut, and engraved. . cable cord.—a softly twisted cotton cord, varying in size from -§- inch in diameter to the thickness of a lead pencil and called cable cord, may be purchased for corded shirrings and for cordings to be used as an edge finish or for making ornaments. if a quantity is to be used, as for trimming the edges of a dress, it may be pur- chased in -yard bolts, but it may be procured by the yard also. cable cord comes in black and white only. . c a b o c h n found.at ons.—in the making of bunch bouquets and various other ornaments, whether of ribbon or other materials, cabo- chon foundations, as shown in fig. , will be found useful. cabo- chon foundations are merely small pieces of ( ') buckram pressed into a fm dome or similar shape, as here shown, those in (a) being white buckram and those in (b), black. in (a), the cabochons shown at a and b have not had their edges cut, while those at c, d, e, and f have been trimmed. . dress shields.—to prevent perspiration from soiling dresses under the arms, dress shields have been devised. these are commonly made of two thicknesses of a very firm, closely woven muslin, between which is placed a rubber substance that prevents the perspiration from passing through to the outside of the shield. embroideries and findings dress shields usually come in black and white, but flesh-colored, transparent ones may be purchased for wear with sheer dresses or blouses. they may be purchased by the pair in sizes from to , and they vary in shape from small quarter moons to very large three-quarter moons. in one type of dress shield, the flaps are of equal size, while in the other they difier, the small flap being placed in the sleeve and the larger flap in the blouse. the range in price is quite decided in dress shields, the small ones being ~) cheaper than the large ones. . elast c.—two gen- eral kinds of elastic, round and flat, as shown in fig. , are always to be had. the small, round, hat elastic, shown in (a), is so called because it is used extensively for children's hats. the flat elastic, shown in (b), which may be had in various widths from % to inch, is used for bloomers, garters, and waist lines of garments, especially those for children. both varieties may be purchased in black or white. . hooks and eyes.—hooks and eyes, which may be had in black or white, range in size from no. , the smallest, to no. , the largest, size no. being most commonly used for placket open- ings and for fastening dresses and other garments. as shown in fig. (a), some hooks have a hump that serves to hold the eye and prevent the hook from slipping out, (a) (m and others, as shown in (b), are perfectly straight. the eyes are of two kinds, too—the straight eye, such as is shown in o-o €k$d (c), and the round eye, which is shown (c) (a) in (d). fm- hooks with a hump are more difficult to hook up and to unhook than humpless hooks, and for this rea- son should not be used on garments that fit close; for such garments, the humpless hook is best. the straight eye is used with the hump hook on garments where there is not much strain, and the round eye is employed on belts, girdles, and tight linings, and in almost every case with a humpless hook. l d - embroideries and findings . hook-and-eye tape.—when it is desired to save time or to have hooks and eyes sewed very close together, as in the case of a close-fitting garment, hook-and-eye tape, shown in fig. , will be found very satisfactory. on this tape, which may be purchased by the yard, hooks and eyes are spaced % inches apart, and they are fast- ened in it very securely. hook-and-eye tape is usually sewed in place with whip- ping-stitches. . seam binding.—two kinds of u seam binding for the covering and seams and .-,o_ edges may be purchased, cotton and silk. . cotton binding, which is cut on the bias and has its edges turned, as shown in fig. , is more familiarly known as bias binding. it is much easier to apply than unfolded bias binding cut by hand and consequently is more popular. bias binding of this kind comes in sizes to and may be obtained in -yard pieces in cambric, lawn, percale, or taffeta, and in white, plain colors, and stripes. its range of widths and materials makes it a great convenience in sewing, where it has many uses. --, ; . silk seam binding resembles a very light-weight taffeta ribbon. it may be purchased in -yard pieces of various widths, and it comes in colors as well as in black and white. its chief use is to finish the seams of woolen garments. . snap fasteners.—in places where a substantial, flat closing is desired, snap fasteners, shown in fig. and commonly called snaps, are very satisfactory. they come in black and white and range in size from % to % inch in diameter. q medium-sized snaps are the ones most commonly used, for they are large enough for most purposes q q and they fasten easily and hold securely. snap fasteners come in numerous makes, but those having a flat under piece and an upper piece containing a small spring are usually considered the most service- able because they do not pull apart readily. fic. embroideries and findings to test the quality of snap fasteners, close them and then try to open them; if you find it a little difficult to pull them apart, you may know that they are a good make, for the best snaps close tight and thus insure a substantial closing for garments. . snap-fastener tape, shown in fig. , which corre- sponds to the hook-and-eye tape previously described, is frequently found very useful. both edges of each part of this tape are usually sewed flat to the garment by means of whipping-stitches. . tape.—three varieties of tape, which find many uses in dressmaking, are shown in fig. . . cotton diagonal tape, shown in (a), is used for braid trimming, to ru.n in casings, to bind armholes, and for many purposes where a strong tape is desired. it may be purchased by the .- -w.. . -yard piece in widths from % to inch. occasionally, it may be obtained in colors, but it is usually either black or white. v‘¢- s n. . linen tape, shown in i . (b), does not twist so easily as "ii cotton in laundering and hence flo. , _ finds for itself a place in the dressmaker’s findings. it may be bought in -yard pieces. . the so-called lingerie tape, shown in (c), is a finely woven cotton tape that has a firm edge. it is used extensively in underwear and lingerie as a substitute for ribbon, because it wears so much better and can be laundered with the garment. lingerie tape may be purchased by the piece in light blue, flesh, pink, or white, and comes in several widths from % to inch, the widest width being used for shoulder straps of vests and bodices. the narrow widths may be purchased byithe - or -yard bolt and the wider widths by the yard. . weights.—considerable use is made of weights and weighted tape, particularly in tailored garments of all kinds. embroideries and findings .-ll . coat weights, one of which is shown in fig. , are round, oval, and oblong, and they vary in size from no. to n o. , the largest being about the size of a half dollar. such devices are used to give weight to the lower edge of coats, to panels in coats, and to parts of woolen dresses. m . . s r - w e i g h t tape, shown in fig. (a), consists of closely woven cotton material in which small shot is held. it is used in the bottom of tunics, _. the ends of sashes, etc., in order - i i -- to make them hang correctly. frc.(b f . . flat-weight tape, shown in fig. (b), is used where more weight is desired than the shot-weight tape provides. shopping hints . to be a successful shopper, you should have a definite idea of what you want before you start out to buy. you will find it advantageous to carry a notebook containing measurements and samples of goods to be matched, provided you can procure such samples beforehand. by being so prepared, you will save much time in making selections and will generally command interested assis- tance from clerks, or salespeople, who are usually willing to help, but are often handicapped because some shoppers have no idea of what they want. frequently, salespeople are held responsible for unsatisfactory purchases when really the customer is at fault. you can usually avoid unpleasant occurrences if you decide as nearly as possible on the materials, as well as the amount you want, before you con- sult the clerk, and if you apply to the materials, before you buy them, whatever tests are possible. . choosing the right grade of materia .—if you are choosing between two grades of the same type of material, consider the quality rather than the price. often a fabric that costs just a trifle more will give you much longer and more satisfactory service embroideri es and findings than a cheaper grade, and in this way more than compensate you for the additional expenditure. . widths of material to select.—y u will always find it advantageous to take the width of the material into consideration. in some cases, wide material may be cut to better advantage than narrow and thus result in a saving even though the price per yard is considerably more. sometimes, you will find that itlis more economical to buy double- width materials than single-width, as double-width goods usually cut to better advantage than single-width, and the quality, as a rule, is better. . buying trimmings to suit materials.—if you must exercise economy in selecting materials, you will do far better to spend nearly all your money on the material and leave only enough for very simple ornamentation. it is evidence of the poorest taste to wear garments laden with a quantity of cheap trimming. trim- mings should be of the same quality as the material chosen; if they do not so agree, one tends to cheapen the other. . buying colored material.—in buying colored material, you should try to see it in the light in which you will use it, that is, in daylight or artificial light, so as to be sure that the color is just what you wish. many stores have two kinds of lamps, one that shows daylight and the other, artificial light, so as to help their customers in determining the suitability of the color. thread and trimmings should likewise be matched by the proper light to insure their being right. . procuring samples.—often you may have to send away for samples, especially for trimming. as a matter of fact, thousands of women in sections remote from large cities usually obtain samples from two or more stores in different cities at the same time so that they may compare both qualities and prices. when you write for samples, state as nearly as possible the nature of the material you desire, its width, color, and weight, and the approximate price you wish to pay. such information will facilitate replies from stores and will usually result in a much better assort- ment of samples from which to choose. you should always know as definitely as possible what you want and what could be substituted as a second choice. embroideries and findings . advantages of buying in quantities.-—many fabrics may be bought cheaper by the piece, or bolt, and it is desirable to buy them in this form when large quantities are to be used immediately or within a short time. tape, narrow edgings, seam binding, and insertions may usually be bought a little cheaper by the bolt or the dozen pieces. ribbon by the roll, sewing cotton and silk by the dozen spools, etc., also may be bought advantageously. . keeping up supply ’ findings.—hooks and eyes in both black and white and in various sizes, snap fasteners, pearl buttons of good quality in small and medium sizes, as well as a supply of needles and pins, should always be on hand in the sewing room. such articles should be listed in your shopping notebook as soon as your supply is exhausted so that you will not forget to replenish them when you are shopping. it is very inconvenient to pick up a piece of work that needs a little tape, a certain size of hook and eye, or a particular size of button and then find that you have none of these articles on hand. chapter viii mending mending conveniences . few women appreciate the importance of mending, forget- ting entirely the old proverb, “a stitch in time saves nine." every housewife should form the habit of doing the weekly mending each week instead of allowing it to accumulate until it becomes a burden. carefully mended garments denote thrift, industry, and economy; therefore, every woman and every girl should take pride in know- ing how to darn a pair of stockings, to patch a worn garment, and to mend a tear. stockings and undergarments may be mended after washing, but outer garments should always be mended before they are laundered, because laundering helps materially to conceal the patch or the darn, as the case may be. too much time may be spent in mending an old garment if the fabric is much worn. for this reason, it is well to exercise judg- ment so that no time nor labor is squandered. wearing apparel may often be mended on the sewing machine, but dainty outer garments should always be mended by hand if possible. . for convenience, it is advisable for you to provide yourself with a mending basket or a mending bag and to equip it with the necessary tools for mending, such as needles, thread, darning cotton, scissors, a darning ball, etc. you can quickly make a mending bag from any straight piece of firm material % yards long and % yard wide. fold the material through the center, crosswise; lay the folded piece out on the table and pin the sides together, pinning up from the fold; sew up the sides; turn a -inch hem at the top and stitch it; and then run another row of stitching % inch from the first stitching on the hem so mending as to form a casing. next, cut and work a vertical buttonhole inside of the hem on each side of the seam between the two stitchings. when these buttonholes are made, run a smooth cord three times as long as the bag measures at the top around through the casing twice, and where the ends meet lap them and sew over and over the lap so that the joining will be smooth and strong. finally, pull one loop of cord out at each buttonhole. by taking hold of each of these loops and pulling outwards, you can draw the bag together at the top, or close it easily and quickly. to open the bag, simply insert one or two fingers of each hand into the shirred opening and pull it apart. - the bag or basket, whichever is used, should be kept in a handy place, so that you can take up your mending quickly or carry it on while resting from more strenuous housework. you will be amazed at what you can accomplish by picking up a stocking or some garment and mending it while you are waiting for something to bake or while you are visiting with a neighbor. with so many demands on a person's time, it is valuable to know how to economize time, and one good way in which to do this is to systematize the home sewing and mending. darning . several methods are employed to repair worn and torn places in articles of wear. one of the most important of these methods is darning, by which is meant the repairing of a tear or a hole by weaving a thread back and forth. patching, another mending method, which is considered later, should not be resorted to unless the holes are too large to be darned. . darning floss.—f r darning in the home, you may use darning floss almost exclusively. this should always match the article that is being darned as near as possible, both in color and in texture. cotton and mercerized-finish darning floss may be had in spools of approximately yards each, and silk, in -ounce spools. cotton-finish floss, which is cheaper and heavier than the others, is used for darning underwear and heavy cotton hose, but for silk or lisle garments of the same character, silk- or mercerized- finish floss is preferable. two, three, or four strands of floss come in each thread. so, if the hole you wish to darn is small, it is mending . the appearance of a hole that has been darned in a stocking or an undergarment is illustrated in fig. . in making such a repair, take the stitches from the right side, if the darning is being done in a stocking or a close- fitting portion of an under- garment, in order to keep a smooth surface next to the skin. use two or more strands of floss, according to the texture of the fabric and the size of the hole that is to be darned. do not tie a knot in the thread; rather, leave the end free, as at a, fig. . first, provide the rib, or lengthwise threads, for the darn. run these stitches far enough from the edge of the hole to catch all the weak threads, % to % inch usually being sufficient. in applying each rib thread, take a few running-stitches in the material, as at b, and arrange them so that the needle will come out over the edge of - - the hole. then put the needle under the edge directly opposite, and take a few running-stitches in the material. run these stitches back and forth across the hole and be- yond it to form a dia- mond-shaped darn, which prevents the strain that there would otherwise be on one.thread of the ma- terial. take the stitches fairly close together, but not so close that they touch. at the turning of each lengthwise thread, leave a very tiny loop, as at c, to provide for shrinkage of the floss in laundering, and for the elastic- ity needed in a garment of this kind. fi . mending when the entire space is covered with lengthwise threads, turn the work and take crosswise stitches in a similar manner; but where- iwie:- ~:- -i-;;figl- :'o:-: vi-! .-‘-‘. . ..- ¢’..:--‘-'.\ . . . . -'- fl- " .- . _s‘‘ m y- -+a''"ir- - .-'. my-m. . ‘.‘”.-.:-...i-. ever the crosswise threads cross the warp threads, weave them by slipping the needle under and over, as at d. catch the frayed -~o-..-- -~-. . .;;;.-».-,:»»--::i:'v'_.:.-_.':\~::::v:::.m' - . --,'- .'.*.h'_..~ ~\<_.._.w o‘.:; -‘! , ‘~ .;.:.; -_.;.-:-;.;\.‘'-.'- . oi --;.;=.- _;. ,'-_.-;;,'_., -f- - -~'- -~.--._-.:- -{.":::. .- ~;.;¢ -‘_.;..-w-. .- . _ .- - .---.~.-.,-. . ~ ..-_.,,_..._-._.-'- ‘i-.-.~.-. h- ¢.-_.-.-.':"...'-..-.-.- ‘ -.-.:;-.-;.-“. - -. . - : " -w n- ‘. ‘ l ~ q »!-.‘ §:~:-;t;:;:g:;.:.. "f-':f:‘»:i:i:t:i: :-.‘*i:a' \. - - -p, .-q . . ._. ”' - - :. ’'-'-. .~’¢?f'-¥*. ._ :-,m \:. sn- "~mr.. . _‘._'‘'-?'-' fm. edges of the material in with the weaving so that they will be firmly secured. there is an advantage in leaving the frayed edges mending around a hole to be darned, for the unevenness which they cause around the edge helps to make the darned place less conspicuous. after filling in the entire space, as in fig. , secure the thread with a few back-stitches; also, cut off the projecting thread ends and any frayed ends that were not caught in the weaving process. it is not always necessary that darning threads run parallel with the warp and weft threads or ribs of the material. when a hole is to be darned in a part -of a garment or stocking where elasticity is desired, as at the knee, the darning threads may be run diagonally so that the darned portion will “give” when necessary. . darning reinforced with net.—if the hole in a garment is very large and the material is of the kind that will not permit fm. readily of patching, such as sheer knit material, a neat, even darn may be made with the aid of net. baste a piece of cotton net under the hole and then fill the net portion with darning-stitches in the manner shown in figs. and . these illustrations show such a darn made on a foundation of cotton bobbinet, or net, the right side of the darn being shown in fig. and the wrong side, in fig. . . darning a straight tear, or slit.—a straight tear, or slit, in a garment made of rather firmly woven cotton, silk, or woolen material, may be darned in the manner shown in fig. . baste the material to a piece of paper, placing the right side to the paper. this will hold the material securely in place and prevent the stitches from being drawn too tight. use thread that matches, both in color and in texture, the material that is to be darned. a mending i warp thread of the material is preferable to any other kind. darn the tear back and forth through the material only, taking the stitches rather loosely and alternately over and under the edge until all the space is covered. make the stitches so that they will be very small on the right side. finish the work by taking a few short back-stitches to secure the thread, and then remove the bastings that hold the material to the paper. the object of a darn of this kind is to mend the tear substantially and still keep the stitches from appearing too prominent on the right side. .. darning an angular tear.—if a tear is angular, you may darn it in the manner shown in fig. . baste the material fic. to paper the same as for a straight tear. then take stitches back and forth in the same way, slanting the stitches as you approach the corner, so as to secure all the frayed edges and produce a firm finish. patching . patching consists in mending a garment by inserting a patch in a ragged or worn spot or sewing one on it. this mending method is generally employed when the tear or hole is too large to be repaired by darning. you may do patching in several ways, but the chief point for which to strive is to place and secure the patch so that it will be as inconspicuous as possible. in patching figured, striped, or up-and-down material, you will have to exercise great care so as to match the patch with the material in the garment; otherwise, the patch will be very notice- mending able. in striped material, you can do the matching readily if you square up the hole that is to be mended. if you must use a new patch in mending a faded garment made of wash material, overcome the newness of the patch by first boiling it in soapy water to which a little baking soda has been added and then rinsing and pressing it well. also, the patching can be more readily accomplished if the frayed or worn edges of the material to be patched are trimmed away and the garment is carefully pressed before mending. with the patching completed, press the the garment thoroughly again. . hemmed patch.—in fig. is shown the right side and in fig. the wrong side of a hemmed patch; that is, a patch used fic. on materials that are laundered frequently and in places where it is necessary to conceal all the raw edges. - for such a patch, use a piece of material that is considerably larger than the hole that is to be mended, in order to provide allowance for matching and for turning hems. place the right side of the patch to the wrong side of the material just under the hole, and, if the material is figured, striped, or plaid, shift the patch until it matches exactly. pin or baste this in position, clip the corners of the hole to be mended, turn under the edges of the hole, and baste; then hem them with short, close stitches. turn the garment mending to the wrong side and trim the edges of the patch so that they may be turned under the same amount as the edges of the hole and a finish f . i similar to the hand fell formed. hem the edges of the patch with very fine stitches. if you do such patching carefully, being sure to fro. match both the thread and the material as perfectly as possible, the patch will be scarcely noticeable on the garment. mending . overhand patch.—the right side and the wrong side of an overhand patch are shown in figs. and , respectively. this patch is even less noticeable than the hemmed patch, but it requires more skill in its making to avoid puckering or tearing. the overhand patch is used chiefly on garments that are not laundered frequently and in places where raw edges are not objec- tionable. for the overhand patch, cut and match a piece of material in practically the same manner as for the hemmed patch and pin it in position under the hole in the garment. with a tracing wheel, fro. trace around the hole i inch from the edge. remove the pins from one side of the patch and cut the edge of the patch ;{- inch beyond the traced line; then, on the traced line, turn back to the wrong side both the edge of the patch and the edge of the hole. in this condition, the edge of the patch and that of the garment will be turned in opposite directions on the under side, as shown in fig. , and the folded edges will just meet. on the right side, overhand these folded edges together with small, even stitches, and clip the corners on the wrong side so that the edges will lie perfectly flat, as at a, fig. . finally, overcast the raw edges in the manner shown, thus, forming a. finish that is neither bulky nor conspicuous. mending . darned, or set-in, patch.—the darned, or set-in, patch, examples of which are shown in figs. and , is very satisfactory for mending table linens or woolen materials '‘‘' having a nap. table linens have a double weave that makes it possible to conceal some of the stitches that hold the patch in place, and the nap on woolen material also aids in concealing the stitches. to weave in the patch, select, if possible, thread that matches the material; but if such thread cannot be pro- cured, use a thread of the material itself. if the patch is to be inserted in woolen material, you may use human hair for the darning. begin such patching by carefully basting the right side of the material to a piece of paper and then inserting in the hole a patch of the same material. be sure that the patch fits the hole exactly and also that it matches the weave and the figure in the material. then, beginning in the center of one side and working on the wrong side, darn the patch in place with short, close stitches that run back and forth. keep these stitches from going through the material as much as pos- sible, so that the joining will fro. ’ fio. be inconspicuous on the right side. when all the stitches are made, remove the bastings that hold the garment to the paper. l ) - mending as fig. shows, you will find it almost impossible to make all the darning stitches in table linens inconspicuous. if, however, when you insert a patch in woolen material of very firm and rather heavy weave, you run the stitches from the wrong side through the center of the thickness of the material, as shown in fig. , they will not be at all discernible on the right side. - . darned, or underlaid, patch.—fig. illustrates a mending method in which an underlaid rather than a set-in patch is held in position with darning-stitches. such a patch may be used for repairing a large hole in a stocking or in a garment that is very loosely knitted. to make a neat repair by this method, use a patch that matches as closely as possible the color and the texture of the stocking or the gar- ment. cut the patch a trifle larger than the hole that is to be mended, and baste it to a piece of paper. place this under the worn part of the article to be mended and baste carefully. secure the edges of the hole to the patch by darning back and forth over the lapped edges, weaving them closely together, and catching all the frayed ends of the material. . flannel patch.—to repair garments of flannel or of any material that does not fray, provided you want a good, substantial patch, prepare the hole in the material and also the patch as for a hemmed patch, that is, by squaring up the edges and matching stripes or figures if necessary. place the patch over the hole and cut the edges so that they extend from % to % inch beyond the hole. baste the patch in position, but do not turn under the edges of either the hole or the patch. next, catch—stitch the edges of the hole to the patch from the right side, as shown at a, fig. , using .. . f . mending silk thread of the same color as the material, if possible. then turn the garment over and, on the wrong side, catch-stitch the outside edge of the patch to the garment material, as shown at a, fig. , being very careful to take very small stitches so that they will not show any more than actually necessary on the right side. stockinet mendin g . stockinet grafting.--tears in garments of knitted or stockinet weave, such as ribbed stockings, undergarments, and sweaters, require a special kind of mending in order that the repaired spot will not prove unduly conspicuous. such mending may be done by grafting the edges of a tear together with loop-stitches in imita- tion of the weave of the material. fig. illustrates this method, called stockinet grafting, applied in the mending of a crosswise tear in stockinet. it may likewise be employed for shortening knitted undergarments, leggings, and sweaters that are too long and can- not be shortened satisfactorily on the edges. in shortening a garment, prepare it for the grafting stitches by cutting out, on a true crosswise grain, a section of material sufficient in size to remove the desired amount of length. then pick the loose ends of thread from the loops in the cut edges of the garment so that each edge will show a continuous row of loops. . for the mending, use thread or yarn of a color and texture that matches as nearly as possible the color and texture of the mending material that is being repaired. start the work at the right-hand end of the lower edge. to make the grafting stitches, bring the needle out as at a, fig. . then insert the needle in the loop above and just a little to the right, as at b, and bring it out in the center of the next loop to the left, as at c. next, insert the needle at a and bring it out in the next loop to the left, as at d. do not draw the thread too tight; rather, permit it to form a loop the same in size as that which forms the weave of the garment. _take the next stitch by inserting the needle at c and bringing it out in the next loop to the left, and proceed with the work by taking the stitches in the manner directed, grafting the edges together and making the stitches as nearly uniform as possible, so that they will resemble the regularity of machine work. after catching all the loops together, finish the work by bringing the needle to the wrong side and taking a couple of back-stitches. . stockinet patch.—the most satisfactory way in which to mend a firmly knitted stocking or undergarment when you desire a very inconspicuous finish and the hole is too large to be neatly darned, is to set in with grafting-stitches a piece of similar weave and color, as shown in fig. . for this purpose, it is well for you to keep on hand unwom portions of stockings from which the feet have been cut, as well as unwor n pieces of undergarments of good quality. prepare the hole in the garment by cutting the sides so that they are even with the weave of the material, thus forming either a square or an oblong space, and remove the loose ends of the stock- mending inet, so that the loops will appear as in the illustration. then, cut a patch that has true lengthwise and crosswise edges and is the exact size of the hole to be repaired, and insert it so that its loop edges meet the loop edges of the hole. graft these loop edges together in the manner shown. then overhand the lengthwise edges together from the wrong side and run a few darning-stitches back and forth through these lengthwise joinings to make them secure, but be careful not to have the darning-stitches show on the right side. using mending tissue . for mending woolen materials,’ mending tissue, a semi- transparent rubber substance that melts when heat is applied to it and thus serves to hold torn edges together, is invaluable for dark materials. you can buy mending tissue in nearly any store that sells dry goods, a package costing only a small sum. one package will last a long time in the home, but, in any event, it is not advisable to buy large quantities, as the tissue crumbles after a time and is then unfit for use. . repairing a tear with mending t ssue.—when mending tissue is to be used, the tear should be repaired immediately, so that the edges will not have an opportunity to fray. to mend with tissue, place the torn part of the gannent, wrong side up, over an ironing board and smooth the material out fiat. with a needle or a pin, draw the torn edges together, bringing them as near as possible to their original position. over the tear, place a piece of tissue large enough to cover it completely, and then over the tissue lay a piece of the material exactly the same in size. if you cannot procure material like the garment, you may use a lighter-weight piece of the same color as the garment to be mended. next, run a hot iron over the patch several times. the heat from the iron will melt the tissue and cause the patch to adhere to the material, mak- ing an almost invisible and a very secure patch. . patching with mending t ssue.—a very inconspicu- ous patch may be applied with mending tissue. first, trim the hole to an oblong or a square shape. then, cut a piece of material the same shape as the hole but a seam’s width wider on all edges. place the worn part of the garment, wrongside up, on an ironing mending although hand or machine repairing of this kind is suitable for - the purpose in most instances, the mended portion is usually not well disguised. if you desire a very inconspicuous finish, you may form the dropped stitches into a chain with a very fine crochet hook, as shown in fig. . slip the hook through the loop at the lower end of the opening and, holding it in the position illustrated, pick up the succeeding dropped stitch, and pull it through the loop. con- tinue in this manner until every dropped thread has been caught and then secure the last loop with a few overhanding-stitches. . refooting stockings.—when stockings whose tops are in good condition have feet that are beyond further darning, you will find it in line with economy to cut off the worn feet and replace them with feet cut from the unworn tops of other stockings. the new foot portion, if applied carefully in the manner illustrated in fig. , will not prove at all uncomfortable. besides, the small amount of time and effort you ex- pend in doing the work will be counterbalanced by the satisfac- tory service-you will obtain from the repaired stocking, provided the tops are of good quality and still sufficiently strong to withstand considerable wear. . the line on which to cut the stocking depends on the con- dition of the foot portion. in most cases, the toe and the back of the heel show the most decided wear; therefore, they should be cut away in the shape illustrated in fig. , which shows worn portions in the toe and the heel. in any event, cut off the foot in such a manner that all the worn spots will be removed, and then use the piece cut off as a pattern for the new foot. in preparing to cut the new foot, place the old stocking foot so that its lower edge is along a lengthwise fold of the stocking from which it is to be cut and the heel portion is over the double thickness at the top, as in fig. , in order to provide for an extra thickness fm. mending of material in the new heel. then cut the center-back line of the new heel, shaping it the same as the center back of the original heel and making allowance for a seam, as at a. shape the line above the heel and also the sides of the new stocking foot the same as the part cut off, making allowance for a seam, as at b, but instead fro. of shaping the toe portion the same, cut it in the manner shown at c, being sure to provide sufficient length in the stocking foot. by cutting the new foot in this way, you eliminate the seam d at the center front, which might prove uncomfortable in a footed stocking. although the shape of the toe portion in the new foot is decidedly changed, it may be very easily adjusted to a corresponding part of the stocking leg; also, it contains sufficient width to make it fit properly. after the foot portion has been cut, stitch a plain seam at the center back, using the sewing machine for this purpose in order to catch each of the stitches securely and prevent them from dropping. trim the seam edges to within % inch of the stitching, press the seam open, and then catch-stitch it through the center, as at a, fig. , so as to hold the edges open and prevent them from forming a ridge. next pin, baste, and stitch the foot portion in position, turn the seam edges to one side, and, without turning under the edges, hem or whip them to the stocking, as at b. fig. shows the wrong side of the stocking after the new foot has been applied. the seams in this case are made on the wrong side, but if you prefer you may make them on the right side and give them a neat finish. . a stocking that is worn merely in the heel portion may have the worn part cut away and the new heel portion shaped with mending the aid of the part that was removed and applied in the manner suggested for putting a new foot in a stocking. a new toe portion may be applied in a similar manner. . mending an opened seam in a kid glove.—as a general rule, the stitching in the finger tips of kid gloves has a tendency to break before the gloves show decided signs of wear at any other point. do not delay in repairing even a very tiny open- ing in the seam, for this opening, unless securely mended, will quickly enlarge because of the readiness with which the broken stitching runs when there is even the slightest strain on it. to mend the finger of a glove, insert in it a glove stretcher, a pencil, -or the finger, to prevent the stitches from catching in the opposite side, and sew the seam edges together with fine overhand- ing-stitches, using for this purpose silk thread that matches the color of the glove. start to make these stitches i inch or more below the open seam and extend them an equal distance beyond the opening in order to catch the original stitching of the glove and prevent it from pulling out again. . mending a tear in a. glove.—because of the slight strain on the lengthwise seams in the fingers of kid gloves, they usually remain intact for some time, especially if they have been sewed with a firm, good quality of thread. however, there is considerable strain on the kid at the base of the fingers, and this often causes the kid to rip close to the seam where it has been weakened by the stitching. such a tear, if merely overhanded together, will cause still greater strain on the kid and consequently will soon become an unsightly rent. in mending such a tear, follow a method similar to the one illustrated in fig. . first, work all around the edges of the hole with buttonhole twist or heavy sewing silk, using single-purl buttonhole-stitches for this purpose. fill in the open space by fic. mending working one or more rows of these stitches, according to the number that are needed. take each new row of stitches through the loops of the preceding row. decrease the number of stitches toward the center and draw the stitches together at this point. then run the thread back through the lacework to the edge of the opening and fasten it securely. the buttonhole-stitches will provide the elasticity that is needed to prevent too decided a strain on the kid around the repaired space.- . mending the finger tips ’ silk or cotton gloves. although the finger tips of both silk and cotton gloves are generally made double, they usually show signs of wear very quickly. you can prolong the life of such gloves and also save considerable time and labor in mending if you take the proper precautions as soon as the tips appear a trifle thin. for reinforcing finger tips, use darning-stitches in the same manner as for reinforcing thin spots in stockings or garments. use a very fine needle and very fine matching thread in doing this work, so that there will be no great strain on the threads in the glove material when the needle is being drawn through; also, be sure to follow the weave of the material and make the stitches very small. if a portion of the outerilayer of the finger tip is worn away, secure the free edges of this to the under portion of the tip with darning-stitches, and then, with reinforcing stitches, cover the ‘ entire space over whichthere is only one thickness of material. . mending net, laces, and vei ing.—if there is a tear or a small worn spot in net, lace, or veiling, you may fill it in by simply using thread of a corresponding color and texture and imi- tating as closely as possible the mesh or pattern of the material. this method of mending, however, will prove tedious if the hole is large. in such a case, procure a patch of the same material, if possible, and apply it in the manner illustrated in fig. . to do this, cut the patch considerably larger than the opening and place it over the opening on the right side so that, at the sides of the hole, the mesh or pattern of the patch matches exactly the mesh or pattern of the net or lace. then, without turning under the edges of the patch, secure it to the net or lace underneath on the mesh lines or on the outline of the design. for this purpose, use a fine needle and fine thread of a color that exactly matches the color of the lace, and make tiny overhanding-stitches over the mesh, as at mending a, and single-purl buttonhole-stitches around the outline, as at b. do not follow a definite line in doing this work; rather, take the stitches in an irregular manner, as the illustration shows, in order to make the joining as inconspicuous as possible. after the patch has been secured on all sides, cut away the net or lace that extends outside of the stitches taken to hold the patch in position, cutting close to these stitches so that no frayed edges will remain. also, cut away, close to the stitches, the surplus underneath the patch. d p o .. ' " '..' q fm. in this condition, the mesh or the design in the fabric should appear unbroken. the illustration shows only a part of the surplus cut away. this method of mending net or lace may be applied likewise to piecing or seaming net or lace when an inconspicuous joining is desired. . mending torn or worn curtains.—a quick and satis- factory method of mending curtains consists in dipping a piece of matching material in cold starch, applying it wet over the hole so that the grain of the material or the mesh and pattern outlines match, and then pressing it with a hot iron. the pressing will cause the patch to adhere to the material and make the mended spot mending less conspicuous than a patch applied with stitching. you will have to repeat this process, however, each time the curtains are laundered, for the water will moisten the starch that holds the patch and cause it to loosen. . mending the worn lower edge of a skirt.—often a skirt wears out around the bottom before it becomes shabby anywhere else. its appearance can be considerably improved and its period of usefulness lengthened if the worn part at the lower edge __ _.;_ .- q-.,>._.._.- flo. is removed. to accomplish this, take out the stitches that secure the hem, turn the lower edge up a trifle more, and make the hem deeper; or, if necessary, cut the hem off at the lower edge and apply a facing. if, for some reason, you consider it impractical to remove the stitches that secure the hem, you may follow the method illus- trated in fig. . split the hem at the lower edge and turn the outside portion under % inch or a trifle less, as at a. slip a narrow bias strip of light-weight material, such as cambric, as at b, under this folded edge so that the edge of the strip is even with the fold, and baste this to the turned portion. then catch-stitch the raw edge of the turned portion to the cambric, as at c, catching merely the turned portion and the stay strip. finally, turn under the mending inside portion of the hem, as at d, so that it extends to within % inch of the lower edge and secure this with slip-stitching to the turned outside portion, as at e, taking care not to catch the stitches through the outside portion of the hem. . altering clothes for growing chi dren.—the prob- lem of continually altering garments is one that confronts practically every mother who has growing children. it is a simple matter to let down the hem in a skirt or a sleeve, provided sufficient allowance was made for such an alteration when the garment was originally cut, or to apply a facing if this will provide the necessary length. but to add even more length or to add width is a problem that must be carefully con- sidered in order not to mar the appearance of the garment. . to lengthen a skirt, if the lower edge of the hem is consider- ably worn or if the under side of the hem appears brighter than the right side, you may follow the method illus- trated in fig. . stitch a narrow tuck near the original hem turn, as at a; then apply the facing and secure the upper edge by turning it under just below the row of stitching that holds the tuck and stitching this edge, as at b. do not take this row of stitching through the tuck;-rather, take it under the tuck, as at c. the tuck, besides including the worn part of the hem, will make less noticeable the difference in the appearance of the two parts of the dress. the only disadvantage of this method is that it does not provide all the additional length that the letting down of a hem ordinarily gives; but, if you do not require the full hem width, you will find this method very satis- factory. when an extra piece of material must be used to provide suffi- cient length, conceal its joining in a tuck placed either above the mending hem or at its upper edge, according to the width of the new piece employed. this method may be applied also to the lengthening of a sleeve. . inserting a band of contrasting material by means of tucks, feather-stitching, lace, or machine hemstitching provides another method of lengthening a skirt or petticoat. consider carefully the effect of this addition on the appearance of the garment as a whole before deciding to insert any contrasting material, for this will provide a trimming detail that, unless carried out in some other part of the dress, might appear as a foreign note and thus accentuate its purpose. for instance, if you wish to lengthen a dress of sheer material with a band of contrasting color in the same material, you might make the joining less severe by joining the band with insertion and then carrying out a detail similar in effect but considerably narrower in width in the sleeve or waist portion. . to lengthen a slip or an underwaist and make it larger in the armhole, open the shoulder seams and join the shoulder edges by means of a piece of self-material or straps of ribbon, insertion, or ¢ tape, according to the quality and trimming of the garment. how- ever, do not make the straps so long that they make the armholes too deep or the neck line too low; rather, supply any additional length that is required in a slip by adding to the skirt portion, as previously suggested, or supply more length to an underwaist by adding to the lower edge. if you use straps of ribbon or insertion at the shoulders, taper the shoulder edges of the garment so that they will blend into these straps, and finish the pointed ends in a neat, attractive manner. by securing the straps with lazy-daisy stitches or french knots in forget-me-not design, you will provide a very firm and dainty joining. . to add width to an underwaist, the method of inserting tapes between slashed edges is especially satisfactory and makes the garment more comfortable for warm-weather wear. to add width in this manner, slash the underwaist the full length of the center front, bind the edges, and insert three pieces of tape, one at the upper edge, one at the lower edge, and one midway between the two. make these tapes long enough to provide the extra width that is needed, and secure the ends underneath the mending so that they will not tear out in the laundering. in doing the darning, be careful to take the stitches only through the interlining of the collar or culis and not through to the opposite side. thus, the fact that the collar and culfs are mended will not be evident from the right side when they are reversed. . to remedy badly worn sleeves and cufls on a boy's blouse, cut off the sleeves at the elbows and simply hem the lower edge of the short sleeves that remain. such blouses are suitable and very comfortable for summer wear and, besides, the short, loose sleeves provide greater freedom and relieve the strain across the shoulders, thus prolonging the life of the blouse. . to mend a man's shirt at the neck, where it is worn thin but not definitely broken through at the tender places by the points or edges of the collar, cut a piece off the tail of the shirt, place it neatly underneath the worn spots so that the stripes or figures match, and carefully darn this in place. if the places are badly worn, the most satisfactory way to mend them is by means of a set-in patch. . to mend a hole or tender place where buttons are pulled out, carefully darn a small piece of material underneath so as to give strength. then, when the button is sewed directly over the darned place, the mend will scarcely be visible. . to mend a man's summer underwear, which is usually made of soisette or coarse dimity, it is better to strengthen the torn place than just to sew it up. the most favored way to do this is to put a piece of soft muslin underneath, make a long stitch on the sewing machine, and darn back and forth with the machine stitch until the patch is neatly and securely attached to the garment. sometimes, such garments have a knitted section straight across the back of the waist line. the tearing of this usually indicates that the garment is short in the back, and a strip of material, say to inches in width, should be seamed in to prevent another tearing. l d l-- chapter ix household sewing aspects of homemaking . a simple but satisfactory branch of sewing consists in the making of attractive fabric furnishings for the home. even if there is only one room that one may call one’s home and that a bedroom, a cozy, home-like atmosphere may. be given to it by choosing the proper window decorations and floor coverings and by giving thought to counterpanes, pillows, scarfs, and other necessary furnishings, all of which can be made at home. . these articles have such a definite appeal for almost every one and as a result fashion has come to play an important part in their regulation. consequently, although fashion changes are not so rapid as in dress, they are of sufficient concern to necessitate their being considered and followed if rooms are to have a con- sistent, satisfying tone. to keep in touch with style changes in home furnishings should prove a simple, yet fascinating matter, as stores or departments carrying art goods, the home departments of magazines, and various catalogs offer, in season, many helpful suggestions and practical ideas. the displays will help the observing woman in exercising her own ingenuity to the end that, with sewing skill and right color combinations, delightfully satisfying results may be obtained. this is especially tme if she is enthusiastically interested in achiev- ing a definitely planned effect. . to make attractive articles for the home, it is essential to apply dressmaking skill to the sewing of them and artistic taste to their color and arrangement, ever remembering that cushions, over-draperies, scarfs, coverlets, and, in fact, all household fuinish- household sewing ings require more thought as to sewing deftness and color appro- priateness than as to sewing exactness. the same principle applies here as to millinery, for instance, for it is a well known fact that an artistic milliner can often produce more unusual, yet satisfying, results than a dressmaker who may be tempted to plan and sew for service rather than for effect. . this chapter is designed to help you by advising you as to materials and styles for articles that are made in the home, as well as to explain such construction details as the correct widths of hems, the required amount of fulness, and the right proportions for them. it is expected that the sewing skill you acquire from the instruction books will qualify you to develop any of the articles described or any others that you may especially desire. table lin ens pure linen . fresh linen a sign of hospitality.—much romance is associated with the white, satiny cloth of hospitality—linen. every home, however, cannot afford beautiful linens, and yet all homes can be hospitable with a clean cloth always in readiness for even the unexpected meal-time guest. . scope of linens.—when linens are considered, you perhaps visualize the exquisite french linens that are so beautifully designed and are so leathery and firm to the touch. or you may think of the table linens that are elaborately embroidered and trimmed with real lace, such as lunch, breakfast, and tea cloths. then, too, you may think of dinner cloths that are monogrammed but not often lace trimmed, or banquet clothes that are usually the reverse. all such linens have their place, but the average woman is con- cerned chiefly with the selection of much less pretentious linens. if she can have only one dinner cloth, she should choose this with the greatest care as to appropriateness, endeavoring to make the best selection from the many designs and qualities offered. . some housewives buy unbleached linen and bleach it them- selves by wetting it and placing it on the lawn in the direct rays of the sun. this is a very practical way of saving money and prolonging the life of linen. artificial bleaching often weakens the household sewing linen fiber, and although not all linens are bleached in this way, a stronger fabric may be had if the bleaching is done at home. . table linen may be procured silver-bleached as well as unbleached. the former has three different grades, quarter, half, and three-quarters. in the purchase of linen, either unbleached or silver-bleached, it is well to remember that a good, medium quality has threads to the inch. - linen substitutes . mercerized damask.—good linen is expensive, so many housewives purchase mercerized damask or cotton for table cloths. for ordinary use, these substitutes prove very satisfactory, but as the mercerization disappears with laundering, the cloths become dull and often present an unsatisfactory appearance. a linen cloth for which one pays only a third to a half more than for a mercer- ized one is usually less expensive, and certainly more gratifying, in the long run because of its appearance and the length of time it can be used when carefully laundered and mended. . heavy cottons.—certain heavy cottons, both white and colored, such as crash or imitation linens of plain or novelty weave, make interesting cloths or runners with napkins to match, and they add an attractive touch to the porch, lunch, or tea table. these may be finished with a crocheted edge, with a cross-stitched or blanket-stitched hem, by drawing threads of the material and replacing them with colored threads to form a hem line or design, or in any of the numerous other ways that fashion may suggest from time to time. size of linen pieces . table cloths.-—the size of table linens depends on the size of the dining table. the following measurements are given to help you when selecting cloths: wmrn . length incrnss incmzs - to to to to to household sewing used occasionally for every-day wear to keep them white. as an economical measure, this is worth trying, but there is, of course, a charm about an unbroken length on a dinner table which can be produced only by the use of one cloth. . saving linens from wear.—there is also the matter of getting the maximum wear out of linen. table cloths usually wear out where they fall over the table edge and along the creases in which they are habitually folded, leaving some parts only half worn. many women use the better sections of the cloth to make napkins and tray cloths for every-day use. . _ a good way to prevent a line of wear along the creases is to cut inch from one end and one side of the cloth, just as it begins to wear, so as to bring all of the creases in new places, and then to refinish these edges. kitchen linens . articles included under kitchen linens.—in many households, kitchen linens do not receive their due share of atten- tion, but they are of sufficient importance to demand considera- tion. these linens fall naturally into several classes; dish towels, dish cloths, hand towels, and oven towels, if one does not use pot holders. . dish towels generally include checked glass toweling, crash toweling, and flour and sugar sacks. . glass toweling makes very satisfactory towels because it leaves no lint on articles wiped with it. it is, however, rather light in weight and soon becomes wet. . crash toweling has, in many homes, been entirely supplanted for dish towels by flour and sugar bags, and not unjustly so, for the cost of these bags is small and after a few launderings the material is as soft and absorbent as the crash toweling. . some housewives find the cheap grades of turkish towels, or terry cloth, most satisfactory for dishes. these towels are soft to handle, absorb moisture quickly, and leave no lint. . hand towels of linen crash find favor in most homes. household sewing . dish cloths should be of some porous material, such as cheesecloth, that can be wrung very dry when necessary. knitted cloths of soft cotton are ideal, or the good parts of worn towels may be hemmed for dish cloths. in some stores, it is possible to pur- chase dish cloths of square mesh that are most satisfactory. oven cloths may be of the same material as dish cloths. . weekly supply of kitchen linens.—the essential thing in preparing kitchen linens is to provide a supply that will be suffi- cient to insure absolute cleanliness. the following is a good basis on which to begin: dish towels may be glass towels may be crash towels oven cloths hand towels dish cloths . applying tape hangers.—for convenience, kitchen and hand towels should be provided with hangers. these are ..:~\\.\»w\~.\-___+ ‘c/% \\s\\'_\'\~\- fro. generally made of tape and are applied merely at one corner or at two corners that are directly opposite, in the manner illustrated in fig. . after turning the hem but before securing it, pin a piece of tape about inches long in position, as at a, taking care that the loop end folds, as at b; next, turn the ends at c inside the hem. household sewing if the hem is to be put in by hand, then overhand the tape as at d, taking the stitches from the hem side along the upper ends and the sides of the tape and then from the right side to secure the tape along the lower edge of the hem. if the hem is to be machine stitched, stitch the tape as at e. if you prefer not to have the loop end open, overhand or stitch it flat, as at f. bathroom linens . bath towels, as a rule, are made of terry cloth, that is, turkish toweling. if time permits, the terry cloth may be pur- chased by the yard and made into bath towels, but this is rarely an economy, as the ready-made towels can be purchased at a moderate cost. . hand towels may be made of linen, cotton, mercerized cotton, or turkish toweling, but the most favored ones are made of linen. the cotton in huckaback, plain or diaper pattern, often becomes gray and, unless carefully laundered, stays dingy. the turkish hand towels, because of their roughness, are preferred by some people. - . guest towels are made of the same materials as hand towels. occasionally, colored-linen guest towels are in vogue, and at such time colored linen can be purchased in towel width suit- able for hemming and ornamenting. . size of towels.—the size of towels varies greatly. the guest size, which is smallest, is about by inches; the hand or face towel, to inches by to inches; and the bath towel, generally by inches. . supply of towels.—it is a good idea to have a compara- tively large number of guest towels if you do much entertaining, for the laundering of the small towel takes much less time than that of the large one. the following supply of towels is usually adequate for a home: hand towels per person bath towels per person guest towels - household sewing . wash cloths.—turkish face cloths made of unworn parts of old towels, finished with plain hems or crocheted edges are very satisfactory for wash cloths. if you prefer, face cloths made of knitted material or terry cloth may be purchased ready-made. . bath mats.—bath mats are generally made of very heavy terry cloth or a soft cotton pile fabric resembling velvet carpet. they are woven in attractive designs or plain colors and vary considerably in size. it is generally advisable to purchase such mats ready-made. bed linens and furnishings mattress covers and pads . mattress covers.—covers for mattresses are usually made of a good, heavy grade of unbleached muslin, and consequently can be laundered easily and often. to keep the ticking of the mat- tress fresh and clean and thus add to both its appearance and its hygienic value, mattress covers have been devised. . to make a mattress cover, cut two pieces of muslin the width and length of the mattress to be covered, plus % to inches for seams so as to insure an easy-fitting cover. then cut two long strips of muslin the length of the mattress and the width of the depth of the mattress plus seam allowance and two shorter strips equal in length to the width of the mattress and as wide as its depth plus seam allowance. sew the long strips to the sides and the shorter strips to the ends of the large pieces with a plain or french seam to form a boxed cover. one end should be left open so that the mattress may be slipped in and the cover then closed with coarse hand sewing or strong snap fasteners. . mattress pads.—many housewives find the use of pads a satisfactory protection to mattresses and use them either alone or in addition to mattress covers. pads are made somewhat smaller than the mattress over which they are used—about inches both in width and in length—and they are finished in much the same way as a quilt except that they must be more closely and firmly quilted. occasionally, the knotted pad is used, but it must be very closely tied to make it satisfactory. mattress pads may also be purchased ready-made for regulation-sized beds. household sewing . another practice often resorted to as a mattress protection is the use of worn quilts. after a light-colored cotton quilt has become worn, the sides and ends may be cut away and the edges neatly bound. these quilts, of course, are not so firm and pad-like as the regular pads, but they afford a very satisfactory protection. sheets . materials.—linen is the luxurious material for sheets and pillow cases, but few housewives can afford it for general use. cot- ton sheeting, if of medium weight, is more economical and gives perfect satisfaction. light-weight muslin becomes wrinkled and wears out quickly, while the heavy grades are often hard to handle in laundering. . measurements.—one of the most important things to remember, when making or buying sheets, is to have them suffi- ciently large to cover the mattress and to tuck under on all four sides. then they can be put on with mitered corners in true hos- pital style. to meet all its requirements, a sheet should be %to %yard longer and wider than the mattress. sheeting may be purchased by the yard in various widths. in the stores in some localities, the sales- people speak of the width of sheets in the number of quarter yards in width; that is, -inch sheeting would be called “seven four;" inches or yards, “eight four”; and so on. sheeting may be obtained in - and -inch widths, also. . sheets may be purchased ready-made, if desired, in sizes that are right for regulation-size of beds. the sizes are as follows: sizes sizes incnss inches by by by by by by by s by s . repair of sheets.—occasionally, a sheet becomes torn in the corner where it comes in contact with the spring of the bed. the best method of mending this kind of tear is to patch it neatly. household sewing single-bed sheets become very thin and sometimes tear through the center while the outer edges are still very strong. an easy method of repairing such a sheet is to cut it in half lengthwise through the thin section, lap the two selvage edges about iinch, stitch them down flat with the sewing machine, and then hem the raw edges. the life of the sheet may be prolonged considerably when repaired in this way, for the selvage edges will receive the hard wear and the worn part will be tucked under at the sides. in cases where large sheets are badly worn in the center, it is often economical to cut them down to fit smaller beds by splitting them through the thin portion, joining the two selvage edges as previously suggested, and then cutting away as much as possible of the worn part before hemming the raw edges. pillow cases . material for home-made slips.—-some persons use linen for pillow cases, especially if they are embroidered or trimmed in some way, but generally pillow cases, or pillow slips, are made of muslin tubing that is woven double without a seam. the tubing comes only in - and -inch widths, so that if neither of these fits the width of the pillow it is better to make cases from ordinary muslin. . ready-made slips.—ready-made slips may be pur- chased in stock sizes. in a good grade, they are very satisfactory, but they are more expensive than home-made ones. another dis- advantage is that they are sometimes made on the cross of the material, a feature that makes them difficult to iron and also takes away from their life. the sizes of ready-made pillow cases are" - sizes. inches by as by as by % . repairing of pillow- cases.—if pillow cases made of tubing are worn thin in the center, their life may be lengthened by cutting across the seam end, turning the lengthwise creases, or household sewing either in blocks or in strips. then-, too, there are the attractive crocheted spreads made of alternate strips of linen and coarse crochet. unbleached muslin spreads with strips of cretonne as a trimming and those having appliquéd or embroidered designs are sometimes in vogue and often used to carry out a definite color scheme. flounced counterpanes, usually of light-weight material, are used for colonial or box beds. . it is sometimes the fashion to make a light-weight counter- pane from to % yards longer than a regulation spread so as to be able to draw it up over the pillows. when used in this way, it is tucked in at the bottom and top of the pillows and gives the-appear- ance of a roll. unattached pillow spreads to match the counterpane may be made of a separate strip of material. these are usually the width of the counterpane and from % to yard wide. . manufactured spreads.—the manufactured bedspreads are of four types: marseilles, satin marseilles, piqué, and seersucker, the latter being generally termed dimity spreads. . marseilles spreads are heavy and are made of a soft cot- ton thread, generally in stripes or honeycomb effect, and, as a rule, have elaborate raised floral designs and a background of slightly raised figures. . satin marseilles spreads are lighter in weight and very much firmer in texture than marseilles spreads, ‘and have a smooth background with figures that stand out very plainly. these spreads have a highly mercerized finish that gives them a smooth, satin-like appearance. . pique spreads have, as would be supposed, a fine, rib- like effect. . dimlty spreads are light in weight and have a striped, crinkled appearance. such spreads are frequently used in hospitals because they are so easily laundered. . sizes of manufactured spreads.—these manufactured spreads are woven in the following sizes: household sewing sizes iucnss for single bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { by by for three-quarter or double bed when spread is tucked in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . by for double bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . by for extra-size bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . by . repairing manufactured spreads.—the mending of a manufactured spread is sometimes a problem. the best method of mending the -marseilles and piqué spreads is to darn them by means of dexter cotton of- a size that matches the thread of the spread. the seersucker spreads can be inconspicuously patched. blanke'i s . wool blankets.—for cool nights, a supply of bedding that will provide warmth and yet be‘ light in weight is required. for this purpose, nothing is more satisfactory than wool blankets, as cotton blankets do not have the warmth in proportion to their weight that wool blankets possess. yet, the greater the percentage of wool, the greater the care that must be exercised in washing the blanket. between the pure cotton and the -per cent. pure wool blanket, there are many grades. in a well-heated house, blankets of medium percentage, say to per cent. pure wool, are perfectly satis- factory. . binding blankets.—two blankets are usually woven in one piece, but most housewives cut them into two separate ones for ease in handling and then finish the cut edge either with blanket-stitching or with a binding. a popular method of finishing consists in using a ribbon binding that matches or harmonizes with the stripe in the blanket. this is basted over the edge so that the ribbon edge on the wrong side of the blanket extends , —,-, to % inch beyond that of the ribbon edge on the right side. then both edges are caught by stitching from the right side of the blanket. ~ - besides ribbon, there is on the market a blanket binding that may be applied in the sa.me manner as the ribbon. household sewing . blanket sizes.—blankets are manufactured in the follow- ing sizes: sizes incmzs ’f - lbd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..{ °by ° or sing e e by for three-quarter bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . for double bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { by by . repairing blankets.—the mending of blankets can best be accomplished by darning. by the time a blanket is in a condition necessitating mending, most of the nap has worn off so that the da.rned place does not appear very different from the blanket itself. in some cases, a set-in patch may be necessary, and if the patching is neatly done it will prove very satisfactory. comfortables . material.—so attractive are the materials for home-made comfortables and so pleasing are the results that can be gained, that many homemakers make their own comfortables. materials that may be used for this purpose are cotton challis, silkaline, seco silk, cheesecloth, and even light-weight cretonne. many persons prefer the cheesecloth for wool-clipping filled com- fortables, for they can be washed easily. cotton or wool batting and sheet wool are also used as fillings. down is a very soft, light filling found in some of the ready-made comfortables and much used in home-made ones. these materials may be bought in large bats of two or three pounds, which unfold into a square and prove especially satisfactory for comfortables that are to be tied because they insure a smooth, unbroken surface. . quilting frames.—one of the essentials in the making of comfortables and quilts is a quilting frame. such a frame consists of four sticks, each about feet long and on one edge of which narrow strips of ticking have been tacked, and four clamps for holding the sticks together at the corners. the frame should be placed so that its corners have the proper support and it is held at a height that is convenient for the worker. the backs of chairs make very good supports for this purpose. household sewing . tying comfortables.—when a comfortable of figured material is to be tied, usually the pattern can be used as a guide for the placing of the ties. when plain material is employed, a paper guide, as shown in fig. , should be made. fm. decide on the number of inches you wish between the ties, this usually varying from to inches, and then cut a strip of paper of this width and notch it at the proper intervals. for example, if the distance between the ties is to be inches, the paper strip fm. should be cut inches wide and as long as the width of the comfort- able and then notched on each edge every inches. place one edge of the guide along the edge of the comfortable and pin it securely in place. then put in the ties at every notch indicated on the guide. household sevving o. thread for tying comfortab es.—f r tying com- fortables, various threads are used, such as wool yarn, ribbonzine, heavy mercerized floss, and even baby ribbon. occasionally, dexter cotton and wool yarn are used together, the cotton tying the two thicknesses of the comfortable together and the wool being used to make small rosettes that are tied with the cotton to the comfortable. these rosettes, when cut, are very fluffy and give a desirable finish to the comfortable. the tiny bows of ribbonzine shown at b, fig. , make very attrac- tive ties. to prevent the bow from coming untied, it is advisable to take an extra stitch through the bow, as indicated by the needle at c in the illustration. . edge finishing for comfortables.—after the tying of the comfortable is complete, the edges must be finished. for fancy comfortables, the two raw edges are turned in fiat and sewed together by the machine or by couch-stitching. sometimes two to five rows of machine or hand stitching are placed around the entire edge of the comfortable, the spacing between the rows of stitching being made from to inches apart. a binding is a very common method of finishing. then, too, if the lining, or the back, is made or % inches larger than the top portion, the lining can be turned over the top to give the appearance of a binding. pieced and appliqued quilts . the term quilt is generally used to designate a bed covering made by stitching together, in a certain design, two layers of cloth or patchwork and an interlining. the stitching, or quilting, may be worked over the surface in plain figures or it may follow very complicated designs, and it may be done by hand or by machine. . filling for qu lts.—for filling quilts, ordinary cotton batting may be used, but for quilts upon which very fine work is to be done, cotton sheet wadding is preferred because of its smoothness and lack of bulkiness. oftentimes worn blankets may be very satisfactorily used as the filling for quilts. . origin of pieced qui ts.—few of the present generation have a large store of pieced quilts, as those were made in bygone days when materials were considered more valuable than time or household sewing at least as much so. then, all materials were woven on hand looms, -and naturally the scraps that were left after the finishing of a garment were prized. the larger pieces were generally used for patchwork quilts, while the smaller pieces were cut and sewed for carpets and rugs. though comfortables have largely supplanted quilts, it is not unusual to find persons at the present time who make very beautiful patchwork quilts. many elaborate patterns are used for these pieced quilts. some of them have appliquéd, or top-sewed, patches, as they were called when fashion introduced them. . piecing of quilts.—quilt piecing has always been considered good as practice work for beginners in sewing because of the accuracy that is necessary in cutting and stitching. to have a wholly satisfactory quilt, jagged joinings must not exist. a careful worker will take great pains to have all blocks the same to - ; inch, which means that each piece for a block must be cut true with the grain of the cloth and sewed together with even seams. then, in putting the blocks together, more care than in piecing is necessary so that the blocks will meet exactly at all points. to insure this, many pins should be used along the line of seaming. . the piecing of a quilt usually follows some geometric design, unless it is of the crazy-patch type, where the pieces, just as they are, are sewed together or basted on a lining large enough to form the quilt. the edges of the joinings in pieced quilts are often covered with catch-stitching or other fancy embroidery stitches. at one time, all pieced quilts were made entirely by hand, but at the pres- ent time quilts are often pieced by machine. . material for back of quilt.—the back of a quilt of wash material may be white or of a color that matches the promi- nent color or tint in the piece-work. the material of the back should be soft and in keeping with that used in the piecing, as fabrics similar in texture will quilt together much more easily than if one is over-firm or flimsy. . setting up the quilt.—for hand-quilting, the pieced top is set together complete, the size of this determining the size of the bottom piece. when the bottom piece is seamed together, both the top and the bottom should be pressed carefully from the wrong side so that both are entirely smooth. then the bottom household sewing piece is put in the frames with the seams up and covered with a very smooth, thin layer of cotton or filling. the top is carefully laid on so as not to disturb the cotton in any way and it is neatly stretched in place just the same as for a comfortable. . marking for quilting.—when this is done, the markings should be made for quilting. these are usually made with faint- colored chalk, the idea being to use a color of chalk that will not discolor the fabric enough to be evident after the quilting is com- pleted. some use the chalk free-hand in marking a design, but the safer and more accurate way is to prepare a pattern of heavy-weight paper, shaping it just as you want the quilted lines to appear, and then use this as a guide in marking the design, which may be square, diamond, fan, or feather shape, the feather shape being, perhaps, one of the most difficult designs to do. if the top is an appliquéd one, the marking may be omitted as the quilting may be done around the appliqué designs and the spaces between then filled in with square or diamond quilting. . procedure in hand quilting.—after the design is marked, thread a no. or sewing needle with medium-weight thread, usually white. the good quilter takes just enough thread in the needle at one time to do one marking or space, so that she has fresh thread for each row and no beginnings in the middle of a row of quilting. to start the quilting, tie a small knot in the thread and pull the knot through the fabric so that it is imbedded in the cotton and entirely concealed. proceed then with the quilt- ing, which is, in reality, running-stitches, always making sure that each stitch comes through all thicknesses. the left forefinger usually follows underneath to make sure of this; consequently, it is advisable to wear a small piece of adhesive tape or a bandage or a second thimble to protect the finger from needle pricks. when the row of quilting is done or the needleful of thread is used, finish it over with two or three tiny back-stitches, which should hold it securely. . procedure in machine quilting.—quilts of plain mate- rial are often quilted by machine in squares or diamonds, or with lengthwise stitching, the quilting being done easily with a quilter as a guide. to prepare the quilt for machine quilting, put it in the frames in the regular way. after it is stretched tightly in place, start household sewing to roll from one side, turning the roll over toward the top of the quilt. as the quilt is rolled, the end pieces of the quilting frames may be taken out, leaving just the two side strips. one of these may be slipped under the arm of the sewing machine. then the quilter is adjusted to mark the desired width and the quilting started. the roll will serve to keep the quilt in position while the quilting is being done. quilt the material with lengthwise stitching, extending the quilting across the entire width. then remove the side pieces of the frames and put the quilt on the machine and quilt it in diamonds or in squares, as you choose. . in machine quilting, a long stitch is often a temptation because the stitching can be completed more quickly, but a medium- length stitch is much more attractive and much more satisfactory when the quilt is completed. some prefer to use a short stitch and then to stretch the quilt a little bit as the stitching is being done to give a medium-length stitch. this will avoid any breaking in the stitching line which might occur after the quilt is finished if the stitching is not elastic enough. dohies, runners , scarfs . fashion is very solicitious about such details of home furnishing as doilies, runners, and scarfs, and justly so, for they play an important part in protecting furniture, in bringing out beautiful color effects, in keeping a room harmonious, and in attaining the unusual touch so much desired. all kinds of materials are employed for such articles, from leather and felt to delicate silks and laces. fashion usually dictates when these materials should be used, but the general character of the room should be taken into consideration if the best results are to be attained. . doilies vary in size and shape and should be made to agree with the furniture on which they are to be used and to afford the protection that they are expected to give. they are generally made round or oval, of white or ecru linen, and with embroidered or lace-trimmed edges. . runners and scarfs are similar to doilies so far as materials are concerned, but they are generally made to match the household sewing they furnish a special means of giving windows an individual touch and vary from the straight gathered ruffles, known as the shirred valances, or dutch effect, to the fitted, shaped finishes trimmed with puffings or braid and hung plain or having their fulness laid in plaits of various kinds. these may be put on a rod if the design permits, or they may be fastened to valance boards, which are especially made to fit in box-like fashion over the top of a window. l r if types of \vindo\vs mm \-,, . door windows. in the approach to a home, the door is the first thing to attract attention; consequently, the decorat- . - - ing should be such as to create a pleas- , ¢ ing impression. j numerous window designs are found i in doorways and each presents an m interesting problem. the doorway ‘ illustrated in fig. gives an idea for the treatment of a center- and side- window arrangement, but the same idea may be carried out where there is only one window. sheer net cur- tains are shirred top and bottom on . |wm: , i rods having a -inch heading above ll n : ¢i l and below the rods. this heading fm- gives an attractive finish, but it may be omitted if desired and the curtain shirred on without a heading. ;- o-i lllllllllll ill ll! ll i l i ls l -< y )- k x ( x x x x ill”) llllll . .->:><‘>€ '<> >. ~;>‘;;<l-¢><>:=-.-.<x><>;>~:>:x><>:><>-;><>:>=><»<><a.,- > ~mmmlu.i:|aumum _ | household sevving _ . living-room or dining-room windows.—in many homes, there is the ordinary rectangular window that, because of its simplicity, needs as careful consideration as windows of unusual design require. windows of this type are very often treated in the dutch _ fashion, as i lus- " ‘- - - ___ trated in fig. . - ii the curtains and valance are made with a loose casing and a -inch head- ing above the rod, and the valance is hung between the curtains. this treatment may be varied by placing the valance on a separate rod and letting it extend the full width of the window over the cur- tain, a plan often followed when the surrounding conditions make it inadvisable to use overdraperies. in such a case, the heading on the curtains may be omitted as the top of the curtains is entirely covered by the valance. *#‘.?-.-e“n- it‘ /jg rmnzirnuanmnf mrflfm " * ?) ii‘ " ..‘ . s~\‘ku -- -. \'-.a z;x~ssst'\:l\:'- i .;. g - . - i~rwym l; - "ll .; t :i*:lll<lllrllml i s .. ., . ........ .. .._.s--._-.h|llflli_.'-:mil. _ ihi ._ mm '-:‘\ ‘'-|]'-‘ ' |l-."|" ‘||] -~ my ‘] [|. fm. ~ - --. .. > . .. l‘ |’ ' -| -mi ‘n- i \ . bay windows.—the bay window is another type that requires special consideration in the matter of curtains or draperies, and many are the ways to arrange such a window attractively. one pleasing and very simple method of treatment is shown in fig. . glass curtains of sheer net or marquisette are hung at the windows and overdraperies that reach to the floor are hung at each end. if the space should be broken, overdraperies may be hung between the windows, also, as shown here. for variety, the end curtains may be drawn back and held in place by a cord or band. the valance is shirred and placed on a separate shaped rod, which extends the width of the bay. household sewing this treatment may be varied by hanging panel curtains at the windows and by using a plaited valance, rather than a shirred one. . french d ors.—the french door affords an opportunity to add an artistic touch to a room. this is especially interesting in the summer home where the doors open into a sun parlor. a very effective treatment is shown in fig. , where net is shirred on rods at the top and bottom of the door, with a heading above and below the rods. these curtains cover only the glass in the doors. the overdraperies, if used, may be made with a shirred or plaited heading and hung from a rod placed just under the cornice, or top of the door. if, desired, the net curtains may be hung from a top rod and left free at the lower edge. . the glass curtains are some- times omitted, especially in country ¢ homes where the outlook is pleasing. ¢ in such a case, bright-colored curtains - in harmony with the surroundings prove very satisfactory. . kitchen windows.—in many homes, it is considered a needless expense to hang curtains at the kitchen windows, but even if only a kitchenette is to be considered, there is probably no other room in the house in which more time is spent and which, therefore, should be made as cheerful and attractive as possible. and curtains help considerably to give an air of coziness that is very delightful in this room. curtains of firm scrim, marquisette, fine gingham, light-weight unbleached muslin, swiss, voile, or a good quality of cheesecloth are suitable for kitchens and will hold up under the strain of frequent laundering and the steam vapors that are inevitable in a kitchen. . the easiest and most satisfactory treatment for kitchen windows is to hang the curtains straight from a rod at the top of household sewing the window to the sill. this method, which permits the curtains to be laundered with less labor, is always followed when the windows are small and high, as over a sink i i s . bathroom windows. the window treatments discussed for the kitchen may be satisfac- torily applied to bathroom win- dows also. the chief require- ments are to have the arrange- ment simple and the material such as can be laundered easily. . bedroom windows. another interesting problem is planning for the bedroom win- dows. the outstanding feature of such windows should be dainti- ness, and probably no treatment emphasizes this point better than rufiled curtains, as shown in fig. . novelty or a ruffie-edged band, as illustrated. p i i lvmm- ~ - ._ am m \ - - _ _ :_ : ' e i \~. :\.ummw@m:.m,l:lfi||m, i if hung i . ' or other kitchen equipment. in the case of windows of regu- lar size having both upper and lower sections, the curtains are often hung from the middle sash over only the lower part. the light admitted is too intense and it is advisable to keep the upper half of the window covered, two sets of curtains may be used v y, effectively, as shown in fig. , one hanging from the top to the middle sash and the other from the middle sash to the sill. but if it - -‘l l ‘ °; such curtains may be hung straight or held back with a straight, they should just clear the sill, but when held back they should measure about inches longer in order to allow for drawing back. household sewing . bedroom-window curtains are especially attractive when made of dotted swiss or cross-bar marquisette. the width of the ruffle is a matter of choice, but % to inches is a good general width. the outer edge of the rufile may be turned in a narrow hem or it may be picoted and the other edge gathered and joined to the curtain in a fell seam. this gives a neat, smooth finish. another method of making the ruffle consists in finishing both edges alike and then gathering the ruffle on to the curtain so as to leave a tiny heading beyond the stitching. this gives a very pleasing efiect and requires only one row of stitching. if ruffled curtains are not desired, simple straight curtains with plain hems, lace, or braid are very satisfactory for bedrooms. . casement windows.—many housewives have the inter- esting problem of decorating casement windows. fig. shows a very simple but pleasing treatment of such windows. the curtains, which are made of i: net, have no head- _ { ing and reach just ‘.‘ to the sill of the - window. they are h . ~i-~¢ui-~|+ii o it ll e - ~ i = ‘ placed on the inside gé’llll‘ll'l'l'-‘l‘‘''lllllllll--l'lllllllll-lll-llmlllllllllllm|mi.‘|un|u||||'|nmmi|-u-:"-:||||m||n-"um - | \ ' ‘ ' ‘ a . rod. the valance ll ‘ ‘ ' and side curtains are made with a heading and are placed on the outside rod. in this case, the over- draperies should come at least to the lower edge of the window frame. this treatment of a group of windows may be successfully used also where casement windows are placed above built-in furniture, such as bookcases or buffets. .-. f . curtain making measuring for curtains . accuracy in measurements is absolutely essential to insure correct results in finished curtains. a yardstick should always be used in preference to a tape measure as the tape is apt to stretch and cause incorrect measurements. in the taking of measurements, consideration must be given to the type of window and the position of the fixtures. usually, household sewing measurements are taken from the top of the rod the desired length of the finished curtain and to this measurement is added sufficient allowance for hems and headings. preparing materials . cutting.—the most important point in preparing material for curtains is to cut it straight. all materials are woven evenly, but in the process of bleaching or finishing or placing them on a bolt, they are sometimes stretched and appear crooked when measured off. if this is the case, pull the material carefully on the bias, and then measure the proper length on the selvage and draw a thread. this crosswise mark will serve as a guide for accurate cutting. . preserving the freshness ‘ materials.—as a great deal of handling deprives materia of its “new look,” it is advisable to handle the material as little as possible in the making of the curtains. this can be accomplished by basting only where abso- lutely necessary. by pinning the hems in place and pressing them with a moderately hot iron, much basting can be omitted and the material will retain its stifiness instead of looking limp and stringy when hung. soft materials that have no body require careful basting to hold the hems in position. allowance for finishes . width of headings.—the proper allowance for head- ings is an important feature of curtain-making. for the average or ordinary window, this allowance is governed by at least three fac- tors, the weight of the material, the fulness of the curtain, and the position of the fixture on the window. a good standard is inch, although heavier materials may have a wider heading. in no case should the heading be allowed to extend above the window frame nor made so wide that it will droop over. . width of casings.—a common error in curtain making is to have the casing too narrow for the rod to slip through easily. this point cannot be too strongly emphasized, for if the casing is tight the curtain will be damaged when the rod is inserted. an allowance of % inches at the top of a curtain permits a -inch heading and leaves a generous casing that will accommodate either household sewing a round or a flat rod. a narrower casing may be used, but it- is advisable to have the width of the casing twice that of the rod. a thimble or a glove finger placed over the end of a round rod will allow the curtain to slip over the rod easily and avoid any danger of tearing the material. . allowance for sh:-inkage.—in materials that are apt to shrink, an allowance should be made at the top of the curtain. this may be done by allowing twice the amount for heading and casing and turning it double; then, as the curtain shrinks in launder- ing, it may be altered from the top. some materials do not com- plete their entire shrinkage in the first laundering and must, there- fore, be altered more than once. . width of hems.—the next thing to be considered is the width of the hems. this width is usually a matter of taste, but % to inches is very satisfactory in almost every case. the hems on the bottom and the inside edges should be the same width. sometimes the lower hem is made wider than the inside hem, but the curtains are better balanced and give a neater appearance if the hems are uniform. . allowance for fulness.—providing proper fulness for curtains is an important factor, for the charm of a window is often lost by having the curtains too full or too scant. several points govern the fulness, namely, the width of the window, the weight of the material, and the size of the pattern. for the average window, one and one-half times the width of the window gives a lfulness that is satisfactory. in many cases, the material is sheer and the pattern small, and more fulness would give a softer appearance; then it is advisable to allow twice the width for fulness. for example, a window inches in width, on which sheer material is used, should be hung with two widths of -inch material. this is the average narrow width of curtain material and on a window of this size it allows twice the amount for fulness. if -inch material is used, two widths would be sufficient if the material is of a rather heavy quality, as they would allow one and one-half times for fulness. material inches wide is rare, how- ever, and is not used in very many cases. the average-width material is to inches. very often such material is too wide to use two full widths, and if split would household sewing be too narrow. in such an event, it is necessary to cut the material so as to obtain the proper fulness. . for overdraperies, the material usually measures to inches in width. if -inch material is used, a full width is needed for each side curtain, provided the material is soft and light in weight. heavy materials must be cut narrow enough to hang gracefully. while -inch material is more expensive, it often proves more economical in the end as it can be split for side curtains and thus requires less material than narrower widths. it is always neces- sary, of course, to consider the size of the window and the kind of material that is to be used before cutting the widths for over- draperies. finishing curtains . in the making of curtains, both hand and machine stitching play an important part. because of the evenness of the stitching and the necessity for less handling, machine stitching is usually preferred to hand stitching, except in cases where unusual lace bandings or medallions, which seem to require hand work, are to be inserted. if the machine is to be used, however, the stitch should be fairly loose and should be lengthened enough to prevent puckering. . applying lace.—when a lace edge is applied to a cur- tain, it is placed in just far enough on the curtain to hold securely. great care must be taken to ease the edge when applying the lace in order to have the curtains hang properly. if the edge is held tight, it will cause the curtains to draw up and hang very unevenly. . applying braid.—two methods may be employed in applying braid. in the first, the braid is applied by machine to the outer edge of the curtain. as in the case of lace edging, the braid should be eased a trifle to prevent drawing. fringe, also, may be applied in this manner. in the second method, the braid is placed in on the curtain the width of the hem. if you wish to use this method, baste the hem in position and then baste the braid along the same line. next, secure the braid and hem at the same time with very small run- ning-stitches on both edges of the braid. in turning the braid at the corner, miter it. ld - household sewing is necessary. if space between the plaits is desired, it is usually made the same as the width of the plait. . the pinch-plaited valance is made in the same way as the box-plaited valance, but the finished box plaits are pinched up into three or more equal parts that stand out rather than lie flat. these plaits are tacked together for from to inches below the top of the valance so that they hold securely. a valance of this type is hung on the rod by small rings sewed to the back of each plait far enough below the top of the heading to conceal them. - this method of providing fulness may be used at the top of curtains as well as in valances. it is especially appropriate for draw curtains. . the plain valance is more difficult to make than the other valances, because in nearly every case it requires a facing and a wooden or beaver-board frame to which the valance may be secured. many attractive designs may be worked out in a valance of this type by shaping the lower edge in various ways. curtain fixtures . curtain rods are made either round or flat, and may be had in single-, double-, or triple-rod fixtures. such fixtures should be placed as close as possible to the outer edge of the window frame, as it is advisable to have all of the frame covered by the curtains. . the single-rod fixture is used where there are no overdraperies or where the dutch-window treatment is used. . a double-rod fixture may be used where the valance hangs between the overcurtains. in using this fixture, place the glass curtains on the inner rod and the overdraperies on the outer rod. . when the valance of the overdraperies extends the entire width of the window, it is advisable to use a triple-rod fixture. in such a fixture, the inner rod is for the glass curtain, the middle one, for the overcurtains, and the outer one, for the valance. if it is not convenient to purchase a fixture of this type, a double-rod fixture may be used for the glass curtains and overcurtains and the valance secured to a frame placed above the window, as in the case of the plain valance, or fastened to the outer rod by means of hooks. household sewing . materials for rugs.—the preparation of carpet rags requires considerable time, but such attractive rugs can be made of scraps that would otherwise be of no value that the time spent in preparing the rags is used to good advantage. old stockings, undergarments, and dress materials of all kinds can be utilized in making carpet rags, the beauty of the rugs being often enhanced by the difference in texture. . carpet weaving.—although weavers are not so numerous as in olden days, it is usually possible to locate a weaver who will make attractive rugs at a moderate cost. it is always advisable to examine some of the work done by a weaver before giving him materials for rugs. sometimes unpleasantness results from the fact that the weaver does not understand exactly what his customer requires, and though many times he will make very valuable suggestions, it is always well to explain clearly just how you wish the rug to appear when finished. . preparing rags for rugs or carpets.—in preparing rags for use, several points should be remembered in order to have an attractive, evenly woven rug. . either before or after cutting, dye faded or drab rags so as to insure a bright, cheerful rug. . cut the medium-weight material into -inch strips, as near as possible on a straight grain of the material. the light-weight material must be cut wider and the heavy-weight, narrower. at one end of each strip, remove about % to i inch of the width in a slanting cut in order to prevent the joining to the next rag or strip from being bunglesome. . lap the ends of the rags with the slanted end on top of a straight one, for a length of about inch, and then stitch either by hand or by machine. . wind the rags into balls that are firm but not hard. balls of carpet rags that unwind from the center are easier for the weaver to handle than those which unwind from the outside. to wind such balls, begin the work by leaving along end—about inches— between the thumb a-nd forefinger of your left hand. then wind the rags over your left hand, being very careful not to allow the end to become snarledwor caught in the winding. by keeping the thumb of the left hand inside the ball and winding around and around the hand, a firm, compact ball that is easily unwound will household sewing result. the outside end should be tucked under so that it will not affect the unwinding. . cotton fi l ng.—those who do not care to cut and sew rags and yet like ‘woven rugs or wish a rug of some particular color may buy cotton filling, or roving, as it is sometimes called, a soft, loosely twisted cord, and use it in the same way as rags. while rugs made from roving are very pretty, they soon rough up and require washing. braided, crocheted, and knitted rugs . the simplest home-made rugs are braided, crocheted, and knitted. very beautiful color effects may be worked out in such rugs if the rags are dyed so that they harmonize well. . braided rugs.—two methods of preparing rags for braided rugs are in use, that is, by turning in the raw edges and pro- ducing a firm finish, and by using the rags without turning in the raw edges and thus obtaining a softer finish. the first requires more time and produces a neater rug. the second, besides requiring less time, is, according to some opinions, more artistic. however, the method to select is entirely a matter of opinion. . to prepare rags when the edges are to be turned, cut the strips a little over inches wide, turn in the raw edges i to § inch, and fold the strips through the center. then take stitches through the strips thus folded, long stitches being permissible on the under side. the basted strip should measure from % to % inch. if the frayed edges of the rags are to be left exposed, the strips should be cut about % to inch wide. when the strips are prepared, the work may be begun by fasten- ing three strands and then braiding them. when the end of the strand is reached, a new one should be seamed on to the first one so that the seam comes inside the folded strand. . after about % yard has been braided, it is a good idea to sew the braid to form a circle, oval, or oblong, depending on the shape desired for the rug. this may be done by sewing from either the wrong or the right side, and using an overcasting-stitch and a heavy thread. continue the braiding and the sewing until a rug of the desired size and shape is completed. household sewing . crocheted rugs.—in crocheting rag rugs, it is advis- able to use a heavy twine or cord with the rags in order to give body to the rug. some persons prefer to use a cord about the thick- ness of carpet warp and to crochet it with the rags, while others use a heavier cord, one about the thickness of a lead pencil, and crochet over ‘it, drawing it up as an aid in shaping the rug. in sewing rags for crocheted rugs, seam them as suggested for the braided rugs. in crocheting rags for rugs, use an extra-large bone or wooden crochet hook. simply make a series of single crochet and shape and sew the rug as the work proceeds. . knitted rugs.—those who enjoy knitting will find pleasure in making a knitted rug. such a rug may be more quickly made than a crocheted rug and it is quite as attractive. cut the strips about % inch wide, join the ends, and wind into balls. begin a strip for the center of the rug, which should measure about by inches. then knit another strip about % inches wide and long enough to go around the center strip. allow the strip to be a little full around the corners so the rug will lie perfectly flat. this will make a small rug, practical for many purposes. larger rugs may be made by adding more strips and joining them together. mendin g rugs . woven and crocheted rag rugs may be mended by holding a strip of rag in place and darning it in with soft twine, or by crochet- ing or weaving in a strip of rag to take the place of the destroyed part. if the rags should break because of weak fabric, heavy thread woven back and forth underneath will give strength and hold the parts together. . replacing worn pile.—the mending of the pile in machine-made rugs is sometimes a problem for the home woman. however, the pile may be replaced with the use of a darning needle and yarn of a matching color. first, darn in the backing; then, make the pile by running the thread under the proper number of backing threads, knotting it to prevent it from pulling out, and pulling it up to make loops on the top side, which correspond in length to the rest of the pile. then, if the mending has been done well, the definitions of useful terms a abbé cape (a-ba’). a small shoulder cape like that worn as a part of an abbot's costume. accessory. anything that aids the principal agent in a subordinate way; an accompaniment. accordion plaits. narrow, straight plaits like those in the bellows of an accordion. they range in width from § to % inch and are put in by means of steam. agaric (ag'a-rik or a-gar'lk). acotton fabric of loop-yarn construction having a surface similar to fine turkish toweling. aigret (a-grét' or /grét). see egret. a jours (a’zhur). a french term meaning open-work and applied to embroidery, knitting, etc. albatross. a soft, loosely woven, crepe-like woolen material in black, white, and colors, similar to nun's veiling; also made in fancy weaves; used for dresses. albert cloth. reversible, double-faced woolen material, each side having a different color. used for coats, suits, and wraps. alengon lace (a-lén’s< n; f. a-lan-son'). a needlepoint lace having a sheer net ground and a solid design whose edge is outlined with a cord. it is very expensive but is imitated in an inexpensive machine-made lace that is much used on ready-to-wear gar- ments. all-over lace. any wide lace, silk or cotton, having both edges finished the same and containing a pattern that repeats the entire width and length. it has many uses, being employed for entire dresses or for parts of a dress. alpaca (al-pak’a). a strong, elastic, wiry fabric of plain weave with cotton warp and alpaca or hair filling. used for men's summer suits and coat linings, and for women's tailored skirts. analogous harmony (a-nal'o-giis). har- mony produced by associating dis- tant but related tones of colors. thus, when two tones from two related scales are brought together, an analogous harmony results. angora w . the wool of the angora goat, used in the making of mohair. antique lace. a hand-made pillow lace of heavy linen thread in large, open, rectangular, knotted, and sometimes irregular mesh, which gives it the appearance of darned lace. it usually contains rare pat- terns, all kinds of designs being worked in the net by darning, and as it is hand-made, it is expensive. imitation antique lace is sometimes used in draperies. antwerp pot lace. a very rare bobbin lace characterized by a vase or basket of flowers in its design. it was formerly made and worn to a great extent by the women of antwerp as a trimming for their caps. appliqué (a-ple-ka'). any ornament in cloth, wood, or metal that is laid on and applied to another surface. it may be a band or a separate design, such as leaves, figures, etc. apron. an article of dress made of cloth, leather, or other material to protect or adorn the front of a per- son's clothes. aprons were worn in england as early as the th century. later, they became a part of fashion- able dress, being made of very fine materials, ornamented, and edged with lace. in queen anne's time ( - ), silk aprons trimmed with gold lace were worn, and in george ii's reign ( - ), long plain aprons were popular. aprons of fine lace were worn with formal costumes in colonial times. service- able and ornamental aprons continue to be wor n up to the present day. apron tunic. an ornamental article of attire resembling an apron and a feature of modern modes. arabesque (ar-a-besk'). a scroll effect or design usually made with cords, stitchery, or applied pieces outlined and perfected by arabian or kindred artists. arabian lace. a curtain lace, usually ecru or drab in color and corded with a heavy, darker ecru or drab cord. imitations of this lace are usually cheap and shabby in appear- ance. arc. any part of a line that forms a circle. definitions of useful terms armure (ar mur). a large variety of dress materials made of botany wool, mohair, cotton, or artificial silk or combinations of these fibers. it is woven in bird's-eye and in diamond effect, and sometimes in two colors. like alpaca, it is used for linings, skirts, and suits. arrowhead. an ornamental stitch resembling the head of an arrow and used on tailored garments at the corners of coat collars, pockets, and pocket laps, as well as at the tenni- nation of seams, tucks, and plaits, at the end of machine stitching, and at a given point on tucks. art linen. a variety of linen having a flat thread and used for stenciling and embroidery. artificial silk. an imitation of natural silk produced by treating cellulose until it becomes a gummy solution, and then pressing it through tiny holes so that it comes out a fine thread with a glistening, white, silky appearance. a number of these fine- threads are joined and twisted to make the commercial sizes used most. it has a field of its own, but fabrics in which it is used should never be represented as true silk. artois (ar-twa'). a very long cloak with lapels and three or four capes, the lowest being cut to a point in the center of the back. this style of wrap was worn by women in england and america during the reign of george iii ( - ). astrakhan (as'tra-kin). ( ) a woolen or silk material of considerable warmth having a long, closely curled pile that imitates the fur of the real astrakhan lamb. used for coats, caps, muffs, and scarfs. ( ) the skins of very young lambs from astrakhan, russia, of which muffs, collars, and coats are made. b baby lace. a name used to designate any narrow, dainty, li ht lace, whether cotton or linen. t is used chiefly in the making of layettes and for trimming dainty dresses and undergarments for children. baby lamb. the fleece of very young persian lambs, having a finer curl than persian lamb itself. baby ribbon. a term applied to the narrowest of ribbons, much used for children's garments. back-stitching. a sewing operation made by taking a very short stitch forward and then putting the needle back each time into the end of the last stitch, always advancing from the under side of the material. badger. a coarse, long-haired, wooly fur in light beige with black and white tips. also called blaireau. balkan blouse (bal'kan). a blouse that is gathered into a wide band around the hips. this blouse came into fashion during the balkan war, - . band. a fiat, flexible strip of any kind of material used for a binding. in the th century ruffs were called bands. they were made of linen or cambric, and were stiffened with starch, underpropped, or else allowed to fall upon the shoulders, when they were called falling bands. our term bandbox comes from the original use of such boxes as were used for bands and ruffs. a de- bandeau (ban-do’ or ban'do). vice of various shapes made of buck- ram and wire and used to adjust a hat to a particular head-size or to raise it from the head at a certain angle. also, a narrow band or fillet encircling the head. bangkok (bang-kek’). a hat woven of wood. it is so termed because it suggests the national head-gear of siam, whose capital is bangkok. bangs. a portion of the front hair cut off short and even and worn hanging down over the forehead. bar. ( ) a group of cross-threads covered with the buttonhole-stitch or the over-and-over-stitch and used to stay the ends of a but- tonhole and prevent them from run- ning out, to form a trimming at the end of the seam, and to take the place of an eye, when it is sometimes called a loop. ( ) it is also used in connection with lace, when it refers to the threads that connect the solid parts. here, it consists of two or . more strands that are either corded or covered with buttonhole-stitches. other names for it in this use are pearl, leg, tie, and bride. definitions of useful terms pletely out of use, the present beaver ats are usually made of a silk material or imitation fur. bedford cord. material with length- wise, raised cords and plain stripes between the cords; made in cotton and wool. used for dresses, skirts, and children's coats. beige (bezh). the color of undyed, unbleached wool. bell sleeve. a sleeve that is full and flaring at its lower edge, like a bell. bengaline. a corded material with heavy, filled crosswise cords of wool or cotton covered with threads of silk or silk and wool. used for skirts, suits, coats, and collars. beret (ber'ét). a round, fiat cap of soft material, with a full crown, worn by the basque peasants. bermuda fagoting. a fagoting similar to single feather-stitches placed on the wrong side of sheer material so that their shadow shows through. it is used on any sheer material as a simple, practical trimming. bertha. a form of collar for a bodice extending around the neck and over the shoulders in imitation of a short shoulder cape, which was formerly called a bertha. binder. a sewing-machine attach- ment by means of which a binding is applied to the edge of material. biretta (bi-ret'a). a sectional cap, usually having a tassel at the center and worn by ecclesiastics of the the roman catholic church and by some doctors of divinity, heads of university faculties, etc. this form of crown is much used in women's hats at different times. bishop sleeve. a sleeve similar to that used in a bishop's robe, being loose at the hand and having fulness at the armhole. blanket-stitch. an embroidery stitch used to ornament and secure the edges of certain parts of garments, particularly the edges of appliqué patterns. it is really a buttonhole- stitch with a single purl and the stitches taken a short distance apart. blanket-stitch couching. a stitch con- sisting of one or more threads lying fiat and held in position with the blanket-stitch. like the plain couch- ing-stitch, used to outline borders. blanket-stitch seam. a method of joining two edges of material in an open seam by means of a single-purl buttonhole-stitch, three stitches being taken on one side and then three on the opposite. blistering. the name given in eng- land in the middle of the th century to a form of trimming produced by slashings in waists and sleeves, through which the under garments came in the form of puffs or blisters. blonde. a type of person having flaxen or golden hair, blue, gray or brown eyes, and clear complexion. blonde-brunette. a type of woman having light chestnut or brown hair, hazel, gray, blue-gray, or brown eyes, and medium complexion. blonde lace. a form of closely woven bobbin lace, originally made in white and cream colors only; in the trade, however, the term is applied to silk bobbin lace of all colors. bloomers. an article of dress resem- bling knickerbockers and worn with or without an overskirt by women, usually for athletic purposes. they are the result of an unsuccessful effort made in by mrs. amelia bloomer, of new york, to establish a costume consisting of loose trousers drawn in at the ankles with elastic bands and a short petticoat. blouse. a general term referring to almost any kind of waist worn by women with a suit or a separate skirt. it may be belted or allowed to extend over the skirt. also, the long, loose smock of the english work- man and the french peasant. blucher (bl<y)'cher). a high shoe or half boot named for field-marshal von blucher, who commanded the prussian army at waterloo, . also, a shoe made on the same lines as the water-tight shoes, with the tongue and the vamp cut in one. blue. one of the chief colors of the spectrum, the color of the clear sky. bobbin. a small slender spool, or a thin, deeply grooved disk, that fits in the carrier under the needle plate of a double-thread, or lock-stitch, machine and carries the lower thread. also, one of the wooden cylinders that carry and steady the threads in pillow-lace making. definitions of useful terms bobbin lace. lace woven over a design on a pillow or cushion by means of bobbins. bobbinet. a net having hexagonal or six-sided holes but no designs. it was originally made by hand with bobbins, from which it was named to distinguish it from net made with needle-point stitches. it is used for dresses, dress foundations, over- drapes, and draperies. bodice. the waist of a woman's dress. originally, the word referred only to tight-fitting waists, which were sometimes laced both in the back and in the front and were spoken of as a pair of bodices. bodkin. an instrument that is blunt at one end and has an eye at the other. it is used to draw tape through a hem or a series of eyelets. body lining. a coat lining that extends merely to the waist or a trifle below it. bohemian lace. a bobbin lace whose pattern is characterized by a braid or tape-like effect. it is imitated in machine-made lace, which is very effective. it is sometimes used for dress trimming, but as a rule the designs are too large and coarse for this purpose. bolero (be- a’ro.) a spanish jacket of short length with or without sleeves and without lapels, worn open in front over a bodice or waist of light material. bolt. a roll of ribbon approximately yards long. it is by the bolt that the manufacturer sells ribbon. also, a roll of material of a definite number of yards. a roll of white cloth, as sheeting, is from to yards. bombazine (bom-ba-zen’). an eng- lish dress goods made of silk warp and worsted filling in serge weave and dyed in the piece. it is usually black and is much used for mourning purposes. boa. a long, round scarf of fur, feathers, etc., for the neck. bonnet. a covering for the top and back of the head as distinguished from a hat, which covers the top of the head only. a typical bonnet has ties, is without a brim, and leaves the face uncovered. boot. an form of shoe that extends above t e ankle. the dainty, high silk shoes of our grandmothers’ time were called boots. botany wool. a fine merino wool grown around botany bay, australia. bouclé (boo-kla’). a medium-weight, soft, twilled material, made of cotton or wool, having nub, or loop, yar n for filling that produces a surface similar to that of astrakhan. used for coats and capes. boufiant (bo- -fan’). having a full, puffed-out effect, as in the drapery of a skirt or in puffed sleeves. bound buttonhole. a buttonhole whose edges are bound rather than worked with buttonhole twist. buttonholes of this kind are bound with either material or braid. box coat. a plain, loose coat, fitted only at the shoulders and having a box-like appearance. this type of coat was worn by coachmen in england during the th century, and it is probable that the origin of the name can be attributed to the fact that these men sat on the box, or raised seat, of english coaches. box plait. a plait, that has a fold turned toward both sides, formed by folding a piece of material so that two edges come together on the wrong side at a point directly behind, or under, the center of the outside part of the plait. box plait- ing made in leather ornamented the armor used in ancient rome. an inverted box plait is simply a box plait reversed. a double box plait is one having two folds on each side. a triple box plat-t is one having three folds on each side. braid. a narrow, fiat tape or woven strip forbindingthe edgesof fabricsor for ornamenting them in other ways. braided-band—stitch. an embroidery stitch formed by weaving threads back and forth in diamond-shaped form to fill in the space of a band or a border. brassiére (bra-syer'). a close-fitting corset-cover, either plain or trimmed. bretelle (bre-tél’). a sort of cape or decorative shoulder-strap extending from the belt in front over the shoulders to the belt at the back of the waist. definitions of useful terms six single purl buttonhole-stitches are worked by means of a second thread brought out a certain dis- tance below the bar-stitch and fastened at a point directly opposite on the other ribbon. buttonhole twist. a silk thread especially prepared for making but- tonholes and eyelets. byzantine (bl-zan'tln or blz'an-tin). relating to the arts, architecture, and modes of the byzantine empire, which extended from to the fall of constantinople in . c bunting. a soft, open-weave cotton or wool fabric used for flags and for decorating purposes. burnoose (bur-no- s’). a sleeveless, woolen cloak, wor n by arabs and monks. buskin (bi- s’-kin). a kind of half-boot laced with cord or ribbon and worn in ancient greece. buskins came into fashion in france with many other greek styles during the time of the first republic ( - ). they remained the vogue through the empire period ( - ), and were also worn in england and in rare cases in america. bustle. a pad or frame worn by women on the back below the waist to distend the skirts. fashionable from to . butcher's linen. a heavy, stout, bleached linen of durable quality; comes in gray and bleached and is used for butchers’ aprons, fancy work, dresses, and suits. button. a knob of bone, metal, glass, or some composition, with a shank or with holes through which it is sewed to garments for trimming or for service. button molds. a mold made of wood or bone to be covered with material and used as an ornamental button. buttonhole. a slit made in a garment to receive a button and usually covered by means of a particular stitch known as a buttonhole-stitch. a horizontal buttonhole runs crosswise, a vertical buttonhole, up and down, and a diagonal bull/‘onhole, diagonally. buttonhole cutter. a tool used to cut buttonholes for tailored garments, cutting both a straight buttonhole and an eyelet with one operation. buttonhole gimp. a very firm, small cotton cord, q inch in diameter, closely wound with silk thread and resembling in appearance fine, silk- covered hat wire. it is used by tailors to strengthen buttonholes, being held around the opening so that the buttonhole-stitches can be taken over it. buttonhole tied-stitch. a decorative, open-seam stitch used to join the edges of ribbon. on a bar-stitch that joins the ribbons, from four to ld »-ll cable cord. a softly twisted cotton cord in black and white, used for corded shirrings or finishes. comes in various sizes. cable-stitch. a chain-stitch made of heavy rope silk but not forming a perfect chain, for the needle, instead of being inserted in the preceding loop, is put in a scant ‘; inch to the right and below it. it is used as a braiding stitch, frequently on dresses and blouses and also in fancy work. cabochon (ka-bo-shon'). a small piece of buckram pressed into a dome or similar shape and much used in the construction of ribbon flowers and ornaments of like nature. calendering. a finishing process in which the fabric is passed between heated steel rollers to produce a smooth, glossy surface. calico. a plain, closely woven, cotton cloth with figured design printed on one side. it is used for dresses, aprons, and wrappers. it is often called cotton print. cambric. a fine fabric, both linen and cotton, with a glazed finish; used for handkerchiefs, linings, and undergarments. camel's hair. a fine, soft, warm fabric with a high, glossy finish, woven of long staple wool and having loose hair on the surface made entirely or partly of camel's hair. used for coats, overcoats, and horse blankets. camise (ka-mes’). as part of the dress of the early saxons, the camise was an undergarment worn next to the skin. after the normans invaded britain, in the th century, it was definitions of useful terms signs often take the form of paddles, but this feature cannot always be relied on as a distinctive point. at the present time, machine-made cluny has reached such a degree of excellence that it is sometimes impossible to detect the difference between real and imitation lace, but in the cheaper grades two sizes of soft thread are employed. the fine weaves of cluny are found in lingerie blouses and dresses, while the coarser weaves may be seen in pillow-cases, centerpieces, and similar articles. coat. an outside garment for wear on the upper part of the body, con- taining sleeves and usually worn by men but also worn by women, especially when it is of greater length. coatee. a short-tailed, close-fitting coat. cocarde (ko-kard’). a cockade or rosette of plaited ribbon used as a trimming feature on both hats and dresses. cockade. a rosette or knot of plaited ribbon or other material used as a hat ornament. formerly, these were worn on hats to designate some form of service or as a party badge. the white cockade of the bourbons was a favorite hat trimming during the - french restoration period in the early th century. cocked hat. a hat turned up jauntily at one side. the dandy of the cavalier period in the th century often cocked his hat in several places. cofier head-dress. a form of head- dress in the shape of a colfer or box, worn by women from the th century on through the middle ages to . coif (koif). a close-fitting cap or hood, extending down over the forehead and sometimes widening out at the sides. coifiure ..(koif'fir or f. kwa-fur’). an arrangement or dressing of the hair. also, a head-dress, generally of lace. cold color. a color in which there is a predominance of blue. collarette. a standing collar with a wide ruching around the top like those worn by catherine de medici and mary queen of scots in the th century. color card. a card issued from time to time by dealers in dress materials, textile manufacturers, and dyers to acquaint the public with the various color names that are applied to materials for dress. color gray. the color produced by mixing two or more tertiary colors. color harmony. a pleasing effect that gives the impression of unity and that is produced by certain colors brought close together, side by side. color value. the amount of dark or light expressed by a color. combination-stitch. a stitch consisting of several running-stitches and then one back-stitch. commode. a wire frame over which women piled their hair in curls about . complementary colors. those colors, which, by their union, will produce white. this can be done with colored light rays, but with pigments only a neutral gray can be produced. complementary harmony. harmony produced by associating comple- mentary, or opposite, colors. concave curve. a curve that rounds inward. continuous placket. a placket made either in the center of a gore or on a seam and finished with a straight strip of material % to inches wide. contrasted harmony. harmony pro- duced by the association of any of the colors with the neutrals, white, black, and gray, and with gold or silver. convex curve. a curve that rounds outward. coolie jacket. akind of short box coat reaching just below the waist. in shape, these jackets are like those worn by chinese and east indian burden bearers, or coolies. coque (kok). a french term meaning cock. applied to cock feathers, which are much used in millinery. coquille (ko-kel’). having a fluted or scalloped edge like a shell, from which the term is derived. cord seam. a seam having a corded effect produced by turning both seam edges to one side and then stitching through the three thick- nesses of material. definitions of useful terms corded. a term used to describe fabrics having ribs running lengthwise, pro- duced by the wa ; crosswise, pro- duced by the w t; or diagonally, produced by the twill weave. cordeliére (kor-de-lyer'). a knotted girdle. cording. the stitching of cords on to various garments; also, the cords so stitched. cordonnet (kor-do-ne’). the raised, heavy edge of a millinery braid or a lace design. corduroy. a ribbed cotton fabric with a close pile in white and colors. some expensive qualities have cotton warp and silk pile. coronation ,braid. a firmly woven, highly mercerized, cotton braid with alternating thick and narrow places. coronet. any kind of chaplet, wreath, or other ornamental circlet for the head. coronets are also worn by certain nobles and denote, by their form, degrees of rank less than a sovereign. corsage (kor-sazh’). bodice of a dress. also, a bouquet, real or artificial, worn at the waist- line. corset. a close-fitting garment worn for the purpose of supporting or giving shape to the figure. in the middle ages, corsets had skirts and sleeves. as now made, they extend from bust to hips, are stiffened by strips of steel or whalebone, and are usually tightened by lacing. corsetiere (kor-se-tyer’). a corset maker or merely one who sells and fits corsets. costume. all of the garments worn at one time. also, the dress belonging to a given country, time, class, or calling. costume suit. a costume consisting of a dress and coat or jacket of the same material. cothurnus (ko-th\ r'ni- s). a buskin or half-boot with very thick soles worn by actors in ancient athenian tragedy. cotton back. applied to silk fabrics, mostly satins and velvets, made with a cotton back. cotton crepe. a crinkled fabric of light weight used for underwear, blouses, the waist or and dresses. some of the heavier grades have floral and japanese pat- terns and are used for kimonos and lingerie robes. cotton flannel. heavy cotton having a twilled surface on one side and a long nap on the other and used for children's underwear, interlinings, etc. also known as canton flannel. cotton print. see calico. couching-stitch. an over-stitch that serves to hold down close to the material one or more threads lying flat and with them form a fiat, unbroken outline. it is used chiefly for border outline work. coutil (ko_o’-til’). a linen or cotton canvas for corsets and brassiéres. couturier, mas. (ku-tfi-rye’) a cos- couturiere, fem. (ku-ti:-ryer’) t u m e designer in france. a few of these creators of attire in paris hold abso- lute sway over the dress of the ultra- fashionable ladies. many materials and types of garments have been named for the great couturiers who brought them into fashion; as, the georgette sailor, georgette crepe, roider fabrics, wirth gowns, etc. covert cloth. a woolen material of firm, diagonal-twilled weave, usually in light tan. used chiefly for outing suits and wraps. crepe. a thin, transparent silk or cot- ton fabric that has been rendered crimpy in the process of manufacture. it may be had in white, black, or colors. the black, being peculiarly somber in appearance, is much used for mourning purposes. crape of this kind is woven of hard-spun silk yarn in its gummy or natural condi- tion, the crimp being produced by pressing the fabric between heavy steel rollers, the surfaces of which are creased and indented so as to pro- duce the pattern desired. craquelé (krak’le). an effect in lace, silk, or net, resembling cracked or broken glass. craquelé net. a net consisting of a firm thread woven in zigzag effect that resembles the crackle in the glaze of old pottery. this mesh is sometimes used in shadow lace of good quality. it has beautiful designs that make it attractive for overdrapes and all-lace dresses. definitions of useful terms cutting gauge. a device usually in- cluded in a set of machine attach- ments. it is applied to the point of a pair of scissors to provide a quick method of cutting strips of uniform width. d damask (dam’ask). a fabric, both cotton and linen, in twilled and satin weave, and sometimes in brocaded figures. used for towels, table linen, and napkins. in the d century, syrian weavers developed methods of weaving which produced a figured fabric patterned by its own warp and weft threads and having the name of the syrian capital damascus reflected in its name. darned lace. a term including all net effects with the pattern applied in needlework, such as filet lace. darner. a hard, smooth, ball-like or egg-shaped article used to put under a hole while darning it. gourds make good darners. dart. a place in a garment from which a tapering piece has been cut to make it fit the figure. also, a measurement from the waist line to the fullest part of the hips. décolleté (de-kol-e-te'). a style of neck opening that is cut very low in order to expose the neck and shoulders. denim. strong, durable, washable cotton fabric of uneven twilled weave. it comes in plain colors and is used for overalls, furniture, and floor coverings. design. an arrangement of forms or colors, or both, intended to be applied to a fabric or an ornament to beautify it. diaper. a white linen or cotton fabric, made with small diamond or bird's- eye pattern in a twilled weave. it absorbs water readily and is used for towels, fancy work, children's dresses, etc. dimity. light-weight material, corded or cross-bar, plain and figured. used for infants’ garments, aprons, and lingerie dresses. directoire (di-rék-twar’). a distinct style of the period of the french directory, ( n ,) characterized by exaggeration and eccentricity. doeskin. a fine, soft, compact, twilled, woolen material having a very soft, short-napped face. used for gloves, skirts, coats, hats, wraps, and linings in heavy fur coats. dolly varden costume. a costume consisting of a dress with tight bodice, short quilted petticoat, and flowered chintz panniers, and a large, drooping, flower-trimmed hat. this is the costume associated with dollyvarden, a character in dickens’ novel, “barnaby rudge." dolman. a wrap resembling a cape with openings for the hands. dol- mans were originally patterned after a long turkish outer garment. dominant harmony. harmony that is produced by associating different tones of the same color. double chain-stitch. a chain-stitch consisting of two links or loops of thread combined as one. it is used when a heavier effect than that pro- duced by the single chain-stitch is desired. double-faced. a term applied to fabrics that can be worn or used either side out. double-stitched seam. a finish for a plain seam consisting of two stitch- ings on each side. double-stitched welt seam. a welt seam having a second row of stitch- ing added at the seam turn. doublet. a close-fitting garment with sleeves and sometimes a short skirt. worn by men from the close of the th century to the middle of the th century. draft. an outline drawing of a pattern. drafted pattern. an outline drawing produced by the aid of a tailor's square or some other device from a combination of measurements that are governed by the rules of pro- portion. drap d’ alma (dra-d'al’ma). a soft, closely woven, double-diagonal- twilled wool or silk mixed fabric. suitable for dresses and suits. origi- nally made in black for mourning purposes. drapery. the materials with which anything is hung or draped, particu- larly the hangings or loose garments often represented in sculoture and in painting. definitions of useful terms drawn work. a form of decorative work that consists in pulling out parallel threads of a fabric to obtain an open space and then hemstitching the edges of this space so as to hold the remaining threads securely. it is used to ornament table and bed linens, draperies, collars, cuffs, and lingerie blouses. dresden. a small flower design in pastel shades. dress. the modern outer garment of a woman or a child consisting of a skirt and a waist, either separate or united. also, used in a broader sense to designate the various gar- ments worn as a covering for the body. dress improvers. the hooped panniers of the time of louis xiv, xv, and xvi in the th and th centuries were often called dress improvers. dress linen. a plain, firmly woven linen in white and plain colors. drilling. coarse linen or cotton twilled cloth used for men's outing suits. duchess satin. a close, firm, but soft fabric of high luster. used for dresses and evening wraps. duchesse lace. a rare old bobbin lace that, while not made of tape, has a tape-like appearance. it resembles honiton lace, but is worked with a finer thread and has a greater amount of raised or relief work and daintier and finer designs. it is used as a trimming on elaborate gowns, such as bridal robes. there are various imitations of duchesse lace, one of which is known as princess lace. duck. a strong, closely woven, plain material, lighter and finer than canvas; used for outing shirts and coats and for small sails, tents, and awnings. dust ruflle. a rufile sometimes added to the bottom of a petticoat to pro- tect the edge of the flounce from hard wear and prevent it from becoming soiled. dutch neck. a square or round neck line cut only inches below the throat. duvetyn a very soft woolen fabric resembling velvet and having a fine, short nap that is raised during the process of finishing and gives the material a silky appearance. used for coats, suits, and dresses. dye bath. the dye solution prepared for the dyeing of materials e écru (ek'r _o). the natural color of cotton, wool, or silk; that is, the color of unbleached linen or hemp. edge-stitcher. a sewing machine attachment that makes it possible to stitch an edge perfectly, to join lace, and to apply piping. egret (ég’r_ét). ( ) the heron from which light, floating feathers are obtained. ( ) the feathers obtained from the egret and used as a trim- ming for women's hats. egyptian lace. a fine, hand-made knotted lace sometimes ornamented with beads. as it is expensive, it is rarely used, but when use is made of it, it serves as a trimming. eiderdown (i'-dér down). a soft, elastic, knitted fabric made of thick, soft, spun yarn and heavily napped on one side. also, a soft, twilled, cotton-filled fabric with a long-wool nap, sometimes on just one side, when it is called single-faced, and sometimes on both sides, when it is known as double-faced. used for children's garments, carriage robes, lounging robes, and bathrobes. embroidery. ornamental work done with the needle on cloth, canvas, leather, and other materials by hand or by machinery. threads of vari- ous kinds, such as cotton, silk, silver, gold, etc., are used in this work. embroidery daming-stitch. a filling-in stitch consisting of even basting- stitches, every second row alternat- ing, and used for filling in bands and borders. embroidery hoops. round or oval wooden hoops, the inner one often padded with felt; used to hold a piece of material firm and smooth so that embroidery can be applied with facility. emery bag. a small bag filled with emery powder and used for the polishing of needles that have become rough or rusty. definitions of useful terms a decorative stitch somewhat resembling a feather. the single stitch is made by bringing the needle up through the material from the wrong side, placing it in at the right so that with the thread it forms a triangle, pulling the thread through, and then taking a similar stitch to the left. this work- ing back and forth is continued until the row is completed. combina- tions of two, three, four, or more stitches are often used in feather- stitching. fell. a method of finishing a seam that is intended to be neat and flat. in a hand fell, the edges of the material are lapped so that the seam lines meet and are then basted through the center. each edge is then turned under so that it meets the basting and is finished with the hemming-stitch. the machine fell consists in making a plain seam, trimming away the under edge, and then turning the other edge under and stitching it. felt. a firm-packed, smooth fabric consisting of entangled and matted fibers of wool, fur, mohair, and cotton, which are thoroughly mixed, carded, hardened, and made into felt with the aid of moisture, heat, and pressure. it is sometimes made by weaving or knitting a coarse body, raising a heavy nap, and then felting this. used for hats, table covers, pennants, glove linings, etc. fiber lace. a lace made from the fibers of the banana and the aloe plant. it is a frail, expensive lace, and not practical for many purposes. however, both banana-fiber and aloe-fiber laces are used as dress trimming, especially on sheer organ- dies and chiffons. fibers. filaments, or threads, used as raw material for textile fabrics. they are classified as animal, vege- table, mineral, and artificial fibers. fibula (flb’a-la). an ornamental brooch that fastens like a safety pin; used to hold the greek chiton and the roman stola in place. archeologists say that fibulas were common as early as the bronze age. fichu (flsh'o- ). a draped scarf or cape feather-stitch. having long ends that fall from a knot at the breast. fichus were fashionable in france during the reign of louis xvi ( - ), in england while george iii was on the throne ( - ), and in america during the first years of the new republic. findings. the various accessories used in dressmaking, such as belting, boning, buttons, braids, hooks and eyes, etc. filet lace (fi-le’). a darned or embroid- ered net woven into squares with a continuous thread and thus appear- ing decidedly unlike the spiderwork form of irregular darning. it is attractive and at the same time practical for lingerie blouses and dresses. real filet, while expensive, wears indefinitely. beautiful imita- tions of filet lace may be purchased at reasonable prices. fillet (fil'ét). a narrow band encircling the head or binding the hair. fillets were worn in ancient egypt and were a feature of the greek and roman head-dress. during the em- pire in france ( - ), joseph- ine wore‘ beautiful fillets of gold in imitation of those used in classic times. filo silk. a soft, untwisted embroidery silk that comes in skeins of to yards each. it is very satisfactory for satin-stitches, as it blends well and makes a smooth design. fishbone-stitch. an embroide stitch resembling the backbone a fish and consisting of a series of diagonal single-purl buttonhole-stitches made first to the left and then to the right. it is used chiefly as a braid-stitch or a border-stitch. fishtail train. a dress train that resembles the tail of a fish in shape. fitch. a mottled brown fur with yellow spots. flannel. a plain soft, loosely woven, light-weight, woolen material with warp and weft threads of equal size. extensively used for infants’ petti- coats and sacks and for men's shirts. flannelette or flannelet. a cotton fabric with a slight nap in white and colors and floral designs. used for sleeping garments and kimonos. flap pocket. a type of tailored pocket having a flap as a finish for tile opening. definitions of useful terms furbelow (f(lr'be-lo). a gathered or plaited rufile or flounce. furbelows, which originated in france, were much wor n in england during the reign of william and mary ( - ) and were a popular form of trimming in america during colonial times. in a broader sense, furbelows refer to any ornament, especially of feminine dress. g gabardine (gab-ar-din’). ( ) a twilled and waterproofed worsted coating material, made with fine diagonal ribs.j ( ) a softer fabric, similar to french serge and used for women's skirts, coats, and suits. ( ) a long, loose gown or cloak of coarse mate- rial, which, in the middle ages, was the prescribed garment of the ]ews. gainsborough hat. a large, graceful hat worn by the ladies in the por- traits painted by the famous english portrait painter gainsborough ( - i ). it was usually turned up on one side and trimmed with plumes. gaiter. a cloth or leather covering for the ankle, usually buttoned at the side and held down by a strap run- ning under the foot. galatea (gal-a-te’a). a heavy, firm cot- ton material for boys’ clothes, outing skirts, middy blouses, and dress-forrn coverings. galilith (gal-i-lith’). a composition material resembling jet and made into beads and similar ornaments that form trimmings for hats and dresses-i _ g gathering. a sewing operation made with very small running-stitches and used to bring the parts of a section of a garment closer together by drawing them into folds or plaits. gauntlet. in medieval armor, a glove worn under the mail to prevent chafing. in modern attire, a gaunt- let is a glove having a long wrist extension. gauze (goz). ( ) a very sheer, light, perforated fabric of cotton and wool worsted or silk, in which some of the warp ends are crossed and twisted around the filling. used for sheer foundations, frills, and trimmings. ( ) very sheer, knitted fabrics used for underwear. georgette crepe. a crepe-like silk, sometimes silk and cotton; sheer, like chiffon, but woven of a harder and more durable thread. used for dresses, blouses, negligées, and many kinds of trimmings. gibson waist. a woman's mannish shirtwaist having a plait over each shoulder, made famous by the artist charles dana gibson in his pictures. gilet (zhi-le’). a waistcoat or the vest- liike front of the bodice of a woman's ress. gimp. a narrow, flat, ornamental trimming of silk, cotton, wool, or beads, formed of or interlaced with cord or wire; used for dresses, fur- niture, etc. see also buttonhole gimp. gingham. a stout, light-weight, wash- able cotton fabric, woven in yarn- dyed stripes, checks, and plaids and used for dresses and aprons. com- mon gingham is in plain weave and finished with starch sizing. madras gingham, which is made of finer yarn, contains a larger number of colors than the staple gingham and is woven in various weaves. zephyr gingham is a softer and lighter dress fabric than madras gingham and is produced in a great variety of fancy colored effects in stripes, cords, checks, and plaids in both plain and twilled weave. girdle. a belt used for girding a loose garment about the waist. in ancient times, the greeks and romans tied their girdles around their waist and drew the upper part of their gar- ments over them to permit freedom of motion. girdles, like most other articles of attire, have evolved gradually into the carefully cut and sewed articles that we know today. glacé (gla-se’). a french term meaning glossy or having a lustrous effect. it is sometimes [applied to dress goods having fine, well-stretched cotton warp and mohair filling in plain colors and figures. gloria. a thin, very closely woven fabric made with silk warp and worsted or cotton filling in diagonal twilled weave. sometimes called -anella cloth. used chiefly to cover umbrellas. definitions of useful terms green. a color in the spectrum between blue and yellow; the color of spring foliage. grenadine (grén'a-den). a fine, open fabric, made of silk or wool mixed with cotton and having more or less elaborate warp stripes. used for overdrapes and evening dresses. gros de londres (gro de lon’dre_-.) a light-weight silk fabric woven with alternate narrow and wide flat ribs. it has a glossy finish and '. -omes in colors and in changeable effects. much used for hats and dres.-;€s. grosgrain (gro’gran). a ribbon or a stout, durable corded silk with cross-ribs or cords that run from selvage to selvage and than are heavier than poplin but lighter than faille. comes in colors. the ul)!'ic is used for coats. guide pattern. a pattern made of cambric or some similar material, cut with the aid of a foundation tissue-paper pattern and fitted to the figure. it serves both to test the accuracy of similar tissue-paper patterns and to guide one in cutting and fitting. guimpe_(glmp, ganp, or gimp). _a chemisette or under waist worn with a low-cut gown to fill in the neck. guimpes are also made with sleeves and worn with jumper dresses. guipure lace (ge-par’). lace in which the designs are held together by means of brides or bars; in other words, lace having no net ground. duchesse, honiton, venetian, and maltese,thoughdifferingfromoneam other, are examples of guipure laces. gusset. a triangular piece of material inserted in a garment to fill an open angle or to strengthen it or give more room. h glycerined feathers. feathers treated with glycerine so as to give them the appearance of being wet. godet (go-dc’) . goi-es that are wider at the bottom than the top, ranging from to inches at the top and to inches at the bottom. used only when skirts are wide, they add length to the figure and fulness at the bottom. gofier. to form plaits, flutes, or crirnps in, as a ruff. leather is very often ornamented with a design in relief, which is called goflering. gold cloth. a metal cloth made of metal warp in gold color and silk weft. used chiefly in the making of evening gowns. gold tissue. a transparent metal cloth consisting of metal warp in gold color and silk weft. it comes also in a cheaper quality, which is an imita- tion of metal cloth. goose. a tailor's heavy smoothing iron, ranging in weight from ll to pounds and so named because its handle resembles the neck of a goose. gore. a shaped section of a woman's skirt containing two or more such sections. gorget (gor'jet). a variety of collar or ruff. in the middle ages ( - ), a kind of wimple draped closely around the neck and well up to the chin. gossamer. (l) a very soft, cobwebby silk gauze used for veils. ( ) a light silk fabric waterproofed and used for wraps. gown. the outer dress or garment of a woman, especially when long and loose. also, the ofiicial or distinc- tive robe of certain ofiicers, pro- fessional men, and scholars. granite. a woolen material made of hard-twisted woolen yarn woven in pebbled effect; light in weight and very durable. used for skirts and suits. grebe (greb). a bird of the duck family, from which are taken beau- tiful, soft feathers used for making entire turbans, as well as feather breasts. the natural color is ivory, flecked with brown. the plumage is thick and downy, and silky and smooth in texture. habit-back placket. a kind of placket so called because it is used in finishing the plain back of a woman's riding skirt or habit. habutaye (ha-bu-ty’). a very soft, light-weight, closely woven, brilliant japanese silk, smooth and even in texture. it is woven with a heavy sizing on both warp and filling, which is afterwards boiled out. used for summer dresses, waists, skirts, and automobile or traveling coats. definitions of useful terms hoop. a circular band of metal or whalebone used to expand the skirt of a woman's dress. the farthingale of the renaissance and elizabethan periods of the th and th cen- turies was a single hoop mounted on the edge of a circular piece of material or tied to the waist by means of tapes. panniers were oval-shaped wire, whalebone, or wicker hoops that were very wide at the sides. about the middle of the th century, bell-shaped hoops came into fashion, these being hoops of graduated size arranged one above the other with the largest at the bottom and held in place by tape or mounted on a stif f petticoat- hose. a covering, usually knit or woven, for the lower part of the legs and feet. houppelande (h op’land). a one-piece garment worn by women in the early th century, consisting of a close-fitting waist, an exceedingly long, full skirt that formed a long. train, and either bell or tight-fitting sleeves. the skirt and the bell sleeves were generally lined with fur. later, belts at the normal waist line were worn with houppe- landes and as these were drawn in tight, they produced an ugly outline. huckaback (hi- k’a-bak). a cotton or linen material of irregular weave having prominent weft threads. used for towels and fancy work. hue. that property of a color which characterizes it as a color instead of a black-and-white value; that is, the result produced by adding a color, rather than black or white, to another color. i hercules braid. a heavily corded, worsted bordering braid. herringbone-stitch. an embroidery stitch consisting of a series of small loops made with embroidery thread and tacked down with the couching- stitch. it is used where a rather light outline is desired. himation (hi-mat'i-on). alarge, square mantle like a shawl worn by the ancient greeks, usually with one end thrown over the shoulder from the back and the other held in one hand. holland linen. a plain-woven, un- bleached linen, originally from hol- land, both glazed and unglazed. used for furniture covers and window shades, as well as in photography. homespun. a loose, but very strong, durable woolen material of plain weave and coarse yarn, formerly made on hand looms and now -imitated by machine. used for outing suits and men's clothes. honeycombing. a method of arranging fulness similar to smocking, but diamond-shaped in structure and having each stitch run through two flutes of material rather than one. honeycomb-stitch. a filling stitch much used in embroidery work and consisting of two layers of blanket- stitches so connected as to form a honeycomb effect. it is used for filling in leaves and similar spaces. honiton lace (hon’i-ti- n). at resent, a bobbin lace similar to uchesse. guipure honiton is characterized by round, heavy motifs made up of finely woven braid and then joined by brides or bars maiie with a needle. appliqué honiton is pro- duced by making the motifs or sprigs and then sewing them to a net ground made separately. at present, machine-made net is much used for the ground. hook-and-eye tape. firmly woven tape to which small hooks and eyes are riveted. .used where a sub- stantial closing of considerable length is required, as in tight linings, bras- siéres, and tight-fitting corset covers. hooks-and-eyes. small hooks of doubled wire and eyes formed to re- ceive them. used as fasteners on garments of all kinds. india linon. a trade name for afine, closely woven cotton lawn, very slightly sized and usually bleached. indian head. a trade name for a coarse, firm material used as a sub- stitute for plain, heavy linen. indigo. one of the so-called seven colors of the rainbow, a deep violet blue. insertion (in-sfir'shi’in). any narrow lace or embroidery having a plain edge on each side that admits of its being inserted in a fabric. definitions of useful terms javelle. water. a solution made by dissolving q pound of sal soda and ounces of chloride of lime in l quart of water. used to remove ink stains from material and as a bleach in ‘general laundry work. jean. a twilled, undressed cloth usually made of hard-spun cotton warp and a low grade of wool or shoddy filling, but sometimes made entirely of cotton. used for trousers, boys’ suits, and women's outing suits. jerkin (jfir'kin). formerly a jacket, short coat, or upper doublet, some- times made of leather. the jerkin now takes the form {of a waistcoat and is still in use in the north of england. jersey cloth. a thick, knitted fabric made in fstockinet weave of wool or silk and wool mixed. used for undergarments, petticoats, dresses, and coats. . jet. a rich, black variety of mineral coal, sufficiently hard and compact to be polished and much used for making ornaments. jumper. a short-sleeved or sleeveless garment without a front or a back opening, but with the neck cut sufficiently large to admit of its being slipped over the head without difficulty. worn over a guimpe by women and children. jupe (jo‘op). the french name for petticoat. jupon (jo_o'pon). ( ) now, a short petticoat, but in the middle ages, a sleeveless surcoat or a kind of jacket or doublet worn by knights. ( ) a kind of dress fabric with cotton warp and woolen filling. k inverted-plait placket. a kind of placket consistin of an inverted plait and used w en skirts appear plain around the waist and hips and ull at the lower edge. iridescent (ir-l-dés’ént). having chang- ing colors like those of the rainbow, due to the iinterference of light when reflected from thin films, as in mother-of-pearl. italian relief-stitch. an embroidery stitch used in flower designs to fill in petals and leaves and often seen in combination with punch work. it consists merely of filling in the space with single-purl buttonhole- stitches. j jabot (zha-b ’). a frill of lace or the like fastened at the neck and worn by women on a bodice. formerly, a ruffle on a shirt bosom. jacket. a short coat usually not extending below the hips. jacquard efiects (ja-kard’). figures produced in materials through the mechanism invented in by ]ean marie jacquard, a frenchman living at .the time of the first napoleon. jacquard loom. an apparatus for fancy weaving, having a chain of perforated cards passing over a rotating prism, the perforations per- mitting the passage of wires that determine the raising of the warp threads and thus cause the figure to be woven in accordance with the prearrangement of the perforated cards. it is now used extensively in the making of silk, worsted, and cotton materials, but is employed solely for weaving figured goods. jade green. the color of jade, varying from green to yellow and yellowish white. japan silk. a name that covers a variety of japanese or ]ap silks, but commonly applied to the cheaper qualities of habutaye silk. heavier and coarser than china silk. used for blouses, summer dresses, and kimonos. jardiniére (zhar-de-nyar'). resembling a garden of flowers. therefore, de- signs of many colors composed of flowers, fruits, and leaves. ldlr- karakul cloth. a heavy woolen fabric made in imitation of persian lamb- skin. used for women and children's coats and for muffs and stoles. kate greenaway costumes. children's costumes designed by kate green- away, an english illustrator, de- signer, and verse writer, and having the high waist line and other char- acteristics of the empire period, to which she went for inspiration. kensington stitch. see long and short stitch. definitions of useful terms medici collar (méd’i-che). alar e fan- shaped collar worn by the edici queens in the th century and wired or stiffened to stand up and out from the neck in the back. medici lace. a french bobbin lace re- sembling cluny to some extent but usually made of finer thread. it is much like insertion in effect, except that one edge is finished with scal- lops. it is characterized by plain, close-woven work with which open- work alternates and produces a good contrast. - medieval (me-di-e’val). belonging to, or descriptive of, the middle ages, which include the period in the history of europe from the downfall of rome in to the beginning of the modern age, usually reckoned to be about the time of the fall of constantinople in . mélange (ma-lanzh'). a french term meaning mixtures of color applied in weaving; also, mixtures of cotton warp and wool weft. melton. athick, heavymaterial named for melton, england, and made of all wool or cotton warp and woolen weft. it is finished without pressin or glossing, the nap being raise straight and then shorn to show the weave clearly. used for outing suits and overcoats. mending tissue. a semitransparent rubber substance that melts when heat is appliedpto it. used for mend- ing dark silk and woolen materials. mercerization. a chemical process of rendering cotton threads lustrous and strong by treating them with a caustic alkali under tension. it was invented by ]ohn mercer, an english calico printer. mercerized cotton. cotton fiber treated with a solution of caustic soda or potash at normal temperature under tension to prevent shrinking. the fiber thus treated has an increased attraction for coloring matter and is characterized by a silky luster. mercerized cotton thread. a cotton thread with a soft, glossy finish, con- taining from two tosix strands in a thread. it comes in skeins and on spools and is a very satisfactory t read for embroidery work. merino. ( ) a woolen goods made in england of shoddy, obtained from soft woolen or worsted dress goods. ( ) an all-wool fabric, made of very fine, single merino yarn having either the face and back twilled alike or the face twilled and the back plain. used for women's dresses. messaline. a soft, light-weight, closely woven satin having a brilliant luster. comes usually in solid colors. used for dresses, petticoats, and linings. metal cloth. a fabric woven of cot- ton or silk, combined with various threads of gold, silver, or copper. metal lace. both a hand-made and a machine-made lace consisting of a net foundation on which are woven all kinds of designs in either gold or silver threads. it is used as a trim- ming for evening dresses and robes and in millinery work. middy. an unbelted blouse that reaches to the hips and has a sailor collar. such blouses were originally suggested by those wor n by midship- men or cadets in the united states navy. midinette. a shop girl in france. milan hat. a hat of fine straw originally manufactured in the pro- vince of milan, italy. military braid. a black silk braid used for binding purposes, also for trim- ming tailored dresses and suits. comes in various widths. millinery. a collective term embracing all varieties of female head-wear. mink. the valuable fur of the mink, very close, soft, and even, and usually seal-brown in color. the japanese mink is darker than the natural northern mink. mirror velvet. see velvet. mistral. a worsted material whose twisted warp and weft threads are woven to give a crepe effect. mitering. a method of joining two pieces of material, such as lace, insertion, embroidery, or finishing a hem, at an equally divided angle, as a corner. mitt. a kind of glove, often of lace or knit-work, worn on the hand and wrist but containing no fingers. definitions of useful terms rolled hem. a kind of hem much used on dainty, sheer materials where lace or insertion is to be joined. the edge is rolled tightly between the thumb and the fore- finger of the left hand, and the hem thus formed is caught to the lace or insertion with overhand-stitches. roman cut work. a form of embroi- dery work that consists in outlining a design with the single buttonhole- stitch and then cutting some of the material away. bars are used to join the embroidered designs and keep the work in shape. it is used chiefly in large centerpieces and table covers of heavy material. roman stripes. brilliant, contrasting colored stripes running crosswise on silk fabrics. a cotton warp is used, none of which is permitted to show. rompers. a combination of waist and trousers worn by young chil- dren over or instead of other cloth- ing, as at play. rope silk. an embroidery thread con- sisting of many strands of silk woven into threads, which, in turn, are twisted together to form the heaviest kind of twisted silk thread. rosette. a form of ribbon decoration used chiefly for women and chil- dren's clothes. rose point lace. a form of brussels lace having rose motifs appliquéd to a net ground. round—thread linen. a soft finished, plain linen, made with round, hard- twisted yarn. it is suitable for drawn work, hemstitching, and har- dangar work, because the threads are easily drawn. ruche (r —osh). a trimming of some fine fabric, as lace, silk, crepe, or chiffon, gathered or stitched in the middle and worn as part of a woman's costume, usually at the neck or wrist. ruff. a plaited, crimped, or fluted collar or frill, especially a very broad, full, and stiffly starched one worn by both men and women in the th century. ruflle. a gathered or plaited strip used as a trimming and attached so as to leave one or both of the edges free. rufier. a sewing-machine attach- ment for making ruffling, plaiting, and frilling. running-stitch. a sewing operation used for seams that do not require strength and for gathering or tuck- ing and consisting of a series of short, even stitches. usually, sev- eral stitches are taken up before the needle is pulled through. russet. a reddish or yellowish brown. s sable. the valuable fur of a small animal, dark lustrous brown in color, with paler head and throat and short, black paws. sabot (sa-b ’). a wooden shoe worn by french and flemish peasants. sack. a loose garmentwith sleeves. any loose-fitting coat without a waist seam. in the th and th centuries, a robe, commonly of satin or brocade, flowing loosely at the back in folds from the neck band or shoulder yoke. sallow mature woman. a type of woman having gray or white hair, brown, blue, or gray eyes, and sallow complexion without color. sampler. a small piece of material on which a detail in the construction of a garment is developed. also, a piece of needlework, made to exhibit skill or to preserve a pattern. sandals. a kind of shoe much worn by the people of antiquity and usually consisting of a sole only, but sometimes having a shield for the heel and a cap for the toes. made of leather, cork, wood, straw, wick- erwork, and velvet. now largely of leather and worn by children. sash. an ornamental band, scarf, strip, or belt worn around the waist or over the shoulder. in oriental countries, a long band of fine material wound around the head to form a turban. sateen. a closely woven cotton ma- terial with lustrous, smooth finish in imitation of satin. used for underskirts, linings, and dresses. satin. a foundation silk fabric having a smooth finish and a high gloss on the face and a dull back. it de- pends for its luster and brilliancy definitions of useful terms sequins (se’kwln). a form of dress trimming made of very small metal disks or spangles in bands from } inch to yard or more in width. serge. the most popular of all woolen materials and made since the th century in great variety. it has a clear finish in an even-sided twill, producing a flat, diagonal rib effect. the best grades are made of worsted warp and woolen filling or all- worsted and are used for suits, dresses, and coats. set-in sleeves. sleeves that are set in the waist at the armhole. shade. a dark tone of any color; that is, one approaching black. this term, however, has been replaced by black. shadow embroidery. a form of em- broidery consisting of single fagot- ing-stitches so made on the wrong side of very sheer material that they show through on the right side in shadow effect. it is generally used for narrow petals and leaves that have an even outline and no tumovers. shadow lace. a machine-made lace of a light, filmy character. its sur- face is entirely fiat and its designs are rather indistinct. it is used exten- sively for draped dresses and as a dress trimming. shako (shak'o). a high military hat, originally of fur. shank button. a button having a pro- jecting piece or loop on its under side by which itisattachedto thematerial. shantung (shan-tung’). a rough, plain, washable fabric of natural color; in reality, a heavy grade of pongee silk used for dresses and blouses. shawl collar. a collar whose edge has no notch. sheaf-stitch. an open-seam stitch made by tying groups of threads together in such a way as to give them the appearance of sheaves. the thread that does the tying runs through the center of the space between the ribbons to be joined and gathers up several cross-threads and fastens them with a knot. shears. a large pair of scissors, being inches or longer and usually hav- ing one small handle for the thumb and one large handle for several of the fingers, thereby permitting con- siderable cutting without tiring the hand. sheath gown.‘ a straight, close-fitting gown that first came into vogue under that name during the directory period ( - ). sheen. a glistening brightness, espe- cially a faint luster, as from reflec- tion. sheet wadding. sheets of corded cot- ton, used for padding garments, bed covers, etc. sheeting. a wide cotton or linen fabric, twilled or untwilled, bleached or unbleached, used for making sheets for beds. shield. a piece of moisture-proof fabric worn to protect a part of the clothing liable to become soiled. shirring. a sewing operation in which two or more rows of gathers are used where considerable material is to be gathered into small space. the stitches in the second and third rows are made directly in line with those in the first row and from § to % inch apart. shirring plate. a sewing-machine at- tachment used with the rufiler to produce shirring in material. shirt. a loose undergarment for the upper part.of the body, made of cot- ton, linen, silk, or wool and formerly worn by both sexes. now, commonly restricted to a garment worn by men and bo s and having collar and cuffs either attached or separate. shirting. cotton or linen material used for making shirts. shirtwaist. a belted waist resembling a shirt in plainness of cut and style and worn by women and girls. also called a blouse. shoddy. formerly applied to the waste thrown off in wool spinning, but now applied to the shredded wool or old cloth reduced to a fibrous condition to be remanu- factured. silk shoddy is similar to wool shoddy in origin and con- sists of the recarded fibers from manfactured silks. shoe satin. a very strong, tdurable fabric having a dull back and a smooth, semiglossy face and used in making footwear. definitions of useful terms short-lapped placket. in the center of a section on a lengthwise thread of the material and made only or inches long. shot silk. changeable or iridescent silk produced by having a weft of one color and a warp of another. shuttle. ( ) in weaving, a device used to carry the weft thread, or filling, to and fro between the warp threads. ( ) the sliding thread holder in a two-thread sewing ma- chine which carries the lower thread between the needle and the up er thread to make a lock-stitch. ( l>a thread-carrying device used in tatting and embroidery. sicilienne (si-sil-i-en’). ( ) a coarse weave of mohair having cotton wa and wool or mohair weft, whidii gives a wiry finish. used for men's dusters and summer coats, also for women's wear. ( ) a plain-woven silk fabric with heavy weft ribs; now made with silk warp and a heavier cotton or wool filling in plain weave, forming cross-ribs, simi- lar to poplin. silesia (sf-le'sha). a stout light- weight, twilled cotton material with a glossy finish, similar to percaline. used for linings. silhouette (sil- -et’). the outline of a solid figure; also, a profile drawing or portrait having its outline filled in with uniform color, usually black, and its other features with lighter lines. the best way to study the proportion of a costume is to think of it in silhouette with- out taking into consideration any details or accessories. silk. a fine, frail, glossy, fibrous sub- stance, produced chiefly by the silk- worm in the formation of its cocoon. the cocoon is yellow or white in color, because of the secreted by the worm, but it becomes white or pale cream upon being boiled in soap and water. the wild silk, the worm of which feeds on certain oak trees in china, india, and japan, is ecru colored even after the gum has been removed. silkaline. a soft, glazed cotton used for draperies and for comfortables. l d - a placket cut gore or skirt silkatine thread. a cheap, twisted cotton thread with a high luster in mutation of silk. it does not ro- duce the effect that silk thread oes, nor does it launder so well as mer- cerized cotton, but it is commend- able for practice work. silver cloth. a metal cloth made of metal warp in silver color and silk weft. used for trimmings, chiefly on evening dresses. silver tissue. a transparent metal cloth made of metal warp in silver color and silk weft. in the cheaper grades, merely an imitation of metal cloth. silvertone. a velour, velvet, or plush having a limited quantity of real and artificial white silk mixed with ‘the stock to produce a shimmering effect. the term originated in , but the idea is much older. simplicity knot-stitch. an embroidery stitch that resmbles a knot and is made by two small back-stitches placed next to each other. it is very popular for border and outline work. simulated. applied to dressmaking, a term that means having the appearance of or in imitation of something else; as, a simulated buttonhole, pocket, hem, etc. simulated buttonhole. a buttonhole made on the material for trimming purposes in imitation of a button- ole, no slit being used. sometimes called a blind buttonhole. simultaneous contrast. the effect produced by bringing together pale and dark colors that are not com- plementary to each other. single-stitch seam. an attractive finish for a plain seam consisting in basting both edges back from the seam and then stitching accurately on both sides. singles. see thrown silk. skinner’s satin. a heavy, durable satin havinga high luster. used for dresses and also for linings. skirt. that part of a coat, dress, or other garment that hangs below the waist. skirt gauge. a device used in mark- ing the desired skirt length. definitions of useful terms sponge cloth. a piece of cloth, such as unbleached duck or drilling, about i to% yard in size, used to dampen materials before they are pressed. sports suits. articles of wear especially _ adapted as to style and material for sports wear. spun silk. inferior silk made from short, waste fibers and from im- perfect cocoons. §used for knitted fabrics, embroidery and knitting silks, and in combination with cotton or wool. st. gall lace. a machine-made imita- tion of venetian lace. it is produced with machinery by embroidering with cotton or silk thread on woolen material. when the embroidery is completed, it is chemically treated to dissolve the wool and leave only the cotton or silk embroidery, which takes on the appearance of lace. stand pocket. a type of tailored pocket having an upstanding part as a finish for the opening. stays. the stiffening pieces of a corset; also, corsets themselves, especially the early form of corsets. these were originally almost instru- ments of torture, but early in the th century they began to receive the attention of manufacturers and they have gradually been improved until they are now pliant and elastic, giving the desired freedom and yet defining the figure satisfactorily. steinkirk. a lace cravat worn in a negligent way and taking its name from the battle of steinkirk ( ) in belgium, where the french had to fight with disarranged cravats. stem-stitch. an embroidery stitch sometimes called french stemming and made by first padding the outline or stem with the running- or the outline-stitch and then whipping this over and over with very even stitches made straight with the grain of the fabric or worked diagonally. it is used when heavier or more elaborate work is required than can be done by the outline-stitch. stiletto (sti-lét’o). a small, sharp- pointed instrument made of ivory, bone, celluloid, steel, aluminum, or other metal and used for punctur- ing_ eyelet holes in material. stock. a broad, stiffened collar or cravat. the stocks wor n during the georgian period ( - ) were tied in so many complicated ways that a book was published con- taining numerous diagrams and charts describing many different styles. stockinet weave. a knitted fabric, often in tubular fonn, largely used for underwear. stola (sto'la). the gown worn by the women of ancient rome draped around the figure and containing sleeves. stole. a long, narrow scarf, usually fringed at the ends and worn over the shoulders; often made of fur. a part of the vestments of the clergy of roman catholic, oriental, and anglican churches. stomacher (sti‘ m'i- k-er). an article of dress, usually of -rich material and elaborately ornamented, for the breast and upper abdomen, having the gown laced over it. worn in the th and th centuries. stom- achers were sometimes padded. storm serge. a very light-weight serge of hard, fine weave with nap made from comparatively low stock with single yarn for both warp and filling. used for dresses, skirts, and suits. stowing. a term applied in the tailor- ing trade to the joining of two edges. it means to pack the edges together closely so that the joining is scarcely visible. stranding thread.- tailors’ gimp or a thread, usually linen, twisted and waxed and used to strengthen the edge of a tailored buttonhole before it is worked. strap seam. a plain seam with a good seam allowance, over which a bias or crosswise strap of the same or contrasting material is placed on the right side after the seam has been pressed open. straw braids. the braids used in making straw hats, which are largely imported, the finer braids coming from south america, italy, and switzerland and cheaper kinds from china and japan. they range from } inch to inches in width. definitions of useful terms stroking. a sewing operation that consists in laying the gathers after they have been drawn up. it is done by drawing a needle down be- tween the gathers from above the gathering thread and pressing the little plaits under the thumb. style. as related to clothes, style pertains to the motif, the treatment, or the design, in contrast with fashion, which refers to the popu- larity of a certain style, the common trend, the prevailing mode. . suede (swad). undressed kid; that is, a skin from which the outer part has been rubbed off or skinned. used largely for gloves, but occasionally employed as a dress trimming. sugar-loaf hat. a hat in the shape of an old-fashioned sugar-loaf, which was conical and rounded at the top. suit. a combination of two or more garments constituting a single article. sunburst plaits. a form of accordion plaiting in which the plaits are very narrow at the top and wide at the bottom, thus producing a flare. surah (st‘ 'ra). a soft, light-weight, all-wool dress fabric woven in nearly invisible cords or twills or in fine basket-weave effect. also a light- weight, soft, twilled silk. surcoat. a loose garment worn by men over armor during the middle ages. sometimes embroidered with the wearer's coat-of-arms. also, an outer body jacket for women, often trimmed with fur, in the th and th centuries. swatch. a small piece of material, especially one cut off for a sample. swiss. a dress muslin usually in dotted or cross-bar effects. used for dresses and curtains. t tablier (ta-bli-e’). an apron-like part of a woman's dress. taffeta. a fine, smooth, glossy, un- twilled fabric, having considerable body and alike on both sides. formerly, it was a very rich, strong, and somewhat stiff fabric, but at the present time it is made very pliable and lustrous. it may be plain, figured, striped, plaid, or changeable. used for dresses and general garment purposes. chrflan lafieta is a light- weight variety of good quality and soft, lustrous finish and is much used for evening gowns. tagal straw (ta-gal’). which hats are made. it bears the name of adutch province in northern ]ava. tailleur (ta-yfir’). a french word meaning tailor or tailoress. a tailor- made suit or dress is now called a tailleur, just as one speaks of a “tailormade" in english. tailored fell. a tailored seam made in a way similar to a hand fell but stitched by machine rather than by hand. it is used extensively in making unlined coats and skirts, especially tailored wash skirts. tailors’ chalk. chalk used by tailors for the marking of all lines in their work. tailors’ tacks. see mark-stitching. tamise cloth. see batiste. tam o’shanter. a cap of scotch origin fitting tight around the brows but large and full above, sometimes having a flat top and often a knot or a tassel. tape. a narrow strip of firmly woven cotton or linen. lingerie tape is a finely woven cotton tape which comes in light colors and is used as a ribbon substitute. tape measure. a tape line usually inches in length and % to i} inch wide, and divided into inches, half inches, quarter inches, and eighth inches. tapestry darning-stitch. an over-and- over embroidery stitch that re- sembles darned work when finished but gives a solid effect in alternated stitches. it is used as a border for towels, table covers, etc. and in conventional designs in fancy work and dressmaking. tarlatan. an open-mesh, slightly stiffened fabric used for christmas stockings and as a stiffening in gar- ments. tartan. originally, scotch twilled woolen or worsted plaids with dis- tinctive designs and colors for each highland clan. these tartans ap- peared in the shawl worn over the shoulders and in the kilt. now used for suits and skirts. a straw of definitions of useful terms tassel. a pendant ornament consist- ing of a tuft of loosely hanging threads or cords as of silk or wool, often headed with a silk-covered button or mold. tassels, like fringes, were used in ancient times and were decorative features of the costumes of nineveh and babylon. tatting. a knotted work of various designs made with an oblong shuttle and a single thread. the clover- leaf and wheel designs are the ones most frequently made. imitation tatting in no way compares with hand-made tatting. tatting is much used as a trimming on lingerie, dresses, children's clothes, and in trimming fancy work. taupe (top). the color of mole skin, or dark gray. tenerifie lace (ten-er-if’). a lace made largely in the canary islands and having motifs of wheels and circles like paraguay lace. the wheels are made by the natives over spools that are held in the hand. terry cloth. a material woven in looped effect that forms an uncut pile. it is made of cotton, linen, wool, or silk and is used for many purposes. in cotton or linen, it is called turkish toweling. it comes in stripes, checks, plaids, or brocaded effects in various colors. tertiary colors (tér'shi-a-ri). the colors produced by mixing pigments of the secondary colors. the tertiary colors are citrine, olive, and russet. thread. a slender cord composed of two or more yarns or filaments twisted together and used in the construction of a garment. cotton thread is made of cotton filaments; linen thread, of flax fibers; and silk thread, of silk fibers. thread shank. a thread tightly wound around the threads that are used to fasten the button to the material, thus holding the button away from the material and allow- ing room for the buttonhole to come between. thrown silk. raw silk that has been doubled and twisted into yarns of various sizes in preparation for the loom. the principal classes of thrown silk are tram, organzine, and singles. ticking. firm, twilled, cotton fabric in stripes, floral, and herringbone patterns. it is used for pillows, bedticks, and mattress coverings. tie-stitch. properly a millinery stitch, but sometimes used in dressmaking to fasten a fold in place from the back or to make the flat plaits of ruches stand up in rufiles. to make a tie-stitch, first make a small stitch, leaving several inches of the thread with which to tie the other end. after tying, cut the ends and proceed to the making of the next stitch. tier. as applied to dress, one of a series of rufiles or flounces. a tiered skirt is one having several rufiles placed one on top of the other. tinsel. very thin, glittering bits of metal used to ornament articles of dress. tint. a light tone of any color; that is, one approaching white. this term, however, has been replaced by tone. tinting. coloring garments, material, or lace by means of colored paper or ribbon, red ink, or some commercial preparation. tissue cloth. a cloth made of silk and gold thread. in the middle ages, thin sheets of paper were put between layers of this cloth to keep it from tarnishing. this was the first tissue paper. titian blonde. a type of person having red hair, blue-gray or brown eyes, a medium-clear or clear-white com- plexion, and varying color. toga (to'ga). the outer garment of a roman citizen, originally worn by men and women but later confined to men. it was gathered together on the left shoulder so as to hang in broad folds. togs. articles of clothing, usually of a particular kind, as skating togs. tone. that property of a color which distinguishes it from other colors or from varieties of its own color in the respect of its approaching or reced- ing from black; that is, whether it is darker or lighter. top-coat. a coat worn over another coat, as, an overcoat. top dyeing. dyeing over; that is, dyeing on the top of other colors. definitions of useful terms underproper. a wire arrangement that held up the huge ruffs worn in the th and th centuries. undersleeve. a separate sleeve of light material wor n under the sleeve of a woman's dress. v v neck. a neck line shaped like the letter v in front. valenciennes lace (va-lan-syén'). . a bobbin lace commonly called val, in which the same thread is used for both the ground and the pattern. the mesh is very open and of great regularity, being hexagonal, square, or diamond-shaped, with natural or conventionalized flowers or trailing patterns. a distinguishing feature of the real val is the absence of any outlining thread, the lace being flat and worked in one piece. van dyck, or vandyke, collar(v§.n dik'). large collars of lace or linen with lace in deep points on the edge. these collars were worn by so many of the people who appear in portraits painted by van dyck that they are called the van dyck collar. vegetable ivory. material produced from the seed of a tropical american palm and used in the making of buttons. it can be cut, engraved, polished, and dyed more effectively than any other button material. velour (ve-lo'or'). a large variety of soft, stout, closely woven, smooth fabrics with raised and shorn nap. used for coats, suits, capes, and dresses. velvet. a silken fabric havin a short, soft, thick pile surface an a plain back. introduced in the th cen- tury in italy, taking its name from the italian word “velluto," meaning woolly to the touch. it may be all silk or it may have merely a silk face with a cotton or linen back. it is used for dresses, suits, coats, and trimmings, and for millinery pur- poses. velvet, croisé. a kind of velvet hav- ing a coarse back and woven so as to hold the pile firmly. thus, it is suitable wherever a durable velvet is desired. it is much used for trimmings. velvet, lyons. a kind of velvet hav- ing a short nap that is not secure in its back or foundation. used chiefly for draperies and bows, and in millinery, for which it seems especially adapted. velvet, mirror. a velvet having a shimmery appearance. it is woven like plain velvet and then has its pile dressed down. used for trim- ming and millinery purposes. some- times called paon velvet. velvet, nacré. a velvet with a back of one color and a pile of another, which gives a beautiful changeable shading resembling mother-of-pearl, from which it gets its name. it is used for evening gowns and wraps, and as a trimming, especially in millinery. velvet, panne (pan). a kind of velvet much the same as mirror velvet in appearance, except that, in the case of panne velvet, the nap is all laid inthe same directionin the weaving. velveteen. a cotton velvet with short, close pile used for dresses, children's wraps, and draperies. it is of english origin, being originally a twilled cotton with raised pile. venetian. ( ) a fine woolen cloth somewhat similar to covert because of the fine diagonal that characterizes it. sometimes venetian cloth re- sembles whipcord and again it has considerable nap and little twill, like broadcloth. used for spring topcoats and suits and in lighter weights for skirts and dresses. ( ) a very closely woven, strong cotton fabric woven in satin or twill weave, usually mercerized and dyed in the piece. it has a glossy finish imitat- ing silk and is used for linings, skirts, and bathing suits. venetian lace. guipure needlepoint lace made in venice, reticella being the first variety. later, punto in aria, “stitches in the air," was the beginning of point venice. it con- sists of needle-point motifs or designs joined with an irregular network of brides. it is used for dress trimmings and curtains. venetian ladder work. a form of embroidery work that consists in outlining a design with two parallel lines of buttonhole-stitches and con- definitions of useful terms necting these with a series of cross- stitches at regular intervals in ladder fashion. it is used principally for border work in conventional de- signs. vertical hemming-stitch. a hemming- stitch taken at right angles to the hem it is securing. it is used when a very neat and inconspicuous hem turn is desired or to secure a plain hem over gathers on the right side. vest. formerly, only a close-fitting under jacket, which showed in the front opening of a top coat. now, an extra piece of trimming in the front of the waist of a woman's gown. vestee. a small vest used in the front of a woman's dress. vestings. heavy, fancy materials, usually highly colored and in persian and colored effect. used for vests and trimmings and for men's ties. violet. a color or class of colors seen at the end of the spectrum, opposite the red end. virago sleeves (vi-ra’go). very full sleeves tied in at intervals to form puffs. such sleeves were worn in the elizabethan period and are a feature of the extravagant dress of cavalier times. voile. ( ) a plain, sheer fabric with hard-twisted, warp and weft threads woven in open mesh. used exten- sively for dresses. ( ) a sheer, open-mesh, semitransparent fabric of silk or silk and wool. used for overdrapes, evening dresses, and fancy blouses. w waistcoat. a vest, now commonly sleeveless, covering the waist and chest and worn under a coat. wallachian embroidery (wo-la’kl-an). a kind of embroidery consisting of a single-purl buttonhole-stitch used to form both eyelets and leaves. wardrobe. wearing apparel in gen- eral; all of a person's clothes. warm color. a color in which there is a predominance of yellow. warp. the threads that run the long way of a fabric, between which the weft, or filling of cross-threads, is woven. the selvage way of the material. wash satin. white, cream, or flesh- colored satin used for lingerie, collars, and sports skirts and so treated as to present a good appear- ance after washing. washable knot-stitch. an embroidery stitch produced by making a loop as for a chain and then fastening the loop down with a couching-stitch. its chief use is as a border-stitch or an outline-stitch. waterfall. a silk fabric having the luster of velvet and consisting of a thin, slightly open foundation ribbed with velvet pile so woven as to form stripes about i inch wide and to show warp threads between. it drapes beautifully and is used for evening wraps, scarfs, and millinery. waterproofing. the processes by which cotton, wool, or silk, as well as other closely woven fabrics are rendered impenetrable by means of various insoluble substances without altering the chemical or physical construction of the fibers or the yarns. the process must not alter the pliancy of the cloth nor prevent the admittance of air. the materials used most for waterproofing are rubber, gutta percha, oils, fats, varnishes, wax, acids, and oxides. watteau (wa-to’). a pattern or design similar to those produced by watteau, an artist during the reign of louis xv ( - ). the most popular watteau styles were the watteau back, which is a style of woman's dress in which the fulnms of the back is confined at the neck in plaits or gathers and falls from there to the hem of the skirt, some- times forming a long train; the watteau bodice, having a square neck and short sleeves terminating in a ruffle; the watteau mantle, which was a cape with loose-plaited back; and the watteau hat, which was flat on top and raised toward the back by a bandeau. watteau plait. a box plait at the center back of a princesse gown laid from the neck to the waist line and then permitted to hang free to the bottom of the skirt. weft. see woof. definitions of useful terms wool crépe. a woolen fabric having a crinkly surface formed by using alternately right-hand and left- hand twist yarns in the filling. used for dresses. wool tafieta. a wool fabric in a closely woven, smooth weave. similar to panama but of a much finer quality. used for dresses, skirts, and suits. woolens. fabrics made from short, staple wools. worsted (wct s'téd or w -or'sted). ( ) a woolen yarn used in making cloth and having its fibers laid parallel rather than crossed. ( ) a loosely twisted yarn for knitting. worsteds. fabrics made from long, staple wools. wrap. an article of dress intended to be wrapped around the body. in the plural, outside garments. wrapped skirt. a skirt designed so that one side is folded or wrapped over the other side. y yam. a continuous strand of twisted fibers, whether animal, mineral, or vegetable, for use in weaving and knitting. by some, it is restricted to woolen yarn only. yellow. the color of the spectrum between green and orange, similar to that of brass or gold. yoke. the portion of a waist which is fitted over the shoulders and to which the rest of the garment is sewed. a skirt yoke is a piece of material fitted over the hips and the rest of the skirt is gathered or plaited on it. z zanella cloth (za-nél’a). see gloria. zibeline (zlb él-in). a thick, woolen material of plain weave entirely covered with glossy hair, which gives a nap § to } inch long. it is similar to camel's hair except that the hair is cut evenly. used for suits and overcoats. zephyr gingham. see gingham. iv index cotton filling for woven rugs, finishes, flannel, gin, ginnery, ginning, gloves, mending the finger tips of silk or, indian, material, calendering of, material, mercerization of, material, printing of, materials, purchasing, materials, table of, - materials, tests for quality of, opener, opening, peruvian, , plant, classification of, plant, growth of, production and manufacture of, rugs, roving for, sea island, sorting, south american, spinning, thread in lace-making, upland, weaving, cottons, table of, counterpanes, bedspreads or, countries producing irish crochet lace, producing linen, producing wool, couronnes, definition of, coutil, covers and pads, mattress, buffet, furniture, upholstery, covert cloth, crape, craquelé net, crash, , , toweling, , cravenette, crepe, canton, de chine, effect in wool material, illustration of, georgette, meteor, wool, cretonne, , , crinoline, crochet lace, lace, countries producing irish, lace, irish, crocheted rugs, croisé velvet, crompton, samuel, cuffs on a. boy's blouse, mending worn sleeves and, on men's shirts, darning of collars and,’ on men's shirts, turning worn collars and, cultivation of flax plant, culture of silk, curling, preventing rugs from, curtain, applying braid to a, applying lace to a, casings, width of, finishes, allowance for, fixture, single-rod, fixture, double-rod, fixture, triple-rod, headings, width of, hems, weights in, hems, width of, lace, making, making, ~preparing materials for, materials, preserving the freshness of, rod, sash-, rods, shrinkage, allowance for, valance, box—plaited, valance, pinch-plaited, valance, plain, valance, shirred, valances, making, curtains, allowance for fulness of, brussels lace, cutting materials for, draw, finishing, for bathroom windows, for bay windows, for bedroom windows, for casement windows, for door windows, for french doors, for kitchen windows, for living-room or dining-room windows, _ glass or sash, measuring for, mending torn or worn, nottingham lace, panel, saxony brussels lace, selection of, swiss brussels lace, types of, curved-warp weaving, cushions, --¢?gi~ bsuhiseebbl l lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll b a ~ ———..--_ii .._ bquhlqbebbl ll lllllllllllllllllllllll hllllll b a pin your faith to vogue ... your cloth to a vogue pattern when prices of materials mount and clothes are costlier, vogue patterns step more firmly to the fore in any fashion picture. it is so important that quality fabrics be cut on chic and perfect patterns. it is also important that precious hours should be profitably spent in turning out well- styled, finely-fitting clothes. vogue patterns cost a little more, but they are a lot more economical. they are your unfailing style insur- ance. today that insurance is more vital than ever. the wise woman pins her faith to vogue-her cloth to a vogue pattern. why learn to sew?-why not? pick up your needle if you are interested in economy the problem of looking like a million dollars on practically nothing at all distresses almost every one of us these days. the best way to manage this deception, and the most unbeatable, is to wield a clever needle yourself in a smart fabric cut by a vogue pattern. frocks, skirts that will increase the usefulness of your coats. thus, with lengths of material, you can plan an extensive and very beautiful ward- robe that will round out your life perfectly. if you can sew—that is, sew with professional skill, you hold in your hand the sesame of chic. you don't have to be one of the dozens wearing dresses turned out by the gross, in all colours and in all sizes. you can be an individu- alist; you can play up to your type, choosing the colours and the lines that suit you and bring out your best points. you can have that custom- made look-like a man whose clothes are tai. lored and not ready-made. sewing is no deep, dark mystery. “all well and good,” some of you will say, “but sewing—pro- fessionally perfect sewing—is one of those fairy godmother gifts—like a talent for music or art, bestowed at birth. you either have it, or you haven't.” all of which is sheer nonsense. we re- peat: there's no deep, dark mystery to sewing. it isn't an unsolvable riddle. if you have intel- ligence, one brain, two eyes, and two hands, you can become an expert. there are rules to follow, of course, just as in any profession, and that's why this small book is published. and rules are made to be followed religiously. short cuts and makeshifts are what give to so many home-made dresses their home-made look. it's a little obvious to go into the higher math- ematics of the financial benefits of a sewing talent. any one with a practical turn of mind can figure that out for herself—and will know how she can whittle down expenditures and in- crease the size of a wardrobe. in the following pages, many of the sketches are greatly magnified, so you can see at a glance exactly the angle of a stitch or just what thread goes over another. make a practice of using the finest needles and the finest cotton and silk that your fabric will allow. and keep running-stitches and hemming-stitches very fine—that is a touch of paris that you can get at home. every wardrobe, to be a good, workable one, should have garments that may be fitted together like the jigsaw pieces of a puzzle. the wardrobe should be flexible, its separate parts interchange- able. each item should fit into different sartorial schemes, play a double rôle, and, sometimes, even a triple rôle. usually, it is impossible to manage this chameleon quality when you accumulate a wardrobe in the shops. the dress you want can't be had in the colour or size you want. the skirt of your choice is off-tone. but, in the fabric departments, you can work this trick of interchangeability with great skill-you can have dresses that collaborate with your coat, jackets that ring changes on all your before you plunge into any sewing-you must have the right mental attitude. don't be too am- bitious at first; don't try to tackle difficult de- signs. it is wiser to start in with things to fill out your wardrobe. begin, for instance, on a sleeve- less tennis dress or a blouse or try a separate sports skirt. it is better to choose simple patterns with few pieces and no staggering tailoring re- quirements. if you are in doubt as to which pat- terns to select for such primary work, you should consult the saleswoman at your nearest vogue pattern department. she will be glad to help you. a vogue pattern is a fashion guide you need only fol- low instructions cuccess in dressmaking depends on following instructions. read every word, study every picture, and then carry out the letter of the law. when you get your vogue pattern, you know that it is absolutely right, if you carry out your part in doing what vogue recommends. each pattern is a perfect design in itself, balanced as to line and detail, so that no changes should be made—they spoil the harmony of vogue patterns. first of all comes the pattern envelope, which has complete in- structions for the amount of material you should purchase for your size, in any particular width. be sure to choose one of the fabrics recommended on the envelope and to buy the exact amount stated. vogue patterns are laid out economically. not to buy enough means failure and disappointment. lay out the pattern exact- ly as the directions advise study the cutting charts with attention. all the pieces of the pattern are illustrated, with each notch and perforation care- fully marked. if the pattern offers a choice of details, discard any pieces that you won't require. the straight of the goods is indi- cated, and you will find that all the necessary marks of identi- fication are clearly designated on each piece of the pattern. next, fit the pieces of the pattern to you, pinning them carefully together and trying them on to be sure that you can avoid alter- ations in the material. if you have to adjust the pattern, follow the directions that are given. a detailed story of alterations will be found on pages to l, which will prove helpful to the woman who does not have exactly average proportions. it is a very good idea to keep the work on a table now, you are ready to cut out your material. on the chart, you will see sketches of the way the pattern should be laid on the material you are using. each size is shown, each width of suit- able fabric, so the possibility of erring is left entirely to you. we will have nothing to do with mistakes! pin on each piece of pattern exactly as it should be, taking care that the fabric is perfectly straight and smooth, with no wrinkles or bulges. mark on the fabric all the notches and perforations, carefully, according to the pattern and instructions. when you have cut out each piece and have checked to be sure that you have each one, you are ready to sew. be sure to read the various steps in dressmaking, which are augmented by diagrams. it is not enough just to look at the diagram or just to read the de. scription. it is the two together that complete the story, and both should be followed from the first basting to the last pressing. then you will know that your frock is made and finished in the best possible way, that it contains exactly the lines, the details, and the finish that are found in the very smartest of frocks. pattern instructions often call for a machine finish equipment for home sewing good tools are necessary an amateur may easily be frightened by the a length of the list of tools and appliances, but she may be assured that successful things have been made with the equipment reduced to the very lowest terms: scissors that will cut clean lines; an adequate cutting surface; a vogue pattern of simple design; the iron; and the con- tents of an ordinary sewing basket. slightly undersize and padded out with layers of wadding or fabric. in working on a skirt, have the dress-form lifted to a table or stand; do not weary yourself with stooping. and be sure that there is space for you to stand back and survey the work from time to time. there is usually a certain amount of work that can be done better with the dress on a form, such as tacking a loose panel or overlay. the lightness of touch so essen. tial to successful work is more easily acquired when you are working on the figure rather than on a flat surface. let the panels or drapery fall naturally-be on your guard against dragging or straining or any touch of heavy-handedness. the difference between complete success and near-success may lie merely in the handling of the fabric, after it is cut. as she gains in confidence, she collects other helps. she assembles the tools that certain fab- rics call for, such as a needle-board for pile fabrics. she selects a dress-form when she de- cides on a vogue design that calls for drapery or circular treatment. she gets buttonhole scis- sors (that may be set with a screw to ensure uniformity) when she essays a frock with a number of buttonholes. she will eventually, per- haps, attain the ideal sewing room, with all tools. in this room, there will be the machine and the electric iron, the ironing stand, and the sleeve-board, and a full-length mirror. there will be shears for cutting and scissors for snip- ping threads (a thread should never be broken, always cut); tape measure and yardstick of tested accuracy, tailors' chalk, tracing-wheel, emery, and wax. thimbles, pins, and needles are a foregone conclusion, but should be carefully chosen. a rough thimble will roughen the thread, poor points on pins will mark delicate fabrics. steel pins have good points, but may leave rust marks if left in the work for any length of time. french chalk, fullers' earth, or a block of magne. sia should be at hand, in case of a spot of oil from the machine. cover the spot well and leave the powder on for twenty-four hours. in addition to the dress-form, a sleeve form may be prepared, cut from muslin by a fitted sleeve pattern, stitched, and filled with shredded paper or with curled hair. this may be pinned to the dress-form, but need not be permanently at- tached. it may be in your way when you are adjusting a skirt if not easily detachable. the equipment of the sewing room may include a skirt marker, with a gauge and a holder for chalk, a pinking machine, and a machine for covering buttons, if work is done on a large scale. plenty of hangers should be on hand. once an amateur has worked on a dress-form, she will never be satisfied without one. there are adjustable forms that may be adapted to different figures. very good proportions may now be found in non-adjustable forms. trilling varia. tions may be taken care of by the use of a per- fectly fitted lining put over a dress-form that is plenty of press cloths are part of the sewing. room equipment. they should be of clean mus- lin, free of starch or sizing. detachable covers for the ironing board and a sleeve-board are also in order. an ironing board cover that has ab- sorbed dye from a coloured fabric should never be used for white or delicately tinted fabrics. a tailors' cushion for curved seams is another of the additions to the perfectly appointed sewing room. above all, be sure that you work in a good light. characteristics of fabrics quality and textures to consider when you are buying materials l e ll-chosen material is essential to a v v successful frock. if your first thought is of a model that you would like to copy, your second thought must be of an appropriate fabric. if your first thought is of the fabric that you prefer, your second thought must be of a model adapted to the characteristics of that fabric. keep yourself posted by reading the fabric articles which ap- pear from time to time in vogue and in vogue pattern periodicals. the grain of the fabric is important. in all ma- t erials, the true bias is elastic to a greater or less degree according to the firmness of the weave. in nearly all fabrics, there is a noticeable dif. ference in the depth of colour between the cross and the up-and-down of the fabric. in satin, this may be quite pronounced, and cross-cut inserts, trimming bands, or even whole sections may be called for in a given model. there are also inter- esting uses of both surfaces of a double-faced fabric. all this, of course, is worked out in the original vogue model from which the pattern was cut, and it must be carefully considered if you think of using any other fabric. be sure to read the fashion reports and study the descriptions of model gowns under the sketches in each issue of vogue. if a novelty fabric raises any question in your mind, do not buy it until you have checked up its correctness in vogue. if you wish to use a vogue model for an unfamiliar fabric, consult the expert in the vogue department at your favourite shop. there will be a large choice of models for each and every smart material, and the proper layout chart for the individual size and width of the fabric. pile fabrics, notably velvet, have a distinct dif- ference in shading, even on the straight grain. re. member this fact when buying the fabric. it is possible that you will need more yardage. fig. ured fabrics that have a distinct up-and-down in the pattern require the same consideration; it will not do to have parts of the design upside down. horizontal stripes should be matched as nearly as possible on the seams, but it is not necessary to spoil the line of a slanting seam to get an absolute match. irregular plaids must be cut so that the horizontal stripe of a given colour is not broken by a seam or by the opening of a coat. one must count on a certain amount of waste at the beginning. be on your guard against accepting rules of yes- terday for the mode of to-day. nowadays, many barriers are removed, many inhibitions forgotten, and the fashion field is larger than ever before. it used to be said that a particular fabric was the only one suited to a particular type of model- now, often, the only rule is that, in choosing a certain model for a certain fabric, you must con- sider the characteristics of that fabric. for in- stance; is the goods sheer or semi-sheer? it may be a piquant choice of the mode to use sheer goods for a severe tailored frock, setting aside all old inhibitions. so you may choose a tailored model for sheer crêpe, but always remember the delicacy of the fabric. remember that it can not be shrunken under the iron, nor fitted so tautly as to pull open at the seams. machine stitching—if called for by the model-may require basting the material to soft paper, stitching through both, and then tearing the paper away afterward. the so-called “draping quality” of fabric must be reckoned with. it controls the success of the type of gown in which uncut breadths are used as far as possible. in combining one material with an- other, keep your ideas up to the last minute by reading vogue regularly. if you hear of an un- usual combination, be sure that it is sponsored by vogue. buy material that is worth the time and work that you will expend in making the frock. it need not be the most expensive, but it must be the best of its kind in texture and fast in colour. important points to remember vogue shows the way to success for the beginner many a beginner has been known to make the fatal error of disregarding vogue’s directions about the width of the seams—taking a seam either much narrower or much wider than indi- cated. ill-fitting results are certain to follow. cuccess waits upon the veriest tyro in dress- making, if a few all-important points are borne in mind. cut is the thing in any model, and the first point to be remembered is to retain every line of the original model from which the pattern was cut. in other words, one must give punctilious attention to the chart and to the grain of the goods. a beginner has been known to wonder why a sleeve twists on the arm, why a skirt hangs awry, without realizing that she has disregarded the line of perforations that indi- cates the straight of the goods on the pattern. watch the grain of the goods ! the juncture of the sleeve and the frock has been known to puzzle another beginner. she blithely disregarded the important fact that the pattern called for fabric eased at the top of the sleeve-easing that is quite imperceptible when well handled. instead of holding the sleeve to- wards her and distributing the slight fulness, she basted the gown to the sleeve and cut the surplus of the sleeve away, with disastrous results. a beginner has been known to be puzzled by the set of a shoulder, the shaping of an armhole, not realizing that she has recklessly cut away the superfluous fabric when the shoulder seam did not come out even. as a matter of fact, the well-cut original model had just the right amount of ease where the back was joined to the front, no more and no less than required to give the right set. instead of altering the line of the arm- hole by ill-inspired cutting, she should have ripped the shoulder seam very carefully, snip- ping the threads at intervals to avoid pulling the fabric, and then rebasted the seam with the back section held towards her. you must retain the correct lines in basting! another tyro has been heard bewailing the fact that her seams looked puckered, in spite of the most assiduous pressing. unconsciously, she may have eased one section to the other as she basted. the tendency always is towards greater fulness in the portion that is held towards one, a tendency that can be overcome by pinning the seam for its entire length before basting. an. other cause of puckering is carelessness in re- moving basting threads, which should be clipped, never pulled. puckering also results when a slightly bias edge is mishandled and stretched in pinning, basting, or sewing. a pitfall a novice often falls into is that of cut. ting two sleeves, both for the same arm—an error that may occur when the layout shows each sleeve cut separately. study the chart with great attention before cutting any of the parts marked "cut two”. when your material is not alike on both sides, you must not forget to turn the pattern over before cutting out the opposite half. the uneven effect of a bias binding was the complaint of another beginner. perhaps, she had not cut it with care, so that it was just a trifle off the exact bias, or she may have cut it correctly, but stretched it in one place and pulled it in another. maintain an even touch in handling. be careful not to pull or stretch the fabric. expertness in cutting out a dress use sharp shears and keep an even motion v een, true shears are requisites in the successful cutting out of a garment, and a perfectly flat solid surface is equally important. amateur dress- makers have been known to attempt cutting on the yielding surface of a bed or sofa or on a table so small that the fabric slipped under the shears. if makeshifts are necessary, lay clean paper on the floor and spread the fabric there. keep the material per- fectly flat, with selvages parallel. the placing of the sections of the pattern on the fabric is also important. one should follow the layout chart very carefully. when the chart indicates that a section of a pattern is to be placed on a fold, take care to pin through both thicknesses of fabric. if one uses the dining-table, the surface should be pro- tected with sheets of paper, because the shears should slide along the surface, with the fabric lifted as lit- tle as possible. it is important to keep an even mo. tion while cutting and to avoid a jerky series of snips. and it is still more important not to deviate from the pattern. a professional dressmaker always cuts with the middle of the blades. the hand of a professional is sketched, with shears in the right position. one should always be sure that the blades are sharp. the third sketch shows the trick of basting down the centre front and back of a frock or blouse immedi. ately after cutting and before unfolding the material. use coloured thread for this purpose and take loose basting stitches. blue or yellow thread is the best choice. you will find neither colour will crock. never start to work upon serge, cloth, or twill unless it has been sponged and shrunk. french dressmakers shrink wool crêpes once in hot and once in cold water before cutting them. as a result, they become more pliable and yet hold their shape without clinging or stretching and without pulling under the iron. important stitches are shown on this page in greatly enlarged sketches running-stitches should be of uniform size on both sides ( ). take three or four even stitches on needle before pulling thread. sketch no. shows the first stitch in back. stitching. after the needle is drawn through, it is carried back and put in the goods where the thread has gone in the fabric. sketch shows how to baste on the right side when you are matching stripes, plaids, etc. crease the seam allowance on the upper section and slip-stitch it to the under section. / a quick way to overcast on a pliable fabric (sketch ) is to take several stitches at once, before pulling the needle through. overcasting (sketch ) may be done from left to right, or right to left, over both edges of a closed seam, or on each edge of a seam that has been pressed flat open. fine workmanship shows in rolling and whipping the edges of all sheer fabrics (see sketch ). work from either side or in either direction. keep the stitches even. catch-stitch (sketch ) may finish an edge or hold a hem. work in either direction, but keep an even slant. blanket-stitch (sketch ) may be worked from left to right or from right to left. practice keeps the purl exactly on the edge. x x y cording and piping a few diversified methods of application macam to sew straight or bias fabric over a cord, use a close running-stitch ( ). the thicker the fabric, the heavier the cord. for piping, the cord is joined to the rest of the material by stitching it like a binding or by slip-stitch. ing it from the right side ( ). trim one edge of the piping to reduce the bulk at the back and catch-stitch it or leave it free. cord piping may be set into a seam ( ). after sewing the fabric over the cord, the four edges are held to- gether and sewed with a running-stitch. when covering a cable cord, sew the cord and the bias- cut fabric temporarily to a fine tape ( a). the fabric is then stitched so as to encase the tape ( b). the tape is pulled gently through from the inside and the material work- ed over the cord ( c). guard against twisting the seam. covered loops ( ) used in place of buttonholes may be sewed separately to extend beyond the edges of a closing. ravel out the cord at the end, for flatness, after sewing it to the fabric. another method ( ) is to sew the cord, on the inside, to the fabric, forming a series of loops. loops of fabric-covered.cord may be made with the ends turned in invisibly ( , ). they are used to hold belts that tie on the inside or as frog-like fasteners. when there is no strain on the loops, the cord may be omitted. instead, leave a seam allowance twice as wide as the stitched por. tion. this additional material will serve as a filling. use fine and well-matched silk or cotton in attaching the loops. a reach b toit.... iii necessary information about pleats methods of laying and basting don't try to save material by making shallow pleats that will not hang well. bring the edge of the fold accurately to the line of the tailors' tacks marking the depth ( ). e baste a box pleat through three thicknesses of fabric ( ). tailors' tacks then should be pulled out. if the basting threads mark the material, press, after they are out, with a damp cloth. an inverted box pleat as a seam should have the seam at its edge ( ). do not press the seam open in the pleat, ex- cept at the hem. slip-stitch the pleat at the top. pleats released below machine-stitching ( ) are folded and basted and marked where the stitching ends. the threads are fastened off immediately after stitching each pleat. in arranging a group of pleats, keep them even, retaining the depth of each pleat ( ). one should always baste firmly before pressing the pleats in place. machine pleats ( ) are basted to hold the inner parts in position. stitch through each pleat, with an occasional back-stitch, for firmness. keep the work on a table. the fold of a side pleat at a seam ( ) must be parallel for the seam to retain the crease of the pleat. guard against displacing the seam in the pressing of it. stitching in rows across pleats ( ) may be done with a fine cord or with heavy silk in the bobbin of the machine, working from the back. always be sure the pleats are basted flat and in position before attempting to stitch them. library of the university of wisconsin . . the color cycle yellow, blue, and red are primary colors ( ). pairs of them, when combined, make green, violet, and orange, which are secondary or binary colors ( ). all three combined make gray. each color has a complementary color, which is opposite it on this chart. thus a binary has a primary for its complement, and vice versa. by combining a primary and a binary, we get a tertiary ( ). the elements of color are: hue, the quality that distinguishes one color from another; value, the quality of lightness or darkness; and chroma, the quality of brightness or dullness. white, black, and gray are called neutrals. colors of red or yellow tone are called warm; those of blue or purple tone, cold. shades of a color are darker than normal; tints are lighter. from thimble to gown a manual of sewing by ethel van gilder high school, springfield, illinois allyn and bacon boston new york chicago atlanta san francisco dallas copyright, by allyn and bacon ΝΤΑ norwood press j. s. cushing co. – berwick & smith co. norwood, mass., u.s.a. v * jul - reyp v foreword from thimble to gown, with its copious illustrations and practical suggestions, is intended to instruct the pupil in simple, accurate methods of sewing. its purpose is to explain in plain words the best ways to do the sewing that falls to the lot of the average girl, wife, or mother. the lessons which it offers pro- vide a foundation of professional needlecraft for the few who choose that calling; and for the many who will do all or part of their home needlework, it gives directions and suggestions of inestimable value. it is based on the author's training in this country's most advanced schools of home economics, and on experience gained by teaching. the author attributes in no small degree the con- structive value of this book to the students who have exchanged experiences with her in high school and college home economics courses. their problems have been her problems, and, having shared in their solution, she desires to share with others the infor- mation thus acquired. the first unit of the book includes a full and explicit description of the basic stitches used in sewing, both plain and decorative; how to use the sewing machine; and certain general construction problems, such as bindings, facings, pockets, plackets, sleeves, collars, cuffs, and the like. following this very definite descriptive material is a unit which discusses color and design in relation to their proper use in gar- ments for people of various types. this unit includes, also, a study of fabrics, particularly cotton, linen, rayon, silk, and wool. iii iv foreword then come a few chapters of information on taking measure- ments, cutting garments, making adjustments in patterns for various figures, and drafting patterns. the third unit concerns itself with the finished garment and how to care for it — cleaning, pressing, shrinking, removing stains, and so on. the chapter on “origins" gives the pupil a general idea of the historical significance of many of our dress accessories of today. the projects in the appendix have been prepared as activities for applying the subject matter of the book. besides proving of value to the teacher who has no special course of study of her own, they may present new and additional ideas to those teachers who already have a course of study. the book has about three hundred diagrams, clearly and accurately drawn to illustrate each process and to help make it intelligible to the pupil. the text and diagrams are so corre- lated as to make the actual working out of the processes clear and simple. in addition to the purely diagrammatic illustrations, there are full-page illustrations introducing the units and, at the beginnings of the chapters, smaller cuts which lend an imaginative touch to so technical a manual. the frontispiece is a color chart, with an explanation of the relation of the colors in the wheel. a complete and practical guide cannot help but make pro- ficiency in sewing an interesting and pleasurable goal. e. v. g. table of contents unit i. the stitch chapter pages - · · . . · . . i construction stitches. . . thimble, needle, and thread . basic stitches · · · · decorative stitches. . . use of the sewing machine . . · , - – - · · · · · · · · . · . · . . · · · · . . · · ii construction processes seams . . . . tailor's tacks . . darts . . . . gathering; shirring . tucks . . . . plaits; godets, . bias . . . . bindings; pipings facings. cordings mitering hems . . . . - - , , – , , - , - – . · · . . . . · . · . . . . · · . . · · . . · · . · · . . . . . . .. . . · · · . . · . . · · iii construction problems . yokes . plackets . . . . neckline finishes, collars sleeves . . . . . pockets . . . . belts, girdles, sashes, ties. - - – - - - - . . · · . . . . . · · . · · . . . . · table of contents chapter pages linings . . . . . . . . . . – laces . . . . . . . . . . – fasteners : buttons, buttonholes, hooks and eyes, snaps, loops . . . . . . . – mending : patches, darns . . . . . - . unit ii. the pattern iv . . . . · color . . . . . . . the interpretation of color . . the law of the dressing scheme. choosing the color scheme . . - – , – . . . . . v · · design . . . . . . . elements of design . . . figure and posture . . . . . dressing the individual types . . . fabrics: cotton, linen, rayon, silk, wool . weaves and knits . . . . . . . – . – . - . – – · . vi measurements . . . . . . . . – vii cutting . . . . . . . . . knowledge required in cutting garments. order of cutting and constructing . . viii the whys of clothes . . . . . . clothes and character . . . . . style . . . . . . . . . beauty . . . . . . . . . clothing budget . . . . . . . – . – . - . - . – . – . - . – . . . . . . ix patterns and adjustments for various figures how to solve your fitting problems . . how to alter patterns . . . . . drafting patterns . . . . . . . – . – . – . – table of contents vii chapter pages x undergarments . . . . . . general directions . . . . . nightgowns, slips, bloomers, pajamas. children's clothes . . . . . . . . . . – , . – . unit iii. the garment xi the finished garment . . . . . how to make a dress for any occasion how to make a coat . . . . . . . . – . - . , . · . .. . · . · · xii cleaning, pressing, and shrinking the cleaning of garments . directions for washing fabrics bleaching and tinting .. pressing . . . . . shrinking . . . . removal of stains care of clothes closets . . – – – - · – · - – – . xiii origins . . . . . . . origin of tools of sewing . . origin of accessories of costume . . . . . . . . – . – . – appendix projects and exercises . . . . . . . – topics for class reports, class committee activities . score cards. · - index . . . . . . . . . . . . list of figures figure .. . . . . . . . . . page frontispiece . . · . . · . · . · . · . . · . · . ... • • . · · . · . . · · . · . . · . . ... . · . . . · . · . . · . · . · . · . · · · · · · · · · · .l. ..ii . · . · . · . · . · . · . · . · the color cycle . . . . . thimble position . . . . . knot stitch for beginning thread . plain knot ; . . . . weaving stitch . . . square knot .. . even basting . . uneven basting . . . dressmaker's basting. . diagonal basting. .. . guide basting . .. . running stitch . . . . overcast stitch . . . whipping or overhand stitch . back stitch . . . . combination stitch ... . darning stitch .. . . buttonhole stitch . . catch hemming stitch . blind slip stitch . . . warp stitch . . . outline, crewel, or kensington stitch . stem stitch . . . chain stitch . . . . . . ladder stitch . . magic chain stitch . zigzag chain stitch . lazy daisy stitch . long and short stitch. . seed stitch . . . . catch or herringbone stitch . feather stitch . . . · .... eeeeee ecococo co co vuurooner er er er a a a coco no · . · . . . . · . · . . · . · . . · . · . • . . · . · . . · . · . . . · . · . . . · . · . . . · . · . . . · . · . . . · . · . . . . . : . . · . · . . · . · . . . · . · . . · .. . · . . . · . · . ix list of figures page · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . ..... .... .... ...... ... · · · · · · · · · · · ·, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bullion, wheat, or rolled rose stitch . . . . . . . . bow or deerfield stitch . briar stitch . . cross stitch . . french knots . buttonholed eyelets . diagonal or rickrack hemstitching . appenzell stitch. . rambler rose stitch . blanket stitch . satin stitch . . embroidery blanket stitch. . diagonal fagoting . straight fagoting . . net fagoting . bermuda fagoting . single hemstitching . double hemstitching . . italian hemstitching . couching stitch. . cable stitch. . arrowhead '. . crowfoot . bar tack . smocking . punch work. . foundation stitch for tatting . shadow stitch . appliqué . needlepoint . . single rings . . double rings . clover leaf . . chain crocheting . . single crocheting . . double crocheting . yarn flowers . knitting . plain knit figure list of figures figure page . . · · . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . · · · · · · · · · . · · · · · · · . · · · · · · . . · · · · · . . · · · · · · · · · · . · · · · . · · · . · · · . · · . · · · · · · · . . · · · · . purl knit . . . . . . treadling the machine . threading the machine . winding the bobbin. . plain seam . . . . french seam . . . flat fell seam . . . . standing fell seam . .. . stitched edge or commercial seam . welt seam . · · · . flannel seam . . . picoted seams. . . corded seams. . . overcasting seams . pinking . binding . . . turned . . . picoting . . . tailor's tacks .. . darts . . . . gathering . . . garment bands. . shirring : : . ruffles . . . tucks . . . . knife plaits . . box plait. . . inverted plait . . kick plait. .. . godets and flares . . tailored godets and flares . inconspicuous godets and flares . gussets · · · · · . true bias . . . . . bindings . . . . inconspicuous binding . conspicuous binding . . . pipings . . . . . inconspicuous piping . . · · . · · · · · . · . · · · · . · · · . · · · · . . · · · · · · · . . · · · · · · · . · · · · · · . · · · · · . · . · · · · . · · . · · · · . . · · · · · . . · · · · · . . · · · · · . · · · · .. · . · · · · · · . · · · · . · · . · · · · . · · . · · · · · · . · · · · · · . · · · · · · · . · · xii list of figures figure . . · . . · . . · . · · · . · · . · · . · · . · · . · . · · · . · · . · · . · · . · · . · · . · · . · . · · · . · . · · · . · . · · · . · . · · · · . · · · · · . · · . · · . · · . . · . · . · · . · . · · · . . · · · . . · · . · · . . conspicuous piping . . . . straight facing . . . fitted facing . . . shaped facing . . . cord tuck. . . cord piping . . . miter for firm fabric . miter for bias tape . . . finished miter. . . . mitering straight bands . . mitering lace and embroidery. . establishing hemline . . . method of sewing in a hem . plain hem . · · . bound hem . . . . faced hem . . . . . . curved hem . . scalloped, pointed, or squared hem . french hem . . rolled hem . . . . . damask or napery hem . . single yoke . . . . double yoke . . . . continuous placket . . . cut-out continuous placket . two-piece placket . tucked placket . . . . lap placket . . fly placket . . tailored placket. .. . neck binding . . . . convertible collar facing. . attaching convertible collar . straight band collar . . . middy collar . . . tailored collar. . . attached collar. . detached collar . . stand-up collar . . · · . · · . · . · . · · · . · . · · · . · · · . · . · . · · . · . · . · · . . · · . · · · . · . · · . · . · . · · . :.... . · · . · · . · · . · · . . · · . · · . . · · . · · · · . · · . · . · . · · . . · · . · · . · . · · · . · . . · . · · . · . . · . · · . . · · . · · . list of figures xill figure page . . . . . . . · · · . · · · . · · · · · · . · · · · · . · · · · · . · · , : · · · . · · · · · . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . · · · · · . · · · · · · · · . . · · · · · · . . · · · · . . · · · · · · · . . · · · · · · · . · · · . · · . · · · · . · . . · · · · · · · · . . peter pan collar . . . rolled collar . shawl collar . . shirt sleeve . . set-in sleeve . . . setting in a sleeve . . kimono sleeve . . . making the kimono sleeve . making the raglan sleeve . . making the epaulet sleeve . single cuffs . double cuffs . . . tailored cuffs . . attached cuffs. . detached cuffs. . patch pocket . set-in pocket . . bound pocket . lap pocket . welt pocket . flap pocket . single belts . double belts . ties . . . . . waist lining . coat lining . joining lace .. . attaching lace to edge . lace fagoted to fabrics . medallions . . .. . insertion . . . . worked buttonhole . . . bound buttonhole . . . looped buttonhole, worked . looped buttonhole, fabric . elastic and cord buttonholes . frogs . . . . . . sewing on buttons . . . sewing on snaps . . . . · · . . · · · . · . · . . . . . . . . , . . . . . · · · · · . . . . · . . . . · · · · · · · . . · · . . . . · · . . · · · · . . · . . . . . · · · · · . · · . . . . · · . . · · · · . · . . . · · . . · · · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · . . . · . · . . · · · . . . . . . . · · . . . . · · . . · · . . . · . . . · . . . . · · . . · . · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · . xiv list of figures figure · · . . . page · . . · · . · . · · · . . · · . · · . · . · · . . · · . · · . . · . · · . · · · · . . · · . · . . · · . · . . · · . · · · · . · · . · . · · . . · · . · · . · · . . · · . · . . · · . · · · . . · · . · · . · · . . · · . . · · . · · . . sewing on hooks and eyes . . . . . set-in or hemmed patch. . catch-stitch patch . . . darned-in patch . overhand patch . .' . straight tears. . . diagonal tears . . . three-cornered tears . darning holes . . and . design in dress . table of textiles . plain weave . twill weave . . satin weave . . figure weave . . . knitted fabric. . . method of taking measurements : . periods of dress : ancient to th century . periods of dress : th century to th century . periods of dress : th and th centuries . periods of dress : th century . . . location of shoulder seam . . . . establishing shoulder seam . location of underarm seam . location of darts and lifts . location of neckline . . . location of bust line . . armseye curve . . . . location of waistline . . . location of hipline . . . waist that is too wide. . waist that is too narrow . . waist that is too long. . . waist that is too short . . . waist patterns that wrinkle under the arm . flat-busted figure . . . . . . . full-busted figure . . . . . . . wide shoulders and flat bust. . . wide shoulders and full bust. . . . · · . .. · · · . · · · . · · · . · · · . · · · . · · · . · · · · · · · · · · · . ·············· · · · . · · · · · · . · · · . · · · . · · · · · · · · · · · . · · . · · · . · · . · . · · · · · · · . · · . list of figures xv page · · . · · . . · · · . · · . · · · . · · · · · . · · · · · . · · . · · . · . · · · · · . · · · · · . . · · · · · . . · · · · · . · · · . · . · · . · . · · .. · . . · · . · . · . . · · · . · · · . . · . · . · · · . · · figure . narrow shoulders . round shoulders . square shoulders . sloping shoulders . over-erect figure . sway-back figure . . flat back and large bust. . large abdomen . . . . flat chest . . large neck . . . small neck . . . low neck . . . . . . . high neck . . . . neckline that bulges at back or front . . shoulder seam that slides toward back. . fleshy neck and shoulders . slender, flat back · · · · . too-large collar . too-small collar . too-long collar . too-short collar . too-wide collar . . too-narrow collar . . . wrinkles from top of sleeve to elbow . wrinkles at armpit . . . too-long sleeve . too-short sleeve . . . too-wide sleeve . . . too-narrow sleeve . . . . . . . . sleeve that puffs at top . . . . . sleeve that puffs at front or back . . . sleeve that wrinkles from armpit to elbow . sleeve that wrinkles around upper arm . . . sleeve that is too small around armseye . . . . . too-small armseye and top of sleeve . amount trimmed off on armseye allowed at top . . amount trimmed off on armseye allowed in front . . . amount trimmed off on armseye allowed at back . top of sleeve enlarged when shoulder seam is let out . · . · · . · . . · · · . . · · . • · · · · . . · · . . · · · . · . · · . · · . · · . . · · . · · . · · . . · · . . . · · · · · . · · · · · · · · . xvi list of figures figure page · · . . · . . · . · . · · · . · . · · · . · . · · · · . · . · · · · . · . · · · · . · . · · · . · · · · · . · . · · . · . · . · . · · . · · . top of sleeve made smaller when shoulder seam is taken up . sleeve that draws at top and twists around . . . . . medium upper arm. . large upper arm . . large arm . . . . sleeve that twists around arm . too-large waistline. . too-small waistline. . . . too-large hip line. . . . too-small hip line . too-short skirt . .. . too-long skirt . . . . . to allow fullness in skirt . . . natural dip at waistline. .. • . garment that cups in at bottom : . garment that cups out at bottom. • . draped patterns . . . . · . drafting a fitted waist . . . drafting a fitted sleeve . .. and . foundation collars . . drafting a two-piece fitted skirt . cutting the slip . . . . . shaping the neckline . . . . cutting and finishing the teddy . pajamas . . . . . . assembling the muslin coat . . . . . . . . assembling the coat . . . . . . . . . . bottom of coat facing . . . . . . . . · . · · . · · . · · . · · · . · · · . · · · · . · · . · · · . · · · · . · · . · · · from thimble to gown unit i the stitch vv cata ti w elcotid www wood )) d "sewa fine seam::::: library college of agricultur: university of wisconsi madison chapter i construction stitches as you sew so shall you rip. c e wcos . a mullum s ... . . s o man you remember how, on rainy days when you were a small girl, your mother went to her scrapbasket and brought you a bit of silk and lace and ribbon to make a new dress for your doll? in her workbasket you found the scissors, not very large scissors, to cut out the dress; a needle with a big eye, easy to thread; a spool from which to snip a long piece of thread, long enough to use double so that it wouldn't keep coming out of the needle as you pulled it through. but there was no thimble little enough for your middle finger. oh, well, it didn't matter; you could sew quite as well without a thimble. now that you are older, the first thing you must learn about · sewing is how to use the tools properly, especially that thimble which was always too big. . thimble, needle, and thread . how to use the thimble. — great emphasis must be placed on the proper use of the thimble. first, it should be worn on the middle finger of the right hand; second, it should be well fitted, thin, and of light weight. it should be large enough to cover the finger nearly to the first joint, but not so large as to have it press against the tip of the finger. this size gives perfect free- from thimble to gown dom to the joint and leaves an air space which'serves as a cushion for the end of the finger. exercises should be given for practice in using the thimble, employing first the unthreaded needle; next, the threaded nee- dle; and last, the threaded needle with the thread knotted. thimble position (figure ). — place the thimble on the middle finger of the right hand. hold the unthreaded needle in the cen- ter between the first finger and thumb of the right hand so that the eye points toward the palm. the end or upper part of the thimble is held firmly against the eye of the needle. hold the hand at a dis- tance, directly in front of you, with figure the thimble finger bent at each joint. practice pushing the needle forward with the thimble. push the needle back in position with the first finger and thumb of the left hand. continue to practice pushing the needle for- ward until it may be done with ease. then take the thimble position, and, with a piece of medium-weight material held in the left hand, practice making even stitches through the cloth. two movements are necessary: one, to push the needle through the cloth with the thimble, and the second, to pull the needle out. . sizes of needle and thread. — to work smoothly, the size of the needle and the size of the thread should be propor- tionate. thread the needle with the thread as it comes from the spool. unroll the thread to a medium length and make a knot at the end where it was broken from the spool. (machine stitching requires a relatively finer thread because it uses two threads instead of one.) the following table will prove of help to you in choosing the correct sizes of the needle and the thread : construction stitches needle silk cotton linen - - ecoco voer a con to se - . basic stitches . stitch fastenings. knot stitch for beginning thread (figure ). — draw the thread through to the right side of the material; then take several even stitches as you did in your practice work in sec- tion . hold the thread under the left thumb and, with the needle pointed toward figure you, take a tiny stitch, drawing the needle up through the last hole and through the loop of the thread held down by the thumb, and pull the thread tight. this makes a secure fastening without a big knot. plain knot (figure ). — wrap the thread once around the first finger of the left hand (i). roll or figure twist the threads tightly between the thumb and first finger (ii). slip the loop over the end of the finger and make a tiny knot by drawing the thread tightly while holding it between the thumb and first finger (iii and iv). v nu from thimble to gown lea ws . ending threads in machine stitching. weaving stitch (figure ). — fasten the two threads at the end of the machine stitching separately and by hand. weave the upper thread in and out along the line of the machine stitching on the wrong side of material. weave the under thread in and out along the machine stitching in the opposite direction from the weaving of the upper figure thread. square knot (figure ). — holding the end of the upper thread in one hand and the end of the under thread in the other hand, lap the thread held in the right hand over that which is held in the left hand and draw it around and under the thread in the left hand. draw the two threads firmly together. bring the thread in the left hand over that in the right hand and draw it around and under the thread held in the right hand. draw the threads together firmly as before. figure this makes a secure knot to use in fastening ends of machine stitching. a surgeon's knot is made in the same manner, but has two laps instead of one for the first tie. . basting stitches. — it is essential to use basting when join- ing two or more thicknesses of material before permanently stitching them. basting is also used as a guide for stitching or when there is a strain in fitting. even basting (figure ). — insert the needle into the material, taking even stitches about inch long. make the line of basting straight, about a half inch from the edge of the material, though this width will vary with the kind of material used. a material which frays figure must be basted deeper. uneven basting (figure ). — this is a running stitch (see figure ) that is temporarily used to hold two edges of material do construction stitches together before being machine stitched. insert the needle into the material, taking a small stitch about tinch long. skip the distance of about inch and take the next -inch figure stitch. dressmaker's basting (figure ). — insert the needle into the material, taking two j-inch stitches. skip a -inch space and take the next two l-inch o stitches. figure diagonal basting (figure ). — this is a vertical stitch used to hold two surfaces together. working from right to left, insert the needle in the upper right-hand corner of a space be- tween imaginary parallel lines ; draw it out on the lower line directly below where it was in- serted. take a diagonal stitch (a) to the upper parallel line and draw it out directly below figure where it was inserted, proceeding as before. the thread on the wrong side forms a series of vertical threads while on the right side the threads are diagonal. a stronger basting is made by double diagonal basting (b); that is, by going back and revers- ing the diagonal basting so that crosses are made on the right side. guide basting (figure ). — insert the needle into the mate- rial, making a j-inch stitch. skip the distance of about } inches and make the second -inch stitch, proceeding as before. as you can see, this makes a very loose stitch. figure . plain stitches. running stitch (figure ). — hold the material firmly in the left hand, between the thumb and first finger of each hand with the first fingers almost touching. with the needle in the right hand ah from thimble to gown between thumb and first finger (keeping the point of the needle close to the end of the nails), carefully weave a number of very small stitches on the needle with a short up-and-down motion of the right wrist and hand. pull the thread through. then repeat. these stitches are commonly used for gathering and for join- figure ing two or more pieces of material. overcast stitch (figure ). — this is a loose diagonal stitch worked on raw edges of material to prevent raveling. start at the right side of the raw seam with a slant stitch, working toward the left side. make a stitch deep enough to prevent raveling. this stitch is used most frequently on raw seams. the depth and width of the stitches figure should vary according to the width of the seam and the weight of the material. the space between the stitches should be about twice the depth of the stitches. whipping stitch or overhand (figure ). — this is an over and cover close stitch used on selvedges (sěl'věj — the edge of a woven fabric so formed as to prevent ravel- ing) and folds. it is also used in joining laces and for rolled edges. hold the material in the left hand figure and conceal the knot under the hem. work from right to left. make the stitches very tiny and very close together. back stitch (figure ). — makeone short stitch on the right side of the material with the same length of stitch on the wrong side. insert the needle in the first hole of the first stitch on the right side construction stitches o co and make a stitch twice the length of the stitch on the wrong side. then insert needle in the last hole of the stitch on the right side and take up twice the length of the stitch on the wrong side. this makes one of the strongest stitches we have because each time it overlaps figure the preceding stitch on the under side of the material. it may be used in place of machine stitching. combination stitch (figure ). – working on the right side of the material, take three plain running stitches, then sew over figure the last stitch, making a double stitching. repeat. these stitches are generally used when making handmade garments. darning stitch (figure ). — fasten the thread with the knot stitch (figures , ) and make a series of tiny running stitches. turn the material in the op- oooooooo posite direction and again ooooooo take the tiny running stitches, o Óooooo alternating them with the row oooooooo above. figure buttonhole stitch (figure ). — fasten the thread with the knot stitch (figures , ) and draw the needle through the material to the right side. in- sert the needle the desired width of the stitch and, taking hold of the double thread a short distance from the eye of the needle, bring the thread under the point of the needle from right to left. draw the needle through the material over the thread, and pull the thread up tight. care should be taken to keep the stitches even. work from right to left. figure s from thimble to gown catch hemming stitch (figure ). — this stitch is ideal for use in sewing bias binding (see section ) in place after it has been stitched to the garment. fold the raw edge under and baste directly through the sewing machine stitch. fasten the thread with the plain knot. conceal the knot under the fold and, working from right to left, draw the needle through an upper loop of the machine stitching and figure through the fold. insert the needle in the next loop of the machine stitching and again draw it through the fold. proceed in this manner until the entire bind- ing is held in place. blind slip stitch (figure ). — this stitch may be used for blind stitching two folded edges together as in belts, ties, pocket flaps, etc. this stitch is very practical because of the continuous thread which is alternated from one folded edge to the other. working from right to left, insert the needle on the folded edge toward you and then draw the needle through, bringing the knot between the folded edges. insert the needle in the other folded edge directly opposite the first stitch. figure slip the needle between the fold and draw it out inch from where it was inserted. again insert the needle on the folded edge toward you, and bring it out inch from where it was inserted. continue in this way until the edges are securely fastened. the stitching remains hidden in the folds when the seam is finished. care should be taken that the stitches do not come through the outer surfaces of the material warp stitch (figure ). — this stitch is the hemming stitch taken parallel with the warp thread. start by drawing the construction stitches needle through the material at the seam, concealing the knot under the hem. take a small stitch parallel with the warp threads, catching two or three woof threads, and draw out needle a few threads' depth of the turned hem (i). take a -inch stitch by concealing the needle under the turned edges of the hem (ii). to repeat until finished, working from left to right. figure ye . decorative stitches . embroidery stitches. outline, crewel, or kensington stitch (figure ). — fasten the thread with the knot stitch (figures , ) or a few running stitches along the line of design, and with the needle pointed toward you, take stitches of even length and slant them toward the right or left of the line. the first stitch will be the gage for those following. the needle is drawn through the material midway of the preceding stitch, which is the entering point of the first stitch. the stitches can be varied by upe placing the needle further to the right or left of the line. this stitch is used to outline designs and for padding. stem stitch (figure ). — make a series of running stitches along the line of the stem. work from left to right. insert the needle, catching a few threads, and work over the running stitch. an attractive design is obtained by keeping the stitches even and close together. this stitch is used also for initials and monograms. figure chain stitch (figure ). — the chain stitch is a series of loops that interlock. fasten the thread with the knot stitch and insert mm ab from thimble to gown the needle where the thread was brought out. take the distance of the stitch desired. holding the material in the left hand, throw the thread under the needle and hold it down with the left thumb. pull the needle through and insert it for the next stitch at the point where it comes out. there are many variations of the chain stitch. two colors of thread may be used. ladder stitch (figure ). — make parallel lines of dots about į inch apart. letter the dots on the left- hand line a-c-e etc. and those on the right b-d-f etc. figure bring the needle through the material at dot a, hold the thread under the left thumb, insert the needle at dot b and bring out at dot c, over the thread held down by the thumb. draw the thread smooth, and holding the thread under the thumb again, take a stitch between d and e, inserting the needle at d over the thread which figure came out at b. continue. magic chain stitch (figure ). — thread the needle with two or more threads of contrasting color, alternating the chain by holding down, with the thumb, one thread at a time. the thread not used in making the loop is carried to the wrong side and does not show when the other thread is drawn up to form the loop. the chain is more attractive when only two colors are used in this manner and a variation of the number of colored loops made. zigzag chain stitch (figure ). — instead of - following the straight line, slant the needle al- ternately to the left and to the right of im- aginary parallel lines. otherwise work like the regular chain stitch. figure con figu e construction stitches lazy daisy stitch (figure ). — bring the thread out on the right side of the material at the inner end of the leaf or petal and insert the needle where the thread was brought out. in take the distance of the loop desired. (hold the material with the left hand, using the thumb to hold down the thread.) draw the needle through, making a loop. to hold the loop in place, insert the needle into the material outside of the end of the loop. draw the needle through to the back of the material and pro- figure ceed to the next stitch. this is a variation of the chain stitch (figure ). long and short stitch (figure ). — this stitch is very effective when making flowers and leaves. fasten the thread with a few running stitches figure o close to the edge of the design nearest you and insert the needle the desired length of the long stitch; then in- sert the needle the desired length of the short stitch and repeat until the entire design is finished. seed stitch (figure ). — fasten the figure thread with the knot stitch. make a row of even back stitches the desired length. make the second row of stitches alternate with the row above. repeat until the design is finished. if the thread is very fine, two back stitches side by side are neces- sary to give the desired effect. catch or herringbone stitch (figure ). — take a small stitch on one imaginary vertical line, then a small stitch on another imaginary line parallel to the first one, at the desired distance from the first stitch. always work from left to right, and always away from you, figure with each stitch a little above the preceding one. c from thimble to gown figu feather stitch (figure ). — bring the needle through the material at the top. holding the thread down with the left thumb, take a small slant stitch and pull the needle through. turn the thread in a loop to the left, hold it down again with the thumb, and take a small slant stitch in the opposite direction to and below the preceding stitch. continue, making stitches always figure toward the worker. this is the most com- mon and effective stitch used in fancy stitching because of its adaptable use for design on garments, but care must be taken in working it for its beauty depends on its evenness. briar stitch (figure ). — the briar stitch is a variation of the feather stitch. care must be taken that the diagonal stitches are kept uniform as to slant and size. bow stitch or deerfield (figure ). — starting at the left of the design with the thread held under the left thumb, insert the needle on the right side of the fie first stitch and bring it through the cloth halfway back toward the place where the thread came out on the left, and a little below w that point (that is, not on a line parallel with it) (i). pull the needle and thread out over the thread held down by the thumb and insert the needle again directly figure below this held-down thread (ii). this last little stitch will hold the loop in place. the needle then comes out at a point on the left where the next stitch is to start. cross stitch (figure ). — the design is stamped directly on the material or is worked on a coarse-weave canvas where the squares are counted to make the design. (in the latter case, after the design is completed, the threads of the canvas are figu construction stitches ing the needle up at the lower carefully removed.) in heavy material the stitches may be made by following the warp and woof threads. the stitch consists of one thread crossed over the other, the two occupying a perfect square, crossing diag- onally from corner to corner (a). to make this stitch, fasten the thread with the knot stitch. bring the needle up at the lower left-hand corner (a) of the first square and draw it through to the wrong side at the upper right-hand corner (b). draw the needle to the right side of the material at the upper left-hand corner (c) and insert it at the figure lower right-hand corner (d); then draw it to the wrong side and go to the next lower left corner (e) and continue making crosses as before. another method of making the cross stitch is bringing the needle through the material to the right side and making a series of diagonal stitches from left to right on points along parallel lines (a-b, c-d, e-f in bi). care must be taken to keep the stitches an even distance apart. after completing the first series of diagonal stitches, work back in the opposite direction, completing r the crosses (bii). french knots (figure ). — fasten the thread with the knot stitch, bringing the needle to the figure right side of the material. wrap the thread around the needle the desired number of times, de- pending upon the size of the thread, design, and material (i). insert the needle very near to the place where it was drawn out from thimble to gown before. draw the coil of threads tightly as close to the material as possible (ii). finish drawing the needle through to the wrong side while holding the coiled threads tightly between the thumb and first finger of the left hand (iii). french knots are used to form flowers and their centers, designs, and solid backgrounds. bullion, wheat, or rolled rose stitch (figure ). — this stitch forms flowers, petals, and loops on fine lingerie. it is the same as figure the french knot with the exception that the thread is wrapped many times around the needle and the needle is then inserted a short distance from where it was drawn out so that the stitch may lie perfectly flat. buttonholed eyelets (figure ). — there are two kinds of eye- lets, buttonholed and overhanded, and they may be either round or oval in shape. make the eyelet hole with a stiletto, using a twisting motion as it is pushed through the material, and sew a tiny circle of running stitches close around the hole (ai). work the eyelet hole with the buttonhole (bi) or overhand stitch (ai) (see figure ), using the circle of running stitches as a page for the depth of the eyelet stitches. the hole for an oval eyelet is made by figure cutting a gash the desired length and proceeding as for the round eyelet. large eyelets are used purely for ornamentation. if they are very large the surplus material in the center is cut out. appenzell stitch (figure ). — thread an embroidery needle with several threads, which may be of varied shades. knot the construction stitches threads and draw the needle through the material at the base of the petal (the point nearest the center of the flower). insert the needle at the opposite end of the petal and draw it through the material at the base of the next petal and repeat until the flower is fin- ished. be sure to pull the threads through so that they cover the petal evenly. rambler rose stitch (figure ). — make a figure large french knot in the center of the rose. with an outline stitch (i), work around the french knot until the rose is the desired size (ii). the rose may be made to look more natural if darker shades of threads are used in the center and then shaded to lighter figure tones at the outside. blanket stitch (figure ). — this stitch is used to decorate and protect the edges of materials, especially of woolens. after concealing the knot stitch on the wrong side of the material, draw the needle to the edge of the material, holding the thread with the left thumb and the left index finger. work from left to right. insert the needle from the edge to the desired length of the stitch. the width may be varied in keeping with the article. many interesting designs may be worked out by varying the grouping of the length and figure width of the stitches. satin stitch (figure ). — fasten the material in an embroid- ery hoop and take a few running stitches through the figure of the design. (this is called padding.) make a series of parallel stitches over them, working from right to left. these should be embroidery hoops are necessary in doing fine embroidery as they help to keep the material tight and the work smooth. from thimble to gown close enough together to fill up the figure (leaf, petal, or other design) and to give the effect of solid embroidery. since the stitches are laid exactly parallel and close together, it is sometimes called “ laid work." embroidery blanket stitch (figure ). — this stitch is used as a hem, usually in scallops of varying size. the scallops must be defi- nitely outlined and the material placed in em- broidery hoops. the scallops must be evenly . figure padded with long and short or chain stitches. then take a few running stitches toward the point of the scal- lop (to catch the thread), and with the needle pointed toward you, take a stitch over the padded scallop. hold the thread under the left thumb, drawing the thread as tightly as possible without pulling up the material and destroying the outline. work from left to right. to obtain a smooth, solid surface, the stitches must be placed as close together as possible. figure this will give a firm ridge of drawn loops along the edge of the material. . fagoting. diagonal fagoting (figure ). — after the raw edges of the material have been finished with a hem, baste the material to a piece of stiff paper or cloth, right side on top, leaving the desired width of the fagoting between the two edges. working from left to right, insert needle and thread through upper surface of material and draw the needle figure out on the lower edge. hold the needle vertically and with the thread thrown to the right, draw the needle out over the thread on the upper edge and a little to construction stitches the right of the lower stitch (i). then insert the needle over the thread in the lower edge, keeping the needle vertical and away from the worker (ii). alternate the stitches in the upper and lower edge until the design is finished. straight fagoting (figure ). — finish the edges of the material with a hem and baste the material on stiff -r obot paper or cloth as for the diagonal figure fagoting. working from right to left, draw the needle out at the lower right-hand corner and insert the needle directly above the lower stitch, keeping it vertical. with the thread drawn firmly, hold it with the left thumb and twist the needle around the bar the desired number of times. after draw- ing the thread to make the twisted bar, take a tiny stitch to hold it securely, then take a stitch to the base of the next bar, and continue in this way until the design is completed. net fagoting (figure ). — finish the edges with a hem and baste the material on stiff paper or cloth as for diagonal fagoting. fasten the thread on the lower right-hand corner of the pattern (i). insert the needle on the opposite edge, directly above the first stitch, keeping the needle vertical, and draw the needle out at the stitch below. with the thread drawn firmly, insert figure the needle under the bar at the middle. wrap the thread once over and around the needle to form the knot (ii). hold the knot firmly between the thumb from thimble to gown new wread securely. the distance betworn and first finger and draw the needle through, taking care to draw the thread securely. the distance between the bars is equal to the distance from the knot to the base of the first bar, which gives a net effect. after the width between the bars has been determined, insert the needle at the base of the second bar, leaving a small loop. insert the needle directly above the lower stitch, bringing it under the loop (iii). draw the thread firmly, taking care that the loop is in the center of the bar. insert the needle under the threads, drawing it out at the center of the loop (iv). wrap the thread over and around the needle once to form the knot. hold the knot firmly between the thumb and first finger, taking care that the thread is drawn securely. then take a stitch to the base of the next bar and con- tinue in this way until the design is completed. bermuda fagoting (figure ). — bermuda fagoting may be worked along any designs of stems, as initials, or monograms, or used in attaching laces. a blunt three-sided needle is used, bi and fine firmly twisted thread. tie one end of the thread into the eye of the needle. the fagoting is made by working toward the worker. when finished, the stitches form a cross on the back side of the material and a series of squares on the right side of the work. draw the two stitches tight enough on each side of the figure square to make holes in the cor- ners. fasten the thread on the wrong side at the beginning of the design. draw the needle to the right side of the material at a and insert the needle in the right side at b, an eighth of an inch above where it was drawn out (i). repeat, making two construction stitches stitches (ii). bind a and b together. slant the needle to the left at b, bringing it out an eighth of an inch to the left of a at c. repeat as above. insert the needle a few threads above at d, making the stitch as before, and bring it out at a; bind a and c together. insert the needle at c and bring out at e. bind a and e together. continue in this manner until design is completed. when laces are to be attached, baste the lace firmly to the edge of material and make one row of fagoting on the edge of the lace and the other on the material. . hemstitching. single hemstitching (figure ). — start- ing at the line where the inner side of the hem is to be, draw from to threads, depending upon the width of the hemstitching and the material used. if a hem is used, baste the hem to the edge of the drawn threads. fasten the thread with the knot stitch near the edge of the drawn threads and on the wrong side of the material. proceed to work from left to right. bring the needle through to the right side and take up the suitable number figure of threads. the thread is held under the thumb of the left hand; the needle is drawn to the left side of the material, catching the threads in the loop (i). take a small stitch through the edge of the hem to the right parallel with the drawn threads and as closely as possible to the loop (ii). take up the next group of threads and continue as before. machine hemstitching is made by turning the fold of the hem to the middle of the drawn threads and stitching on the edge of the fold with a long stitch. then pull the hem down so that the machine stitching is at the bottom of the drawn threads. machine hemstitching er from thimble to gown re double hemstitching (figure ). — double hemstitching is a repetition of plain hemstitching on the opposite side of the drawn threads. parallel bars are made. take care to take up the same group of threads in the second row as in the first in order to give a parallel effect. figure diagonal or rickrack hemstitching (fig- ure ). — diagonal hemstitching is a variation of plain hem- stitching. it starts with plain hemstitching on one side, care being taken to catch an even number of threads, as four, six, eight, etc. the diagonals are made by taking an even number of threads on the opposite side, figure midway between the groups of threads al- ready caught. the stitches holding the groups of threads in place are made as for plain hemstitching. italian hemstitching (figure ). — work on the right side of the material from right to left, with the bulk of the material toward you and the smaller amount falling over your hand. a blunt needle and round linen thread are desirable to use. two rows of threads are drawn, leaving a few threads between the drawn rows. the number of threads drawn and the number left in between depend upon the material and design to be used. a few running stitches are taken between the two rows of drawn threads to fasten the thread. insert the needle from right to left at the top of the lower drawn figure threads under the first group of threads (i). then draw the needle through, taking a stitch back over the same group of threads (ii). draw the needle through and have ! ii from thimble to gown running stitches, drawing the needle through the material on the right side at . insert the needle at the right side of and make a tiny stitch toward the left at the top of the arrowhead. draw the needle through and insert the needle at , bringing it out close to the first stitch taken at . insert the needle again at a little below the first insertion so that the threads lie parallel (ii). take a little figure stitch to the left at , as before, but a little deeper, and insert the needle again at so that the threads from to will lie parallel. continue the stitches until the arrowhead is completed (iii). crowfoot (figure ). — this serves the same purpose as an arrowhead but is more ornamental. outline the shape of the crowfoot in the material. insert the needle in the center of the crowfoot and make a few running stitches, drawing the needle through the material on the right side at . insert the needle at the right of and make a tiny ( stitch toward the left at the top of the crowfoot (i). turn the material to the left until is at the top position and insert the needle at the right of and make a tiny stitch toward the left (ii). figure again turn the material to the left, until is at the top position, and make a tiny stitch toward the left. continue the rotation of the material and stitches until the crowfoot is completed (iii). mi construction stitches bar tack (figure ). — the bar tack is used to finish ends of seams, tucks, and set-in pockets. make a long stitch at the end of the pocket opening, perpendicular to it. the stitch is made long enough to extend just be- yond the machine stitching at the end of the pocket. continue making this stitch until the desired number of stitches are made; that is, until the bar is as thick figure or heavy as' is necessary. care must be taken to make the stitch through the same holes each time and to draw the threads evenly. working from right to left, make tiny satin stitches (figure ) over the long stitches. continue until the bars are covered with satin stitches. the ends of this tack are finished with a stitch that extends a ► little beyond each side of the + + + + + + .+ +. -* * satin stitch. the stitch is · · · · · · •+ + •+ +. repeated through the holes until a secure fastening is made. smocking (figure ). — this avava . is used for decorative borders to hold fullness in place and is made of ornamental stitches. the careful gathering of the material, which is the first canada step, gives the evenness and beauty to smocking. it takes about four times as much decorative smocking material as the width desired figure when smocking is completed. if the material used is not one with a small, all-over or checked design, it should be carefully marked on the wrong www. from thimble to gown side with a series of evenly spaced dots. the design, weight of material, and amount of fullness desired will govern the space between the dots. they may be made one fourth, one half, or three fourths of an inch apart. make the rows of dots one below the other, and the desired distance apart. the odd rows, as – – , etc., should have one less dot at the right end of the material, and the even rows, as - - , etc., should have one less dot at the left end. remember always that the careful gathering of the material gives evenness and beauty to smocking. gathering threads are not necessary when the material holds a crease well, or has a design which will serve as markings, or on material that may be marked on the right side. if gathering is desired, mark the material on the wrong side. then, with a strong thread, make a small running stitch at each dot. start the gathering at each row at alternate ends. when it is finished, pull up the gathers the desired fullness, and fasten the ends securely. turn the mate- rial to the right side, and even the gathers into straight, par- allel, plait-like folds. using a rather heavy thread, start sewing at the top right- hand dot (i). catch the first two dots together (marked in diagram), taking only a few threads of the material for each stitch. join the dots with two over and over stitches, then slip the needle on the underside and bring it out at the next dot (at the right of in the diagram). catch this dot and the next one together, as you did with the first two dots, and again slip the needle on the underside and bring it out at the next dot (at the right of in diagram). continue this process until the first row of dots is finished. for the second row, turn work upside down so as to work from right to left. the first and second dots (at in the diagram) are caught together, joined with two stitches, and the needle slipped under the material to come out at the next dot (a little to the right of in the dia- construction stitches echº oder gram). the row is completed exactly like the first row, but because the even rows have one less dot at the left end, and the odd rows have one less dot at the right end, the stitches appear not under one another, but alternately. upon finishing row , the work is again turned right side around, and row is worked exactly like row . the diamond design of the stitches is now clearly defined (ii). by skipping spaces, various designs may be worked out, and combinations of fancy stitches, such as outline, single and double cable, and zigzag chain (see pages ogo , , section ), may be used (iii). o threads of two or more colors o l a may also be used to vary the effect. o punch work (figure ). — punch work is the joining of circles or squares so as to form a back- ground of open work. a blunt needle is used. make a plain knot and draw the blunt needle through the material at . insert the figure needle at x and draw the needle out at . again insert the needle at x and draw it through the work at . continue in this way until the circle or square is finished. the second circle or square is made so that one side of the first forms one side of the second, thus giving the open-work effect (ii). shadow stitch (figure ). — work from left to right on the wrong side of the material after fastening the thread with a plain knot. insert the needle to the left on the lower of front two imaginary parallel lines, catching figure several threads. draw the needle vvvv back from thimble to gown on the right side så pops through the material and insert it on the upper line, drawing it through just above where it was formerly inserted. again insert the needle on the lower line and continue working until the de- sign is finished; then press it on the right side so that the stitches y may be more clearly seen. appliqué (figure ). — cut the pieces of material, allowing for seams, figure the desired shape and size and turn under the edges to the wrong side inch, being careful not to stretch them. baste the pieces to the garment and finish with the blanket stitch (figures , ). needlepoint (figure ). — needlepoint canvas is required in order to give a smooth, even effect. the work may, however, be done on a heavy piece of hott cross-stitch canvas. it is necessary to place the canvas in a frame or hoop with the double threads running verti- cally. use a foundation thread of yarn as the back- ground and over this, with a # large blunt needle, weave a few running stitches toward the upper left-hand corner of the pattern. all threads are fastened by weaving them into the canvas. with the figure needle pointed toward you, work from left to right, making diagonal stitches from square to square and carrying the yarn over the double vertical threads. using the first row as a guide, begin at the same end construction stitches of the pattern and continue to work until the pattern is finished. different colors, hefts of yarn (see section ), and slants of stitches add to the variety of design. . tatting. foundation stitches (figure ). — take the thread between the first finger and thumb of the left hand and with the thread over the back of the fingers and around again to the thumb and first finger, make a loop. the fourth and little fingers hold the thread in place and rest against the palm of the hand. the third finger holds the thread taut. the shuttle is held in the right hand be- tween the thumb and first finger with the hook of the shuttle toward the back of the hand, and the thread of the shuttle toward the fingers. the third finger of the right hand holds the right-hand thread up and taut. there are two steps to the tatting stitch: first, the shuttle is placed under and over the loop in the left hand between the first and second fingers. after making a stitch the thumb and first finger are held figure viii os from thimble to gown rigid, and the shuttle is pulled back until the thread is taut. the third finger of the left hand then is raised to pull the stitch firmly in place; second, the stitch proceeds as before ex- cept that the shuttle is placed over and under the loop. these stitches form the founda- tion for all tatting stitches. single rings (figure ). — take tatting position. tat four stitches. the first part of the fifth stitch is drawn up within inch from the fourth stitch. the second part of the stitch is made and then is drawn tightly, forming a loop. i then make four more stitches figure and the fifth a loop, four more stitches and the fifth a loop, and four more stitches. next, draw the ring up while holding it firmly between the thumb and first finger of the left hand. skip the diameter of the ring and make the first stitch of the second ring. tat four more stitches, then draw the thread around the hand through the last loop of he thread around an d the loop up large enough to pass the shuttle through. draw the thread of the loop around the hand, back into place. continue figure making the ring as before. double rings (figure ). — take the tatting position. tat one single ring and skip the distance of the diameter of one ring and make four stitches. attach to the last loop of the first ring construction stitches tat four stitches and join to as for single rings. finish tatting the ring. skip the diameter of the ring, tat four stitches and attach to the last loop of the second ring. finish tatting the ring. continue making the rings as before. clover leaf (figure ). — take tatting position. tat a ring. do not skip any distance but start tatting the second ring at the base of the first. tat four stitches and join to the last loop of the first ring. continue tat- ting until ring is finished. a make the third ring from the base of the second and first. tat four stitches and join to me the last loop of the second ring. continue until ring is figure finished. the three attached rings form the clover leaf. for the second clover leaf skip the distance of the diameter of the clover leaf. tat four stitches and a loop. tat four more stitches and join to the middle loop of the last ring. continue making the ring and the rest of the clover leaf. many variations and patterns may be worked out and fancy braids may be worked in with the tatting design. the simple patterns done in fine thread make a dainty edge. the short loops launder better than the longer ones. yard tatting may be laundered satisfactorily by winding it around a bottle and washing it with a small brush and soap. . crocheting. chains (figure ). — in all crocheting a hook in proportion to the thread is used. in many patterns the correct sizes are given. if they are not, it may be necessary to experiment until right results are obtained. the thread may be of cotton, silk, or wool; the hook of metal or bone. make a slip loop at the end of the thread and slip the crochet hook through it. the thread is held in position by starting at the palm of the from thimble to gown hand and wrapping the thread around the little finger of the left hand. then bring the thread to the back of the hand and over the back of the other fingers. the loop is held between the thumb and second finger of the left hand, and the first finger and thumb hold the thread tightly at the end of the hook; while the tip of the little finger is pressed to the palm of the hand, the third finger keeping the thread taut as the stitches are made. bring the hook to the left and under the thread. draw the thread that is around the needle figure through the loop and continue in this way, always drawing the thread through the last loop to form a chain of the desired length. single crochet (figure ). — make a chain of stitches the desired length. skip two chains,* insert hook in next chain (count- ing backward along line of chain da stitches), thread over hook and pull through chain. there are figure now two loops on the hook. put the thread over and pull through both loops. keep repeating from * until row is finished, turn, and repeat. turn, chain two, and repeat. double crochet (figure ). — make a chain of stitches the desired length. skip three chains,* thread over hook and insert in next chain, thread over figure hook and pull through chain, thread construction stitches over hook ( ) and pull through two loops ( , ) thread over and pull through two loops ( , ). repeat from * until row is finished. turn, chain three, and repeat. yarn flowers (figure ). — use a medium-size bone crochet hook. chain nine stitches and join the two ends with a stitch. chain five more stitches, skip two stitches on the ring, and make a stitch into the third. chain five more stitches, skip two stitches on the ring, and make a double chain. stitch into the third. again chain five more stitches, skip two on the ring, and make a double chain, and stitch into the third. this will make a ring of stitches with three loops of stitches around it. single crochet around the three loops and draw the thread through at the last stitch, leaving nine inches of thread so that the end of the thread can be drawn through the center-back of the flower (ii). two different shades of one color may be combined into one flower, using the darker shade for the center. larger flowers may be made by making the center ring larger and the loops in pro- portion. it is always necessary to have an uneven number of stitches. buds may be made by double crocheting around the single ring of stitches. crocheted flowers and buds may be joined and used as decorations for hats, bags, and sport garments. a handy in- expensive and attractive pin may be made by grouping flowers and buds on a yarn-covered safety pin (vi). sets may be made for cuffs and collars of sport garments by using small safety pins for the cuffs and a larger one for the collar. a two-inch safety pin with openings at both ends, large enough to allow a bone crochet needle to enter, should be used as a base for the pin. the leaves are made by chain stitching seven stitches and then by going back and double crocheting (figure ) into each of the seven stitches. without cutting the thread, make an- other leaf in the same manner. draw the last stitch through the hole at the end of the closed safety pin. make as many stitches и figure construction stitches through the hole as the heft (see section ) of the thread will permit. with the crochet hook, make a close tight buttonhole stitch along the top of the safety pin until the top of the pin is covered. fill the hole at the point of the pin with as many stitches as possible. make another leaf in the same way as the others were made. when completed, fasten the leaf by making a crochet stitch through the buttonhole stitch at the base of the leaf. double crochet along the top of the buttonhole stitch and fasten the yarn securely at the base of the two leaves. the flowers are attached by sewing them to the closely covered safety pin, using the yarn that was left at the back of each flower to stitch it in place. arrange the flowers on the pin by first sew- ing one at each end of the pin and then carelessly filling in the other flowers. yellow or orange single yarn or double silk rope floss wrapped once around a darning needle may be used to make the flower centers (figure ). the thread need not be cut after making each center but may be woven through the back of the flower to the next flower center. . knitting (figure ). — “knitting is supposed to have been invented in scotland. as the knit garments became more and more popular their use was adopted throughout england and gradually found their way across the channel to france and to other parts of europe. yesterday girls were taught to knit almost as soon as they could hold the needles, and this is the condition in many countries today.” knitting necessitates the use of two or four needles (made of metal or bone) and of wool yarn of various hefts. the word heft means weight; and we do not talk about the size of a thread of yarn, but the weight of the skein of yarn. the coarser or heavier yarns are made of more twisted strands than the finer or lighter yarns. the size of the needle chosen depends upon the heft of the yarn; and the knitting can be measured from thimble to gown mo = by so many stitches to the inch. when knitting with two needles, one is held in the right hand and one in the left. the first step in knitting is to cast the proper number of stitches on one needle. this may be done in two ways. (a-i) make a slip stitch in the end of the yarn and slip the loop over the right- hand needle. hold the yarn in the palm of the left hand, and wrap it around the left thumb. insert knitting needle under yarn on top of thumb and transfer this loop to the needle. wrap yarn held in palm around thumb again, and pick up the loop with the needle as before. the second way of casting on (b-i) is as follows: make a loop in the yarn and slip it on the left-hand needle. slip the right-hand needle through the loop, * put the yarn over the needle and draw it through the loop, slip this i loop on the left-hand needle, figure slip the right-hand needle through the loop just made and repeat from * until the desired number of stitches are on the needle. when the knitting is finished, the binding or casting off is b-i construction stitches done as follows: (ii) knit the first two stitches as always. insert the needle into first stitch and pass this stitch over the second stitch on the needle (right-hand needle), * knit the next stitch on the left-hand needle onto the right-hand needle, pass the stitch already on the right-hand needle over the second stitch, and repeat from * until row is bound off. break the yarn, slip the last stitch off, and pull the thread up tight through this stitch. plain knit (figure ). — after the required number of stitches are on the needle, slip the right-hand needle into . figure the last stitch made. place the yarn over the right-hand needle and draw through the stitch. slip the stitch from the left-hand needle, leaving it on the right. continue in this way until all the stitches are on the right-hand needle. change the right- hand needle to the left hand and continue as before. purl (figure ). — to purl, bring the yarn in front of the right- hand needle. slip the right-hand needle into the front of the stitch on the left-hand needle. place the yarn around the back of the needle as it passes in the stitch, catch it in and take off. always place the yarn back of the needle after a purled stitch before knitting a plain stitch. in any kind of knitting, figure the first stitch is slipped, not knitted. . use of the sewing machine . treadling the machine (figure ). — before beginning to stitch, place the chair close enough to the machine so that it is possible to sit comfortably and squarely on the chair, in an up- right position (c). place the left foot on the upper left-hand corner of the treadle, and the right foot on the lower right-hand from thimble to gown corner (a). remove belt from balance wheel. to treadle smoothly at a moderate speed, press evenly on the treadle first with the ball of the left foot and then with the heel of the right foot. practice treadling, start- ing and stopping the machine until it can be done easily and smoothly. then place the belt on the balance wheel and con- tinue practicing until you can run the machine with ease. electric machines are equipped with either a foot-control lever (b) or a knee-control lever. in using the latter, the right knee is pressed against the end of the lever (c) to start the motor and regulate the speed. . stitching by machine. — when you think you have mas- tered correct treadling, prove it by doing the practical stitching exercises on page and by winding the bobbin. the stitch- ing exercises may be performed on paper. they teach the va- rious uses of stitches and help one in learning to guide the material. care must be taken never to pull on the paper or the cloth while stitching, be- cause such strain will break figure the needle. construction stitches . threading the machine (figure ). — the balance wheel is turned so that the needle is at the highest point. the spool of thread is placed on a spool pin, and the thread goes over the thread guide hook above the tension disc and around the tension disc from right to left and over the small wire spring ; then under the thread regulator hook at the left of the tension disc, from right to left, so that figure the wire guide will move up and down when the thread is drawn tightly, through the take-up lever that moves up and down; then down around the small eyelet on the side of the face plate into the lower wire guide above the needle. thread the needle and draw the thread under and be- hind the presser foot. the stitch is formed by looping the upper thread around the lower thread and pulling both threads tightly and evenly. winding the bobbin (figure ). — in sewing on the machine, two threads are used, one of which is on the bobbin and the other is used in threading the needle. there are two types of bobbins, the round (a) and the long (b). when winding bobbins release the balance wheel and place the bobbin on the bobbin winder. place a spool of thread on the spool pin and fasten the thread securely to the bob- bin. attach the bobbin winder and treadle until the bobbin is wound tightly and evenly figure with thread of suitable size for the material to be sewn. it should not be wound so full, however, that it is tight in the bobbin case on the shuttle. decorative stitches may be made by using a contrasting color, from thimble to gown . heavier thread, or a combination of the two on the bobbin. place the bobbin in the bobbin case, or shuttle, taking care to draw the thread through the slot and the tension spring in the case, or shuttle. draw the thread above the table of the machine by turning the balance wheel over toward you until the needle moves down and up again to its highest point, thus catching the under thread. draw up the threaded needle and the under thread will come up with it through the hole in the throat place. lay both threads back under the presser foot to avoid tangling of the thread when beginning to stitch. placing and removing fabric. — place work in position, lower the presser foot, and stitch. be careful not to pull on the material. the presser foot holds the cloth in place. the feed is under the presser foot and consists of small teeth which catch hold of the under side of the cloth and move it along. in removing fabric from the machine, place the needle and take-up lever at the highest point, raise the presser foot, and draw the fabric toward the back. cut the threads, taking care to leave them long enough to fasten. . governing principles of machine stitching. — although sewing machines vary as to makes, there are definite standards to be followed. the thread and material should always be kept equal in fineness. the needle should be only large enough to carry the thread. the length of the stitch should always be in harmony with the thread and material. the weight and weave of material determines the tension to be used. tension. — the tension is influenced by the size of the needle and thread and is adjusted so that both threads are drawn into the cloth equally, making the stitch look alike and even on both sides. from thimble to gown thread to be used. heavy material requires a longer stitch than sheer material. weaves and weights of materials determine the stitch to be used. the following are a few general rules to follow in making seams : . never let the weight of the material pull on the presser foot. always hold the material toward you in stitching. . stitch curves, thin material, and laces after they have been tacked on paper. notches are necessary on the outer curve of a curved seam, and slashes on the inner curve. . stitch seams from the large bias to the narrow, as from the neckline to the arm in a shoulder seam. in joining a bias piece to a straight piece of material, the bias side should invariably be held toward the worker. if so held, the goods will not stretch. . seams should be elastic, but never tight. . in seaming pressed nap material, stitch the way the nap is pressea. . in basting seams that have fullness, hold the fullness toward you. . if one seam crosses another, the first one to be stitched must always be opened and pressed before joining the crossed seam. one half the secret in good sewing is pressing as you go, because it blends the seams together. plain seam (figure ). — this seam has two raw edges stitched together by machine or hand. place the two right sides of the material together and baste from the raw edge the desired width of the finished seam allowing for edge finish. stitch as near the basting as possible, without sewing on it. remove basting and press the seam open. it may be neces- figure sary to dampen the seam before pressing. french seam (figure ). — this seam is made by sewing two plain seams so that the raw edges are concealed within. place the two wrong sides of the material together and baste inch from the raw edge. stitch as near the basting as pos- sible (i). remove the basting and trim inch from the stitch- ing (ii). press the plain seam flat, turning the raw edges in construction processes the same direction. turn the material to the wrong side and with a warm iron press the seam in place, taking care that the line of stitching in the plain seam comes directly on the fold (iii). stitch į inch from the folded edge (iv). press the finished seam so that it will turn toward the front of the garment. ooooooooooo oooooooooo i cocos iii i figure flat fell (figure ). — this is a seam finished with a lap and two lines of stitching on the right side. it is used where durability is desired. place the wrong sides of the material together and baste inch from the raw edge. stitch as near the basting as possible with- out sewing on it. remove the bastings and trim one side of the seam į inch from the stitching (i). fold the wide side so that the raw edge will touch the machine stitching and overlap the trimmed edge. press the folded side flat with the raw edges concealed (ii). baste the fold flat and stitch on the machine, as near the folded edge as possible (iii). if a hemmed fell is desired, the seam is held in place with hemming stitches. re- from thimble to gown move the bastings and press. the lap seam is finished with a lap on both right and wrong edges of the garment basted to- ooooooo boooo lap seam figure * gether so that the folds are į inch apart and stitched as for a flat fell seam. standing fell seam (figure ). — this seam is used to join a gathered edge to a plain edge. place the two right sides together. baste and stitch as for a plain seam. trim the gathered edge { inch from the stitching. turn the wide figure edge under ] inch and press. fold construction processes goooooooooooooooooooooooooola dordoglosvodooooooooooooo the wide edge to the line of the stitching and baste. the folded edge is held in place with the catch hemming stitch (figure ) and resembles a binding when finished. stitched edge or commercial seam (figure ). — place the two right sides of the material together and stitch as for a plain seam. press the plain seam open and with a figure warm iron press the raw edges under the fold toward the seam. stitch evenly with the machine along the folded edges, but not to the material. welt seam (figure ). — place the two right sides of the material together and stitch inch from the edge. press the seam in the desired direction and cut the under edge to within / inch of the stitching. on the wrong side, press the seam flat and baste with the wider edge on top. stitch on the right side of the figure material } inch from the seam line. this line of stitching will be the only one to show on the right side. finish the raw edge as desired. flannel seam (figure ). — place the two right sides of the material together and stitch inch from the edge. press the seam in the desired direction and cut the under edge to within { inch of the stitching. trim the upper edge so that it is even and stitch it down with the catch stitch. (figure .) figure picoted seams (figure ). — place the two right sides of the material together and baste inch from the edge. if the basting is done in the same color as the hemstitching it need not be removed. stitch with the machine toooooooooooooooooooooooo from thimble to gown ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo wrong side on the basted line. press the seam with a warm iron. the seam is then machine hemstitched twice, directly on the line of stitching, to give a firm seam that will not pull out. picoting is machine hemstitching cut through the middle. press the hemstitched figure seam carefully on the wrong side of the hemstitching and stitch the inside edge of the hemstitching on the machine. to make the picoted finish, cut the hemstitching in two, close to the outer edge, as this makes a more secure finish. where dainty, decorative seams are desired the picoted seam proves very satisfactory and may be made on the right as well as figure the wrong side of the garment. corded seams (figure ). — a cord is covered with a bias strip (figure ) and placed between the two edges of a plain seam. because of the cording the seam must be stitched by hand or with a one-sided presser foot in order that the cording may be firmly held in the seam. figure . finishes for plain seams. overcasting (figure ). — press the seam together or open and finish the raw edges with the overcasting stitch (figure ). pinking (figure ). — press the seam and pink (notch) the two raw edges with a pinking machine or by hand. if the pinking is done by hand, care must be taken to keep the notches uniform. press the seam open, after pinking is completed. this method of seam finishing is one of figure booooooooooooo construction processes the most satisfactory because it saves time and allows the seam to give. binding (figure ). — press the seam open or together and stitch the right side of a -inch bind- ing to the right side of the seam to be bound. the binding is turned to sooooooooo o o the wrong side and the raw edge pressed under inch. place the figure folded edge to the line of stitching where it is held in place by the hemming stitch. (figure ). turned (figure ). — press the seam open and press the raw edges under the fold toward the seam. stitch evenly with the machine along the folded edges. picoting (figure ). — press the seam figure together or open; then machine hem- stitch the edges of the seam together; next press on the wrong side; and finally cut close to the outer edge to make the picoting more firm. . tailor's tacks (figure ). — tailor's tacks are used to mark seams figure and perforations. they are made before removing the pattern from the material. insert the needle, threaded with a double thread, into the material at the marking on the pattern and take a tiny stitch. take another stitch on top of the first, allowing the second stitch to form a -inch loop, and cut the thread. if the markings are close together, the thread need not be cut after each tack is made but may figure from thimble to gown paper -ino cut paper material form a continuous row of long stitches which need not be cut until the pattern is to be removed. clip each long stitch, separate the material, and cut the threads in the center, leaving half in each section. twist the ends of the thread, making the tailor's tack secure. . darts (figure ). — before making the dart, establish the placement of all the darts (pages , ) and pin the two right sides of the material to- gether along the established dart line. press the dart along the folded edge. make a dart pattern out of stiff paper by folding the paper, measuring down from the top, and marking on the fold the length of the dart (i). mark at the top away from the fold, the width of half of the dart and connect the two points with a straight line. start at the top of the dart and taper it gradually inward to the point. the point of the dart should be gently tapered figure off at the end to form a pleas- ing curve. this prevents puckering. the excess fullness at the end of the dart is removed when it is steamed and pressed on the wrong side over a curved surface. cut the paper dart along the inward established line, then cut along the fold. this gives two dart patterns to be used on opposite sides of the garment. by using dart patterns an accurate dart may be made with little effort. place the cut fold of the paper pattern on the fold of material and baste along the fold to the point and around the paper pattern, taking care to keep the top of the dart pat- h.a heavy material construction processes - coul > co - - - tern even with the folded edge of the material (ii). starting at the point, stitch with the machine as near the paper pattern as possible without touching it. remove paper pattern (iii-a). after the dart has been steamed and pressed on the wrong side of the material, tie the threads at the end of the darts with the square knot (figure ). darts may be stitched on the right side to give the effect of tucks (see page ). if heavy mate- rial is used, the dart is cut on the fold and steamed and pressed open instead of close against the fabric. press toward tapering end of the dart. the raw edges may be finished by overcasting or binding (iii-b). always avoid a sharp angle at the end of a dart. . gathering (figure ). — a long fine needle and a coarser thread than would otherwise be used are required for gathering. the thread should be longer than the length to be gathered. fasten the thread with a plain knot or a secure backstitch, and figure . make several rows of tiny run- ning stitches (figure ). the running stitches are made entirely with the right hand holding the needle and material between the thumb and first finger while the left hand holds - - - - - - - machine gathering from thimble to gown the material in position to work (i). the gathers should be evened as work progresses (ii). the second row of gathering stitches is made inch below the first, care being taken to keep each stitch exactly under the one above (iii). the two rows of gathering hold the fullness in a secure position. after the gathering threads have been put in, draw them up to the desired length of fullness, and even the gathers by stroking. to stroke the gathers, the material must be drawn very tightly upon the gathering thread. tack this surplus amount of thread to the material so that the gathers will not slip. hold the material in the left hand between the thumb and fingers and draw it over the first finger of the left hand with the right hand, creasing the gathers as they are being drawn over the finger, so that they will be flat. after this process of stroking has been finished, release the thread and space the gathers to fit the article to which it is to be attached. scant gathers require more than the desired measurement; medium gathers more, and full gathers twice the desired measurement. gathering may be done by machine, and the spacing is more accurate than when done by hand, but not so effective. the advantage of machine gathering is that the thread may be broken without destroying the gathers already made. machine gathering is far more quickly done, and should always be used when possible. slightly loosen the upper tension and make one or more parallel rows of stitching. fasten the threads firmly at the end of each row. pull up the under thread of the machine stitching the desired length of the gathered section. garment bands (figure ). — bands are usually cut length- wise of the material. cut the band about inches longer than the desired length to allow for placket lapping, and twice the width plus seam allowances (i). turn back the end inch to the wrong side and press with a warm iron. mark this band into four equal parts. bands may be placed to the right or construction processes wrong side of the garment, depend- ing upon the stitching to be used. if the last stitching is to be done by hand, place the band to the right side of the garment, first matching the marked halves and quarters (ii). if both stitchings are to be done by machine, apply the band to the wrong side, matching marked halves and quarters. space the garment so that the gathers lie even and baste it to the band. stitch a figure -inch seam. turn the seam up- ward and turn in the ends of the other edge of the band. bring the folded edge over the first stitching and either finish by hemming the fold by hand or by machine stitching (iii). stitch the ends of the band together and press with a warm ooo shirring (figure ). — fasten the thread securely with a knot and make several rows of gathers (figure ), being sure to keep the rows of gathers equal distances apart and each stitch directly under the one above (a-i). a cardboard gage is convenient to use to keep the rows equal distances apart. one side of the card- board is notched, one edge of each notch at a right angle to figure the edge. stitches may be long ooo oo oo iron. aksida from thimble to gown . o on the inside and short on the outside. the shirring thread should be long enough to fit the space without fastening. machine shirring may be done by loosening the tension and using the gage attachment which comes with the machine (b). creased rows for shirring may be made by folding and pressing the material in the desired width for shirring. ruffles (figure ). — these are used to give fullness to a gar- ment and for trimming. the kind of ruffle used depends upon design, material, and use of the gar- ment. it may be cut straight, bias, or circular. a straight ruffle requires more fullness than a bias ruffle, but the circular ruffle requires no full- ness whatever. divide and tack the straight or bias ruffle on garment in equal proportion as for gathering (figure ) and, with a thread long enough to eliminate fastening, make noooo a single row of gathering stitches (i). even the gathers by jerking instead of stroking (ii). finish with bind- ing, bias tape, or french seam (iii). figure all seams should be as flat as possi- ble. ruffle fullness averages one and one half the ruffle space. ruffling should be done by machine when suitable, as the gathers are thus laid more evenly than when done by hand. . tucks (figure ). — tucks serve for decoration, or to give fullness, and they must be stitched through both thicknesses of the fold. tucks may be made on the straight or bias and a combination of cross-tucking is effective. they may be on either the right or wrong side, and width and spacing should be carefully considered. fine thread should be used. the tucks are pressed in with a warm iron on the side where they are to appear o from thimble to gown it is often desirable to have small plaits done at a shop. before removing the paper from shop plaiting, the top of the plaits should be stitched on the machine to hold them in place. the paper may then be removed. position, width, and spacing of plaits should be carefully determined before the creasing is begun. if stitching is de- sired, the plaits should be evenly stitched through three thicknesses of the fabric. knife plaits (figure ). — place the material on the ironing board with the ma- terial toward you. then fold one end of the material so that the two wrong sides are together, and mark the distance where the first crease is to come in the first plait. press. with a gage, take one and a half times width of folded plait; mark and figure make the second crease (i). after pressing each crease, move the creased material, which is lying on top, toward you and continue in this way until all the creases are pressed for the plaits. place the material so that the wrong side comes next to the ironing board. match the first crease to the second and baste the creases firmly together. match the third and fourth creases and baste. continue until the plaits are basted in place (ii). press the plaits with a damp cloth and hot iron. a strip of cloth or paper may be laid between plaits so that the imprints of the lapping plait will not show. knife plaits turn all one way, and the edge construction processes of the plait looks like the side of a knife. the plaits are not stitched. box plait (figure ). — press the material as for knife plaits. when the creases are folded, match creases and , and , and , and and , being sure to baste as you go along. continue in this manner until all plaits are matched. figure inverted plait (figure ). — press the material as for knife plaiting except that the material is folded with the two right sides together instead of the two wrong sides. match creases and , and , and , and and . continue until all the plaits are laid in place, being sure to baste as the creases are matched. kick plait (figure ). — baste a figure piece of stiff paper on the wrong side under the position of the plait. mark the location of the plait on the paper and stitch once along each side of the line of marking. the material which is to be set in, to form the plait, is cut inches longer than the length of the plait and inches wide. crease and press this piece directly in the center with the two wrong sides together. place the right side of the set-in-piece to the right side of the garment and baste from the bottom of the plait up, taking care to keep the creased fold and plait-marking even. stitch on the stitched line. cut the material at the position of the plait on the line of marking between the stitchings (i). at the top of the plait, clip the corners the desired width of the seam so that it forms a v. turn this added piece through the slashed opening to the wrong side and baste so that the plain seam can not be seen from either side (ii). cut another piece of material the same size as the first and baste and stitch the two pieces together from thimble to gown with a plain seam (iii). press the plait. turn the garment to the right side and make a triangular stitching at the top of the plait (iv), and on the wrong side finish the top by over-casting. remove the paper from the plait and pink the raw edges of the seams. press the plait and remove the bastings. slash the seam above the hem or facing at the bottom of the garment so that the plait will hang perfectly straight. . godets (go'dāy') and flares (figure ). — godets and flares are used to add fullness to garments. they are usually inserted in seams, though slashes may be made for this purpose. the shape of godets and flares is usually a triangle that has a tapering point or very narrow width at the top and a wide circular bottom. the sides may be s m e straight or curved in toward the center as illustrated. у щ the figure shape depends on the design of the garment. as a rule, flares extend from the hip or waist line, while godets are inserted below the hipline. there are two methods for sew- ing in godets and flares. if a tailored finish is desired, stitch on the right side. if an inconspicuous finish is desired, stitch cocoa construction processes doe the seam on the wrong side. the seams in both methods will be finished according to kind of material and style of garment. pinking is the quickest and most satisfactory, as the plain seam gives a smoother seam on curved edges. the bottom of the godet or flare will be finished like the rest of the types hem. since the bottoms of figure godets and flares are curved, picoting, bias bindings, and facings are the best finishes to use. tailored godets and flares (figure ). — baste a -inch seam to the wrong side around edges to be stitched. carefully pin. and baste to the right side of the garment, taking care to match all markings and to lap the flare or godet enough to allow for a serviceable seam. press along the seamline. stitch figure close to the creased fold (ii). several rows of stitching may be used if desired. remove the bastings and press. inconspicuous godets and flares (figure ). — place and pin the right side of the godet or flare to the right side of the garment, taking care to match all markings (i). baste and stitch inch from the raw edge. remove the bastings and press the plain seam figure open (ii). gussets (figure ). — gussets are double triangular pieces that are set in to prevent ripping where two seams meet. cut a square of material the desired size and baste a l-inch hem around from thimble to gown e-- foto pattern the square. press and fold to form a triangle. baste the open sides of the triangle, taking care to match the creased edges. place the point of the triangle opposite the fold under the seam of the gusset opening. baste the sides of triangle under the gusset. stitch close to the edge figure along the sides of the gusset open- ing. remove bastings and press. . bias. — there are two kinds of bias — true and garment. true bias is cut diagonally across the material, and garment bias is cut at any diagonal. true bias (figure ). — to mark a true bias, fold the material diagonally so that the warp thread lies parallel to the woof or filling thread (i). with a warm iron crease the folded line of bias and mark on the wrong side of ma- terial from the crease and paral- lel to it, the desired width of the bias strips (ii). cut on the marked lines and join the strips by placing them together so that the ends meet, forming right angles; baste inch from the edge (iii). if the material has a design, care must be taken to have the designs match. stitch the strips by hand or machine inch from the edge, remove the bastings, and, with a warm figure iron, press the seam open (iv). . bindings. in general (figure ). — bindings are used for decoration and to finish raw edges. they should be cut twice ital viinitially construction processes yooo boodscode a- rb b-i the finished width of the binding, plus two seam allowances. double bindings are cut four times the width (b-i, ii). double the strip with the raw edges together and press with a warm iron (a-i). if a bind- ing is to be applied to a curved edge, it should be shaped with the iron before it is attached and handled as little as possible. inconspicuous binding (fig- figure ure ). — place the right side of the bias or straight binding to the right side of the fabric so that the edges are even. baste inch from the edge and stitch on the bastings. remove the bast- ings and turn under the raw edges of the binding inch. pin and baste the folded edge of the binding to the line of stitching. the binding is held in place by slant stitches that are caught under the thread of the stitching and figure through the edge of the binding. conspicuous binding (figure ). — the conspicuous binding is made the same as the inconspicuous binding except that the folded edge is brought just beyond the first stitching. baste the edge in place and press with a warm iron. stitch close to the binding on the right side, taking care to catch the edge of the binding on the wrong side. figure . pipings. general directions (figure ). — pipings of the same or contrasting material or color are used on the edges and in the seams of garments for from thimble to gown decoration. they appear as narrow folds on the right side of garment. to finish the open end of the piping, turn the two right sides together, stitch į inch from the raw edge, and clip the corner next to the fold in order to secure a square corner when turned. when joining two edges for pip- ing, care must be taken that the figure length of the piping is the same as the length to be piped, plus inch for seam allowance. to match the strips, follow the di- rections for true bias (figure ). inconspicuous piping (figure ). — cut a bias strip that is the desired width and length, plus seam allowance, and, with a wrong side warm iron, crease the center of the bias so that the raw edges are even. place the bias on the right figure side of the article to be piped with the raw edges of the bias even with the edges of the article. baste and stitch inch from the edge. overcast the raw edges and, with a warm iron, press the edges to the wrong side of the article. oooo conspicuous piping (figure ). — cut and crease the bias strip as for inconspicuous piping. figure fold under the edge of the article to be piped į inch and baste in place. press the edge with a warm iron and baste the bias strip under the folded edge, taking care to keep the bias always the same width from the folded edge. stitch on the right side the from thimble to gown scalloped hem (figure ), taking care to keep the corner designs accurate. measure the facing the exact length of the part to be faced plus seam allowance. the width of the facing will depend upon its use and the material, but the facing should be cut inch wider than the finished width. the facing is sewed together and the plain seam is pressed open. place the right side of the facing to the wrong side of the garment, taking care that the corners and edges match. pin and baste the facing to the garment. stitch inch from the raw edge. if the outer edge is cut in a design, it is necessary to clip between the scallops ( inch from the seam. remove bastings and turn the facing to the right side of the gar- ment and baste the plain seam so it comes directly on the fold. turn under a -inch hem around the outer edge of the facing and baste. press with a warm iron. pin the outer edge of the facing to the garment and baste around the design. stitch as close to edge of design as possible. re- move bastings and press on wrong side of the garment. . cordings. cord tuck (figure ). — mark with a figure colored thread the desired line for the cording. with the left hand, hold the cord underneath on the line of basting and inclose it in a tight backstitch tuck, taking care to sew the stitches as tightly and as closely as possible so that the cording stands up. remove bastings and press on the wrong side with a warm iron. _ --- sooooh cord piping (figure ). — cut bias strips of fabric in figure which to insert cord and pro- ceed the same as for cord tuck, using the running stitch instead of the backstitch. construction processes . mitering. miter for firm fabric (figure ). — cut a square of paper that is twice the desired width of the hem. fold the paper diagonally and pin together. carefully match the corner opposite the fold to the corner of the fabric and pin (i). cut along the folded edge of the paper. bring the two right sides of the cut material together and pin, baste, and sew together with the backstitch (ii). remove bastings and paper, clip the corner, press plain seam open figure and turn the hem right side out. turn a narrow fold to the wrong side and stitch in place, either by the hemming stitch or by machine stitching. miter for bias tape (figure ). — mitering is a method of eliminating material at a corner or point. fold together the two right sides of the bias, keeping the sides even (i). baste on a piece of paper. starting at the out- side edge of the miter, weave in a pin diagonally along the line on which the corner is to be cut. baste along the pin, remove pin, and stitch along the basted line. cut off the triangular corner, remove the figure paper, and press the plain seam open. finish miter (figure ). — clip the corner diagonally the width of the desired hem. fold the hem allowance to the wrong side and press it in place. match the right side of a triangular piece to the weave and right side of the diagonal cut, and baste before making the plain seam. turn the triangular piece over and press it flat to the material. turn under a narrow hem on paper from thimble to gown the outside edge, baste the hem in place and stitch on the folded edge. if an inconspicuous stitch is desired, use the warp stitch (figure ). remove all bast- ings and press. mitering straight bands (fig- ure ). — place the right side of the band and the right side of the fabric together and baste them į inch from the edge. pin the inside edge of the band to the fabric to establish the be- ginning of the miter. fold back the surplus corners and press with a warm iron to estab- lish the mitering line. remove the pins and baste along the creased line (i), taking care to match the design, if any. cut away the excess material one- quarter inch from the basting. stitch along the line of basting and press open the plain seam. clip the corners of the seam before turning the band to the right side. with the band on the right side, baste the outer edge so that the plain seam comes directly on the fold. press the edge of the band with a warm iron. turn under a narrow hem on the inner edge of the band and ii figure construction processes baste to the material (ii). press the basted hem and stitch directly on the fold. mitering lace and embroidery (figure ). — designs in em- broideries and laces should be matched as nearly as possible. a plain seam is the most satis- figure factory method of joining and rrsos may be finished with the button- hole stitch or a close overcast stitch (figures , ). a flat fell seam may also be used for joining (figure ). establish the mitered corner of the lace by folding the corners at right roos angles, taking care that the paper design and edge of the finish match (i). pin the folded corner and press with a warm iron along the fold. remove the pins and baste along the creased lines. baste the seam to be mitered on a piece of paper and stitch with the ma- figure chine on the creased line (ii). remove the bastings and paper and press. cut off the excess lace or embroidery close to the plain seam and finish with the buttonhole or the overcast stitch (iii). . hems. — hems are made by twice folding over the edge of the fabric. the raw edge is concealed by the first fold, which is very narrow, and the second fold can be made any desired width. from thimble to gown the belt should be placed on a garment before the hemline is established, as the belt has a tendency to shorten the skirt. hemlines should always be of becoming length regardless of fashion. sit down in the garment before determining the skirt length, for in sitting the skirt length is taken up, and this must be allowed for in establishing the hemline. the finished length will be determined by the style, height, weight, occasion, and figure of the individual. all wide hems, regardless of the kind of fabric, should be made as inconspicuous as possible unless they are decorated hemlines as a part of the decoration of the garment, and for this reason should be put in by hand. in sewing in hems always work from right to left. the criticism of most blind hems is that the stitches which are used give a circle effect around the hem instead of the blind effect that carries the eye up and down with the warp thread. accentuated hemlines make the figure look shorter, therefore use the warp stitch (figure ). different methods are required for various garments and fabrics — soft bias edges should be sewed on paper to prevent them from stretching. time-saving devices should be used for hemming articles such as towels, etc. hems that are very small are put in with a hemmer without being basted. establishing hemline (figure ). – have the model stand erect “like a soldier” on a table, with the garment adjusted as it is to be worn. the model must be directly in front of the fitter, who is seated. the hemline and the eye of the fitter should be at the same level. with a gage or yardstick (with a rubber band placed securely at the desired hemline length), let the fitter weave in pins several inches apart around the hemline parallel with the table-top at the desired length (i). the model should not move during the establishing of the hemline. remove the garment, press in the pinned hemline (ii), then put up the hem by pinning seams together first, then the centers between seams construction processes so that the hem of the garment may be checked as to evenness before making the hem. if the hemline hangs evenly when tried on, the garment is removed and the bottom placed over the ironing board and pressed along the woven-in pinline. a figure gage is used to mark the desired width of the hem, plus į inch (iii). the average width of a hem is three inches and hems over this width, unless used for decoration, give a weighted effect, while those narrower than this give a skimped effect. the pins being removed around the skirt, the excess material on from thimble to gown the hem is cut off following the marking (iv). after the allowed į inch is pressed to the wrong side of the garment (v), fold the hem back into place and press it in its entirety. pin the hem by pinning seams together first, then the centers between seams. the hem is then ready to baste into place. use the hemming stitch which is most desirable. hems should be pressed by placing the right side of the hem against the ironing board. slip one end of the dampened press- ing cloth under the hem and fold the other end back over the hem (page ). press accord- ing to the nature of the fabric (pages – ). method of sewing in a hem (figure ). — in putting in any kind of a hem, always begin at a seam, sewing from figure right to left, holding the work over the index finger of the left hand so that the hem is exactly perpendicular to you, and working on the wrong side of the garment. many different kinds of stitches are used for putting in hems, the most serviceable and excellent stitch being the inconspicuous warp stitch (figure ). plain hem (figure ). — a plain hem is the folding back of the fabric on the wrong side the desired width of the hem when finished, plus seam allowances. this is the most common hem figure used in garments. bound hem (figure ). — cut the binding and place the right side of the binding to the right side of the hem. pin and baste in place. stitch (inch from the raw edge before turning. construction processes dossoodus press the plain seam toward the binding. turn under a -inch seam and press. baste the folded edge to the line of stitching (if hem is to be put in by hand) so as to catch the fold and the machine stitching. if it is to be put in by machine, baste oooo the folded edge just over the machine stitching and stitch on right side in groove of plain figure seam. faced hem (figure ). — faced hems are generally used when the skirt lengths are too short to make an ordinary hem. cut facing inches wide and the length required to go around the hem, plus seam allowances. sew in seams and press them open, and place the right side of facing to the right side of the skirt. stitch inch from the raw edge. press plain figure seam open. it may be necessary to dampen the seam before pressing. turn the facing to the wrong side of the garment and baste the seam so that the line of stitching comes directly on the fold. finish as for plain hem. curved hem (figure ). — curved hems are found on circular or gored skirts. cir- cular skirts should hang for some time before the hemline is established because the bias a-i fabrics have a tendency to relax and drop. in establish- ing the hem the pins should be woven in closely. tiny gathers are used (a-i). if figure ود a- . from thimble to gown curved hems are used in very heavy fabrics, a faced hem should be applied (a-ii). the curved hemline is used as a pattern for cutting this facing. cut the desired width and length. pin and baste the facing on the garment, and stitch į inch from the raw edge. turn the hem at the seamline to the wrong pattern side of the garment. baste and press. finish as for plain hem (b). scalloped, pointed, or squared hems (figure ). — the bot- tom of the garment having no decorative pattern may be shaped in scallops, points, or squares. for this kind of a hem, a longer skirt length is required. a safe amount to add to the skirt length is the width of the design, as a cut-up design has a tendency to shorten the appearance of the skirt. establish the hemline and, be- fore removing the pins, run a close basting along the hemline. locate a center front and back in the garment and pin evenly together. run a basting along the pinline and remove the pins. y fold the center front and back figure together and crease on the construction processes fold (i). continue dividing, pinning, and pressing the gar- ment until the desired width of the scallops, points, or squares is obtained (ii). remove the pins and unfold the garment. on stiff paper make a pattern the desired width of the design. fold the paper equally in the center and mark on the fold the length of the scallop, point, or square. draw the shape of the design and cut. place the bottom of the gar- ment over the ironing board or several thicknesses of paper. pin the pattern to the hem so that the sides of the pattern are even with the creases. with a tracing foot trace around the pattern shape (iii). continue placing the pattern between the creased lines until the entire design has been completed. this will give faint dotted lines on each side of the hem. remove the bastings and cut along the line of tracing (iv). a shaped hem re- quires a fitted facing and may be straight or bias, depending upon the fabric (v). the pattern for the design of the bottom of the garment is used to cut the paper pattern for the facing. cut a strip of paper the desired width of the hem, plus inch for seams, and half the length of the distance around the hem plus seam allowance. the paper pattern is pinned carefully to the bottom of the skirt and cut to match the skirt design. remove the paper pattern, then cut the facings, taking care to place the two right or two wrong sides together. sew the seams and press them open. place the right side of the hem facing to the right side of the skirt, matching seams and designs. pin and baste the facing to the bottom of the garment. stitch inch from the raw edge and clip between the designs to inch of the machine stitching, being careful not to cut the stitching. this will enable the curves to lie perfectly flat when turned. remove bastings and turn the hem to the wrong side of the garment. baste the plain seam so that the line of stitching comes exactly on the fold. press carefully around the shaped design. finish as for plain hem. designs on all straight edges may be established, cut, and made in this manner. from thimble to gown french hem (figure ). — this hem is made just like the plain hem except that it is turned to the right side instead of to the wrong side of the garment. the seams, therefore, which come og at the hemline will have to be made on the right side of the garment. when a wide french hem is desired, the hem is basted in and held in place by some decorative stitch. if lace is figure used, it is held on with a suit- able decorative stitch and ap- plied when sewing in the hem. this style of hem is commonly used for children's dresses. rolled hem (figure ). — the rolled hem gives daintiness and should be rolled very tight and small. make the knot stitch close to the edge under the rolled hem. hold the edge figure of the fabric tightly between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand and roll edge toward you, working from right to left. roll į inch at a time and make several stitches before rolling more. hold hem in place by whipping, slant hemming, or right side overcasting. damask or napery hem (fig- ure ). — turn a narrow hem figure twice to wrong side of material. fold back to right side and crease. overhand both folds. when hem is completed, press on right side and then on wrong side. from thimble to gown paper laddu finished seam. press with a warm iron. remove the paper and baste the folded edge. baste a piece of paper under the top of the garment to which the yoke is to be attached. baste the yoke to the garment with small bastings. press the yoke carefully with a warm iron, on the right side, and stitch on the machine the desired width from the fold (ii). several rows of stitching give a more decorative effect. remove paper and press with a warm iron. the raw edges then may be overcast (figure ), pinked (figure ), or a bias strip figure (figure ) may be applied. double yoke (figure ). — the double yoke is cut double instead of single and contrasting material may be used if desired. in applying the double yoke care must be taken to keep the seams flat and even. the seams are concealed between the two thick- nesses of the yoke. place the right side of the front of the yoke to the right side of the garment to which it is to be attached, and baste the two securely together. in like manner, place the right side of the back of the yoke to the wrong side of the garment so that the two yokes may be held in place by the same stitching. figure b construction problems baste and stitch along the creased line (a). remove bastings and press with a warm iron. turn the yoke up and baste front and back together just above the seams on the right side (b). attach the back and front yokes at the shoulder seam with plain seams concealing the seams within the yokes. the sleeves may be sewed at armseye to outer yoke and the under yoke folded under to the line of stitching and whipped down to conceal the plain seam. the top of the skirt yoke is seamed before it is attached to the skirt except when finished by a band. in this case, the lower part of the yoke is hand-hemmed in place, along the machine stitching. . plackets. — a placket is an inconspicuous opening for convenience in putting on and removing the garment, and may be made in any part of the garment. the kind of placket used will depend upon the material, design, and use of the garment. placket openings are made to open from right to left for women, and from left to right for men. plackets are best when made deep enough to permit freedom in the use of the garment. the three parts of the placket are the overlap, underlap, and fasteners. all – plackets should be neat and as in- conspicuous as possible. continuous placket (figure ). — if the placket is to be made in a seam, measure on the seam line the desired length of the placket; other- wise cut the opening following a figure thread of the material. the con- tinuous strip which is used to finish the placket opening should be cut twice the desired width of the placket, plus two seam allowances and twice the length of the placket opening, plus inch. place the right side of the placket strip to the right side of the garment and baste inch from the raw b from thimble to gown food edge. stitch with the machine as near the basting as possible. with a warm iron, press the plain seam toward the placket so that it will be concealed in the placket. fold under a -inch hem on the outer edge of strip and press it in place. baste the creased edge to the line of stitching and finish with the catch hemming stitch (figure ). cut-out continuous placket (fig- ure ). — when heavy fabric is used, it is advisable to use the cut- out placket in order to avoid too many thicknesses of material. follow directions for the contin- uous placket, but, after basting the creased edge to the line of stitching, press and cut the fabric on the right-hand side on the back of the placket (i). cut inch from the middle crease and inch from the bottom crease. remove bastings holding the cut piece, and fasten the cut end of i the placket to the garment. turn figure the cut facing flat to the garment and baste it in place. sew the placket in place with close warp stitches (figure ). remove bastings and press. two-piece placket (figure ). — two-piece plackets are advisable to use when contrasts of color or fabric are desired. cut the placket strips the desired length, plus inch more in length than the placket openings. the binding that is to be used on the left side is cut twice the width of the placket, plus inch for the seams. the facing to be used on the right side is cut the >os construction problems dagoe to desired width of the placket, plus inch for seams. apply the strips as for binding (figure ) and facing, and join the pieces together at the bottom with a buttonhole stitch (figure ). fasten the binding with the hem- ming stitch, which is caught in the threads of the machine stitching. the facing is held in place with a close warp stitch. tucked placket (figure ). — this placket is used when an open- ing comes in a tuck seam, and it is figure put in when the garment is being made instead of after the seams are finished. take a length- wise strip of fabric a little longer than the placket opening. this is slipped inside the tuck and basted as near the creased edge as possible so that it will be held in place when the tuck is stitched. this serves as a re- inforcement for fasteners (fig- ures , ). the underside of the placket may be finished with a straight strip. place the right side of the strip that is inches wide and inch longer than the placket to the right side of the placket and stitch figure with a plain seam. press open the plain seam on the wrong side with a warm iron. fold under the edge of the strip so that only inch extends beyond the seam line and inch comes under- dondo ooooooooo coooooooo from thimble to gown ooooooooooooooo neath. turn under a -inch hem on the edge of the strip under- neath and stitch this in place. the fasteners are buttonholed on the seamline, taking care that the buttonhole stitches do not show on the right side. lap placket (figure ). — the two-piece inconspicuous placket is used in the plain seam. establish the desired length of the placket by opening the plain seam. cut two straight strips inch longer than the u placket allowance. one strip is inch wide and the other inches. place and baste the right side of the -inch strip to the right side right of the under part of the placket. side stitch inch from the raw edge. press the plain seam open and fold back the strip so that inch ex- tends beyond the seamline and two inches come underneath it. turn under a -inch hem on the edge of the strip underneath and stitch this in place with a close warp stitch. place the two right hal wrong side sides together and baste the -inch figure strip to the right sides of the top placket and stitch į inch from the edge. press the plain seam open and fold underneath the strip so that inch extends beyond the plain seam. sew the strip to the material with a close warp stitch (figure ). baste the end of the placket strips together and finish with a buttonhole stitch. fly placket (figure ). — the fly placket is used for the front opening of trousers and requires five pieces. cut, following the pattern. the three lining pieces should be of some firm fabric ttt tiit construction problems oooooooooo - and the two outside pieces like the garment. in men's clothes, openings should always lap from left to right. the right side of the placket will be finished with two pieces, one of lining and one of the fabric. baste the two right sides of the fabric together along the outer edge and stitch inch from the edge. turn to the right side and baste close to epoooo the seamline. press with a warm iron. place and baste the right side of the extension to the right side of the placket and stitch inch from the seamline. press the seam away from the exten- sion and baste the inner lining along the seamline. press the extension on the wrong side. stitch from the top on the right side | inch from the seamline. the left side of the placket is finished with one piece of fabric and two of lining. place and baste on the outer edge one piece of the lining to the right side of the placket. stitch į inch from edge. press the plain seam open and turn the lining to the wrong side of the placket. crease and baste so that the fabric will ex- figure tend į inch on the lining side of the placket. press with a warm iron. the fly strip is made by placing the right side of the lining to the right side of the fabric. stitch inch from the outer edge, turn to the right side, and press on seamline. baste around the fly strip. mark and work ooooo dodao cocodoo from thimble to gown ea oooooood oooo buttonholes. pin and baste around the fly strip on the under side so that the outer edge will come even with the plain seam in the lining. stitch on the wrong side inch from the raw edge of the fly strip. finish with a close overcast stitch. the fly strip should be securely blind-tacked to the placket between the buttonholes. tailored placket (figure ). — the tailored placket is used for neck and shirt sleeve openings. neck openings for men open from the left to the wrong side right, and for women, from the right to the left. sleeve open- ings always lap from front to the back. cut the opening the desired length and, if used on the sleeve, it must be kept in line with the little finger. cut two strips of fabric, one inches wide and the length of right the opening plus inch for side seam, the other inches wide and inches longer than the opening. the strips may be figure made narrower or wider, de- pending upon the desired width of the placket. the end of the placket may be finished square, pointed, or round. the -inch strip is used for the under side of the placket. place the right side of this strip to the wrong side of the placket opening, taking care that the ends are even at the cuff or neck- line (i). baste and stitch į inch from the edge of the opening. o construction problems baste (-inch hem along the side and top of the strip. the -inch strip is used for the upper side of the placket. place the right side of this strip to the wrong side of the placket opening, taking care that the ends are even at the cuff or neckline. baste and stitch the length of the placket opening į inch from the edge. baste a -inch hem along the side of the strip and press with a warm iron. measure over on the wrong side inch from the creased edge and press along the -inch line, keeping the two wrong sides together. at the end of the placket opening, establish a line at right angles with the placket opening and mark į inch above it. shape the end of the placket by starting at the creased fold and cutting to the -inch line. cut along the -inch line and clip the corner to the folded hem. turn a -inch hem around the shaped end of the strip and baste. turn the two strips to the right side of the garment. baste the creased edge of the under side of the placket to the line of stitching and stitch along the basting (ii). press open the plain seam of the upper strip of the placket and baste the creased line directly on the line of stitching press with a warm iron. stitch the shaped end and side opposite the fold accurately and securely to the garment with one or two rows of stitching as desired. neck binding (figure ). — the neck opening may be finished by bands, bindings, or facings, depending upon the garment and collar. binding is the most satisfactory finish used. after the neckline has been established, mark the open- ing the desired length by putting in a basting. use a binding which is two inches wide and inch longer than the length of the opening. place the two wrong sides of the binding together and crease the center of the binding with a warm iron. place the right side of the binding and the right side of the marked opening together, taking care that the binding is even with the neckline. baste the center of the binding to ihe basted line of opening, taking care not to go beyond the basted line. baste a from thimble to gown ibacaocod geoconuoc cocco commanaamaa dood ooooooas oooo ooooooo strip of paper under the neck opening on the side opposite the binding to insure a square corner when stitching (i-a). stitch around the neck opening į inch from the basted line. the bottom of the opening may be shaped in a v, u, or square (i-b). press the binding and cut on the line of basting, cutting the neck opening to within inch of the bottom of the facing. then clip the corners in a v-shape, taking care to keep them alike and not to cut through the machine stitching (ii). turn the facing inward, and with a warm iron press along the line of the stitching. baste a line on the facing inch on each side of the machine stitching (iii). carefully remove the paper and turn the facing to the wrong side, beginning at the bottom. fold the two edges of the binding together and crease. baste along the creased line, taking care to keep the edges together. fold the sides of the binding outward and press with a warm iron. turn under the binding so that the edges come even with the lines of machine stitching. sew in place with the catch hemming iy stitch (figure ) or the close figure warp stitch (figure ). if padodaoaaaa ht ai th construction problems visible stitching is desired, machine stitching may be used (iv). trim the end of the binding to within inch of the stitching and overcast. press the entire binding and remove the bastings. . neckline finishes. — necklines require skillful treatment. the natural neckline forms a good curve from the prominent bone at the base of the neck to just above the collar bone in front. the neckline is a little lower in the front than in back. the inside curves are usually faced to give greater strength and to prevent stretching. it is advisable to work out with stiff paper the most pleasing neckline and make the collar accordingly. the neckline without an opening should be two inches larger than the headsize. the six different styles of neckline are the u-, v-, and heart- shaped, round, tapering bateau (bå-to'), and square. collars should be designed in keeping with the chin, neck, and shoulders (page ). they should look as if they really belonged to the garment. collars should be of a color and fab- ric that is becoming and in harmony with the garment. firm, heavy fabric requires smaller collars than more sheer fabric. the shape of the neckline of the collar deter- mines the lay or roll of the collar. there are two styles of collars. they are the convertible and non- convertible. they may be made either double or single and the non-convertible may be made either attached or detached. convertible collar facing (figure ). — cut the facing the desired shape and size and turn a -inch figure rococo i from thimble to gown locacceso hem to the wrong side around the facing except around the neckline. stitch with the machine inch from the folded edge unless the facing is to be held in place with the warp stitch (figure ). establish the center of the facing and center front of the waist and crease the established line with a warm iron. place the two right sides together, matching the creased center lines, taking care to keep them even at the neckline. baste along the es- tablished line the desired length of the neck opening (i). if the fabric lacks body, a strip of paper may be basted along the back of the opening. meas- ure / inch on both sides of the established line at the top of the opening and mark. measure į inch on both sides of the established line at the end of the opening and mark. with a ruler draw a line from i point to point, shaping the figure lower end in a v, u, or square. stitch along the marked line and cut { inch from the stitching, clipping around the curve to within a few threads of the machine stitching. this pre- vents the facing from puckering when it is turned to the wrong side. press the plain seam open and turn. turn the facing to the wrong side and baste so that the plain seam comes directly on the fold (ii). the sides and end of the facing construction problems are not sewed in place until the collar is entirely made and on the garment. attaching the convertible collar (figure ). – establish the center back of the collar and neckline and place the underside of the collar to the right side of the garment. pin the front of the collar to the neckline of the facing, taking care that the side seams of the collar exactly match the side seam of the facing (i). pin the underside of the collar to the neckline of the garment and baste around the entire neckline. stitch inch from the edge. press the plain seam away from the neckline. baste the two front seams of the collar together. turn under a narrow hem from facing to facing, and baste down just to the machine stitch- ing. sew into place with the hemming stitch that catches the machine stitching, working with the fold towards you (ii). the sides and bottom of the facing may be held in place by blind tack- ing at intervals or by finishing with the warp stitch (figure ). straight band collar (figure ). — this collar has a varia- tion in the shape at the neckline, for it may be cut straight or slightly curved. place the two right sides of the fabric together. fooooooooooooooooo the one-piece collar is cut with the top on the lengthwise fold (a) while the two-piece collar is not figure cut on the fold. allow inch on all edges to be seamed. stitch the collar, taking care that the two right sides are together (b). clip the corners and turn the collar to the right side. baste and press the seam so that the fold comes exactly to the line of stitching. to attach this collar, follow directions for attaching the convertible collar. middy collar (figure ). — make facing (figure ). place the two right sides of the fabric together and cut the collar fold os rood b from thimble to gown o o boooooooo booooooooo allowing a -inch seam. stitch (inch from the raw edge, leaving the neckline open. clip the corners and turn the collar to the right side. baste and press the seam so that the fold comes exactly to the line of stitching. follow directions for attaching the convertible collar (figure ). tailored collar (figure ). — fold the material crosswise, pin the muslin pattern, and cut (except in cases where contrasting colors or materials are used for one side of the collar). figure the muslin pattern is placed on the wrong side of the back of the collar and is used for an inner lining. pin and baste the collar lining { inch from the edge of the entire collar, then trim the inner lining inch from the edge of the collar (i). this is held in place with close rows of machine stitching stitched in a half-moon shape. the width of the moon, as a rule, is a little less than half the width of the center part of the collar. the length of the moon at the neckline should extend one inch to the front of the shoulder seam. fill in the rest of the collar, beginning at the stand with rows of stitching like the diagonal basting stitches (figure ), which are invisible on the back of the collar (ii). make the stitches about i inch long. the joining of the coat collar to the lapels of the coat is very conspicuous and must be done accurately and neatly. in stitching the ends of the collar, allow | inch from the edge of the collar line. hold the collar firmly over the hand with the tip of the collar toward you and, with diagonal basting stitches (i), roll and shape the collar. place the two right sides of the collar together and baste ( inch from the edge along the top and two ends of the collar and then stitch along the basting line. clip the corners, dampen, and construction problems aj pog o o o press the plain seam open. turn the collar to the right side, turning the plain seam to the back of the collar, and baste under enough so that the seam cannot be seen on the right side. open the collar and, working on the wrong side, place the ends of the collar on the notches, matching the seams (iii). pin and baste securely in place. place the center back of the collar to the center back of the coat and baste in place. baste the back of the collar to the neckline of the coat. baste the front of the collar by working on the wrong side; then, beginning at the notch, baste the front of the collar to the neckline of the facing and stitch inch from the edge around the collar, following the bastings (iv). dampen and press the plain seam open. the dis- tance between the facings is basted securely to the coat so that the raw edge may be seamed. press the entire collar on both sides with a ly damp cloth. figure coco voo ooo val bel from thimble to gown . non-convertible collar. attached collar (figure ). — establish the center back of the collar and neckline. place the underside of the collar to the right side of the garment and pin in place. regardless of where the ends of the collar come on the front of the neckline, the ends should exactly meet. baste around the entire neckline. the collar may be joined to the neck- line by bias facing, flat fell seam, or a plain seam (a). the bias facing is the most suitable (figure ). place the right side of the bias to the right side of the collar and begin to baste at the center front regardless of where the ends of the collar meet. at the end of the bias turn back į inch and place the folded end of the bias exactly at the end of the collar. the reason that the inch is left at the end of the facing is so that the bottom of the facing may be let out in order to taper it out- ward from the neckline, instead of leaving the end a straight figure line (b). pin and baste the bias strip around the collar along the line of basting. at the other end of the collar fold back the facing inch, taking care that the folded end of the facing comes exactly at the end of the collar. stitch the collar and bias to the gar- ment inch from the edge. remove the basting. press the facing downward and turn the bias under inch, taking care to keep it of uniform width. baste the bias to the neckline and stitch in place with the close warp stitch (fig- ure ). neck line ki bias tape construction problems detached collar (figure ). — it is said that detached collars were invented in troy, new york. the collar industry is believed to have been originated in that city by hannah lord montague, who, in , had the idea of making sepa- rate collars for her husband's shirts. aeos. a detached collar is made separate from the neck open- ing. the neck opening is neatly finished with a bias fac- ing or binding. the bias bind- figure ing is more desirable (figure a ii). the collar is finished with a bias strip. cut the collar facing inch wide and inch longer than the length of the collar neckline. fold the facing through the center and press. the ends of the facing are turned in į inch at each end and the raw edge of the collar is slipped between the folded edges of the bias strip. baste securely in place, taking care not to stretch the bias, then stitch. remove the bastings and press. sew to the collar line of the garment with the collar facing on the inside of the collar line. the detachable collars are especially desirable when the garment is to serve for more than one purpose. such collars, moreover, are easily figure laundered. stand-up collar (figure ). — the narrow stand-up collar is made straight with the fold at the top of the collar. the tiered collar is made by using . ooo o o oooo from thimble to gown ooooo different widths of fabric in the stand-up collar. the high stand-up collar is cut on a curve, following the contour of the neckline so that it will fit snugly at the neck. it is not cut on the fold. place the two right sides of the fabric together and cut, allowing a -inch margin on all sides to be seamed. stitch inch from the raw edge, clip corners, and turn to the right side. baste and press the seam so that the fold comes exactly to the line of stitching. follow directions for attaching non-convertible collars (figure ). peter pan collar (figure ). — this collar may be made either single or double, although the double is more desirable. for the double collar, place the two right sides of the fabric together and figure cut, allowing i inch on all edges to be seamed. baste and stitch , inch from the raw edge (a). clip the seam in about five places and turn to the right side. baste and press so that the plain seam comes exactly on the fold. if the single collar is used, the outer edge may be finished by picoting, binding, or hemming (b). decorative stitches, lace, or trimming may be applied. follow the method of attaching non-convertible collars (figure figure ). rolled collar (figure ). — the rolled collar is made in exactly the same way as the peter pan collar except that the construction problems rolled collar is cut with more of a curve at the neckline to insure the desired roll. follow directions for attaching the non-convert- ible collar (figure ). shawl collar (figure ). — the shawl collar has almost a straight line at the neckline, which makes it roll high and fit snugly at the back of the neck. place the center back of the collar on the fold of the fabric. if the shawl collar is made double, place the two right sides of the fabric to- gether. cut and stitch around the outside of the collar į inch from edge. if the fabric does not have body, the collar should be basted to a piece of stiff paper before being stitched. re- move bastings and paper, turn to the right side, and press so that the plain seam is exactly on the fold. to at- tach, follow the directions given for attaching the non-convertible collar (figure ). . sleeves. — the home-made garment is branded by its sleeves. the foundation of a good sleeve is a well-established armseye and shoulder i seam. the sleeve must be cut accu- figure rately, made well, and carefully ad- justed to fit the arm. the types of sleeves must be suited to the wearer. the length of the sleeve is determined by bending the arm and touching the lobe of the ear. the fitted sleeve should fit closely from the elbow to the wrist to give style. sleeves should be made in keeping with the greek law of proportion. (see page .) there are four types of sleeves and their variations: set-in, kimono, raglan, and epaulet. from thimble to gown shirt sleeve (figure ). — the simplest style and the one that gives the least trouble is the shirt sleeve. this sleeve is sewed to the waist before the underarm seam is sewed up and does not require such close fitting as the more snugly fitted set-in sleeve, but the looseness of this sleeve is desirable for some garments. set-in sleeve (figure ). — this sleeve is the most com- monly used and is cut in one or two pieces. it breaks the shoulder-line of a garinent and allows the waist to follow more closely the lines of the figure. the set-in sleeve should fit smoothly in the armseye and, for comfort, should measure from one to four inches larger than the upper arm, depend- ing upon the size. the top of the average sleeve measures figure one inch larger than the arms- eye and the excess fullness gives ease to the sleeve. the top half of the finished sleeve should have a soft roll toward the shoulder. this set-in sleeve is the most difficult of all to fit. the set-in sleeve fits best when sewed in with the plain seam. sleeves should be adjusted and pinned in place while the garment is on the model. the sleeve measurements should correspond to those of the arm. a correctly fitted sleeve will not bind when the arms are crossed and the fingertips touch the shoulders. there must be freedom at the elbow in all styles of sleeves. od pocas construction problems when the arm hangs naturally at the side, the inside seam should be in line with the thumb and the sleeve opening in line with the little finger. sleeves of thin and loosely woven material should be constructed larger not only to prevent pulling out but to give ease. three points will distin- guish between the right and left sleeves of a garment : i-b ( ) if the top curve around the armseye is the same when i-a the seams are placed together, the sleeve may go into either armhole unless the bottom of the sleeve has a right and i-a left finish. an example of this is the shirt sleeve in which sleeve and underarm seam are continuous (ii-a). ( ) if the top curve around the armseye is uneven and one side extends slightly above the other, both having the paper t width same general shape, but one higher than the other, the highest part of the sleeve goes in the back (ii–b). ( ) if the top curve around iii the armseye differs in shape, figure or one of the two sides ex- tends higher than the other, the large part of the sleeve goes to the front. the seam of the sleeve generally comes inches in front of the underarm seam (ii-c). length of cap folds of / i of cap jei lo--- from thimble to gown one reason for a set-in sleeve not fitting may be that the cap of the sleeve is not the right size for the arm. before cutting out a sleeve, the cap on the sleeve pattern should be checked with the cap of the arm, to see if the pattern is of correct measurement (iii). to take measurements. — care must be taken to get the cor- rect width and depth of the armseye. it is therefore advisable, because of the importance of this measurement, to take the width and depth of the armseye and draw it full size before taking the circumference of it. to take this measurement, place the center of a fold of stiff paper so that the edge of the paper will come on the shoulder bone. place the center of another piece of stiff paper under the arm far enough away from the pit of the arm so that the armseye, when finished, will not bind the arm. keeping the ruler perpendicular, take the depth. the width of the armseye (which is the cap of the sleeve) is measured midway between the shoulder and underarm seam, and across the top or cap of the arm, allowing enough for arm movement. if fullness is desired, more allowance will have to be made. making the sleeve (figure continued). — mark the sleeve vertically and horizontally with a basting on the upper third of the sleeve along the warp and woof threads (iv). make two rows of tiny gathering threads around the entire top of the sleeve. the first should come į inch from the raw edge and the second tinch below the first (iv). place the two wrong sides of the sleeve together regardless of the kind of seam used to finish the sleeve. this is done for convenience in fitting the sleeve in the armhole. the seam can easily be tightened or made larger on the model. this part of the sleeve is somewhat bias and must be carefully handled. if extra fullness is needed at the elbow, gathers, folds, or several small darts should be made between the notches (v-vi). the extra fullness is allowed for when cutting the sleeve. if there is fullness at the elbow, baste the sleeve from construction problems the bottom inch from the raw edge to the notches indicated for gathers and baste from the top of the sleeve inch from the raw edge to the notch indicated for gathers, and tack. make two rows of tiny gathering threads be- tween the notches (vii). the raw edges are pinned together at the top and bottom of the sleeve. baste the even gathers, folds, or darts in place. place the sleeve on the model to see if the sleeve is too large or too small for the arm and adjust the under- arm seam accordingly. divide and mark the top of the sleeve and armseye (viii, ix) into fourths, keeping the under- arm seam as one point. very carefully draw up the gather- ing threads inches at the top of the sleeve, at the seam. twist the threads to prevent them from slipping, and even the gathers around the top half of the sleeve. place the right side of the top of the sleeve over the tailor's pad and with a damp cloth shrink out the excess fullness (x). x wool will shrink more than figure (continued) wt bo from thimble to gown any other fabric. silks that have not been shrunk cannot be dampened as they will spot. sleeves should never be stitched on the machine until they have been fitted and basted into the armseye. if the sleeves do not then fit, they can be easily adjusted. the -inch sleeve allowance, if not needed when fitting the sleeve, can be cut off, the desired width depending upon the kind of seam made. setting in a sleeve (figure ). — place the garment and the sleeve right side out on the model (i). fold under and pin the center of the sleeve to the armhole at the shoulder so that the vertical line in the sleeve hangs vertically with the arm (ii). the reason the matching of notches in sleeves does not always give a perfectly fitted sleeve is because of the many variations in shoulders and upper arms. fold under the raw edge at the two markings and pin the sleeve to the armseye, taking care that the horizontal lines run straight. if the vertical and horizontal lines are straight, subdivide the top of the sleeve; if there is a fullness that has not been shrunken out, turn the edges under and pin evenly around the top of the sleeve. place pins at right angles to the armseye edge, pointing toward the sleeve. be careful not to stretch the top of the sleeve. the fullness that is not shrunken out should be eased in so that it does not show. this fullness prevents any strain at the top of the sleeve. there should be no fullness on the lower half of the sleeve unless extra room is needed for fleshy arms. remove garment from the model and, with the wrong side of the garment held toward you, carefully remove pins one at a time and pin to the wrong side of the sleeve. match the lower gathering thread of the sleeve to the established armseye line. with the thumb and first finger, even the fullness and baste with small bastings (iii). the gathered edge at the top of the sleeve does not indicate gathers on the right side of the sleeve. again ay u! ii nun hhh o iii nii ii yti ooooooo oood vi figure from thimble to gown try the sleeve on the model to be sure that the sleeve fits. if the sleeve still does not fit properly, remove the garment and baste the lower half of the sleeve around the established armseye line. again fit the sleeve. if the sleeve fits and hangs perfectly, remove the garment and trim off excess material on sleeve seam, depend- ing upon the kind of seam to be made. the plain seam and pinking are advisable because they allow the fabric to give and are quickly and easily made. make the desired seam. stitch in the sleeve around the armhole, keeping the sleeve next to the presser foot. remove bastings, place the right side of the sleeve over the tailor's pad, and with a damp pressing cloth press the armseye seam toward the sleeve (vi). trim off the edge of the seam, depending upon finish desired (v). clip į inch from the seam around the sleeve at the armseye to prevent the sleeve from drawing or puckering (vii). finish the seam around the armhole according to the material and garment. overcasting and bias binding are most often used. kimono sleeve (figure ). — the kimono sleeve may be made with one or two seams. one is on top of the shoulder, extending types from the neckline to the bottom figure of the sleeve, and the other is underneath the arm, extending from the waist to the bottom of the sleeve. the sleeve with one seam is more common but does not fit so well as the two- seamed sleeve. this style of sleeve fits smoothly over the top of the shoulder and falls in folds from the front and back of the shoulder to the waist. this sleeve should be made in a garment of soft fabric which has enough body to hang well. making the kimono sleeve (figure ). — the kimono sleeve is cut with the body of the garment in one or two pieces. the swao co construction problems artery sleeve may be finished with a plain or french seam, depending upon the material and garment. the sleeve seams are sewed with the underarm and shoulder seams. plain seams that have been pinked are advisable to use because they do not restrict the give of the fabric. raglan sleeve. — the raglan sleeve is similar to the kimono sleeve in that it has two seams. one seam is in the front and the other in the back of the estab- figure lished shoulder line. this sleeve is easy to make but has a tendency to make one appear round shouldered. making the raglan sleeve (figure ). — the raglan sleeve is cut separately from the waist. the seam of the sleeve and under- arm seam of the waist are continuous and the sleeves are set in before the underarm seams are stitched. match the notches of the sleeve and waist and pin and baste in place. stitch the seam inch from the raw edge. the plain seam is advisable to use because it does not cause the sleeve to draw. clip the seam at regular intervals to within } inch of the machine stitching. this will pre- figure vent drawing and insure a smooth- fitting sleeve. press the plain seam open with a warm iron. place the two right sides of the sleeve together, matching the underarm seams and notches in the sleeve and waist. baste and stitch inch from the edge. clip the seam at the armpit to within inch of the stitching, to pre- vent drawing. finish the raw edges of the seams according to material and use of garment. pinking is the quickest method and allows the edge to give. from thimble to gown epaulet sleeve. — the epaulet (ěp’ô-lět) sleeve is similar to the raglan sleeve except that at the top it gives the effect of a yoke because it has a shoulder extension which resembles a yoke. the epaulet sleeve may be set in with the plain tuck or cord, although the plain seam is most often used. the sleeve is usually set in before it is seamed but it may be seamed and set in if desired. making the epaulet sleeve (figure ). — holding the gar- ment toward you, match the notches and pin the epaulet to the garment. then, working with the sleeve held toward you, pin and baste the armseye seam. stitch inch from the edge, remove the bastings, and press open if the plain seam is used. clip the plain seam almost to the machine stitching around curves to keep the seams from drawing. deeper and more curved seams will remedy any puff in the gar- ment and sleeve. bagging of the sleeves is easily adjusted by making deeper underarm and sleeve seams. to figure finish seaming the sleeve, place the two right sides of the sleeve together, matching the underarm seams, bottom of sleeves, and waist. pin and baste. stitch inch from the edge and press the seam open with a warm iron. clip the seams at the armpit almost to the machine stitching to prevent the seam from drawing. finish the raw edges of the seams according to the material and use of the garment. pink- ing is the most advisable because it does not bind the edges. . finishes for the bottoms of sleeves. — a well-fitted sleeve is made more attractive by the finishing touches which are used. the bottoms of sleeves are usually finished in some decorative manner which may be either cuffs, bands, bindings, or similar trimmings. cuffs are usually more desirable and should match the collar in design. they may be made single or double, construction problems attached or detached, and straight or shaped. cuffs may also be made open or closed, depending upon the style of sleeve. if the cuff opens, the opening should be in line with the little finger and lap toward the back. cuffs add much to the daintiness of a frock. the bottom of the sleeve should be finished after the sleeve has been set in and stitched. the line for the bottom of the sleeve may then be correctly established. if the sleeve is too short, a designed attached piece may be added or a wider cuff made to give extra length. if the sleeve is plain at the wrist and is to be gathered into a band, measure the band the same as the wrist measurement plus inch fore seams and inch for the lap. the full sleeve is gathered with several rows of tiny running stitches before it is attached to the cuff. long tight-fitting sleeves and close-fitting cuffs require a cuff opening for convenience in putting on and removing the garment. cuff openings should be inconspicuous and as small as possible. the correct location for these sleeve openings is in line with the little finger. the sleeve seam may be left open for a small dis- tance at the cuff of the sleeve, thus making the cuff opening, but it is seldom as neat as the placket opening that is made in line with the little finger. the sleeve opening may be finished with a rolled hem, picoting, bias, facing, binding, or a narrow placket. the cuff opening is always finished before the bottom of the sleeve is made. cuffless sleeves. — the cuffless sleeve may be either fitted or loose and the bottom of the sleeve may be finished with bias, lace, or any hem that will serve appropriately as an edge finish. single cuffs (figure ). — cuffs should always be made before they are attached to the sleeve. they may be cut length- wise, crosswise, or bias, but the cuff that is cut lengthwise will fit tighter than the others. cuffs have a variation in shape at the cuff line of the sleeve. the line may be straight or curved, from thimble to gown depending upon the amount of flare desired. the top and ends of cuffs may be cut any desired shape, but the design must cor- respond to that of the collar. the ends of the cuffs may be made open or closed. cuffs, as a general rule, turn back from the wrist, but they may turn down. flare cuffs or ruffles that turn down should not extend below the center of the hand from the wrist to fingers. single cuffs are cut the desired length and width plus į inch for seam allowance and are cut from one thickness of fabric. the top and sides of the cuff may be finished with a rolled or narrow plain hem, lace, bias, or any appropriate edge finish. to attach single cuffs follow directions for figure figure . double cuffs (figure ). — these are cut the desired length and width, tooooooooooood plus į inch for seam allowance, from two thicknesses of fabric. in double cuffs there may be a con- trast of material as well as color. place the two right sides of the fabric together and cut the cuff. straight band cuffs may be cut with the top on the lengthwise fold. place the two right sides of the cuff together, and pin and baste į inch from the edge. stitch on the line of basting. clip the corners, remove the bastings, and figure d ooooo В construction problems ooo turn the cuff to the right side (a). baste and press the seam so that the line of stitching comes exactly on the fold. to attach double cuffs follow directions for attaching cuffs (figure ). tailored cuffs (figure ). — the tailored cuff is used on coats and suits and it is therefore necessary that it have an inner lining of muslin to give it body. measure the distance around the bottom of the sleeve, plus į inch for seam allowance. fold two thicknesses of muslin together (i) and with a ruler or tape establish the distance for the length around the cuff and the desired width. shape the top of the cuff to correspond to the collar in design and cut the muslin. fold the fabric with corresponding sides to- gether and place the muslin pattern that has been adjusted to the sleeve upon the fabric. cut the backs of the cuffs like the muslin pattern, but cut the tops two inches longer at the bottom. place the muslin шүү figure lining on the wrong side of the back cuff (ii). pin and tack with the diagonal basting stitch, which is invisible on the back of the cuff. trim the muslin lining inch from the raw edge. place the two right sides of the cuff together, pin and baste inch from the edge along the top of the cuff. stitch along the basting line, dampen, and press the plain seam open. turn the two right sides of the cuff together and pin the ends together so that the seams match. stitch į inch from the edge, dampen, and press the plain seam open. turn the two wrong sides of the cuff together and baste the plain seam which has been folded inch to the wrong side around the top from thimble to gown b-i of the cuff so that the plain seam does not show on the right side. now press the entire cuff with a dampened cloth. hold the cuff over the hand with the top toward you, and then run a basting midway around the cuff. cuffs that are shaped at the end should be placed on the sleeve so that the ends are in line with the little finger. in joining the cuff to the garment, be very careful that the outside portion of the cuff does not draw when the cuff is rolled into position. band cuffs are placed so that the seam matches that of the sleeve. place the back of the cuff to the right side of the sleeve, leaving the top of b-iv the cuff free. pin in place, baste, and stitch inch from the edge (iii). baste the loose part of the cuff along the line of stitching. turn the edge of the outside piece of the cuff to the inside of the sleeve. the edge of the cuff should extend up into the sleeve from to inches so that the lining that extends over the raw edge will not show (iv). fold up until d-i it touches the raw edges of the figure bottom of the sleeve. baste ooo oo b y extends over the raw edge will construction problems the edge in place and stitch to the sleeve with the catch stitch (v) (figure ). attached cuffs (figure ). — attached cuffs may be made to turn up or down (c, d). the extension cuff may be attached by a french or flat fell seam, bias binding, or facing. bias facing is the most desirable. if bias facing is used, place the right side of the cuff to the right side of the sleeve, matching the seams. when the ends of the cuff are open, place the ends of the cuff in line with the little finger. pin the cuff to the cuff line and baste in place. if the bottom of the sleeve is to be gathered, it should be done before the cuff is put on. cut the bias strip (figure ) for the sleeve and place the right side of the bias to the right side of the cuff. turn back one end of the bias į inch and place the folded end exactly at the end of the cuff (b-i). pin the bias around the cuff along the line of basting. lap the opposite end of the bias į inch, taking care that the end of the bias comes exactly at the end of the cuff. stitch the cuff and bias to the sleeve { inch from the edge. baste the bias in place along the seamline around the bottom of the sleeve so that the plain seam comes directly on the fold. turn the raw edge of the bias under inch, taking care to keep the bias facing of uniform width (b-ii). baste the bias to the sleeve and stitch in place with a close warp stitch (figure ). detached cuffs (figure ). — the detached cuff is made separate from the sleeve and is made to figure turn away from the bottom of the sleeve. the bottom of the sleeve is finished with a hem, bias binding, or facing, bias binding being the most desirable. the bias binding for the cuff is cut inches wide and inch longer than the length of the cuff line. fold the binding through 으으느 ​soos from thimble to gown the center and press. turn in both edges and both ends inch and press. slip the cuff line of the cuff between the folded edges of the binding and baste. stitch in place with the machine, remove the bastings, and press. sew the cuff to the sleeve with the cuff binding on the inside of the cuff line. the detachable cuff is especially desirable when the garment is to serve for more than one purpose. . pockets. — pockets are of two types — patch and set-in. patch pockets are shaped pieces of fabric stitched on the out- side of a garment while a set-in pocket is one which is set into slits or cuts in the garment. pockets are used for both service and decoration. pockets are best placed on a slant so that the hand may slide in with ease. the sham pocket is, of course, used only for decoration. the style, shape, and size of the pocket in relation to the gar- ment depends largely upon two things: first, the kind of material of which the pocket is made, and second, the location of the pocket on the garment. pockets at the hip line make the hips look smaller if placed close together, and larger if placed far apart. the skirt length and style of garment will dictate the kind of pocket needed, and the size and placement should be in keeping with the figure. set-in pockets may take a straight or a diagonal position in the garment. although the shape may be modified the principle of making is always the same. the width of the pocket slit will depend upon its position on the garment and its use. seams on set-in pockets must be neatly finished as they will reveal clum- siness or daintiness in accordance with their seam finish. paper should be basted on the wrong side of fabric where patch pockets are to be placed, and cambric for set-in pockets. the paper aids in stitching and the cambric aids in making parallel lines in the pocket pattern and also gives shape to the pocket opening. construction problems x ooooac r patch (figure ). — the size of a patch pocket is governed by its location on the garment. the pocket may be square or any desired shape and may be cut on the bias if a unique shape is desired. there are various ways of finishing the pocket. patch pockets are generally plain-stitched on the garment, but if a more decora- tive finish is desired, cording, piping, or binding may be used. lining the patch pocket with looc a contrasting color or material affords an unusual touch. establish and mark the placement of the pocket on the garment. determine and cut the pocket pattern the desired shape and size. cut a piece of paper that is two inches larger than the pocket pattern and baste to the wrong side of the garment around the established line i of the pocket, taking care to figure keep the fabric smooth (i). cut the pocket according to the pattern, allowing inch for seams and the desired amount for the hem at the top. finish the top of the pocket with a hem before it is stitched to the gar- ment (ii). after the hem has been stitched in place, make a slash of about į inch on the wrong side of the pocket hem at both ends, parallel to the stitching and just above it. turn under and baste the raw edge to the wrong side on the sides of the pocket and fold in the cut portions of the hem (iii). this keeps the corners of the hem from slipping out and showing. the under- side of the hem should be turned under slightly deeper at the cut edge than on the outside. baste the pocket in place on the ooooood ooooo poocan booooooooooo ti from thimble to gown garment and, with the top of the pocket toward the worker, begin stitching at the hem line inch from the side of the pocket. stitch inch and on an oblique line to the corner. turn and stitch to inch from the edge around the sides of the pocket and finish the corner on the opposite side in the same way (iv). re- move paper and press carefully. set-in pocket (figure ). — determine the location and width of the pocket, mark the line of the pocket opening, and baste. cut a piece of cambric that will extend two inches on all sides of the marked line. fold the cambric lengthwise through the center and pin the cambric to the wrong side of the garment so that the fold comes exactly on the marked line of the pocket opening. baste on this line and around the outer edge, taking care to keep the cambric and fabric smooth (a-i). mark and stitch on the cambric on the wrong side of the garment { inch from the basted line of opening, forming a rectangle. take care to make square corners, as the secret of a well-tailored pocket is parallel lines in the rectangle. the stitched rectangle should be the desired width of the pocket. cut the pocket strip two inches wider than the width of the pocket opening and twice as long as the pocket when finished. one or two inches should be allowed for seams. crease the pocket strip in the center and place the right side of the pocket to the right side of the garment, matching the crease of the right side of the strip to the marked line of the pocket. baste the strip to the garment along the marked line. stitch on the wrong side of the garment around the rectangle (a-ii). cut the pocket strip, garment, and cambric along the marked line in the center of the rectangle forming a “v” at each end, taking care when clipping not to cut through the stitching. turn the pocket strip through the cut opening (a-iii). baste and press the seams at both ends and sides carefully. turn down the top piece of the pocket strip to make the pocket. baste and 부 ​부위보 ​da oes abric poooooooooooo adoo oceadas poooooooooooo v v wrong side of coat facing figure from thimble to gown stitch around the three sides of the pocket and finish the raw edges with overcasting or pinking (a-vi). pockets may be set in seams, or in coats between the facing and edge of the lining. cut the pocket the desired shape and size (b-i) and stitch the two right sides together (b-ii). place the pocket between the lining and the coat on the right-hand side of the coat and pin in place. after the pocket placement has been adjusted pin the edge of the pocket to the lining. draw the pocket out from between the lining and the coat and re-pin so that the right side of the pocket and the lining come together. make a plain seam and place the pocket in its former position between the lining and the coat. turn under a narrow hem on the other side of the pocket and baste to the facing. stitch the edge to the facing with a close warp stitch. press carefully. if a trimming is desired along the pocket opening, a narrow folded strip of plaiting may be basted along the pocket opening on the coat lining before the pocket is basted on. place the raw edge of the plaiting to the raw edge of the lining and stitch when the pocket is stitched to the lining. bound pocket (figure ). — determine the location and width of the pocket and mark the line of the pocket opening with a basting. cut a piece of cambric that will extend two inches on all sides of the marked line. fold lengthwise through the center and pin the cambric to the wrong side of the garment so that the fold comes exactly on the marked line of the pocket opening. baste on this line and around the outer edge, taking care to keep the fabric smooth (i). mark and stitch on the cambric on the wrong side of the garment inch from the basted line of opening, form- ing a rectangle the desired width of pocket and twice the desired width of the finished biased edges. take care to make square corners. the pocket strip is cut two inches wider than the width of the sec aaaaaaaaaaaa cambric poonaconcenes poonacoccce cadeeeeeeeel aaaaaaaa baaaaaaaaa y ia figure from thimble to gown pocket opening, twice as long as the pocket when finished plus the amount needed for the two folds, one to two inches being usually allowed for seams (ii). crease the pocket strip crosswise so that one side is about one inch longer than the other. place both the right side of the pocket strip and the right side of the garment together, carefully matching the crease with the marked line, allowing the longer end to extend below the marked line. pin and baste the strip in place. stitch on the wrong side of the garment on the cam- bric around the rectangle. the two stitchings help to make the rectangle more secure. cut the pocket strip, garment, and cam- bric along the marked line in the center of the rectangle, forming a “v” at both ends. take care in clipping not to cut through the stitching (iii). turn the pocket strip through the cut opening to the wrong side and crease the fabric on the seam line. fold the strip so that a binding is formed over the seams and the edge of the bind- ings meet at the center and form an inverted plait on the wrong side at each end of the pocket opening (iv). stitch along the lower pocket edge below the binding. stitch through the pocket and garment on the upper edge of the binding and on the ends (v). even the bottom of the pocket (vi). stitch the pocket edges together and finish the raw edges with overcasting or pinking. lap pocket (figure ). — determine the location of the pocket and mark the line of the pocket opening with basting. cut a piece of cambric that will extend two inches on all sides of the marked line. fold lengthwise through the center and pin the cambric to the wrong side of the garment so that the fold comes exactly on the marked line of the pocket opening. baste on this line and around the outer edge, taking care to keep the fabric smooth (i). for an inch lap, mark inch from the basted line at the top and ends and finch below the basted line. cut the pocket strip two inches wider than the width of the pocket construction problems ooo opening, and twice as long as the pocket when finished. one to two inches is usually allowed for seams (ii). crease the pocket strip in the center and place the right side of the pocket strip to the right side of the garment, matching the crease to the marked line of the pocket. baste firmly together on the marked line. : around the stitched rectangle on the wrong side of the gar- o ment make the stitching. cut the pocket strip, gar- ment, and cambric along the marked line, forming a “v” at each end. take care when clipping not to cut wo through the stitching (ii). turn the pocket strip como through the cut opening. fold back the material along the seam lines at the ends and n press the seam at upper edge of the slit (iii). fold the strip from the lower edge of the opening so that it fills the opening and touches the upper edge. this forms the y lap (iv). baste the lap in figure place and stitch across the ends and bottom of the opening just outside the seam line on the right side (v). turn the top of the pocket strip down to make the pocket. even the bottom of the pocket (vi). baste and stitch the edges of the pocket together and finish the raw edges with overcasting. booo oooo from thimble to gown welt pocket (figure ). — the welt pocket resembles the lap pocket in ap- pearance but is sometimes preferred when the pocket takes a diagonal slant on the garment or when a wide lap is desired. determine the location and width of the pocket and mark the pocket opening line with a basting. cut a piece of cambric that will extend two inches on all sides of the marked line. fold lengthwise through the center and pin the cambric to the wrong side of the garment so that the fold comes exactly on the marked line of the open- ing. baste on this line and around the outer edge, taking care to keep the fabric smooth. then stitch inch on each side parallel to center basting and across the ends of the stitchings forming a com- plete rectangle (i). for a k-inch welt mark inch below the basted line. cut the strip for the welt one inch longer than the pocket opening and two inches wide. fold the strip through the center with the right sides together. baste and stitch across the ends so that the finished length is exactly the same as the length of the marking line. clip the corners carefully. turn the right side out and press the seams. place the welt to the right side of the garment with the un- finished edge of an inch below the line boc рою i figure construction problems arbrtot of marking and the finished edge extend- ing downward on the garment (ii). crease the pocket strip through the center. place the right side of the pocket strip to the right side of the garment so that the crease comes on the line of basting. baste firmly together on the marked line. stitch on the wrong side of the garment around the stitched rectangle. cut the pocket strip, garment, and cam- bric along the marked line to within inch of each end. clip diagonally to the corners of the pocket opening, forming a “v” at each end, but do not cut through the stitching. turn the pocket strip through the cut opening and the welt will turn up into place on the right side. press the lower seam downward. baste the ends of the welt to the garment (iii). even the bottom of the pocket and baste and stitch the edges of the pocket together (iv). finish the raw edges with overcasting or pinking. flap pocket (figure ). – determine the placement of the pocket and mark the line of pocket opening with basting. cut the pocket strip two inches wider than the width of the pocket opening and twice as long as the pocket when finished. allow one or two inches for seams. cut a piece of cambric that will extend two inches on all sides of the marked line of the pocket opening. fold through the see m booooowood v v figure from thimble to gown center lengthwise and pin the cambric to the wrong side of the garment so that the fold comes exactly on the marked line of the pocket opening. baste on this line and around the outer edge, keeping the fabric smooth (i). for a one-inch flap, cut a piece of fabric one inch longer than the line of the pocket opening and inches wide. fold length- wise through the center with the two right sides together and seam the ends so that the flap will be exactly as long as the line of the pocket opening. clip the corners, turn to the right side, and press carefully. place the flap on the right side of the gar- ment so that the raw edge comes exactly on the line of the pocket opening and the finished edge extends upward on the garment. baste firmly in place (ii). crease the pocket strip exactly in the center and place the right side of the pocket strip to the right side of the garment so that the crease comes on the line of the pocket opening. baste the pocket strip to the garment. stitch on the wrong side of the garment exactly on the stitched rectangle. cut through the cambric, garment, and pocket strip on the line of the pocket opening to within inch of each end (ii). cut diagonally to the corners, forming a “v,” but do not cut through the stitching. turn pocket strip to the wrong side (iii) and pocket flap will come over the pocket opening (v). press the seams. baste and stitch the edges of the pocket together and finish the raw edges with overcasting or pinking (iv). . belts, girdles, sashes, and ties. — waist trimmings and ties add a note of chic (shēk) to the individual garment. fashion usually dictates the placement of the waistline; but the belt, girdle, or sash should never be placed permanently on the gar- ment until the figure has been carefully studied. placing the belt line to suit the individual's figure is a problem which needs particular attention if the garment is to be a success. construction problems there are two kinds of belts, the straight band and the designed. they may be cut straight or bias, although those cut on the straight of the fabric are more satisfactory. belts may be fastened by snaps, buttons, buckles, hooks and eyes, or by tack- ing to the garment or stitching into the seams. belts may be made double or single. if they are double, care should be taken as to the correct placement of the seams. they come directly on the edge where they are least conspicuous. if there is only one lengthwise seam in the belt, the seam is placed to the bottom of the belt when it is fastened to the garment. if belts, sashes, or girdles must be pieced across the width, the seams should be so placed that they will follow the side seams of the gar- ment. sashes and girdles may be shirred at intervals, tucked, laid in folds, or designed in some other interesting manner. single belts (figure ). — cut the belt the length of the estab taaaaaaaaaa lished belt line plus inch for figure seams and as wide as desired plus { inch. the belt may be finished by hand or machine hemming, tiny rolled hemming, picoting, or binding. fasten the ends together with snaps, hooks and eyes, buttons (figures , ), or a suitable buckle. the single belt is seldom used on garments because it lacks the body to hold it in place. double belts (figure ). — cut the belt the length of the established belt line plus į inch for seams and double the figure desired width plus } inch for pe ooooooooog ooooo b from thimble to gown seams. the belt may be cut in one piece with only one side seam, or in two pieces. if the belt is made of two pieces, they may be of contrasting colors or fabric, thus carrying out the trimming on the garment. fold the material lengthwise or place the two strips together with the right sides together. pin, baste, and stitch į inch from the edge (a). leave one end of the belt open and if the belt has been made too long, this end may be cut off before the belt is finished. clip the corners, remove the bastings, and turn the belt to the right side by means of a safety pin fastened to the stitched end of the belt, or turn with a pencil (b). press the plain seam so that the crease will come directly in the center of the fold. fold in the open end and stitch securely together, using the slip stitch (figure ). girdles and sashes. — the single or double girdle is made by the same process as the single or double belt except that there is extra allowance in width if there is to be shirring, tucks, or folds. these decorations are made before the girdle or sash is seamed and extra length is allowed for lap, loops, or ties. ties (figure ). — ties may be cut single or double and on the straight or bias of the fabric. do they should be designed in keep- figure ing with the belt. ties may vary in width, but they should never be too wide. a tie is made in the same manner as the double or single belt or sash, the choice depending upon the garment with which it is to be used. . linings. — there are two kinds of linings, namely, dress and coat linings. they may serve as a part of the garment, as a protection, or as both. they may be made out of many different construction problems kinds of fabric, depending upon the type of garment and its use. thin garments require linings as near the same shade as possible unless contrasting shades are desired. if this is the case, they should be worked out carefully so that the shades will blend with the garment. cream and flesh tints are very satisfactory for the average lining because they blend with the other colors and are fast. many times colors are used that are not fast and they fade from perspiration and discolor the garment. linings should be cut in keeping with the lines of the garment. dress linings may be attached or detached, fitted or semi-fitted. they should be designed so that the dress will fit smoothly over them. it is advisable to cut the lining a little smaller than the dress, and the tighter the dress, the more essential is the lining. the neck line should be cut the same design as that of the dress, but shaped lower. the armseye should be cut į inch larger than the armseye of the dress. the fullness for a fitted lining may be taken out by darts (figure ). removable linings should be tacked securely along the shoulder and underarm seams. if the neck line is cut the same size as that of the dress, the neck lines should be placed evenly together and tacked securely. the wrong side of the lining should be placed to the wrong side of the dress. the seams may be plain, french, or fell. hooks and eyes should come together at the opening rather than overlap. snaps, and buttons and buttonholes are used for the loose lining. the kind of finish for the neck and armseye will depend upon the fabric and use of the lining. picoting, hemstitching, fac- ings, bindings, and hems are dainty finishes. waist lining (figure ). — the bottom of the lining may come to the waistline or extend below it. it may be finished with a belt of self-material, boneless cotton, or silk web belting. the bottom of the extension below the waist may be finished like the from thimble to gown o neck and armseye. the semi-fitted lining, when finished at the waistline, may be laid in plaits or gathered to fit the belt. cut the belting the same length as the waist measure, plus į inch. turn under the ends of the belting & inch and stitch in place with the feather stitch (figure ). place the right side of the belting on the right side of the lining and pin the lining evenly onto the belting, lapping the lining and belting inch. baste them to- gether. the front opening of the lining should extend inch beyond the ends of the belting. the belting just meets and is fastened with hooks and eyes sewed to the right side of it (figure ). the front of the lining laps from left to right and is held in place with snaps (figure ). cut a piece of bias the length of the belting and twice the extended width of the lining, plus inch for figure seams. turn under the ends of the facing inch. pin and baste the bias, starting on the right side at the belting, along the extension, and then to the wrong side, along the extension, over the raw edge of the lining. keep the top of the bias even with the top of the belting. the right side is the inside of the lining. stitch along the edge of the bias with the machine. remove basting, press, and sew on hooks and eyes (figure ) and snappers (figure ). if a band of self-material is used instead of web belting, the semi-fitted lining that extends below the waistline is gathered inch on each side of the waistline. a cotton or linen tape inches wide is used on the right side (inside) of the lining. to establish the waistline, place the lining on the model and pin a tapeline around the waist. mark the length of the waist- o construction problems line with a pencil. remove the lining and mark inch on each side of the waistline. run a gathering thread along the marked line. measure the tape the length of the waist measure, plus inch. turn under the ends and press. place the tape on the right side inch from the edge of the lining opening, and pin and baste the tape between the even gathers on each side of the waist- line. stitch on the machine close to the edge of the tape. remove bastings and press carefully. sew on hooks and eyes, and snaps (figures , ). coat lining (figure ). — the coat must be completely finished and thoroughly pressed before the lining is put in. the lining that is completely made before it is stitched in place proves the most satisfactory. cut the lining by the muslin-fitted pattern (page ). in cutting the lining for the back of the coat, allow one inch on the center back fold of the lining for a plait. the plait prevents the lining from drawing and adds a neat, tailored effect. pin, baste, and press the plait in the back of the lining the full length of the lining. a small box plait may be used instead of a plait if desired. construct the lining as the tailored coat is con- structed (page ), except that the darts are basted and feather- stitched in place on the right side, instead of being machine- stitched. the plain seams in the lining must be stitched, dampened slightly, and pressed open. it is necessary to clip the seams at intervals to within inch of the stitching to insure the "give ” required in all well-tailored garments. after the lining is constructed and the seams have been pressed open and carefully clipped, the plain seams of the lining are matched to the plain well-pressed seams of the coat, matching the wrong sides of coat and lining. sewing seams to seams insures a durable lining. first match and pin the shoulder seams of the coat and lining together exactly where the shoulder seams figure |- y امک vi wil figure (continued) from thimble to gown join the sleeve. then pin from the armseye to the neck line (i). beginning on the wrong side at the armseye, backstitch (figure ) the two seams together to within two inches of the neck line. in stitching the seams together be very careful not to draw the stitches tight as this will cause both seams to draw and ruin the finish of the coat. pin the underarm seams together where the underarm seam joins the armseye. pin from that point toward the bottom of the coat. stitch the two seams together on the wrong side of the lining, using the backstitch. be sure to begin at the top and stitch to within twelve inches of the bottom of the coat. working on the wrong side of the lining, pin the seam of the sleeve lining to the coat seam at the elbow (ii). turn the bottom of the sleeve lining up to the right side and tack the bottom of the seam of the lining to the seam of the coat sleeve. match the center front of the coat and lining of the sleeve midway between the shoulder and underarm seam. tack securely together. repeat the same process for the back of the sleeve. pin the front lining at the shoulder seam, beginning two inches from the neck line, and pin the lining down the front to the facing (iii). pin the back of the lining to the center of the collar. beginning at the bottom of the coat, trim the lining so that it extends one inch beyond the raw edge of the facing. beginning at the waistline of the coat, turn under the lining and pin so that it just covers the raw edge of the facing. care must be taken to ease the lining over the bust line so that it will not draw. the lining at the shoulder seam should come within two inches of the neck line in front and extend just to the neck line in the back. the lining around the neck line in the back is turned under and pinned over the raw edge of the collar. care must be taken to keep the plait in position in center back when the lining is pinned (iv). baste the lining along the facings and around the back of the neck line. put the coat on wrong side out and have construction problems the fitter weave in pins three inches from the bottom of the coat hem line through the lining and coat (v). straighten the sleeve lining even with the coat seam and weave in pins three inches from the bottom of the sleeve line through the bottom of the sleeve. cut the lining exactly even with the edges of the bottom of the sleeve and coat. turn under a narrow hem at the edge of the lining and push the lining up and pin inches from the edges of the bottom of the coat and sleeve. pin and baste in place, taking care to match seams. care must be taken to place the plait at the bottom of the coat in the back so that it corre- sponds with the one at the top. where the facing and hem meet, fold several small plaits in the lining to take up the extra full- ness (v). baste in place and sew the lining in place with the warp stitch (figure ). easing the lining in this manner gives ample room and prevents the coat from drawing. the feather stitch (figure ) is used to hold the darts and plaits in place (vi, vii). for the darts, allow one inch from the shoulder seam line before making three inches of feather stitching. for the plait in center back, allow two inches from the center neck line before making five inches of feather stitching down the back. coats are sometimes lined with “half” linings (viii). the linings are made and attached exactly like a long lining, except the bottom is hemmed and left loose. . laces. — “ lace” is derived from the latin word “la- queus,” which means to snare as with a noose. lace dates back to old egypt, but it is not until the early first century that we have any material like lace as we know it. there are many kinds of laces, but the four distinct types are german val, french val, cluny, and torchon. laces are used for trimming and decoration. the color, design, material, and use of the article will determine the kind of lace needed. all laces are made of some definite design. therefore, great from thimble to gown care should be taken in choosing laces as to quality, daintiness, design, and use. joining lace (figure ). — before cutting the lace, the design should be carefully examined and matched. the cut ends may be joined by a plain seam, flat fell seam, by buttonholing, whipping, or blanket stitch- ing. the seam should follow the outline of the design in laces of heavy design. the lapped seam is used when joining very fine laces, and plain seam the flat fell seam is used to join laces that ravel easily. laces that do not have a distinct design, or laces that are cut for placket openings flat fell seam may be basted on a piece of paper and stitched several times where they are to be cut. this helps to keep the design of the lace in place. buttonholed sea corners. — when mitering corners on lace (figure ), plan the exact location of the seam, and plan so that the design in the lace will match. begin at the outer edge of the lace and baste a seam, allowing a v-shaped piece large enough to make the lace lie flat. stitch by cut here hand with backstitches and machine stitched seam figure trim off the excess fabric, paper from thimble to gown the hem is put in, the fold-line of the hem is marked with a crease or basting (e). place the right side of the fabric together so that the edge of the lace extends about to inch beyond the marked edge of the hem. baste in place and stitch. the lace will readily fall into position when the hem is turned back, and the machine stitching is not so apparent (f). lace may be applied after the edge has been finished. place the right side of the lace to the right side of the edge of the hem, so that the edge of the lace laps over the edge of the hem just enough for stitching. the decorative edge will extend beyond the edge of the fabric figure and is stitched in place with the machine (g). lace fagoted to fabrics (figure ). — this method gives a dainty finish for fine undergarments and children's clothes. the lace is basted securely inch from the raw edge. the thread used should be as nearly as possible the same weight as that of the lace. the lace is attached front with a three-sided needle, and a stitch is used much like bermuda fagoting (fig- ure ). medallions (figure ). — medallions are forms of in- serted lace and make a very attractive decoration. place back the medallion on the right side of the material and baste in place. the outer edge of the medallion may be stitched figure . ooooo og . construction problems by machine, hemmed, buttonholed, overcast, or fagoted. when the medallion is firmly fastened to the fabric, cut the fabric from beneath it, being careful not to cut the stitches. tuck under the raw edge and finish with tiny overcasting so that it re- sembles a rolled hem. insertion (figure ). — one of the most common and simplest methods of applying insertions is the use of a small hem with the insertion overhanded to the edge of the hem (a). this is used only on very sheer . fabric because almost all of the adriaalmatta o ste work is done by hand. mark qorodotto dotto on the garment the position of the insertion, pin the insertion in place, and baste the edges to the material. turn to the wrong side, and with a pencil draw a line through the center. using a sharp pair of scissors, cut the material following the marked line. be very careful not to cut the insertion. turn both edges back over the line figure of basting and baste in place. turn the material to the right side, and overhand both edges of the insertion firmly to the fabric. again turn to the wrong side, and cut away the surplus fabric, close to the lines of stitching. finish with a tiny hand hem. another method of applying insertion is often used on heavier fabrics. baste the insertion into position and stitch along the edges with the machine (b). turn to the wrong side, cut the material through the center of the insertion, and trim to within inch or inch of the insertion. fold the do a o coopaalooooooooooo from thimble to gown vu na . i w qe raw edge twice and baste. stitch on the machine and press. . fasteners. — there are four styles of fasteners, namely, buttons and button holes, hooks and eyes, snaps, and glide fas- teners. the style of garment, the use, and the material de- termine the kind of fasteners to use. buttons and buttonholes. — this style of fastener is generally used on washable fabrics. the buttonholes should be made be- fore the buttons are sewed on so that the placement of the buttons is correct. worked buttonhole (figure ). — the worked buttonhole is the one commonly used and it may be made with a bar at each end, or with fans. the buttonhole may also be varied by using a bar at one end and a fan at the other, especially if there is to be a strain on the buttonhole. buttonholes should be made on the upper side of the closing except in the case of the fly placket (figure ), where they are made underneath. to mark the location of the buttonhole, measure with a tape i-a y-b v -a y-b figure construction problems the length of the buttonhole strip. with this measurement, the distance between the buttonholes can be equally proportioned. with a gage, mark the established distance of each buttonhole and weave in pins parallel to the way the buttonhole is to be made. be sure to keep the heads of the pins the same distance from the folded edge. when the buttonholes have been marked carefully (i), pin the length of the desired buttonholes (ii). mark each end of the buttonhole with a tiny knot stitch (figure ) and remove pins. measure a button on the established buttonhole to be sure that the buttonhole is large enough. the buttonhole should be slightly larger than the button as it becomes tighter after it is worked. to prevent the material from slipping, stitch two rows of machine stitching on either side of the buttonhole line the length of the buttonhole and remove the knot stitches (iii). make the rows of stitching as close together as possible. the machine is the most satisfactory to use, but tiny hand stitches may be used. starched linen tape may be used between the fold to reinforce buttonholes. do not cut the buttonholes until ready to work as they will fray and make sewing difficult. insert the point of a small, sharp pair of scissors at one end and cut from one line of stitching to the other, so that there are two rows of machine stitching on either side of the buttonhole. cut as near as possible along a thread of the fabric. this prevents ragged slits and the buttonhole is more attractive when finished. thread a needle with thread about two sizes coarser than is used for stitching the garment. always use a single thread in working buttonholes. weave in the end of the thread and overcast around the buttonhole slit (iv), if there are any ragged edges. (v-a) place the button- hole over the forefinger of the left hand with the folded edge of the buttonhole strip toward the palm. hold the buttonhole slit. firm with the thumb and second finger. begin to work the but- from thimble to gown tonhole at the lower right-hand corner of the slit. put the needle through the slit, and back from the edge the distance the button- hole stitch is to be. (v-b) before drawing the needle through the material bring the thread from the needle's eye under the point of the needle from right to left. draw the needle through the loop and pull the needle away from the worker, drawing the thread tight and allowing the purl (v-b) to come exactly on the edge of the slit. continue these stitches to the opposite end, being careful to make them all the same depth and close together. (vi-a) in making a double bar tack (bars at each end) buttonhole, when one side is worked, pass the needle up and down through the material at the end of the slit until three stitches are made. be sure to insert the needle each time into the same hole where the first stitch was made. turn the work around so that the bar end is held toward you. work the buttonhole stitch over the bar and through the fabric until the bar is covered, keeping the purls toward the buttonhole. work the other side of the buttonhole slit and the second bar just as the first was made. (vi-b) to make the buttonhole with the fan end, work one side of the buttonhole slit and take the stitches on a slant at the end of the slit, inserting the needle each time at a little different angle until the end is rounded. this gives the effect of spokes of a wheel. work the other side of the buttonhole slit and fan as the first was worked. when the buttonholes are finished, dampen on the wrong side and press thoroughly. bound buttonhole (figure ). — bound buttonholes are used to give a tailored effect. the strips for binding may either be bias, crosswise, or lengthwise, the lengthwise strips being prefer- able. ribbons, braids, contrasting weaves, colors, and different fabrics may be used for decoration. regardless of the way the strip is cut, the same method is used in making. the slash may be either on the straight or diagonal of the fabric. construction problems wood there are two methods that may be used for binding slashes. the first method (a) is the easiest to make and insures a smooth fold. determine the location of the buttonhole and mark the line of the buttonhole opening with a basting. cut a piece of cambric to extend two inches on all sides of the marked line. fold lengthwise through the center and pin the cambric to the wrong side of the garment so that the fold comes exactly on the marked line of the buttonhole opening. baste on this line and around the outer edge, taking care to keep the fabric smooth. baste and stitch on the cambric on the wrong side of the garment ſ inch from the basted line of opening, forming a rectangle (i). take care to make square corners. the buttonhole strip is cut one inch wider than the width of the finished buttonhole opening, and three inches longer. crease the buttonhole strip in the center and place together the right sides of the buttonhole strip and garment, carefully matching the crease with n the marked line, allowing inch to a extend beyond each end of the figure buttonhole. pin and baste the strip in place, and stitch on the wrong side of the garment on the cambric around the rectangle, taking care to follow the first ad oooo hhhhh from thimble to gown oooooo booooo stitching. cut the buttonhole strip, garment, and cambric along the marked line in the center of the rectangle to within inch of each end. clip diago- nally to the corners of the button- hole, forming a “v” at each end, but do not cut through the stitching. remove bast- ings (ii). turn the buttonhole strip through the cut opening to the wrong side. fold the strip so that a binding is formed over the seams; and the ends should meet at the center, forming a box plait on the wrong side at each end of the buttonhole open- ing (iii). fasten the plait with a few backstitches (figure ) and sew the binding in position along the stitched line. do not turn the edges under; but they may be overcast (figure ). dampen and press on the wrong side (iv). in the second method (b), the buttonhole strip is cut į inch wider and inches longer than the finished buttonhole. turn in the outer edge of the strip to v the wrong side inch. baste and press. crease the strip through figure (continued) the center. use the same steps oda construction problems for applying the strip as in the first method as far as to cutting the opening for the buttonhole. cut the buttonhole along the line marked by the basting, cutting through cambric, garment, and buttonhole strip to stitching at the end, but not through. clip diagonally to the corners (a- ). remove bastings (i, ii). turn buttonhole strip through cut opening to the wrong side. fold strip so that a binding is formed over the seams, with the edges of the binding meeting at center opening. slip stitch (fig- ure ) the folded outer edge to the garment along the machine line of stitching. stitch the ends so they will not fray. dampen and press on the wrong side (iii, iv). looped buttonhole, worked (figure ). — worked button- hole loops are made of silk, cot- ton, or wool; silk buttonhole twist having the widest usage. work with a single thread and fasten the thread on the wrong side of the material. bring the needle through to the right side. figure leave the desired length of the loop and insert the needle (a-i). the size of the loop will depend upon its use and the size of the button. a small pencil may be used in making the loops so as to keep them of uniform size. bring the needle to the right side of the fabric, close to where it was inserted. this makes a tiny stitch at each end. continue making loops from side to side until the desired number is made. make a small backstitch after the last loop is made to prevent the loop from slipping. remove the pencil. cover в from thimble to gown g rand hold belts, girdles, collars, cafts, booo oooo poco yoooooo the loops with close, even, buttonhole stitches (figure ) and fasten the thread on the wrong side (a-ii). french tacks are made in exactly the same way except that they lie flat on the garmėnt instead of being looped (b-i, ii). they are used to hold belts, girdles, collars, cuffs, etc., in place, that should not be fastened firmly on a gar- ment. looped buttonhole, fabric (figure ). — buttonhole loops are decorative and at- tractive fasteners, and are made of bias strips of fabric. ii-a cut the strip twice the width of the finished loop plus a hapoopood seam allowance that is a little ii-b smaller than the finished loop and long enough to make the number of loops desired. place the two right sides together lengthwise and crease. stitch twice exactly through the cen- ter of the strip and trim off the raw edge to inch. if the fabric y-a i-b is of loose weave, stitch several figure times as this will prevent the fabric from raveling when the lengths of the loop are measured and cut off. run the eye end of a darning needle that has been threaded with a cord twice the length of the bias strip, through the center of the strip (i). cut the needle from the cord and very carefully baste one end of the cord at the seam and the other at the fold of the strip. make several rows of machine stitching along the end of the strip to hold the cord construction problems jogo firmly in place while it is being pulled through the strip (ii). pull the cord a little at a time and push the fullness toward the end. with the thumb and finger, hold the cord tightly above the fullness, and with the right hand stroke the fullness out, turning the strip gradually inward (iii-a). again pull the cord slightly and continue as before. work in this manner until the strip has been completely turned to the right side. a strong hairpin may also be used in turning the strip (iii-b). the ends of the hairpin are inserted in the strip and the head of the pin is firmly tacked to the end of the strip. turn as for the cord. cut the cord close to the stitching. press carefully so that the seam comes directly on the fold. with a gage, measure off on the strip the desired length of the loop and mark with the knot stitch. stitch on the machine twice at marking and cut between stitching. this prevents the cord from slip- ping out and stitches the fold of the fabric flat. padding the loop with self-material is much better a-i than using cord as it makes a more pliable loop. always sew the loops in place by turning the seams inward (iv- a). the spread of the loop will depend upon use as well as the kind of garment it is used on. the size of the button will gage the length of the loop. looped buttonholes are generally placed between folds of fabric. when a-iii the buttonhole loops are not in- figure do o o o o m from thimble to gown serted in seams, they are sewed on with the ends of the loop - rolled (iv-b). elastic and cord buttonholes (figure ). — elastic and cord are satisfactory for making some buttonhole loops (a-i, ii). the elastic loop should be made a little smaller than desired because it“ gives” when put over the button. the cord is made the exact size (a-iii) but the loops may be spread apart (b). these two kinds of loops are attached in the same way as a-i fabric looped buttonholes. frogs (figure ). — frogs are decorative, designed fasteners a-t made in two parts. the two parts are made alike with the b-i exception that one part of the frog ends in a loop and the other ends in a knot to fit the loop. cut the two lengths of cord, one b-i figure ten inches long and the other fourteen inches long. take the longest strip, and fold back on the double about five inches from one end (a-i). on this double end tie a loose knot, keeping the cords parallel (a-ii). leave enough space on this looped end to slip the short end through. pull very tight, bringing the shortest end to the under side of the knot, and fasten in place. form a third loop designed with the other end of the cord, making the center loop the larger as it is to be used as a fastener. using the shorter piece of cord, make a -inch loop without twisting the cord. in the place where the loops join the cord, sew on the under side about i inch with very fine stitches. make a third loop design with the remainder of the cord and fasten securely on the under side. the parts of the frog and the loop end must be the same size when finished. construction problems buttons. — the three materials used in the making of buttons are pearl, metal, and cloth. pearl buttons. — pearl has long been the favorite material for button manufacture. the inside of the oyster shell was found to be easily made into buttons, and the industry grew rapidly. the buttons are first cut to the desired size; holes are bored; the buttons are polished and bleached. the finished buttons are then fastened to cards, a certain number of the same size to each card, and sold. metal buttons. — except in their use on uniforms, metal buttons are used where strength rather than decoration is to be considered, although with changes in style metal buttons flourish now and then as ornaments. the industry in the united states dates back to , with the making of gilt buttons in water- bury, connecticut. later, brass was used. now, disks or blanks are cut from sheet metal of various kinds, gold, silver, iron, copper, brass, or aluminum, and molded or pressed into any desired shape. the designs or letters are stamped on with dies. cloth-covered buttons. — the manufacture of cloth-covered buttons in america began in the easthampton parsonage of the willistons, and mrs. emily graves williston was the maker. it soon spread to other houses in the village, and beyond, until a warehouse was needed. material was brought from new york by boat to hartford; then by train to easthampton where the buttons were cut and finished. this hand manufacture grew until it employed over , families of easthampton and its neighboring towns. then mr. williston met a creole, francis sidney, who told him how the machinery in a button factory was made and operated. with the aid of the plans and diagrams drawn by sidney, mr. williston's friend joel hayden, an expert mechanic and successful inventor, made a successful machine. a partnership between williston and hayden was formed and the manufacture of cloth-covered buttons began in haydenville. from thimble to gown buttons are used for service or decoration and are made either with a shank or with holes for fastening. service buttons are sewed to the garment, leaving a space between the button and garment for the buttonhole. decorative buttons are sewed flat to the garment. fashion dictates the size and shape of buttons. sewing on buttons (figure ). — pin the finished button- hole strip to the strip where the buttons are to be sewed. mark a dot with a pencil in the center of each buttonhole where the buttons are to go. to sew on a two-hole service button, use double thread. fasten the thread on the right side by taking a small backstitch (fig- ure ) on the pencil dot. bring the needle up through one hole in the button and down through the opposite hole to the wrong side of the fabric. the width of the stitch should figure be the same as the distance between the holes in the button, and the stitch should be made parallel to the edge of the gar- ment. sewing the button in this manner makes the strain on the button come in two places instead of one and makes it wear better. again bring the needle to the right side through the first hole. place pins on the right side of the button under the thread between the two holes and continue sewing as before (i a-b). the number of pins required depends upon the thickness of the fabric. when the button is sewed on, it should extend high enough so that the fabric will be smooth when buttoned. when n construction problems the button is securely fastened, remove the pins and bring the needle through to the back of the button and wrap the thread firmly around the threads at the back of the button (ii). bring the needle through to the wrong side of the fabric and fasten with a knot. in sewing buttons on men's suits the thread should be doubled and waxed. when sewing buttons on children's sleeping garments, use double yarn as they cannot be so easily pulled off. decorative buttons are sewed on in the same manner as serv- ice buttons, except that the pins are omitted and the thread is not wrapped around the back of the button. snaps (figure ). — snaps are used on flat surfaces and where there is no strain. the snap is a ball and socket fastener. it should be sewed on the garment inconspicuously. determine the location of the snaps by the kind of openings. snaps should be near enough to the edge to pre- vent any turning back of the opening. the ball part of the socket snap is placed on the wrong side of figure the upper edge of the opening and the socket part is placed on the right side of the under edge of the opening. sew on all ball parts first, then close and pin the opening and press them together to determine the exact location of the socket part. always use a single thread to sew on snaps, and work from right to left. fasten the thread by means of a knot stitch in the center where the snap will cover it. snaps should be buttonholed to the fabric (figure ), working in the direction indicated by the arrows. pass the needle under the snap to carry the thread from one hole to another. fasten the thread with the knot stitch (figure ) on the wrong side close to the edge of the snap so that from thimble to gown it will not show. if snaps are sewed on where there is but one thickness of fabric, tape should be used on the wrong side or between the seams to reënforce them. hooks and eyes (figure ). — hooks and eyes should be used on openings where there is any strain. tape hooks and eyes may be used on long openings. there are two kinds of hooks with hump and eyes. the hooks are made with and without a hump (a). the two kinds of eyes are the without straight (c), in which the edges are to lap; and the round (b), where the edges are to meet. blind loops are sometimes used on garments to take the place of eyes (d-iii). the hooks should always be placed on the wrong side of the lap. if the straight eye is used, it is placed directly under the outer end of the hook on the right side of the under edge of the lap. if the round d-ii d-i eye is used, it should extend figure beyond the edge a fraction of an inch so that the edges of the opening will just meet. with a gage, mark the location of the hooks with pins. spread the hooks apart about inch as in (a). this makes the strain on the hook come in two places instead of one. working in the direction as indicated by arrows, slip the needle between the two thicknesses of cloth d-i construction problems and buttonhole the ring on to the garment. the end of the hook should be tacked securely to prevent slipping. this may be done when fastening the threads. care must be taken to keep the rings of the hooks even. sew on all hooks first, and then lap the edges of the closing. locate and pin the position of the eyes. the eyes are sewed in place in the same way as the hooks, with the exception that if the round eye is used, it is fastened at the sides to prevent slipping (b). work from right to left. good slide fasteners are very satisfactory and are made on a tape which is sewed to the garment. care must be taken in ironing garments with these fasteners and they should not be run through the mangle as it crushes them. . mending. — a patch is a piece of cloth used where darning or weaving cannot be applied. it is used to make the mending strong and unnoticeable. except for contrast, the patch is always of the same material as that of the worn article. new fabric to be used on a faded or shrunken article should be treated to look like the garment fabric. set-in or hemmed patch (fig- ure ). — the hemmed patch is very satisfactorily used on articles which are in constant use. cut the patch to match the design of the article. turn the raw edges of the patch to the right side and pin in place figure to the wrong side of the article, carefully matching the design. baste and hem the patch to the article with small hemming stitches (figure ) or machine stitching. turn to the right side and cut away the surplus material, allowing inch for a small turn. cut the corners on bodoc . olutt sind from thimble to gown a diagonal line and turn the raw edge under. baste in place and stitch carefully with tiny hemming stitches. remove the bastings and press the patch, using a damp cloth so that the seams will be flat. catch-stitch patch (figure ). — this patch may be used on an article where careful match- ing is required. cut the patch large enough to extend beyond the worn parts, matching all designs before cutting. place the patch on the wrong side of figure the article, matching the design, and baste the patch to the gar- ment. using the catch stitch (figure ), begin on the right side of the garment at any side of the patch and catch stitch completely around it. be careful to sew all the corners securely. remove the bastings and press. darned-in patch (figure ). — clip around the hole to be patched, so that the worn threads will be removed. cut the patch a little larger than the hole, match- ing the threads and figures in the fabric. og baste the patch in place with diagonal stitches that catch the patch and the fabric. sew the patch firmly in place with the darning stitch. work on the wrong side of the fabric and make the stitches veryone tool to bolo tiny. figure overhand patch (figure ). — cut the patch large enough to extend one inch beyond the worn parts. designs should be carefully matched. pin and baste the patch on the right side of the article. place the article on an ironing vo construction problems board and mark with a tracing foot along the line for stitching. remove the patch, clip the corners, and baste a -inch hem around the patch. cut out worn parts, leaving about inch inside of the tracing line. match, pin, and baste the patch to the wrong side of the garment. whip neatly in place and press. darning. - darning is a simple means of preventing tears as well as repairing worn garments. a needle in keeping with the size of thread should be used. to make an inconspicuous darn it is often desirable to use ravelings of the fabric being mended. if a raveling thread cannot be secured, the thread of the fabric should be matched as nearly as possible as to weight and color. figure mercerized thread is preferable to silk. : the darning stitch is used for reënforcing thin and worn places in the garments. thin fabric may be basted under the worn part before the darning is done. a piece of paper may be tacked on the wrong side of the garment to keep the darned - material together. this cannot be done, how- o ever, if the darning thread is to be turned on the wrong side of the work at the end of each line of stitches. in such a case, it is convenient to use an embroidery loop. it is easy to make an even, smooth darn when it is made over a form. the three main kinds of darning are straight, diagonal, and three-cornered but there are others oooo which have no classification. a straight tear is ooo the easiest to darn if the edges have not been figure frayed. darning should be very fine and incon- spicuous. it should be made across the tear at right angles to the warp thread. from thimble to gown straight tears (figure ). — match the torn edges and draw the edges together with rows of fine running stitches (figure ). the stitches should extend far enough beyond the edges of the tear to reënforce the worn parts. make rows of stitches of irregular lengths, and darn back and forth enough times to hold the edges of the tear securely together. when finished, cut the thread without fastening it, as a fastening would not be smooth. diagonal tears (figure ). — diagonal tears are more difficult to mend than the straight tear. the edges should be drawn together, and the warp threads should be filled in first. the tear should then be figure turned at an angle and rows of filling stitches should be put in. three-cornered tears (figure . ). — three-cornered tears are mended in the same way as straight tears with the exception that at the corner o&o the rows of stitches are slanted in fan fashion. openo ! darning holes (figure ). — trim the groun d edges of the hole so that there are no ravel- en ovo ings. put in lengthwise rows of running figure stitches and begin far enough from the edge so that the worn places are reënforced. carry the threads across the hole and make the running stitches on the other side. make the rows about the width of a thread apart and make enough rows to cover the hole. turn the garment and put in crosswise rows of stitches, weaving voo alternately over and under the rows figure just made. vo unit ii the pattern w wo mumu ww on awwii mimi **"'!indijini sists color and design kkk chapter iv color no spogos on without a mysterious rainbow, no pot of gold. tris was the daughter of the sky, who pacified the storm king, her father, when he grew too wild. then he, sorry for his part in disturbing the earth people, would send iris down to earth on a rainbow bridge to tell the frightened earth folk that all was well. on the end of the rainbow the storm king tied a pot of gold to hold the bridge in place. and when the rainbow returned to the sky, the pot of gold was left behind. the iris flower was named after the rainbow iris, because the flower is found in every color and is so sparkling and beautiful, like a gleaming wet rain- bow. colors, forms, and sounds compose nature's alphabet. the study of color is one of the most fascinating and inexhaustible of the many sciences and arts. in color, as in music, the first essential is to find the key. what is color? color is light. light contains within itself all the sun rays and, when light is broken into individual rays, or wave lengths of light, a sensation is produced upon the retina of the eye which is called color. the eye responds to color as the ear responds to music. man is just realizing the fact that color is a powerful element in our daily lives. it has energy, vibration, and light, and color will accentuate the color of her hair and eyes. blue adds warmth and expression to brown eyes. navy blue enhances the good points in the wearer's figure and complexion. .. brown. — brown is a lifeless color and requires the aid of a bright color, such as red, yellow, or orange, to make it expressive. it is a much used color and is very lovely in the golden brown shades for warm brunettes as it enriches the appearance of the hair and eyes. the monochromatic use of brown expresses an individual refinement not secured by the same use of any other color, for brown has an affinity for its own shades. green. — nature clothes herself in green for rest and peace. (“the earth's green livery.") green is a relaxing color and satisfying to the eye. it signifies the realization of hopes and ideals, denotes generosity, and is referred to as the money color. green is a combination of yellow, meaning happiness and gayety, and blue, meaning poise and coolness. it lends brilliancy to the complexion. blue greens are more flattering than yellow greens for they force color in the cheeks, but they are difficult to combine with other colors. orange. — orange is a combination of red and yellow, the warm primary colors, and is allied to the metal gold. it denotes magnificence, grandeur, pomp, and regal ceremony. it is a creative color, denoting ambition and pride, but it is a very aggressive color which is the reason it is often used in advertis- ing. a feeling of kindliness and expansiveness is created by this color, so much so that it is called the spending color. little of this color should be used in dress, as an over-use produces restlessness and mental irritation. orange in the pastel shades is becoming to the blonde, while the dull orange and red-orange are preferable for brunettes (page ). these shades blend with the yellowness of the skin and reflect a reddish tint. purple. — this color expresses dignity and formality and because of its high vibratory power fades from sight more quickly from thimble to gown than any other color. its rich hue suggests royalty and state- liness. the roman term, “ born to the purple,” is distinctive of royalty. the lighter shades of purple (as violet) are very pli- able in combinations and represent indolence and luxury. it is a color expressive of truth. the deep blue-purple shades are symbolic of mourning and sadness. red. — the red rays move more slowly than those of any other color and, therefore, have a powerful reaction upon the nervous system. the softer shades of red, such as pink, combine the innocence of white and the energy of red to express love and daintiness. red is an energetic and aggressive color and exer- cises a great hold on the passions. it is the symbol of the blood and of the sword. the precious stone, ruby, gets its name from its red color. regardless of its bold appearance, red, of all the primary colors, gives the most pleasing effect to the complexion. values of red, except intense shades, add color to the skin. red lends a rosy glow to the skin that gives the appearance of health and vitality. there is no notable effect upon the eyes and hair, except that it adds sparkle to brown eyes and warmth to the hair. too much red, however, is annoying because it irritates the senses. therefore, red should be worn sparingly. the bluish reds are worn most effectively by blondes, while brunettes should restrict themselves to the more yellow-reds (page ). yellow. — the yellow rays move more rapidly than those of any other color and express rest and peace, or sunshine and gayety. yellow is a powerful mental stimulant and makes sun- less places bright and healthy. yellow casts its hue over the complexion, hair, and eyes. the person who has a clear, fresh- tinted complexion may, therefore, wear yellow to advantage. orange-yellow is more becoming than the green-yellow and may be worn by the warm blonde but must be avoided by the cold blonde (page ). yellow adds beauty to the hair of the warm blonde and changes hazel eyes to a soft brown. those having color a sallow skin may wear a yellow-pink, as the pink tone decreases the yellow in the complexion. b. neutrals black and white are not considered colors. they are called neutrals. gray is a combination of black and white and so is also considered a neutral. black, in pigments, is a mixture of the primary colors, — red, blue, and yellow; white, on the other hand, is a combination of all the rays of color in perfect proportion. black. — because black is not a color but rather the privation of color, it suggests somberness, coldness, and mystery. that is probably why black is used so extensively to express mourn- ing. because of its dignity and practicability, however, it has always been very popular. when combined with rich textures and an original touch of some color, it becomes most effective. black has a tendency to take away color. it tends to decrease the size of the wearer because it absorbs light and calls less atten- tion to the figure. black emphasizes age, but is especially chic (shek — artistic cleverness) for those having plenty of color in skin, hair, and eyes; black in itself, however, is lifeless. white. — white is the symbol of innocence and purity. it readily throws off the light rays, thus producing a cooling effect. most people can wear white, as it enhances the tone of the complexion, hair, and eyes, especially in the off-white shades of ivory, cream, and flesh tints. white is much used because of its daintiness and cleanliness of appearance. in spite of its good qualities, however, white increases apparent size and must there- fore be used sparingly for the stout figure. it is well to remember that although white subtracts age it increases size. gray. — gray is distinctive, quiet, and very retiring. it denotes refinement and modesty. too much gray may become monotonous and inexpressive, but if worn sparingly, tends to neu- from thimble to gown tralize the natural coloring of the wearer. gray-blue is best for blonds while yellow-gray may be worn effectively by brunettes. like black, gray has a tendency to decrease the apparent size of the figure. . the law of the dressing scheme the light that lies in a woman's eyes. .... because the color you wear may be the greatest single aid or hindrance to your beauty, color in dress should be considered from two points of view: first, the harmonious combination of colors in the costume; second, the becomingness of the colors of the costume in intensifying the vivid charm of the eyes, hair, and flesh tints. each is as important as the other. ignorance of the first viewpoint always results in a painful and harsh effect to the sensitive public while disregard of the second means a loss to the personal beauty of the wearer. the person who possesses style never violates the law of color as dictated by her eyes no matter how fashion shrieks her pref- erence for certain shades. fashion is fickle, but the eyes are con- stant. two laws prove this: first, one sees people through the eyes; second, the eyes are unchanging while the hair and skin, the next determining factors, may be altered. cosmetics vary the skin coloring, and bleaches and dyes change woman's “crown- ing glory.” but who can change the eyes ? time may change their color slightly but the cosmetic art is powerless, so the eyes are the starting point in personalizing color. the foundation color in the dressing scheme is determined by the pigment which the great painter has laid in a woman's eyes, supplemented by the skin and hair coloring that harmonizes and completes the picture. the color may be varied, blended, and shaded as long as the three laws are observed. almost everyone has a strong instinctive love of color and only needs to learn how color to apply it understandingly. color harmony lends distinction to the simplest costume, but too much intense color is always to be avoided as it leaves the face colorless. light values, weak in intensity, have the opposite effect of adding color to the face. therefore, tints should be used as the background color. in dress the most pleasing color arrangements are those which combine harmony with a note of contrast. this may be a change of hue, value, or chroma. no colors are wrong, rather the com- bination of colors. . choose the color scheme that blends with your eyes sound the correct color notes and observe the effect of the vibration. colors should never be chosen to drown out the per- sonality of the wearer, but should blend in harmony with the wearer's attractiveness. much care should be taken to select colors appropriate to the occasion, and the light under which they are to be worn should be carefully considered. colors that are mysteriously soft should be worn next to the face. strength is obtained by use of mass and repetition of color. quiet reced- ing shades are appropriate to elderly women, while youth has almost an unlimited choice. neutral and bright colors emphasize age, size, features, and complexion, and should be selected accordingly. light colors express gayety and daintiness, while dark ones give dignity and force. it must, however, be remembered that intense colors reflect their complement upon the complexion. when comple- mentary colors are placed together, they intensify each other in a startling manner. imagine, then, the great possibilities of intensifying either the right or the wrong colors in the eyes, hair, and skin by bringing into action the complementary colors in clothes ! the mystery of the becomingness of colors is explained by applying this simple law of complements, for when complemen- from thimble to gown tary colors intensify a girl's coloring, she is particularly brilliant and has an arresting charm. everyone is an individual type and must study carefully her own color scheme. a word to the wise is sufficient. the types may be generally classified as blonde, brunette, titian, and gray. demi-blonde or medium blonde. — pastel shades are correct for the demi-blonde and her best color is green. black: good in transparent fabrics, and when combined with white. blue: blue is good in all shades except a brilliant blue, and dull blue is most effective. brown: ecru, sand, and faint dull browns bring out the tints in the hair. gray: light grays may be worn. green: all shades of green may be worn, but blue-green is the best. pink: rose-pink and flesh are very good. purple: darkest shades are best. very clear complexions may wear lavender. red: good in rose, red, and dull shades. white: blue-white and ivory are best. yellow: pinkish-yellow is good. pure blonde. — colors of medium value may be worn by the pure blonde, and dark blues and greens are her best colors. black: good in all fabrics, but especially striking in fabrics with a glossy surface. blue: blues of all shades are good. brown: soft golden browns enhance the color of the hair. gray: neutral shades and blue-grays are good. green: only dull greens may be worn. pink: rose-pink is appropriate. purple: heliotrope, wisteria, and blue-violet are very good. red: dark reds are good. white: ivory whites are best. yellow: dull orange-yellow may be worn. color pale brunette. — the light or dark colors may be worn by the pale brunette. those harmonizing with her hair and eyes are the best. black: may be worn in transparent fabrics and velvet. blue: green-blues are best. brown: dull browns are very good. gray: all shades are good, especially pearl and blue-gray. green: good in light tones. pink: yellow-pinks are becoming. purple: orchid is the best shade of purple. red: orange-reds and henna are especially good. white: ivory whites are good. yellow: may be used in grayed tones. pure brunette. — pure colors may be worn by the pure bru. nette. red is her best color. black: good in velvet or sheen fabrics when touched with a bright color. blue: those having green or violet tones are becoming. brown: good in all shades, especially golden shades. gray: only good in dark gray shadow. green: medium or dark tones of brown and yellow green are good. pink: only yellow-pink may be worn. purple: a color to avoid. red: deep rich yellow-red, russet, or maroon are very effective. yellow: orange tints and deep cream are good. titian. — this type is named from titian, the great painter, who loved to paint red-haired women. shades of brown match- ing the hair are the titian beauty's safest color, and green in dull shades is good. only neutral tones should be worn. black: good if relieved with a touch of color. blue: good in all warm shades. brown: good in all tones, especially orange and golden brown. gray: only brown-grays may be effectively worn. from thimble to gown green: good in all shades having a predominance of blue. pink: shell and flesh are good. purple: with a clear complexion, lavender or violet is good. red: to be avoided. yellow: in transparent fabric, dull orange-yellow is good for evening wear, and deep cream is very good. gray. — the gray-haired type looks best in pale shades and the hair must be the key color. black: good in all fabrics, especially when relieved with a touch of some soft pastel shade. blue: navy and powder blues are especially good. brown: all right, if used sparingly. gray: warm grays in the darker shades are good. green : very dark or very light shades and yellow greens may be worn. orange: may be worn in delicate shades of light red-orange. pink: old rose, wild rose, and pale tones are good. purple: darkest shades are good. red: may be worn in maroon and wine shades. white: especially good in off shades. chapter v design art needs no spur besides itself. – victor hugo with betri be good design is, primarily, pleasing to the eye, and has one main center of interest. there are sometimes lesser centers of interest, and the farther apart these are the looser the construction of the design appears and, therefore, the larger the whole effect may be. in order to be well-dressed, we must know the whys and wherefores of design, learning how we can make or spoil the effect of the figure by clothes. good designs do not just happen. they demand careful study. decorative designs should follow the structural lines of the figure. give emphasis where it is required and let the design or trimming move upward toward the left shoulder. decorations often constitute a pitfall for the untrained girl, who must remem- ber that ornaments should have a definite need or the art quality is lost, for art begins in need.' simplicity is the keynote of beauty because of the omission of the unnecessary. it is better to use an uneven number of any decoration, because the eye resents evenness. all decorations must belong to the garment and seem a part of it. the costume, therefore, should be so designed as to produce a well-organized and uniform effect with- out over-emphasizing any part of the figure. the face should design especially true in the illusion of lines. for example, unbroken vertical lines suggest height and slenderness ( ). trimming which flares or drops itself at the top or bottom makes the individual seem taller. trim- ming which cuts the top or bottom such as yokes, bands, and accented hems makes the individual appear broader and shorter. when the eye is carried up by a long rolling collar, the waist appears to be longer. when the eye is carried toward the center of a line, as in pointed collars at the neck, the waist appears to be shorter. a narrow curved belt adds to the effect of height and makes figure the width appear less ( ). the wider the horizontal belt, tucks, bands, or flounces are, the shorter and broader the person appears ( ) a broken line always appears shorter than an unbroken line. the more prominent the break, as in the case of a wide belt, the shorter the line seems. emphasizing the outline makes the figure seem broader figure and shorter; emphasizing the center makes it appear taller and more slender (figure , ). from thimble to gown width decreases apparent height. in design, squares and triangles add thickness; round outlines broaden the thin figure; oblong outlines slenderize and add dignity, although they overshadow personality; lines that follow the contour of the figure produce feminineness. the silhouette outline gives the first impression which may be either good or poor. in design there should be repetition. a repetition of a form equals rhythm and emphasizes that form, which is good; but if there is an over-emphasis, it decreases the value of the original form and its benefit is lost ( ). the most common fault in designing garments is that emphasis is placed on many things instead of one or two. suitable straight lines are attractive and add strength, while flattering curves add grace and beauty. the effect of lines may be emphasized by a repetition of the same kind of lines, or by a complete contrast. design has two aims in the selection and arrangement of fabric, these being harmony and beauty. designs are classed as struc- tural and decorative. the structural deals only with the basic construction, while the decorative adds ornamentation and makes the structural pleasing to the eye. the purpose of the former is to create and add strength, so that the latter will have a right to existence. by tracing a silhouette from a six-inch kodak pic- ture taken of an individual in a bathing suit, it is simple to work out pleasing lines for different designs. obedience to the following five simple rules of appraising a design will serve to guard against awkwardness; the head length should never be repeated in yokes or waist trimming; sleeves should never be trimmed above or just below the elbow; the length and width of belts and girdles should be given careful con- sideration; the greek law of proportion avoiding the halfway line must be applied in yokes, ruffles, tunics, and flares; the gar- ment should be suited to the wearer and occasion. flounces, ruffles, and flares should be added below the hipline design . figure and posture grace was in all her steps. - milton and ne'er did grecian chisel trace a nymph, a naiad, or a grace, of finer form, or lovelier face! - scott, the lady of the lake to stand correctly is the first essential of a graceful figure, and nothing is more necessary to good health and good looks than good posture. the feet are the solid foundation for the whole anatomy. they should therefore be given the best of care, with special attention paid to wearing properly fitting shoes and stockings, which are large enough not to restrict the circulation. uncomfortable feet make unhappy people and cause them to feel old and to look old. watching one's feet is just as important as watching one's step. the shoe should be long enough and wide enough to permit the foot to lie in a perfectly natural position. round-toed shoes follow the lines of the foot and should be worn for comfort. the shoe should be a little longer than the foot, so that when standing or walking, the toes will not be pushed against the end of the shoe. it is important to have the bend of the foot come at the bend of the shoe. extremely high heels throw the figure out of its normal line and the result is an ugly forced walk and poor carriage. heels of medium height do not affect the normal body position and aid in acquiring a graceful walk. a foot of comfort means miles of happiness. great care should be taken to keep the heels of your shoes in good condition, for you do not wish to have it said that you are literally “run down at the heels.” hose that are too short in the feet will cause as much foot trouble as shoes that are too short. hose should be fitted so that they extend inch beyond the toes. design by keeping one foot slightly in front of the other. the hands should rest perfectly relaxed with palms up in the lap. in rising, let the foot nearest the seat take the weight of the body. this gives you a graceful appearance as you rise from the seat. in stooping and reaching to the floor, extend one foot slightly in front of the other, bend both knees and with the hand opposite the extended foot, pick up the article. no matter how complete and well suited the individual's ward- robe may be, the effect is lost if she does not possess a graceful figure blooming with health to add charm and distinction to her personality. since health and beauty are inseparable, practice daily to improve yourself. if you are overweight and wish to reduce, do so gradually so that your system becomes accustomed to the change. follow a balanced diet composed of the right amount and kind of food plus regular exercises, and reducing will follow as a matter of course. . dressing the individual types chins. — pointed chins most often require the heart or u- shaped neck line with a touch of horizontal decoration on the waist. oval chins generally require the pointed or heart-shaped neck line with the neck line cut high. soft bows or ties are very effec- tive. round chins generally require the slanting, square, tapering, or v-shaped neck lines. long, medium-width collars are good. square chins as a general rule require the v- or the u-shaped neck line. use small collars and long ties. necks. — long necks need rolling collars, round neck lines, fluffy collars or fichus. collars should fit high in the back. a shallow neck line should always be used on this type. short necks require flat collars, especially collars that carry the line of the neck opening down the dress front in a long, slender from thimble to gown ng. line. collars that are cut long and narrow slenderize the neck line and collarless dresses and v-necks are becoming to this type because they are the most slenderizing. shoulders. — broad shoulders require raglan sleeves, set-in sleeves high on the shoulder, dropped shoulder yokes, lengthwise plaits, folds, or tucks from the shoulders to the waist which tend to slenderize the shoulders. these effects must be close to the neck and narrow in width. round shoulders most often require set-in sleeves. shoulder seams should be inch back of the normal shoulder line. collars which appear to straighten the back, and waists which are full and loose, are best, as a general rule. narrow shoulders most often require capes, broad collars, ruffles, berthas, fichus, and scarfs, all of which have a tendency to broaden the shoulders. groups of tucks, bands, or ruffles placed horizontally give the appearance of width as do also square designs. long shoulder seams, yokes, and collars that carry the eye to the waist should be worn by this type. the peasant sleeve shirred at the armseye adds width. sloping shoulders require round yokes, fluffy collars, and capes to correct the sloping shoulders. long, circular capes are quite good for this type. arms. — long arms require sleeves that are almost straight, but a well-proportioned, two-piece decorated sleeve may be worn. short arms require set-in sleeves of continuous line and simple design. the short and fat arm requires soft clinging fabric with set-in sleeves that break the shoulder seams. fleshy arms require set-in sleeves, curved on the underarm seam, with allowance if the upper arm is large. hands. — large hands require a frill at the wrist; tight cuffs must be avoided. bust. — flat-busted figures require ruffles, fichus, jabots, full, short collars, or fullness over the chest by means of tucking or design shirring the fabric into the shoulder seams or natural waist- jine. the full-busted figure requires long, narrow collars and indefi- nite waistlines. trimmings in the center front and center back may be worn. waists cut in several pieces, panels, or vests break the line. building out at the waist or hips, or yokes extending below the waistline will make the bust appear smaller. waists. — if large, v-neck openings should extend to the waist. if small, wide and narrow girdles, or belts, and other waist decorations may be used. contrasting colors used around the waist are good. swaybacks. — jackets, capebacks, boleros, or judicious blous- ing will off-set this defect. hips. — if hips are large, narrow belts and neck trimming help slenderize, as does also the one-piece dress. blousing at the waistline or a medium amount of fullness at the bottom of the skirt will tend to make the hips appear smaller. long skirts, as well as vertical lines, are sure to give a slenderizing effect. the v-neck opening should extend to the hip line. tightly wrapped skirts should be avoided. straight up and down lines always give a false impression of slimness. flounces and ruffles are good for slender figures and tall figures can wear fuller, shorter skirts than can the shorter figure. many gores have a tendency to slenderize large hips, while the two piece skirt gives a broad effect to the smaller hips. . fabrics weave the warp, and weave the woof. fabric designs reveal much of the history and atmosphere of each century, and seem always to have drawn their inspiration from the east. ornamental fabrics were first produced in europe in a.d. from thimble to gown the designs consisted at first of circles or squares. later on, these circles or squares were sometimes filled with persian or syrian floral designs. for centuries these circles and squares were used in stained glass designs. about to a.d. broken circles came into the designs, the upper and lower segments spreading out to form bands. circles continued until the th century. the saracenic hex- agon, geometrically arranged, was also used and up until the th century a formal arrangement was often followed consist- ing of balanced groupings of birds, beasts, or men, placed face to face or back to back. in the th and th centuries three distinct types of designs were seen. the renaissance gave way to the egyptian, roman, and greek motifs. the second, or oriental renaissance, was really portuguese, persian design or the spirit of the renais- sance influencing the east through commercialism. the third, or european, flora was developed about during the reign of louis xiv. it was then that the ferns and flora of the royal gardens came into use as motifs and artists held high positions. much less symmetry of balance was found in the decorative motifs of fabrics during the reign of louis xv. under louis xvi the designers followed innumerable paths, under the impulse of capricious fashions. queen marie antoinette's reign introduced entwined ribbons, garlands and ornaments, but the revolution brought in simpler fabrics and designs. today, “all wool and a yard wide” has lost its appeal. weight and length of wear are no longer buying criterions. beauty is now the acid test and all else is secondary. is not this the true mark of culture ? and is it not just as practical, if culture attains its ends, as when materialism accomplishes its clumsier forms? from thimble to gown grace in the soft folds of a plain fabric that cannot be equaled by the most beautiful italian brocades. lace is one of the most beautiful fabrics and capable of the greatest number of uses. since texture is the effect of the weave upon the appearance of the fabric, color has a great deal to do with texture of fabric. soft silks and silk crêpes or thin fabrics which fall in gentle curves and folds seemingly make colors appear softer. hard, brilliant colors make wiry fabrics seem more harsh. equal amounts of light and dark values should be avoided because they are monotonous. the choice of fabric and the use of contrasting fabrics depend upon age, figure, complexion, climate, occasion, and cost. it is always well to remember that whatever its use, a fabric of con- spicuous pattern is unbecoming and tiresome. durable fabric will have a firm, strong weave, a good tensile strength, and the threads will be well balanced, the filling threads in proportion to the warp threads. buy the kind of fabric which will fill the need and of a quality which will fit your purse. a. classification of fabrics heavy. — a massive and masculine appearance characterizes these fabrics, and their roughness makes the skin of the wearer look finer. they blend colors because they reflect light and throw shadows and are therefore a good choice for slender people. gathers, drapes, or other such fullness should not be used with these materials. lustrous and dull. — every fabric has a surface which is either lustrous or dull. the lustrous fabric emphasizes and exaggerates the lines, ages the wearer, and increases the appar- ent size because of its glaring appearance. it does not combine well with other colors and is difficult to wear. dull fabrics are widely used since they are becoming to most types. they show design true color, bring out the curves of the figure, and do not emphasize size. medium. — these fabrics are most economical and satisfac- tory. they easily follow the line of the design although they need more intricate design to make them look important. off shades should be used, as the primary colors become monoto- nous. pile and brocades. — these fabrics absorb or reflect light, thus making the surface darker or lighter. they are associated with deep rich colors and have a heavy appearance. they em- phasize lines; therefore, they should be used for gowns with simple lines and little decoration, and should only be worn by slender types because of their tendency to emphasize facial shadows. soft. — these fabrics are soft and pliable and are suitable for stout people. stiff. — these fabrics do not follow the contour of the body and often lend unbecoming lines to the design. they wrinkle easily. because the fabrics are harsh, they are best in the soft pastel shades designed for tailored lines. slender people can safely use these fabrics. thin or transparent. — these fabrics look lighter because of their transparency. they make a graceful silhouette and soften angular lines by giving indistinct boundaries to the figure. flowing lines add height. the more sheer the fabric the more fullness is necessary to give a pleasing effect. good qualities of clinging fabrics are appropriate for elderly or stout people. b. explanation of terms bast fiber. — the long, strong fibers lying under the outer bark of certain plants, such as jute, flax, and hemp. batik. — a javanese process, in which the pattern is painted on with wax before it is dyed. the portions waxed resist the color, and the wax is removed later. from thimble to gown battening. — a method used in weaving to beat the filling threads close together. beetling. — hammering the surface of cloth to increase the lus- ter, especially used on cottons and linens. bias. — diagonally across the material is called true bias, and at any diagonal is called garment bias. bleaching. — the five fibers are in the form of tubes and bleach- ing is the process of taking out the coloring within the tubes. the color may be partly or entirely removed. bleeding. — occurs when the colors in dyed fabrics run. blinding. — the combining of different kinds of fibers and colors to produce a desired yarn. block printing. — the stamping of designs by hand, one color at a time, with carved wooden blocks. boiled-off silk. — silk which has been boiled to remove the natural gum or sericin. breaking. — the separation and crushing to loosen the bast fiber from the outer bark and woody tissue of the plant, such as flax, jute, and hemp. burling. — in the finishing process, the removal of burs, knots, etc., from the surface of cloth. burnt-out process. — chemicals are used to burn out the fabric, in the process of making imitation venetian needle-point lace. calendering. — a polish given to cloth by pressing with heavy rollers during the finishing process. carbonizing. — acids used to remove vegetable matter in wool or woolen fabrics. carding. — the untangling and straightening of textile fibers. chemical bath. — a chemical solution bath used to change fibers or cloth to give them a different permanent appearance. chemical bleaches are likely to injure the fiber. there are four kinds used: full bleached, three-quarter bleached, silver or half bleached, quarter bleached. design cloth. — a pliable fabric made by weaving, knitting, or felting. combing. — used to straighten worsteds and cottons after the carding process to secure long fibers. count of cloth. — the weight and fineness of cloth is determined by the number of warp and filling yarns in a square inch of fabric. count of yarn. — the number of yards of yarn which can be spun from one pound of fiber. cravenetting. — the treating of fibers or fabrics with chemicals to make them waterproof. such fabrics are used for raincoats. crofting. – a method of bleaching on grass by the rays of the sun. cross dyeing. — the dyeing of two kinds of fibers, such as wool and cotton, using a dye which will color but one fiber. cross, gauze, and leno weaving. — where extra warp and filling threads are used in plain weaves. example: curtains. crosswise. — meaning from selvedge to selvedge or against the grain. direct printing. — the process of stamping the color on the sur- face of the fabric. discharge process. — the use of chemicals in the printing of a pattern on the surface of a dyed fabric, treating the color so that it is discharged or removed from the printed parts. down hair. — the soft undergrowth of hair on animals. drawing. — the large, soft rope of fibers as it leaves the card or comb is pulled out into the desired size of yarn. dressing. — substances used in the finishing of cloth to give stiffness, weight, or polish. duplex printing. — the printing of a design on front and back of a fabric. duplicate printing. — printing done accurately on both sides of the fabric, imitating warp-dye fabric. dyeing. — the coloring of different fibers and fabrics by im- from thimble to gown mersing in a dye bath, so that the tubes of the fiber are filled with color. to attain a high color, the dye is made so strong that it adheres around the tubes as well as in them. each fiber requires different methods and dyes. dynamiting, weighting, or loading. — the dipping of silk into a mineral solution to give it weight. when gum is boiled off, silk loses į of its weight. sugar of lead does not injure the fiber. tin and iron which are used to-day weaken the fiber and make it crack or split, whether the silk is used or not. moisture and sun affect weighted silk. wool is weighted by adding flocks. fabric. — cloth woven, knitted, or felted from fibers. felted, filled, shrunk, or milled. — the treating of wool fabric to reduce it in width and length. felting. — matted wool or a combination of fibers that has no warp or filling thread, compacted by rolling and pressing. fiber. — any tough thread-like substance capable of being spun and woven, as cotton, linen, rayon, silk, and wool. filling or woof. — the yarn that is carried across the warp in the weaving process. filling. — substances such as powder, starch, or clay used in cheap cotton, linen, and silk to increase their weight and stiff- ness. fleece. — loose wool, after being shorn from the sheep. floats. — the warp or filling threads that come on the surface in weaving. flocks. — the short fiber ends that are clipped off in the finish- ing process of wool fabrics. full-fashioned. — shaped pieces are knitted and then sewed to form a garment which holds its shape, such as better grades of knitted underwear and hosiery. gassing or singeing. — the burning of the short fiber ends on yarn or cloth. design ginning. — separating cotton fibers from the seed. grass bleaching. — this is the irish process of bleaching the finest linens. after the linen has been scoured with soap and boiled in lime, it is spread on the grass for six or eight weeks to whiten. hackling. – a method used in the cleaning of flax after the breaking process. in the gray. — cloth before it is bleached or colored. knitting. — the using of one thread, attaching one loop into the other. the yarn used is soft and has few twists in it. the two kinds of knitting are plain and ribbed. lappet weave. — small designs embroidered on the surface of a fabric. lengthwise. — meaning with the warp thread and selvedge, or with the grain. line. — the long, straight flax fibers. lint. — cotton fibers after ginning. linters. — short hairs which adhere to the cotton seeds after the first ginning. mangling. — ironing cloth or clothes between rollers. mercerizing. — cotton treated with caustic acid causing it to be more lustrous and take dye better. done correctly, it strengthens the fiber. mill waste. — the by-products after the first milling. mingo. — the lowest class of manufactured wool. mordant. — a chemical used to cause dye to adhere better to the fiber. napping or teaseling. — where the surface is roughed-up by raising the ends of the fiber. neps. — small knots in cotton caused by irregular growth or poor ginning. noils. — the short and broken fibers of spun silk and wool. pelt. — the skin of sheep before wool is removed. design selvedge. — the finished edge of the cloth formed by the filling threads turning back through the warp. setting of colors. — making colors fast or permanent. sized. — a substance put into fabrics to make them more beau- tiful and stronger, and to conceal defects. some treatments will make one material resemble another. irish moss gives stiffness to wool, oil and glycerine gives softness and elasticity. mucilage and gum give stiffness and gloss. waxed paraffins give high luster. starch gives weight and stiffness. china clay gives weight and firmness. antiseptics are used to pre- vent starch and fat from moulding. silk bleaching. — this is done with hydrogen peroxide or sulphur, after the gum has been washed off with an alkali. sliver. — yarn in the manufacturing process when drawn into a rope-like stage. sorts. — division of the pelt into different grades of wool. souple silk. — silk from which a part of the gum has been re- moved. spinnerets. — two small holes in the head of the silkworm through which the silk fiber is ejected. spun or waste silk. — waste silk which cannot be reeled, but must be spun into yarn. staple. — a term pertaining to weaving. throwing. — reeled silk doubled and twisted into yarn. tie dyeing. — strings tied around parts of the fabric to keep the cloth from taking the dye. tops. — combed wool in large soft balls. trom. — coarse silk thread used for filling. two-ply. — two strands of yarn twisted together. virgin wool. — wool sheared from live sheep and which has never been manufactured. warp. — threads running lengthwise of the piece. from thimble to gown weaves. — two sets of parallel threads called warp and woof or filling threads running at right angles and interlacing. woof, weft, peeks, or filling. — threads that are carried across the warp in weaving, and are generally inferior and lighter than the warp threads. wool bleaching. — is generally done by sulphurous acid or sul- phur dioxide gas. this does not remove the clothing sub- stances in the fiber but changes the color to white. when soaps are used, the natural color returns. woolens. — fabrics made from wool fibers which are short, large, and uneven and which are twisted into threads and have not been combed. worsteds. — fabrics made from long, fine, even, harsh wool fibers which have been combed parallel and twisted into yarn. c. cotton 'way down south in the land of cotton. cotton is a vegetable fiber which grows around the seeds of the cotton plant. the plants are annual shrubs which grow from the seed, and range from three to four feet in height, with picturesque flowers somewhat similar to hollyhock blossoms. the first day the flower opens it is a creamy white color, and the second day it turns to a bright pink, then dries up. then the pod, called a boll, develops. this boll has five separate divisions which contain the fiber and seed. a few days before the boll bursts open it becomes speckled with small purple dots. the plant begins to bloom when it is ten to twelve inches in height, and a single cotton plant will contain open bolls near the bottom and blooms at the top. this necessitates picking over the field several times during the season. the average field is small, due to the intense cultivation required. the clean, fluffy, cotton fiber, or staple, as it is called is white in color with a source microscopic where found southern us. egypt india russia south americal china no g. vi . . h - ox jokodo belgium ireland russia | asia poland france netherlands united states england germany italy france belgium switzerland japan china italy france india al - - jd tūrics ago - t d - australia new zealand south america united states europe africa uruguay table of textiles figure from thimble to gown cream tint and varies from one to one and one half inches in length. india is thought to have been the first country to produce cot- ton cloth. in b.c. herodotus spoke of the “cotton tree” of india, which, instead of fruit, bore a fine quality of wool. in old engravings the “cotton tree” is represented as having sheep's heads on the ends of its branches. the word “cotton” is derived from the arabic “ qutun.” with the invention of the cotton gin by eli whitney, in , the cotton industry became tremendously important to the united states. the best cotton, which is grown on islands off the coast of georgia and florida, is known as the sea island cot- ton. this is used to make high grades of the fabric. uses are found for all parts of the cotton. it is called “the fiber of every- day life” because of its wide range in clothing and household uses. cotton may be woven into strong as well as sheer fabrics, according to the twist of the fiber. the finer qualities are made from the long stable. cotton may be treated to resemble linen, wool, or silk. starches, clays, and gums are used in twisting cotton to give it an attractive appearance, while sizings are used to cover up a flimsy weave. mercerized cotton is made by treating cotton a few minutes under tension, with a strong alkali. this causes the fiber to swell to a rounded form and removes most of the twist, giving the cotton a luster. mercerized cotton has many of the properties of linen and unites more readily with dyes than com- mon cotton. the plain cotton fiber does not dye to advantage because the colors fade in the light and in laundering. high- grade cotton materials that retain their color are somewhat expen- sive because of the necessity of careful and expensive processes of dyeing. cotton absorbs and gives up moisture slowly and this is an objection against its use for undergarments. because of the design short ends that protrude beyond the surface of the fabric, it collects dirt more readily than any other cloth. since cotton is the cheapest fiber, it is not adulterated by other fibers. sizing is used to make poor grades of cotton appear as better grades. manufacturing processes. — the process of cotton manufac- turing includes ginning, baling, drawing, twisting, winding, weav- ing, singeing, bleaching, dyeing, printing, mercerizing, and dress- ing (pages – ). all these are necessary to the finished product which the housewife buys across the counter. tests for cotton: breaking. — the cotton thread breaks quickly and the end curls up and looks dull, short, and fuzzy. burning. — cotton burns quickly with a flash; lingers, smolders, and all but goes out and gives off an odor like that of burnt wood or paper. it leaves a small amount of gray ash. color. — a drop of nitric acid will not change the color of cotton. feel. — when rubbed between the fingers, it feels somewhat warm and shows the weave clearly. ink. — a drop of ink remains on the surface awhile and spreads unevenly when it is absorbed. lye test. — make a solution of one tablespoon of lye plus one pint of water boiled for ten minutes in a granite utensil. cot- ton will remain on top of the solution, and is unaffected by the lye. microscopic. — the fiber appears like spirally-twisted bands with thickened edges (page ). tearing. — cotton tears easily and the sound will be dull. distinguishing cotton from other fibers: lye test. — cotton from wool — use the lye test; wool dis- solves and cotton is unaffected. lye test. — cotton from silk — use the lye test; silk dissolves and cotton is unaffected. from thimble to gown oil test. — cotton from linen — pour a drop of oil on the sur- face of a boiled-out sample; linen looks transparent and cot- ton is unchanged as to transparency. d. linen dressed in linen white as milk. – robert of brunne linen is the oldest fabric in history, for the culture of flax goes back beyond biblical times, being known in b.c. the name of linen is derived from the latin word “linum," the name given to the flax plant. the oldest linen ever found was discovered in the ruins of the homes of the ancient swiss lake dwellers, who lived in the stone age many thousands of years ago. the ancient egyptians, the chaldeans, and babylonians all used linen, of almost the same quality as the modern linen. in the old testament pharaoh is said to have arrayed joseph “in vestures of fine linen,” and in exodus there is this allusion - “for the barley was in the ear and the flax was belled.” linen is a vegetable fiber obtained from the inside stem of the flax plant. the plants are raised in large fields very much as wheat is grown and have a bright blue or pink flower. the flax stalk is pulled up by the roots by hand in order to avoid breaking the fibers. the linen fiber averages around eighteen inches in length and may be made into fine or heavy fabrics. the fiber is heavy, strong, non-elastic, and is a natural gray or brown in color. it is expensive because of the long process necessary to produce the fiber and weave it into cloth. linen does not bleach readily but retains its snowy whiteness after it is bleached. this process determines the grade of linen, the unbleached linens being the stronger. bluing is used to whiten linens because blue tends to neutralize its complement, orange, and produce the effect of whiteness. linen is very dur- design able because of its tough fiber and the ease with which it is laun- dered although the fiber may be weakened by hot, strong alkalies, and mildews easily. linen made from the round, twisted thread is better than that made from the flat threads. linen does not absorb or hold stains as other fibers do and is therefore in demand for table use. it is valuable for surgical use because of steriliza- tion. linen is hard to dye and is easily faded. it absorbs and gives up moisture readily and is coolest of all fabrics. it requires less finishing after weaving than any other fiber. ireland is the heart of the linen manufacturing industry, but belgium produces the highest quality. the united states does not raise much flax because of the necessity of hand labor. manufacturing processes. — the manufacture of linen is a lengthy and diversified process which includes cleaning, sorting, drawing, twisting, winding, weaving, bleaching, dyeing, dressing, and beetling (pages – ). tests for linen: breaking. — the thread snaps and the straight ends are notice- ably uneven and hard. burning. — linen burns quickly with a yellow flame that is hard to put out. there is an odor like that of burning paper and a light, feathery ash is left. color. — several drops of nitric acid on linen has no effect upon the coloring feel. — linen feels cool, smooth, and crisp. ink. — ink will pass into the surrounding fibers very rapidly and will leave a round spot with a regular outline. lye test. — make a solution of one tablespoon of lye plus one pint of water boiled ten minutes in a granite utensil. linen floats on the liquid. microscopic. — the linen filament is straight, cylindrical, and has nodes or joints at irregular intervals (page ). from thimble to gown moisture. — most linen contains considerable dressing; therefore, if the moistened-finger test is used, a boiled-out sample should be used. it has the power of absorbing moisture. oil. — oil on linen makes it transparent. tearing. — when tearing linen, the sound is dull. e. rayon miss cellulose cottonwood is making her fashion debut. rayon is the infant of the textile industry but has already. caught up with its predecessors. it is a chemically-made fiber which is produced from the fibers of cotton linters, spruce pulp, cornstalks, and peanut hulls. most rayon is made from cotton linters and spruce. cotton linters, or down, are the parts of inferior cotton remaining around the seed after the first ginning. “spruce” means the fibrous pulp of any of the evergreens, comprising the pines, spruce, firs, hemlocks, tamaracks, and cypress. rayon was first made by the french scientist, chardonnet, in . he gave the fiber the name of “artificial silk.” in , the united states government authorities and a number of manu- facturers renamed it “rayon,” as the fiber differed from silk both chemically and physically. the name “rayon” was chosen because it expressed a fabric which the sun rays could not change in color, and because the name is easy to say and remember. there are two types of rayon: the regenerated cellulose, which has the same chemical properties in rayon as in the original form, and the acetate cellulose, which has entirely different properties from the original form. the latter is used more often, because of its superior luster and beauty. the regenerated cellulose rayon is made by one of three chemi- cal processes: first, the nitro-cellulose process, which was the design first method wherein cotton linters formed the basic foundation. it was given the trade name of “tubize." second, the cupram- monium process, which also uses cotton linters and assumes the trade name of “bemberg.” third, the viscose process, which uses northern spruce wood pulp as the base. rayon made by this process is called "viscose.” most of the rayon in the united states is made by this latter method. in making rayon the cellulose is cooked in large steam vats. after it is cooked, the brown substance is washed and bleached. it is then run between heavy rollers and pressed into sheets simi- lar, in appearance, to blotting paper. the sheets are soaked in caustic soda, which is also used in mercerizing cotton. the sheets are cut to bits and thoroughly mixed with carbon disul- phide in a large mixer. the mixture becomes an orange-colored dough, which is thinned with more caustic soda. it is allowed to age and is then filtered. the sirupy mixture is forced through minute holes in a large plate which is kept in an acid bath. when the rayon mixture comes in contact with the acid, it immediately hardens into a thick jelly. the jelly-like filaments are drawn away before they have a chance to run together. the filaments are made into threads which are completely hardened. the hardened threads are not twisted but lie parallel as they are woven into fabrics. the acetate cellulose rayon in the chemical process changes many times, so that the cellulose is entirely different from the regenerated cellulose rayons. rayon is a smooth fabric, which is comfortable to wear. it does not cling, perspiration does not injure it, and it does not turn yellow. it absorbs moisture readily and releases it slowly. it is a cool fabric, not soiling easily, and launders well if it is treated carefully, as it does not shrink. it should not be pressed with a hot iron, however, as the fiber melts easily. the fiber weakens when it is put in water, but regains its strength from thimble to gown when dry. rayon is a clean fiber, because bacteria will not grow on it. electricity does not pass through it. rayon rivals silk in beauty because of its luster and sheen, but it is harder to use in sewing, as it ravels badly. the strength of the fibers varies from { to that of silk. the rayon fiber usually takes the same dyes as cotton and retains its color throughout the life of the fiber. rayon has become a modern necessity for personal and house- hold uses because of its gorgeous patterns, fast colors, high lus- ter, and its effectiveness when woven with other fibers, as the threads of rayon are coarser than those of other fibers. manufacturing process. — purifying, cooking, washing, bleach- ing, twisting, winding, weaving, dyeing, and dressing are the proc- esses necessary before rayon is ready for market (pages – ). tests for rayon : breaking. — thread breaks apart and the ends look like a bundle of very fine wires. burning. — it burns with a flash and leaves a very faint gray ash (except celanese), and it melts as it burns and leaves a hard black bead. feel. — when rubbed together, it feels slippery and wiry. lye test. — one tablespoon of lye plus one pint of water boiled ten minutes in a granite utensil. rayon will float. microscopic. — rayon has a longitudinal marking and sometimes air bubbles except the rayon made by the cuprammonium proc- ess, which has no markings and is smooth, fine, and cylindrical. it is difficult to distinguish this latter from real silk (page ). f. silk the goddess of the silkworm, “ si-ling-chi.” silk is an animal fiber that was first cultivated in china. the actual date of its beginning is unknown as the chinese jealously design guarded their arts; but, according to the old legends, a child empress of china, si-ling-chi, discovered the use of silk in b.c. si-ling-chi was but fourteen years of age and was the wife of the emperor w’hang. one day she saw some cater- pillars spinning threads around themselves to make their cocoons. si-ling-chi watched, and when the cocoons were completed, she tried to unravel one, being delighted with the long strand of thread that she unwound so easily. it was a golden yellow color and for this reason yellow is the royal color of china. it was to si-ling-chi's curiosity and her skill in beginning the first of the silk industry, that china was indebted for the great wealth it gained by the manufacture of silk; and for this reason si-ling- chi, the little chinese empress, was made the “goddess of the silkworm.” the chinese legends also credit the invention of the loom to si-ling-chi. china kept the secret of silk until a.d., when two priests smuggled silkworm eggs to europe. the silk fiber is one of the finest of all fibers and is spun by the silkworm as it makes its cocoon. the word “silk” is derived from the anglo-saxon word "seolc,” which, if pronounced prop- erly, sounds very much like our pronunciation of “silk.” the filaments, which are held together by a gummy substance, are separated in manufacturing. silk in the raw state is sold by the pound and one filament may be four thousand feet in length. due to the extreme fineness of the filaments, five double filaments must be used to make up the thickness of one strand of raw silk. it takes approximately two pounds of silk to make a dress and we can easily see why silk is so expensive when it takes three thousand silkworms to spin a pound of it. if the silkworm is allowed to hatch, the silk filament is broken and only a second- grade product may be made from it. the product is called spun silk because of the broken fibers and lack of luster. there is also the silk spun by the uncultivated silkworm, the filaments of design tearing. — tears easily with a shrill sound. frays at torn edges. if the thread is held taut, it makes a resonant sound similar to a violin tone. g. wool baa, baa, black sheep, have you any wool ? wool is an animal fiber taken from a great variety of sheep. the quality of the fiber depends upon the kind of sheep and upon the place in which they live. the better qualities of wool come from the temperate zones, though sheep are raised in almost every country in the world. wool fiber is curly and scaly in structure and though only fairly strong, its elastic nature makes it very durable. the interlocking of scaly edges makes the fabric warm and does not allow rapid evaporation. the rough surface, how- ever, collects dirt and impurities, making it the least hygienic fiber. virgin or pure wool is wool as it comes from the sheep, and there are many grades. before weaving, the wool is sorted according to the length of the fiber. that which is used for textile purposes is creamy white. pulled wool is wool removed from the pelts of dead sheep by treatment with chemicals. worsteds are made from long, straight, fine, even, and harsh fibers with few scales, that have been carded, or combed to lie parallel, and then twisted into threads. worsteds are hard to adulterate because the weaves are distinct and the fabric is firm. their beauty depends upon the weave. woolens are made from short, large, uneven fibers, thickly cov- ered with scales that have been carded and spun into yarn with the threads lying in all directions. it is easy to adulterate wool- ens because the weaves are indistinct, and the material is soft and elastic. their beauty lies in the finish. cotton and shoddy are often substituted for wool. shoddy wool is worked only in design been handed down to us. it came into being when man's brain had developed enough for him to use his hands constructively. it was then that he made his first fish net, which was the first specimen of weaving. the next step was the making of rough clothing, and since that time weaving has been one of the most important of all industries. the egyptians wove wonderful wrappings for their mummies as early as b.c., the fabric being equal to modern fabrics. mechanical weaving was done in egypt in b.c., but the more complex use of the shuttle by which figures were produced without embroidering was not known until a.d. this was the method used by the syrian weavers in the eastern roman empire. the development of weaving was slow and the repeat patterns were of the simplest kinds, but the skill in weaving finally became an art. fine french tapestries, especially the gobelin, are the best examples of modern weaving. from the anglo-saxon “wefan,” came the word we use for "weave.” the greeks have a myth about minerva and her weaving con- test, which ended so disastrously for one competitor, the young maiden arachne (a-rak'ne), who wove“ not wisely but too well.” minerva, that austere goddess, was angry (and perhaps secretly alarmed) at the marvelous skill of arachne, and changed her to a spider. since that time the spider tribe have always spun and woven. their latin name, “arachnida," was taken directly from “arachne.” modern weaving was greatly advanced when joseph marie jacquard ( - ) invented a new loom which bore his name, and created great excitement among the workers in the silk fac- tories, who thought that this labor-saving loom would hurt their work. jacquard invented it in and by there were , jacquard looms in use in france. today this master loom is used all over the world and has vastly improved the weaving industry. from thimble to gown cloth is made in three ways: weaving, knitting, and felting. weaving is the process of interlocking two sets of parallel threads at right angles to each other, to make cloth. the plain weave (figure ). — this weave is the simplest one and is used more often than any other weave. the woof or filling thread passes horizontally and in regular order through the warp thread of the fabric. it turns at the selvedge and repeats by going over the warp thread which it passed under in moramoman the previous pick. this weave gives a plain and even effect to fabric. it has a great number of variations, as the basket weave, rib weave, and so on. since the threads do not lie close together, plain weave fabric is not con- sidered a strong fabric. plain weaves : cotton. — batiste, bunting, figure burlap, calico, cambric, cham- bray, cheesecloth, chintz, crêpe, cretonne, duck, flaxon, ging- ham, indian head, lawn, longcloth, linene, mull, muslin, nainsook, organdie, outing flannel, percale, percaline, sheeting, voile. linen. — art linen, butcher's linene, cambric, canvas, crash, dress linen, glass toweling, grass cloth, handkerchief linen, trac- ing cloth, toweling. rayon. — crêpe revere and ecstasy. silk. — chiffon, chiffon cloth, chiffon taffeta, chiffon poplin, china silk, crêpe de chine, crêpe, habutai, india silk, khaki kool, peau de soie, pongee, persian, pussy willow, rajah, taffeta, tub silk. wool. — albatross, batiste (wool), broadcloth, challie, cheviot, flannel, homespun, melton, nun's veiling, panama, shepherd's plaid, tweed. design the twill weave (figure ). — this is the most satisfactory of all the weaves and is a firm, compact cloth, known as the serge weave. it is used to make a large per cent of worsted cloth. the mar r woof or filling thread passes over one and under two warp threads in a regular variation. in the process of weaving, the filling thread moves forward one thread after each pick, intersecting so that a diagonal line is produced across the surface of the material. it has many variations such as variations such as i -ii the break, the skip, and the cork- figure screw weave. d one thread - titi twill weaves : cotton. — drill, denim, gabardine, galatea, jean, khaki, can- ton flannel, crash, cretonne, silesia, ticking. linen. — crash, ticking. rayon. — durando serge. silk. — foulard, messaline, peau de cygne, silk serge, surah. wool. — broadcloth, cashmere, cheviot, covert cloth, craven- ette, diagonal, drill, flannel, gabardine, henrietta, khaki, prunella, serge, shepherd's check, shepherd's plaid, tweed, tricotine, whip- cord, zibeline. the satin weave (figure ). — this resembles the twill weave but does not have the diagonal effect. it gives a lustrous appearance. when the woof or filling thread passes under one and over from to warp threads it is called the sateen weave (a), but if the woof or filling thread passes over one and under from to warp threads it is called the satin weave (b). the design and damask. brocades are not reversible, while damasks are; example: tablecloths. tapestry is another form of figured weave. i c, upholstate, vii figure weaves : cotton. — bird's-eye, brocades, cotton damask, diaper cloth, huck toweling, huckaback, ma- dras, piqué. linen. — bird's-eye toweling, damask, diaper, granite, hucka- back. rayon. — brocades, broché. silk. — brocade satin, brocade silk, broché, heavy brocades, jacquard. wool. — coat fabrics, granite, novelty dress fabric, upholstery figure fabrics. the knitted fabric (figure ). — this is made with one thread instead of two and catches one loop into the other. two kinds of knitting are used. if the thread runs horizontally, the material is known as weft knit- ting, and if the thread runs vertically, it is known as warp knitting. weft knitting has a variety of patterns. the varia- tions of this knit are the plain, purl, and rib knits. warp knit- ting does not run or ravel and does not stretch but tends to shrink in length. warp knitted fabric is the more expensive of figure the two. from thimble to gown weft knitting : cotton linen rayon hosiery, underwear. silk wool warp knitting : cotton. — chemisette, eider down, stockinet. linen. rayon. — coats, dresses, gloves, milanese, neckties, scarfs, sweaters, tricot silk, underwear. silk. — same as rayon. wool. — sweaters, wool jersey. up, up, and up the steady road we climbed, and left the weak old-fashioned things behind, from hand-loom to the jacquard loom - a humming clatter in the room; once grandma's fingers wove and knit, but now steel fingers manage it. chapter vi measurements a perfect thirty-six ? tn order to get accurate measurements, the individual to be measured must stand erect "like a soldier” and perfectly still, and have someone do the measuring carefully. here's a chance to “stand up straight and grow tall.” measurements should be taken with the tape held easy along that portion of the figure to be meas- ured. patterns are made to follow certain measurements, and therefore the fit of the garment will depend upon the accuracy of the measurements taken. bust and waist measurements and age determine the size of the pattern needed. the measurements that need to be taken will depend upon the type of the garment. on the back of each pattern is found a chart giving the amount of fabric (of various widths) required to make the garment. method of taking measurements neck. — place the measuring tape around the base of the neck, but not tight. length of shoulder. — this measurement should be taken from the base of the neck to the shoulder bone, on a line which cannot be seen in front or back at eye level. from thimble to gown center front of neck line to waist. — measure from the center front of the neck line to the center front of the waistline. center back of neck line to waist. — measure from the center back of neck line to the center of waistline. underarm. — measure from the center of armpit to the waist- line a little toward the back. this measurement should be made on an imaginary line which cannot be seen at front and back when on a level with the eye. the imaginary line should be a continuation of the imaginary shoulder line. when the meas- ure is taken, the arms should be crossed so that the finger tips touch the shoulder bone. width of back. — measure across the broadest part of the back at shoulders, between the armseyes. five inches below the base of neck weave in a pin. measure from armseye to armseye, keeping parallel with the pin line. width of chest. — weave in a pin four inches down from the hollow of the neck (for the average figure) and measure from armseye to armseye, following exactly the woven pin line. bust. — standing behind the model, measure the bust by plac- ing tape around largest part of bust, keeping tape straight across back at bust line level. armseye. — place the tape around the armseye (but not tight) so that it comes over the top of the shoulder bone and follows the natural line of the armseye. front arm. — with the arm straight at the side, measure from the shoulder bone to the wrist. back arm. — with the fingers touching the lobe of the ear, measure from the shoulder bone to the bone at the wrist. upper arm. — place the tape around the arm, midway between the shoulder and elbow. this is usually the largest part of the upper arm. elbow. — with the elbow slightly bent, measure closely around wrist #armseye width of back l width of chest voorto izme h woorn oit m mom ocuk jw roei folloon saw dwzuri holloon - neck neck - shoulder seam bust sharm width or girth . underarm seam - elbow + waist hip depth or dart sleeve length *hip d figure from thimble to gown lower arm. — place the tape around the arm midway between the elbow and wrist. wrist. — place the tape around the wrist just above the wrist bone, for a fitted sleeve; and for a loose sleeve, measure around the largest part of the fist. waist. — place the tape closely around the smallest part of the waist. this is usually the normal waistline. hip. — place the tape around the hips (but not tight) at the largest part, keeping the tape line parallel with the floor. waistline to floor. — measure from the right and left under- arm seam at waistline, to floor. then measure from the center front and center back of the waistline to the floor. center front from neck line to floor. — measure from center front of neck to the floor. center back from neck line to floor. — measure from center back of neck to the floor. chapter vii cutting here's snip and nip and cut and slish and slash. espeare wum m he success of a garment depends not i only on the choice of fabric and pat- tern, and the care exercised in the fitting, but also on the manner in which the gar- ment is cut out. just as a good workman must have a proper place in which to work and good tools to work with, so must a good dressmaker. it is important to know what aids there are to the proper cutting of any garment. . knowledge required in cutting garments shears and scissors. — first, keen, true shears are required for successful cutting of garments. shears measure over six inches in length and may have the one handle larger than the other. the small one is for the thumb and the large one for the four fingers. scissors measure less than six inches in length and have sharp points. the handles may be of the same size or one larger than the other, but they are never as large as the handles of shears. always cut with an even motion, using the middle of the blades. it is necessary to use short strokes on curves and long strokes on straight lines. from thimble to gown cutting table. — the cutting table should be smooth and large enough to lay the pieces of the pattern on the fabric conven- iently while arranging the pattern economically on the fabric. cutting fabric straight. — all fabric is woven straight in the looms, but sometimes printing or rolling causes it to have a crooked finish. one of two methods may be used for straighten- ing the ends of the fabric. tearing is the quickest method, but cannot be used on all fabrics. drawing a thread and cutting on the drawn line is more satisfactory. fabrics have a warp and a woof, or filling thread. in cutting, always cut so that the threads will run vertically and horizon- tally, as it makes the garment appear and wear better. the warp thread runs up and down with the selvedge, and is called the foundation thread in weaving. the woof thread runs crosswise of the fabric and is called the filling thread. in strength and quality it is inferior to the warp thread. garments should always be cut with the warp thread going vertically with the pattern. the word “grain” used in connection with a fabric means the direc- tion in which the threads run, as lengthwise grain or warp, and crosswise grain or weft or woof thread. the grain is the start- ing point for all designing and cutting and should be followed throughout. cutting fabrics with weaves or pile. — straighten the end of the fabric that comes at the top of the design, join the sel- vedges together and pin. twill, tricotine, cheviot, and other fabrics that have diagonal weaves are cut so that the diagonal weave runs downward from the left to the right in the front and sleeves. the back will naturally follow from right to left. when the garment is finished this gives a diagonal circle effect around the body. nap fabric is cut with the nap going up, so that the nap will stand out and show the full richness and depth of color. the pile of panne velvet, and woolens and broadcloth in which the pile is purposely flattened, should run downward. from thimble to gown straight lines ( ), two large perforations ( ), or dotted lines (---) indicate shirring and can easily be marked on the fabric by placing the pattern and fabric on the ironing board, and using a tracing foot along the shirring line. mark all parts of the pattern carefully before removing it from the fabric. remove pattern and baste along the perforated shirring line with any color of thread except red. red thread is avoided because of the danger of marring the fabric. simple plaits and tucks may be pressed in place while the pattern is on the fabric, by folding the pattern and creasing the plait with a warm iron. each pattern is an individual problem, and the direction sheet or guide or deltor accompanying each one gives in detail the steps to be followed. it should be studied thoroughly before anything is done to the pattern. seam allowance. — in cutting garments, extra seam allowance should be kept in mind for fitting and adjusting correct seam- lines. this should always be observed unless the pattern has been previously used and adjusted, or a “cut-to-measure” cloth pattern is being used. the article, or garment, should be con- structed as it is cut, in order that the fabric may be cut to fit established lines, thus assuring the fitting of all parts. the extra fabric at the seamlines may then be cut away, leaving the neces- sary width for the seam. placing the pattern. — place the essential pieces of the pattern onto the fabric. begin at the top of the design, at the straight- ened end. arrange the pattern economically and pin to the fabric, which, with the pattern pinned firmly to it, may be rolled up to avoid creasing while the garment is in the process of making. all pins, except those used in marking the line at which a fold is to be made, should be placed at right angles to the edge or fold that is being pinned. when a pattern piece is laid on a fold, pin the edge which lies along the fold first. do not lift the fabric from the cutting table as it is cut. cuttİng . order of cutting and constructing garments pattern: a. study pattern direction sheet, guide, or deltor carefully. b. identify all pieces and eliminate all those not needed. c. study markings carefully (pages – ). d. compare pattern with individual measurements (which have been taken without drawing the tape too tight) (pages – ). e. test pattern by pinning pieces together and fitting to figure (pages – ). f. alter pattern to fit the individual figure (pages – ). g. press pattern and fabric so that they will lie smooth (pages – ). h. place pattern and cut (pages – ). front and back of garment : a. the back shoulder seam should be cut inch wider than the front. b. allow one inch on shoulder and underarm seams. c. allow { inch around the neck line and armseye. d. cut front and back of garment. before removing the front and back pieces of the pattern, crease a line down the center front and back, using a warm iron. if the fabric does not crease well, it is wise to baste with a thread along the faint line. e. make darts (pages – ; – ), tucks (pages – ), shirring (pages – ), gathers (pages - ), and plaits (pages - ) that come in the foundation seams. f. establish seam lines (pages – ), make seams (pages - ), and finish seams (pages - ). collar and facing: a. establish the neck line and neck opening (pages – ; ; ; ; ). b. cut the facing to fit the neck opening (pages - ). from thimble to gown c. make facing (pages - ). d. cut the collar to fit the established neck line, allowing for the desired collar finish. e. make the collar (pages - ). f. attach the collar (pages – , – ). sleeves : a. establish the armseye (pages – ; ; – ). b. place the pattern on the fabric so that the woof threads are exactly vertical at the bottom of the armseye at the seam lines. c. cut sleeves to fit established armseye (pages ; ; ). d. make sleeves (pages – ). e. set in sleeves (pages – ). f. establish sleeve length and opening (pages – ; ). cuffs: a. finish the bottom of the sleeve (pages – ). b. cut cuffs to fit outline of sleeve. c. make cuffs (pages – ). d. attach cuffs (pages – ). skirt: a. establish waistline (pages ; ). b. take skirt length plus hem and seam allowance (pages – ; ). c. cut skirt and allow one inch on vertical and one half inch on horizontal curves and seams. d. establish skirt seams (pages – ). make skirt seams (pages - ). e. make plackets (pages – ), shirring (pages – ), gathers (pages - ), smocking (pages – ), plaits (pages - ), godets or flares (pages – ). f. join the skirt and waist. (standing fell seam, pages – ; true bias, pages – .) cutting belt: a. establish belt line and desired length and width of belt (pages ; ; ). b. bust, waist, and hip (pages – ; ). c. cut belt, make belt (pages – ), attach belt. hem: a. establish hem line (pages – ). b. make hem (pages - ). pockets: a. establish placement of pockets (page ). b. cut pockets. c. make pockets (pages – ). d. sew on or in garment. finishing: a. sew on trimmings, snaps, hooks and eyes, or buttons (pages – ). b. press garment well (pages – ). chapter viii the whys of clothes the body is the shell of the soul and the clothes the husks of that shell; but the husks often tell what the kernel is. the costume of an age cannot but be i characteristic of the point of view and of the manners and customs of the men and women who planned it and wore it. dress began as a decoration. no attempt was made to fit these garments; all skins or furs were flat, and fabrics were woven flat. the garments were draped or held around the body by a girdle and some substitute for a pin. as a greater technical skill was acquired and the number of garments increased, it was found satisfactory to have the shape of the garment conform somewhat to that of the figure. once this fashion was established, more fitted garments followed and with them the question of convenience arose. flexible fabrics were chosen to permit freedom of action, and they were shaped and sewed at home. as fabrics increased in number and patterns became more fitted, the making became more difficult and demanded the special attention of trained workers. thus we have the simple beginning of dressmaking as an occupation. . clothes and character the history of clothing makes plain that clothes have served through the centuries as a protection, but clothes should be more the whys of clothes than a covering and an ornament. they should express char- acter. since woman is one of the most decorative of all created things, she should understand the principles that govern the selection of clothes. to know how to dress well is satisfying not only to a woman herself but to all those with whom she comes in contact. throughout the history of mankind clothes have constantly changed from one year to the next, for man's attire has been modified to suit his needs at a particular time. these changes are closely related to the various phases of the history of man himself. another reason that clothes are such an important link in our social chain lies in the fact that they are an index to character and individuality. thus the style and the change of fashions of yesterday and to- day have only come about by demand, and through the years we have had a constant evolution of dress design because of advancing civilization. to-day, frocks are designed for perfect freedom of movement. in this respect they bear some relation to the ancient robes of greece, when women were models of grace and beauty. in the days of absolute style decrees, a woman was excused for looking unattractive because she was a slave to the caste laws of dress. in this day of style discrimination and freedom, the unbecomingly dressed person is left with no excuse. especially is this true, since the cost of dressing becomingly and stylishly is not prohibitive to anyone. dressing to-day, for the modern woman, ought to be an aesthetic pleasure. every attire should be made the expression of an ideal. a dress carelessly or inappropriately worn, indicates to just what extent the wearer is sensitive to the refinements of her immediate environment. everyone should discover her good features and dress to them. the keynote to distinguished dress is to know oneself, and dress appropriately. study and know your“ type” (page ). from thimble to gown use your knowledge so that every garment, every accessory, expresses your individuality. upon determining your type, select the best lines suited to you and endeavor to apply them in dress. remember that to be well dressed, it is essential to have unity in every costume, and that the costume should express both utility and beauty. huni en wawninin real ancient egyptian ancienta greek figure it is everyone's right to be healthy. being beautiful is one's duty, and everyone should make the most of her personal appear- ance. because a girl's clothes are likely to give "that all- important first impression," a well-dressed girl should never dress conspicuously. clothes should be thought of in terms of simplicity, physical comfort, and health. harmonious lines in dress require correct carriage of the body to express them; and clean, appropriate, neat clothing cultivates self-respect and has a tonic effect on the whys of clothes mental attitudes in the consciousness of being well groomed. discomfort is never beautiful. beauty in clothes is not difficult if thought of in terms of suitability and becomingness. the well- dressed girl will study, admire, or criticize according to her taste and her knowledge of what clothes express. remember that clothes fitted to one's needs are the kind of clothes to wear. they may be made or bought, but in either sata com cs . , va . figure case, they should express the individuality of the wearer. if you are going to make a garment, choose your pattern and fabric carefully; if you are going to buy a garment already made, choose a good conservative model. in either case, take care of your clothes, and wear them more than one season if necessary. the buying of cheap clothes is false economy. “ play up” to your good features and look the whole world in the face. to look well is a duty, first to yourself, then to your family, and last to your friends. from thimble to gown . style styles that are now called new have been worn by more than you ; other times have worn the same, tho' the new ones get the name. every fashion and every detail of fashion of the present day may be traced to that of some former period. “originality” means the power to adopt and adapt suitably the fashions of the past to the demands of the present. it is to the french that all the fashion world looks for inspira- tion and guidance in style, design, and costume. because of the great amount of available historical data in libraries, churches, and museums, the french have been clever enough to “originate” with great skill new modes based on the fashions of the ages. the trend of fashion swings like a mighty pendulum, slowly from one extreme to the other. as dame fashion is creating new styles she is by degrees killing others. her work is related and connected because styles overlap in their struggle for exist- ence. the style creator may create a style, but if the buyer doesn't buy, it never passes into vogue. style and fashion are synonymous terms; but not so vogue, for vogue is an accepted style. it is not to be expected that any one style of garment will suit all types. color and cut are always a matter of adaptation to type. also, no matter how exquisite the garment, how perfect in coloring or design, if it is not appropriate to the occasion, it is either outlandish or bizarre. there is one kind of costume which is always pleasing and strikes a note of refinement in dress. this costume is one in which one color predominates. in selecting stylish garments it is invaluable to know that the figure controls the lines and design; that the complexion and mental tempera- ment control the color; and that the occupation and age control the whys of clothes the fabric. age consciousness is old fashioned. the sensible thing to do about age is to dress becomingly to it, find a color or a line that seems to be made for you, and then not be afraid to repeat this line or color. remember always that garments have the power of magnifying physical imperfections and of emphasizing good points. it is the secret ambition of every woman to be regarded as an exponent of good taste and judgment in the matter of dress. nas wims autodoc mnl e non tratta om uw ta's s home araman wodoudou . az xou t figure next to being referred to as “ the most beautiful woman present," she would choose to be called “the best-dressed woman present." it will be interesting to note that this decision is based upon four facts: she is wearing a color most in harmony with her eyes, hair, and complexion; a fabric that is of superior quality; a cut de- signed to reveal the best lines of her figure; and a selection of accessories that are correct for both her garment and for her own from thimble to gown person. the prime essential of achieving style is to select the right clothes and to know how, when, and where to wear them. to appear at one's very best and look distinctive requires clear sight and discrimination. the full-length mirror and a strong light will reveal not only shortcomings but also the most becoming lines. therefore, make it a habit to look all around you in the mirror — front view, side view, and back view. let your mirror answer that well-known plea: oh wad some power the giftie gie us to see oursel's as others see us! the girl who wishes to be well-dressed will observe this caution: “do not buy anything, no matter how pretty and tempting, that would attract attention more than your personality, for then the you that is ‘you' will be lost.” it is not what you spend for clothes, but how you spend it. remember the advice to buy a few clothes of good quality and wear them. with each season come new styles, so select only the clothes that you will absolutely need for the season. if this advice is followed, there will be no need of discarding or remodeling clothes that have spent more time on the hanger than on the avenues. style with a dash is demanded and the violator is mentally “taken to court.” weave into your wardrobe an artistic splash of color, style, and individuality, and you will have solved the problem admirably. to be attractive and appropriately dressed is a serious undertaking, but one can succeed if “ persistency” becomes the watchword. our feelings are expressed toward styles in four ways. we — glance at them, because they are so uninteresting that they do not hold our attention. from thimble to gown beauty is as beauty does beauty is nature's coin, and must not be hoarded, but must be current, and the good thereof consists in mutually partaken bliss, unsavoury in the enjoyment of itself : if you let slip time, like a neglected rose, it withers on the stalk with languished head. — milton a girl of beauty can be compared to the perfume of a rose — a quality given by nature for the purpose of attracting, winning, and holding the love of others. unhappily, time will take away youth and outward beauty will fade. physical beauty, nature's first gift, is the first she takes away. happily, beauty of spirit endures. since physical beauty, then, is not enduring, is it not wise to make much of it while it lasts? let's consider that five-pointed star of beauty once more and discover, if we can, how each atom may become a part of your own beauty development. first: check health, vigor, and grooming. be glad you are alive and you will have gained a certain charm which cannot be erased. you can add to that the charm of sparkling cleanliness. give yourself the daily care that will accomplish it. good looks, however, are more than skin deep. note the clothes to see if they are expressions of your own individual and developed charm. do they express the law of color harmony? one can wear almost any color and look well, but not beautiful, if there is the least dissonance. perhaps, we shall say, the accessories “are out of tune.” do these accessories express your individuality ? observe closely to see if hat, purse, gloves, hose, and slippers from thimble to gown fourth : does your voice possess a soft silvery tone ? few realize the value of a low, modulated, refined voice. someone has said that the voice is the most potent factor in the develop- ment of personality; that refinement of speech is more indica- tive of character than refinement of dress or gesture. the voice is indeed an index of character and the tones are mightier than strings or than cymbals of brass. longfellow has called the voice “the organ of the soul.” it is the suggestion of a tender heart. and when, besides, the eyes reveal the brightness of attention and interest and reflect approval of the person to whom one is speaking, one has accomplished a great thing. fifth: do you realize that deeds leave their indelible impres- sions? each good deed gives strength to perform another. true beauty, the charm of an admirable character, mirrors in- ward goodness which is the constant replenished source of good deeds. everyone may develop charming beauty equal to the essence of the perfume of a flower. would that all might give this perfume, which comes from their hearts, to the whole world that its fragrance might benefit mankind. kespeare . clothing budget costly thy habit as thy purse can buy, but not expressed in fancy; rich, not gaudy: for the apparel oft proclaims the man. — shakespeare in this world of constantly changing styles, lovely new fabrics, alluring advertisements, and the lavish display of “ clothes " by many of our neighbors, is it any wonder that many of us forget about common sense and spend more than we can afford in “try- ing to keep up with the joneses”? competition in dress is an immortal tempter and exists because our instinctive love for beauty and our childish desire to be the “ center of the stage” must be satisfied. extravagance and luxury pursue their way, the whys of clothes and to hold the scepter of taste and excite admiration and envy is a costly privilege. yet in this “ go-getter" age, it is smart to be economical. economy is the younger sister of wealth and travels over the road of budgets. a budget is a workable plan for economically spending an income. earning and spending of money go hand in hand. there are two ways of buying. one may buy on the impulse of the moment, without a knowledge of her needs, but the result is sure to be wastefulness and dissatisfaction; or one may follow a clothing budget, which enables one to dress smartly on a limited amount, and results in a balanced wardrobe. it is not difficult to see which plan would be the more satisfactory, since an individ- ual owes it to herself, her family, and her friends, to appear as well dressed as her income will permit. a budget affords much in addition to a good appearance. it enables one to use her money in such a way as to acquire what she needs and can afford. she has the satisfaction of knowing how her money is being spent and this gives her knowledge to be used in preventing future wastefulness. thinking of the little things in dress soon brings the realization that it means laying the foundation for thrift in a large way. the two principles of every budget are: definite organization and accurate usage. if observed, the two principles will greatly eliminate financial worry. every branch of expenditure should have a budget, for a family budget develops sense of honor, understanding, and coöperation among the members of the family. the total yearly income is divided into portions that will meet the needs of the year if wisely distributed. ten to twenty per cent is devoted to clothing and this per cent is set aside to be subdivided to meet the needs of the individual members of the family, the division being somewhat governed by age and demand. this amount is apportioned for outer and under clothes, and for accessories ; on the average, from thimble to gown seventy per cent for outer clothes, twenty per cent for under- clothes, five per cent for accessories, and five per cent for sundries. if the clothing allowance is small, good quality rather than quantity should have first consideration. in fact, regardless of the income, the rapid change of styles makes this a wise sugges- tion to follow. a good garment insures a feeling of satisfaction, always looks well, and outwears several cheap, conspicuously shabby ones. an individual color scheme, and clothes carefully worked out to meet the needs of the wardrobe, will not only save money, but will lend distinction and beauty to the wearer. when people become aware of the fact that all waste, regardless of its nature, is morally wrong, it will be unnecessary for stern necessity to force them to practice economy. there is no bigger field in which to practice economy than in the matter of clothes. follow shake- speare's advice and “put money in thy purse," therefore, if you would make a clothes budget and then keep within it. chapter ix patterns and adjustments for various figures de ditting deals with the accurate estab- t lishing of the body lines which are used as measurements for the alteration of pat- terns, and for the cutting and making of the garment. you have solved your fitting problem when you have the knowledge of the correct placement of these lines, making the garment in keeping with them. there are two reasons why we fit gar- ments. first, to fit the form of the individual; and second, to keep the threads of the fabric horizontal and vertical. a well- fitted garment will allow freedom of movement without being too large. move the body normally when you are fitting gar- ments so as to be certain that it will be graceful in motion. tight clothes emphasize bulk, so beware that you do not get garments too tight above or below the hip line. different girdles and underwear will change the fit of garments surprisingly. the style and use of the garment dictates how it should fit. . how to solve your fitting problems . seams. location of shoulder seam (figure ). — the location of the shoulder seam should be most carefully placed because it serves as the foundation of a well-fitted garment. the normal shoulder seam begins at the highest point at the base of from thimble to gown the neck and terminates į inch back of the highest point of the tip of the shoulder. the seam should be in a straight line and should not be seen from the front or back, when the eye is on the level with the shoulder. this rule should be changed only for the round shoulder, in which case the shoulder seam is moved a little toward the back. the back shoulder seam of a garment should be į inch longer than figure the front for the average person, and the fullness may be held in evenly along the shoulder seam to fit the shoulder blades more easily. the amount of fullness de- pends on the length of the shoulder and the material that is used. shoulder seams should be fitted by starting at the neck line and working toward the armseye, keeping the threads of the fabric verti- cal and horizontal. establishing shoulder seam (figure ). — to establish y the shoulder seam, carefully pin the center front and back pieces of the garment to thie center front and back of the model. pin from the neck to the hip line. care must be taken to keep the neck line in position while pinning the figure back front mi patterns for various figures front and back pieces to the model. smooth the back shoulder piece forward to fit the model, keeping the threads of the fabric horizontal and vertical. pin carefully in place (i). weave in pins on the back piece along the shoulder line. smooth the front piece upward, folding under the fabric at the shoulder line until the fold just meets the shoulder pin line of the back. pin the front piece to the back piece along the fold at the established shoulder line (ii). the finished seam line should be made along the pin line on the back piece and the fold on the front (iii). location of underarm seam (figure ). — this seam starts at the armpit directly under the high point of the shoulder and extends the length of the body (i). from the side it should resemble a continuation of the shoulder seam. it should be exactly at the center side of the body and should not be seen from the front or back when the eye is on a line with the center side. fullness should be eased in at the front. the figure shoulder seam should be estab- lished first. darts and gathers bring the fabric up at the seamline when the fabric does not run vertically around the body. smooth the back underarm piece forward to fit from thimble to gown the model. pin carefully in place, keeping the threads of the fabric horizontal and vertical (ii). weave in pins on the back along the underarm line. smooth the front toward the back, folding under the fabric until the fold just meets the underarm pin line (iii). pin the front to the back along the fold at the estab- lished underarm line. the finished seam line should be made along the pin line on the back and the fold on the front (iv). . darts. location of darts and lifts (figure ). — darts, besides adding fullness, lift the material so that the thread runs vertically and horizontally with the lines of the body. darts are not needed in the garment until the figure starts to develop. the larger the curves of the figure, the deeper the darts will have to be made to take in fullness and to keep the threads running vertically and horizontally. the four placements of the darts, or lifts as they are sometimes called, in the waist are located at the shoulder, center neck line (as a lap), under the arm, and figure at the waistline between the center and seams in either front or back. the shoulder and underarm placements are the most used. the length of the dart will depend upon the form of the model and material. the width of the darts will depend upon the amount of fullness required. if much fullness is required, several small darts should be made and placed in groups. the shoulder dart is established in line with the point of the breast, and just past the center of the shoulder seam, either toward the neck line or the armseye. it acts as a pad for the hollow or dip in the shoulder line. the dart at the underarm seam is established so that it will point diagonally toward the patterns for various figures point of the breast. it should not be placed closer than one inch below the armseye. the waistline darts are established so that they are parallel to the center front. the neck line darts are established parallel with the center front or diagonally toward the point of the breast. waistline darts above the waistline point diagonally upward and all below the waist- figure line should point diagonally downward. (for making darts, see page .) . lines. location of neck line (figure ). — the loca- tion of the neck line should not be established until the shoulder and underarm seams are finished. the neck line should form a good curve from just above the collar bone in the center front around the base of the neck to the prominent bone at the back. the curve should be higher in the back and sides than in the front. there are good neck- lines for all types and a careful study should be made of them (page ). location of bust line (figure ). — to establish the bust line, place a tape around the fullest part of the bust and keep it straight across in the back. the tape should be loose enough so that three fingers may be slipped underneath - - front it. i-i . sleeves and pockets. armseye curve; location of sleeves (figure ). — the establishing of a good armseye is the brand of a well-made garment. the lines bac- figure from thimble to gown should be established to form a good curve over the top of the shoulder and should come over the highest point of the shoulder bone or where the arm joins the shoulder; then dropped down in a straight line for three or four inches as shown in (i). when this line is established, the arms should be crossed so that the finger tips are just touching the shoulder bones. (on the average figure this line is the top fourth in the back of the armseye and is parallel to the center back.) the line is then extended under the arm in a perfect oval curve, front back continued to swing towards the front, and on up to the shoulder seam. pin a tape securely around the armseye and in far enough so that the i- -- -- www lun dd figure figure outer edge of the tape will form the shape shown in (ii). weave in pins around the outer edge of tape, and carefully run bastings around the established pin line before removing the pins. cut away the excess fabric, allowing inch for the seam line. patterns for various figures a au location of waistline (figure ). — to establish the waistline, place a tape snugly around the smallest part of the body so that three fingers may be easily slipped under the tape. location of hip line (figure ). — to establish the hip line, place and pin a tape around the small part of the waist and measure down to the largest part of the hips as indicated by arrows in the figure. measure the same distance down from the center back and sides, and weave in pins. the row of pins indicates the hip line and should be parallel to the waistline. to locate hem line. — to establish the figure placement of the hem line see page . to locate placement of pockets. — to establish the placement of pockets see page . mm . how to alter patterns patterns that have not been previously used should be care- fully fitted, and the adjusted pattern cut from old or inexpensive fabric before the final cutting of the garment. . waists. waist that is too wide (figure ' ). — to alter a waist pattern that is too wide in both the front and back, lay a fold from the center of the shoulder line to the lower edge of the pattern, keeping it parallel with the center front and back. to take up the back excess width, correct the shoulder figure line. front from thimble to gown waist that is too narrow (figure ). — to alter a waist pattern that is too narrow cut both the front and back from the center of the shoulder line to the lower edge of the pattern, keeping the cut line parallel with the center front and back. separate each piece to allow for the width needed.' correct the shoulder line. waist that is too long (figure ). — to alter a waist pattern that is too long, lay a fold below the armseye across both the front and back front to take up the excess length. figure waist that is too short (figure ). — to alter a waist pattern that is too short, cut below the armseye across the front and back. separate each piece enough to allow for the length needed. back front back figure figure waist that wrinkles under the arm (figure ). — to alter such a pattern, pin a deeper seam at the armseye at the shoulder seam, tapering toward the neck line. if wrinkles are only in front, the fullness may be taken out by darts (page ). patterns for various figures front back figure figure . bust. flat-busted figure (figure ). — to alter a pattern for the flat-busted figure, slash a line to within inch of the shoulder line, beginning at the lower edge of the pat- tern. keep the slashed line parallel with the center front of the pattern. lap the pieces to take up the excess fullness. full-busted figure (figure ). — to alter a pattern for front back the full-busted figure, slash a line to within inch of the shoulder line beginning at the lower edge of the pattern. keep the slashed line parallel with the center front of the pattern. if the bust is very full, it may be necessary to back front allow for extra length. to do this, cut at the fullest part of the bust from the center front to the first slash. then slash the other piece diagonally to within į inch of the armseye. figure patterns for various figures if the back is too wide, it may be taken up with a plait from the center of the shoulder line to the lower edge of the pattern, keep- ing the plait parallel with the center back of the pattern. . shoulders. narrow shoulders (figure ). — to alter a shoulder line that is too narrow, slash the front and back from the center of the shoulder to the bust line and spread apart to allow for the width needed. round shoulders (figure ). — to alter a pattern for round shoulders, slash the back of the pattern crosswise at the shoulder figure line. spread the slash to allow for the extra room needed across the shoulders. straighten the center back edge. this added amount in the center back will make the neck line larger. the extra fullness at the neck is essential for this type of figure and may be fitted at the neck line with tucks, gathers, or darts. square shoulders (figure ). – to alter a pattern for square front shoulders, raise the pattern at center front and back. the shoulder seam at the armseye is left the same, and the seam at back the neck line is raised until the figure pattern hangs evenly on the figure. this will make the seam wider at the neck line than at the armseye. a new neck line must be established (page ). the sloping shoulders (figure ). — to alter a pattern for sloping shoulders, raise the pattern at the armseye. the pattern from thimble to gown at the neck line is left the same, and the seam at the armseye is raised until the pattern hangs evenly on the figure. this will make the old armseye smaller and therefore a new one must be estab- lished (page ). . figures. over-erect figure (figure ). — to alter a pattern for the over-erect figure, lift the back of the pattern at the shoulders. figure if this is not enough to make the pattern hang smoothly on the figure, lift the pattern at the back at the waistline until the pattern does hang smoothly (b). the pattern adjustment at the shoulder seam will make it necessary to establish a new armseye (page ) and neck line (page ). sway-back figure (figure ). — to alter a pattern for the sway- back figure, the pattern should be adjusted to conceal the hollow at the waistline. gathers, at the bottom of the waist and the top of the skirt at the waistline, and figure figure from thimble to gown whether the garment is a one- or two-piece garment (page ). darts at waistline or hips should slant downward. pin darts from the seam line inward. flat chest (figure ). — to alter a pattern for the flat-chested figure, take up the shoulder seam in the front at the neck line and taper the seam to the armseye (i). the figure neck line in front should be clipped (ii) and a new neck line established (page ). if the shoulders are sloping, the pattern will also have to be taken up at the armseye and a new armseye established (page ). . neck. large neck (figure ). — to alter a pattern that is too large at the neck line, take up the shoulder seam at i figure figure the neck line. if the neck line is still too large, small darts may be placed in the center front and back of the pattern. small neck (figure ). — to alter the pattern that is too small at the neck line, spread the shoulder seam at the neck line, from thimble to gown the back establish a correct shoulder and underarm line. this will balance the front and back of the pattern. the fault in the pattern may be that the neck line is too large. adjust the pattern for too large a neckline (figure ). fleshy neck and shoulders (figure ). — for the fleshy neck and shoulders alter the pattern between the armseyes to within one inch of each armseye. spread the slash the needed width and straighten the pattern at the center back. figure the fullness this adds to the neck line allows for the fullness needed. slender, flat back (figure ). — for the slender, flat back, alter the pattern by raising the shoulder line in the back at the neck line and tapering it to the armseye. trim out the back of the neck the desired shape. . collars. the too-large collar (figure ). — to alter a collar pattern that is too large at the neck line, take tiny dart tucks in the center back and at equal distances from the center back until the collar is the correct size at the neck line. figure this affects the neck line only. the too-small collar (figure ). – to alter a collar pattern that is too small at the neck line, make a tiny slash at the center figure figure back and at equal distances from the center back. spread until the collar is the correct size. this affects the neck line only. patterns for various figures the too-long collar (figure ). — to alter a collar pattern that is too long, make small folds in the collar in the center back figure figure and at equal distances from the center back to the front until the collar is the correct size. the too-short collar (figure ). — to alter a collar pattern that is too short, cut the collar in the center back and at equal figure figure distances from the center back to the front and spread the pattern until the collar is the correct size. the too-wide collar (figure ). — to alter a collar pattern that is too wide, cut the pattern lengthwise through the center and lap the pieces until the collar is the desired width. reshape the ends of the collar. the too-narrow collar (fig- ure ). — to alter a collar pattern that is too narrow, cut the pattern lengthwise through the center and spread the pieces until the collar is the desired width. reshape the ends of the collar. . sleeves. wrinkles from top of sleeve pattern to elbow figure from thimble to gown i (figure ). — to alter the sleeve pattern that wrinkles from the top of the sleeve to the elbow, the sleeve cap, from the top of the shoulder to the level of the armpit, must be enlarged to correspond to the top of the arm. to cut the cap larger at the top of the sleeve pattern, slash lengthwise through the center parallel to the seam line. slash crosswise to within figure one inch of the sleeve seam at the armseye. raise the sleeve cap the necessary amount to fit the top of the arm. wrinkles at armpit (figure ). – to alter a pattern that wrinkles at the armpit, cut both the front and the back of the pattern between the armseyes. lap the pattern at the armseye (i), take out this fullness, and let it spread a little at center front and back. pin paper under the slash and straighten the center front and center back line (ii). it is figure very necessary to build up the neck line at the shoulder. retrim the armseye at the shoulder (page ). the too-long sleeve (figure ). — to alter a sleeve pattern that is too long, cut the pattern midway between the wrist and elbow, and between the elbow and shoulder. lap the pieces until the sleeve is the correct length. the too-short sleeve (figure ). – to alter a sleeve pattern that is too short, cut the pattern midway figure between the wrist and elbow and from thimble to gown cut off a seam allowance on the lower half of the sleeve. this will raise the pattern at the armpit, removing the wrinkles. sleeve which wrinkles around up- per arm (figure ). — to alter a sleeve pattern that wrinkles around the upper arm, cut off a seam allow- ance from the lower half of the armseye, both on the waist and figure sleeve. sleeve that is too small around armseye (figure ). — to alter a sleeve pattern which is too small around the armseye, allow for a larger seam above the elbow or set in a gusset (figure ) from the armseye to the elbow. the too-small armseye and top of sleeve (figure ). — to alter a sleeve figure pattern in which the armseye and top part of the sleeve are both too small, cut the pattern to fit at the lower half of the armseye (i). the same amount that is cut from the waist at the armseye should be allowed at the lower ii figure figure half of the top of the sleeve. place a piece of paper under the sleeve pattern and allow at the lower half of the top of the sleeve the amount that was cut from the waist. allow the necessary from thimble to gown amount that has been trimmed from the armseye of the waist to the back top of the sleeve. top of sleeve is enlarged when shoulder seam is let out (figure ). — to alter a sleeve pattern when the shoulder seam has been let out, slash diagonally both the front and the back of the top of the sleeve, beginning midway between the center and seam and slashing to the elbow, taking care not to cut the piece out. place a piece of paper under the sleeve and spread figure each slash one half the amount let out on the shoulder seam. top of sleeve is made smaller when shoulder seam is taken up (figure ). — to alter a sleeve pattern when the shoulder seam has been taken up, slash diagonally both the front and back ii figure figure of the top of the sleeve, beginning midway between the center and the seam and slashing to the elbow, taking care not to cut the piece out. lap each slash one half the amount taken up in the patterns for various figures shoulder seam. even the top of the sleeve by tapering the seam line. sleeve that draws at top and twists around (figure ). — to alter a sleeve pattern to prevent sleeves from drawing at the top and twisting around, slash the back of the sleeve crosswise two inches below the armseye to within three inches of the other i figure figure side. spread the slash to allow for the necessary amount. two inches is usually sufficient. this fullness may then be held in the seam along the upper part of the sleeve (ii). medium upper arm (figure ). — to alter a sleeve pattern for a medium upper arm where a little extra fullness is needed above the elbow, place a piece of paper at the side of each seam line above the elbow. add the necessary amount without changing the line at the top of the sleeve. large upper arm (figure ). — to alter a sleeve pattern for an arm that is large above but not at the elbow, fold the sleeve lengthwise and, starting on the fold at the elbow, slash crosswise to within two inches of the seam line. unfold the sleeve and cut from the figure from thimble to gown center fold at the top of the sleeve to the slash at the elbow. spread the slashes to allow for the necessary amount. large arm (figure ). — to alter a sleeve pattern for a large arm, slash the sleeve lengthwise through the center to within six inches of the bottom of the sleeve. spread the slash to allow for the necessary amount. sleeve that twists around arm (figure ). — to alter a sleeve pattern that twists around the arm, extra fullness must be allowed at the figure back of the sleeve at the elbow, spreading the slashes to allow for the fullness. this will allow the sleeve to follow the shape of the arm. sometimes sleeve patterns do not need alteration if they pull a m back or set too far forward, be- cause the fault lies in the fact that figure they have not been set in cor- rectly. to avoid this, set the sleeve in with the threads running vertically and horizontally (page ). . cuffs. — cuff patterns are altered in the same manner as collars (pages , ). . waistlines. the too-large waist- line (figure ). — to alter a waistline front back that is too large, turn back the edge of figure the pattern at the waistline on all skirt pieces, tapering to the hem line of the skirt. when the skirt is too large above the hip line, the full- ness may be taken in by darts (page ). from thimble to gown . blocked patterns are those that are marked on the fabric or paper by using a tested pattern. drafted patterns are those made by using individual measure- ments to make the pattern. (often a tailor will draft a pattern for a man's shirt in this way.) draped patterns (figure ). — these are extensively used by designers for creating new styles. paper may be used to drape on the model. a knowl- edge of establishing correct seam lines must be carefully worked out before draping paper or fabric. collars are the easiest to drape. . how to make drafted patterns. — even though com- figure mercial patterns are so inexpen- sive and easily obtained, there is much to be said in favor of the drafting of patterns when the method given is easy and simple to use. it teaches the impor- tance of complete accuracy in taking measurements in dress- making, as well as in the drafting itself. it also teaches the fundamental seam lines of the figure, and gives a thorough knowledge of the use of a foundation pattern and its many variations. through this knowledge one may learn to draft patterns for unusual figures where a commercial pattern would have to be altered. the drafting of patterns necessitates the taking of careful and accurate individual measurements. taking measurements (page ). — the habit of accuracy in drafting and cutting is absolutely essential as the first requisite in drafting patterns. the fitted pattern which is the founda- tion pattern for making variations does not allow for any full- patterns for various figures ness. after patterns are drafted, mark with a straight line the way the pattern should be placed on the fabric, so that the line of marking will be parallel with the warp thread. the fitted waist (figure ). — to draft a fitted waist pattern the following measurements should be taken: neck, f -- - --- n bbce----------- -------- back front figure waist, bust, width of front and back, length of front and back, and length of underarm and shoulder. allow three inches or more on all sides of rectangle. the bust measure equals the length (aa) of rectangle. the back measure equals the width (ab) of rectangle. a. back of fitted waist ab equals length of back. c is the middle point of ab. d is the middle point of ac. from thimble to gown p is inch below , on a line at right angles to zf at . alzpfk equals lower curve at top of sleeve. using h as a pivot and ha as a radius, swing the curve af. i is inch above f, on a line perpendicular to sk at f. ik equals part of top curve. kia equals upper curve at top of sleeve. cr equals } hand (fist) measure plus inch (or allowance for whatever fullness is desired). b is inch down from c. n equals inch to right of b. construct nr. bnr equals bottom of sleeve. tn equals four inches and is constructed at n, at right angles to cr. (cuff opening is in line with little finger.) construct rk. j is midway between r and k (distance between wrist and elbow joint). q is į inch left of j. rqk equals inside line of sleeve. with paper folded, cut around top curve aik, down side kqr, then across bot- tom rnb. unfold sleeve and cut lower curve at top of sleeve alzpfk. fitted sleeves, after drafting, should be altered at the elbow to allow for fullness so that the sleeve will not bind but give ease when moved. on the underside of the sleeve pattern at q, measure a half inch to each side, slash perpendicular to the fold and spread the pattern the width of the desired fullness. this fullness may be held in with gathers, folds, or darts. foundation collars (figures , ). — for the flat foundation collar, the foundation waist pattern should be used. place the shoulder lines of the waist together at the neck line and spread inch at the armseye. cut the neck line of the collar the same as that of the waist. the outer edge of the collar may be shaped in any desired design. when the collar extends beyond the patterns for various figures shoulder seam, the back and front are balanced by keeping the point in line with the shoulder seam line. flared collars are made by slashing the outer edge of the flat collar pattern at intervals and spreading apart to allow for the desired flare. to make a rolled collar, the foundation waist pattern is lapped at the armseye instead of spread apart (figure ). a one-inch lap is usually sufficient for the roll. figure figure the foundation cuff. – to make a foundation cuff, the hand measure is used for the bottom of the cuff. the top of the cuff may be made in any shape, but should correspond in design with the collar, except that the cuff designs are smaller. the cuff may be of any width, and if the flare cuff is desired, slash the outer from thimble to gown edge of the foundation pattern at intervals and spread the pattern to allow for the flare. two-piece fitted skirt (figure ). — the following meas- urements should be taken to draft a foundation skirt pattern: waist, hip, length of front, sides, and back (to be taken from the to wal .b n figure waistline to the floor). the desired skirt length should be de- ducted from the above skirt measurements and used when draft- ing patterns. skirts should be designed in keeping with the waist. remem- ber that gores have a tendency to slenderize the figure. from thimble to gown connect i and n. oin equals front side seam. pin equals back side seam. the two-piece foundation skirt pattern may be made into as many gores as desired by equally dividing and sub-dividing the waist, hip, and bottom skirt lines. flared or circular skirts may be designed by cutting at the hem line between l and n, and n and m, up to the hip line between j and i, and i and k, and the pattern then spread. the desired amount of fullness should be proportioned equally on the center front and back, side seams, and cuts. undergarments oc joooo cut wide enough to allow for ease when walking. this fullness is allowed at the hip line (about seven inches below the waist- line) (a) in a plait, even gathers, or a circular flare at the sides (c) or with a diamond-shaped bodice with upper and lower points cut on the bias (d). a straight piece of material, allowing a twelve- inch lap, may be sewed on at the hip line. the lap makes the slip shadow proof (b). seams may be either flat, fell, or french. shaping the neck line (fig- ure ). — neck lines of slips should be carefully worked out and should never be conspicu- ous. neck lines may be any shape desired, but should cor- respond with the neck line of the dress worn. the shaped neck line, besides being a bet- ter design, does not slip off the shoulder. this does figure away with the untidy habit of adjusting shoulder straps. the armseye should be in keeping with the neck line. finishing the slip. — the edges and bottom of the slip may be finished with an ap- propriate design. figure nu from thimble to gown a- -a- be . teddies. cutting the teddy. — teddies do not neces- sarily require a pattern. they may be made from a width and one half of fabric, depending upon the hip measure. they should be large enough to slip over the hips with ease and, if fullness is desired, it may be inserted in the side by flares or gathers. when a width and one half is used, the half width should be used in the back. finishing the teddy (figure ). — the seams may be either flat, fell, or french, and the last stitching may insert be made by hand to give a hand-made effect. the top may be straight or shaped (a- , a- ). the straight top should have a half-inch hem and may be finished with hand hemstitching (a- ). the shaped neck line may be finished with any dainty, narrow edge. (see neck line finishes, page .) straps should be attached by sewing them underneath at the hem line, in the back d- and on top, and on the edge in the front (b). a loop d- and streamer may be allowed figure in the front to lengthen the .... .. .. back front tuy undergarments strap if desired, while at the same time it serves as decoration. a wee strip of ribbon may be sewed securely along the center of the shoulder seam of a garment, with an end left which snaps down and holds your lingerie straps in place. the sides of the teddy should be folded evenly and shaped in a curve about eight inches in length if the straight strip is used. the bottom of the teddy should be finished in keeping with the top (c). the straight strip that holds the bottom of the teddy together should be one inch wide and five inches long, and should be of double fabric. it may be sewed fast (d- ) or snapped (d- ) or buttoned (d- ) together in the center the strip that is fastened in the center is more convenient to iron. a narrow strip is more satisfactory because it will not bind or pull out so easily as the wide strip. the length of the teddy, when fin- ished, should be about five inches above the knee. . bloomers. — elizabeth smith miller invented the bifur- cated garment which we to-day call “ bloomers.” the garment did not meet with approbation, except among the most radical of the women's rights advocates. mrs. amelia jenks bloomer of seneca falls, n. y., who, according to the book, woman suffrage, was editor of one of the first periodicals devoted to the cause of women's rights, was enthusiastic over the startling new garment and advocated the wearing of it, nameless as it still was, in her weekly paper the lily. the newspapers took up the subject and discussed it vigorously, and for want of a better name, called them “ bloomers ” in honor of the woman who advocated them so earnestly. the “ bloomers,” however, met with so hostile a reception on the part of the general public, and their wearers were so ridiculed everywhere that, after a time, the prominent suffragists who had adopted the garment began to fear that the odium attached to the dress might injure the suf- frage cause. so, since their desire for the political freedom of all from thimble to gown women was greater than their interest in their own individual comfort, they gave up wearing the “ bloomers.” this experi- ment, according to the history of woman suffrage, in which the whole story is related, was not without a good cause. all this, then, was the forerunner of the modern knickers and bloomers which have paved the way to woman's high place in sports because they have given her a greater freedom in dress. the first bloomers were made ankle length, while the modern bloomer comes just above the knee. the top of bloomers may be finished with a yoke, band, or elastic. elastic should never be more than a quarter of an inch in width and should harmonize with the material of the bloomers in color. to take the measure- ment for elastic, place the elastic so that it fits snugly, without stretching, and so that two fingers may be easily slipped under it. elastic bands that are too tight are injurious, as they restrict circulation. the bottom of the bloomers may be finished with bands or elastic. the seat of bloomers should always be reënforced on the inside. plackets are used in children's bloomers on one, or both, sides. decorations on bloomers should be very simple and dainty, and should harmonize with the material. . pajamas (figure ). — pajamas are a one-piece or a two-piece suit. in the two- figure piece, the top part, which is like a jacket, may be made with or without sleeves, and may be either opened or closed in the front. the bottom part is undergarments made like bloomers except that the legs are made straight and sometimes very full, and ankle length. they are seldom gathered at the bottom. the neck, cuffs, bottom of the trousers, and front opening may be finished with self or con- trasting color or fabric. the top of the trousers is finished with elastic, band, or yoke. the front of the jacket is fastened with button and buttonholes, frogs, or snaps. one-piece pajamas usually have a tie belt and fasten on the shoulder with a snap or button. pajamas are coming constantly more and more into use for house wear. the lounging pajama-suit is taking the place of the kimono. in this suit, the coat part may be varied in length, and the trousers made very full, so that they hang like a skirt. the whole ensemble (än sän'bl') is much more elaborate than a suit of sleeping pajamas, for it is usually made of richer, less-easy-to- wash fabric. . a note on children's clothes. — children's clothes should be simple, although there are as many kinds of clothing for children as there are for adults. the size and type of the child will determine the color, texture, size, and type of the pat- tern and the material. leaflets issued by the division of textiles and clothing, bureau of home economics, united states department of agriculture, give a carefully worked-out analysis of children's clothes in relation to health, comfort, and ease in putting on and taking off. unit iii the garment from thimble to gown the athletic type is of medium size with square shoulders and strong features. straight-line dresses are the best for this type, and only the more simple trimmings, such as plaits, but- tons, or buckles, should be used. medium or dark shades of color are the ones most suited to this type. the dramatic type is tall and slender, with striking features. she may wear dresses of extreme lines, and trimmings in dark, rich colors, bright colors, or striking combinations. “there are no secrets in dress; there is either knowledge or lack of knowledge.” (collins.) . how to make a dress for any occasion wardrobe. — in planning for a new dress, one should first con- sult her wardrobe to determine the kind of dress she needs, and decide from her budget the amount of money one can afford to spend (pages – ). in checking the wardrobe, one may find a dress of good fabric but out of style. this dress should be remodeled instead of purchasing new fabric. many do not enjoy a “made-over” dress as well as a new one, but by having to do this the wearer will be taught the folly of buying more clothes than are needed. the question that is then voiced is, “shall i make or buy my dress ?” the determining factors are the amount of money and time one has to spend, one's artistic ability, knowledge of good design, and taste. there is no gamble in the ready-to-wear dress as to the finished appearance on the wearer. select a dress that will fit in with the color scheme of your wardrobe and one that will fill a need for more than one occasion. there is no reason why a home-made dress, if it is constructed well and pressed as it is made, should not look as well as a ready- made dress. use time-saving methods and never put unnecessary labor in making a dress, but strive for effect rather than perfection the finished garment in workmanship. when both qualities are obtained in a dress, namely, style and good workmanship, the triumph is complete. picture. — carefully choose a picture as nearly as possible like the dress needed. remember that simplicity is the keynote of good design. one outgrows dresses mentally as well as physically, and for this reason great care should be taken to choose pleasing lines and a suitable design (pages – ; – ). true it is that the smart costume should be a symphony of line, texture, and tone, carefully assembled. measurements. — after selecting the picture of the dress, take the correct measurements that are required for the pattern (pages – ). pattern. — buy the pattern in the size that is designated by your measurements, unless there is irregularity of the figure. the type of figure, style, and material to be used influence the selection. beware of choosing young designs, thinking they will make you appear young, for you will be disappointed. fabric. — select and buy good fabric that is suitable to the pattern, preferably one of those named on the pattern envelope. read the direction chart about the amount of cloth needed carefully, so that you may have enough fabric with no ex- travagant waste. this saves your pennies (pages – ; )! • color. — nature has given each one of us a keynote of color (pages – ). each should wear the shades that will enhance the beauty of her individual coloring and blend with her wardrobe. the softer the color tone of a dress, the softer the dress will appear when worn. bright colors must be used in small quan- tities and shades in bulk. too much color distracts attention from the wearer's face and personality in general. remember that all people do not respond in the same way to color. trimmings. — in selecting trimmings it is best to have too little rather than too much. designed fabrics are more effective with from thimble to gown self-trimming. all trimmings should combine to produce a one- ness of effect (pages – ). shrinking the fabric. — shrink the fabric (pages – ) and even the ends (page ). in making the dress, much time can be saved by using an organized method (pages – ). study the pattern (pages – ). all pin fitting is done along the seam lines, and should be done with care, because then the exact amount the pattern needs to be altered in width and length can be determined. arrange the pattern economically on the fabric and cut (pages – ). with each pattern is a direction sheet or guide which outlines in detail the laying out and cutting in the most economical way. dresses should be constructed and pressed as they are cut since this insures accuracy in fitting and finish. this is a general rule for all clothes. however, every dress is an individual problem as to seams, trimmings, etc., depending upon the pattern and fabric used. pressing should be done at every stage in the con- structing of a dress, in order to blend the seams and parts to- gether and produce a finished effect. . how to make a coat, and the best tailoring processes in use he made him a coat of many colors. — genesis : the finished smartness of a coat depends upon suitability to type, occasion, climate, and age. the really tailored coat must denote careful workmanship, and taste in selection of color and suitable fabric. there are certain processes used in the con- struction of tailored garments, whether they be suits, coats, or dresses. the tailored coat with the notched collar is one of the best examples of the many processes of tailoring and will be used to illustrate the making of a coat. the finished garment the tailored coat is suitable only to certain types, but features of it may be adapted to almost every type. your wardrobe, which is most versed upon such matters, will tell you your need as to color and style. your budget will tell you the amount to be spent on the coat (pages – ). the fabric chosen will depend largely upon the occasion for which it is to be used, the climate in which you live, and your age (pages – ). wool fabric is more adapted to tailored finishes than other materials, and the greatest demand for tailored garments comes from the business and sports world. in the construction of the tailored garment the pressing equip- ment is as essential as the sewing machine. never use one without the other in making coats. it cannot be repeated too often that one half the secret in good sewing is pressing as you go; because pressing blends the seams together and gives the coat a trim, tailored finish. the following steps will give a satisfactory order to follow in making a coat: pattern (pages – ). — the style of pattern should be dictated by one's type (pages – ), and by the use for which the coat is intended. measurements. — follow "how to take accurate measure- ments” (pages – ). fabric. — purchase the yardage of fabric designated on the back of the pattern envelope (material that is in keeping with the design of the pattern), lining, and trimming. cheap fabrics do not have the body and lasting qualities that are required of a smartly tailored coat. therefore, it is advisable to purchase a good quality of worsted or woolen, as it takes the tailored finishes best and always appears well. muslin. — purchase as many yards of a medium grade of indian- head unbleached muslin as the yards of fabric called for by the pattern. from thimble to gown shrinking. — shrink the muslin and fabric for the coat (pages - ). study pattern. — identify all pieces of the pattern and pattern markings (pages – ). return the unnecessary pieces to the envelope. pin paper pattern. — carefully pin the paper pattern together to get an idea of the necessary alterations. cut muslin pattern. — cut the muslin pattern, following direc- tions for cutting garments (pages – ). the muslin coat is cut as though it were the coat material, allowing for all alterations indicated by the paper fitting. mark with a straight line the way the muslin pattern should be placed on the material so that the line of marking will be parallel with the warp thread. assembling the muslin coat (figure ). - make darts or tucks (pages – ; – ). establish shoulder or underarm seams (pages – ), and make seams. establish neck line (page ). make fac- ing. cut the facing by the adjusted facing pattern. place the right side of the facing to the right side of the coat and pin them together. baste from the neck line down; then, from the neck line, stitch one quarter inch from the edge, beginning at the notch at the top of the lap and down the facing. clip the corner of the facing and turn in the facing to the right side of the coat to the depth of the notches. beginning at the notch on the right side of the coat, baste the facing from the neck line to the waist, or the end of the lapel; the right side of the facing must be turned under toward the coat far enough so that the plain seam does not show. from the bottom of the h jre from thimble to gown sood they will hold their shape. smoothly rolled lapels and collar and good firm edge lines are more than half the battle in making a tailored garment. cut the facings by the muslin pattern and use the muslin facings for the interfacings. the interfacings are placed on the wrong side of the front of the coat, pinned and basted, and held in place by diagonal basting stitches which are invisible from the right side of the coat as in figure . hold the lapel facing firmly over the hand with the interlining on top, and in stitching roll and shape the lapel the direction in which it is to be when finished. trim the edges of the in- terfacing one-quarter inch from the edge. place the right side of the coat facing to the right side of the coat and pin together. baste from the neck line down, and from the neck line in, to the depth of the notches, and stitch; following the interfacing, one-quarter inch from the edge, beginning at the notch, stitch down the facing. clip the corner, dampen, and press the plain seam figure open. turn the facing to the right side. beginning at the notch, hold the plain seam under, so that the seam cannot be seen from the neck line to the waist or the length of the lapel as in figure . from the bottom of the lapel turn the plain seam in the opposite direction so that the seam line does not show on the right side of the coat. dampen the facing and press, using a pressing cloth (page ). baste the raw edges of the facing to the coat. pooooooooo ooooooo eoooooo. the finished garment make tailored collar (pages - ). make the sleeves (pages – ). set in the sleeves (pages – ). make the cuffs (pages – ). establish the hem line (pages – ). make the coat hem. mark the hem two inches in depth from the estab- lished line and cut off any excess fabric. baste the hem in place, taking care to match the seams. the bottom of the facing is cut one-quarter inch below the creased hem line, and the inner- lining at the bottom of the fac- ing is cut exactly at the creased line (i). with small bastings turn the creased fold back of the facing, and baste just above the creased line. turn in a small hem along the side of the facing, the distance that overlaps the hem. cut out the hem of the coat that comes under the facing one-quarter inch from the finished edge of the facing (ii). baste the facing to the bottom of the coat, so that the folded edge of the facing and the coat just i meet. dampen and press with figure a pressing cloth. sew the fac- ing, that has been basted to the coat, securely in place with small diagonal basting stitches (page ). sew the raw edge of the facing and hem in place with the catch stitch (page ). make the pockets that are in keeping with the type of coat desired (pages – ). make buttonholes (pages – ) and sew on buttons (pages – ) that are suitable to the fabric and type of coat. make and sew in lining (pages – ). oooood moa chapter xii cleaning, pressing, and shrinking cleanliness is next to godliness. — john wesley meda n clean garments are economical. clean u fabrics wear longer than soiled ones. clean garments give a personal satisfaction and have a psychological reaction on the senses. there are two general methods of cleaning : dry cleaning and washing. silks and wools are usually dry cleaned, while cottons, linens, and rayons are most often washed. experi- ment first with a small piece of the material to ascertain which method to use, and shake or brush the garment well before cleaning. . the cleaning of garments . dry cleaning. — dry cleaning was developed in france. it differs from laundering in that the solvents used are readily volatile and contain no moisture. gasoline, naphtha, carbon tetrachloride, trichloride, thylene, ethylene, and the new “stod- dard solvent ” are used in dry cleaning. all agents except carbon tetrachloride are explosive, and the vapors are heavier than air and settle to the floor instead of rising. they should, therefore, be used out of doors, and never used near a fire. the safest and most satisfactory liquid for home cleaning is carbon tetrachloride. cleaning, pressing, and shrinking rice and potato starches give finish and body, but not stiff- ness. the clothes should be dried in clear air and sunshine, for these two powers whiten and purify the clothes. clothes should never be allowed to freeze, as frozen fibers will break with the least bending. sprinkle the clothes evenly, and let them stand until the moisture is evenly distributed. ironing. — iron directly on the fabric with strength and firm- ness, and follow the warp thread up and down the garment. linen should always be ironed on the wrong side to preserve the rough finish of line. embroideries and laces should be ironed on the wrong side over a soft pad to bring out the design. the iron should be lifted up and down, pressing a small portion at a time, so as to keep the pattern in position. tucks are ironed lengthwise until dry. in ironing ruffles, iron the edge of the ruffle first and then turn the point of the iron toward the gathers. in ironing garments, always iron the cuffs, collars, sleeves, front, then the back. . washing special materials. rayon. — rayon is washed like cotton but should be handled with greater care, for the fibers are weakened when wet. to remove water, it should be squeezed but never twisted. rayon should be dried upon a flat surface when possible, or evenly hung over the line and ironed with a warm iron on the wrong side after it is entirely dry. acetate rayon will melt under a hot iron. silk. — silks are always washed in tepid water, as hot water will turn the fiber yellow. they should be dipped and squeezed but never rubbed. they should never be starched or blued. a mild flake soap is advisable to use in washing silks. after the silk has been thoroughly washed, it should be rinsed in water of the same temperature. squeeze excess water from the silk and roll in a turkish towel. iron with a warm iron on the wrong side when almost dry. this method will preserve the luster and make silk look like new. from thimble to gown wool. — before washing a knit wool garment, brush it thor- oughly to help remove the dirt. then lay it out flat on a paper and make an outline of its shape. this same outline will serve for future washings also. after washing the garment, place it on the paper, shape it to fit the outline, and leave it until it is dry enough to press. wool should be washed in soft, tepid water with a mild flake soap or pure naphtha soap; and through the entire process of washing and rinsing, the waters should be kept at the same even temperature. if soft water is not attainable, add one tablespoon of borax or ammonia to each gallon of water. borax is best for colors; dissolve it in a little hot water before adding it to the wash water. never put woolen fabrics into hot water or hot suds, but re- member that the warmer the water, the more likely the colors are to run and the material to shrink. always use enough mild soap to maintain rich suds, otherwise a greasy deposit of lime soap is left, giving the garment a spotty appearance and a dingy cast. when the suds are ready, put the garment in and start washing at once. colored fabrics should not be soaked even for a short time; nor should white garments that have colored trimmings, for they are likely to become streaked as well. the garment should be washed by squeezing the suds through and through, but should never be rubbed. if there are any very soiled spots, squeeze the suds through these portions repeatedly. do not allow the weight of the wet garment to pull it out of shape or to tear the sheer yarns in the daintier garments. wash badly soiled pieces several times in clean suds. the fresh appearance so much desired cannot be expected if the suds are dirty. plenty of clean suds are necessary in order to get fresh, soft woolens. wool should be rinsed in tepid water to which has been added enough soap to make it look milky. after rinsing, squeeze the excess water out, roll the garment in turkish towels, and then cleaning, pressing, and shrinking twist them to absorb as much water as possible. press as soon as sufficiently dry. the whole washing and drying should be done as quickly as possible. when wet, the wool expands and the projecting edges loosen, but when drying, they interlock, drawing the fibers closer together. there are five main causes of shrink- ing: strong soap, hot water, alkalies, much rubbing, and a hot iron. flannels. — flannels should be soaked for a few hours in cold water and then washed in a warm soapy (mild) solution. dry in a windy, shady place, if possible. this method will not harden or shrink the flannel. . method of bleaching linens. — the old irish method for bleaching linens and white cotton is both simple and effective. wet the linen in buttermilk and place in the sun until it is bleached to satisfaction. wash and press carefully. the article will be snowy white. old linens and cottons may also be treated in this manner, or by soaking them overnight in a solution of pine clay and warm water. wash and boil them the next day in the usual way. silk and wool may be kept white by using in the rinse water each time one teaspoon of hydrogen peroxide diluted in a quart of water. almost any kind of stain on white fabric can be removed by the following method: dissolve two pounds of sal soda in two quarts of water and boil until dissolved. add one can chloride of lime. (this solution will keep indefinitely.) soak the article fifteen minutes, rinse well, and boil. this solu- tion will not hurt the fiber if it is rinsed well. . setting colors. — will it fade? this question is difficult to answer because of the many different dyes, methods used in dyeing, and the power of the fiber to hold the dye. fibers may be compared to tiny tubes that hold the dye within them. the tubes are seldom able to absorb all the dye in the dye bath. when high, vivid colors are desired, the excess dye forms layers around the fiber. in washing, many think the material is fading cleaning, pressing, and shrinking the garment out of the sunlight. the garment must be wet before dipping it into the coloring solution. . pressing as neat as a bandbox. . tools. — pressing removes wrinkles, crinkles, and creases; and nothing gives more life to a garment than pressing. press- ing should begin with the construction of the first seam, as it blends the garment together and gives a finished appearance. ironing board – the ironing board should have a smooth, firm, and well-padded surface. this padding should be made by layers of felt, flannel, or table wadding and be large enough to cover the entire board. a fine grade of canvas is splendid for ironing-board covers, or a heavy grade of unbleached muslin may be used. several strips of straight tape are sewed at even distances along the sides of the padding and muslin covers to hold them in place. the removable covers may be conveniently laundered. sleeve board. — the sleeve board is necessary for correct pressing of sleeves and armholes. it is about two feet in length and tapers in width from five inches at the upper end to three inches at the lower end. the sleeve board is padded and covered in the same manner as the ironing board. if a sleeve board is not available, a turkish towel, folded to about three inches in width and placed inside the sleeve, proves very satisfactory. tailor's cushion. — a tailor's cushion is used in pressing and shrinking the excess fullness from the darts, the top of the sleeves, and curved seams. the cushion is made from two pieces of heavy, firm material, eighteen inches by fourteen inches in size and is egg-like in shape. it may be stuffed firmly but not solidly with wadding. sawdust and sand may be used but are not so satis- factory. from thimble to gown pressing cloth. — the pressing cloth should be of some heavy firm material, preferably a medium grade of unbleached muslin. the cloth should be dipped in hot water before using, to remove sizing. the pressing cloth may be used in either of three ways, depending upon the fabric. a dampened sponge is used in press- ing silks. a damp cloth is used in pressing heavy fabrics, mainly wool. the cloth is dampened by placing one half of it in warm water. the excess water is squeezed out and the dampened side is folded over and wrung together with the dry side to dis- tribute the dampness evenly. to press seams the dry cloth is placed over the seam and the cloth is slightly moistened with a sponge, brush, or the finger tips. this method does not cause spotting. iron. — the six-pound iron is most commonly used. only a moderately hot iron should be used in pressing, which is the process of lifting the iron gently over the fabric. press, do not iron. work slowly, pressing always with the warp thread. press lightly at first until the moisture changes to steam, and then increase the pressure. press until the fabric is dry. keep the iron moving over the fabric to avoid the imprint of the iron or scorching. good pressing removes the “home-made” look of a garment and will do much to prolong the life of the fiber. the secret of a well-pressed garment is to press as you sew, and not after the garment is finished. . method of pressing. -- fabrics not made up are pressed on the wrong side, while finished garments should always be pressed on the right side so as to conceal folds and ridges. most materials are affected by heat and moisture. a piece of the material should always be tested to determine the effect of heat and moisture on the fiber. long seams are always pressed on the ironing board. the short seams are pressed on the sleeve board, while the top of sleeves, darts, and curves are pressed on the tailor's cushion. the cleaning, pressing, and shrinking seam around the armseye is always pressed toward the sleeve, using the point of the iron. shoulder and underarm seams are pressed toward the back of the dress, except when plain seams are desired. bias seams are pressed from the wide to the narrow part. . how to press various fabrics. cotton. — cotton may be pressed on the right or wrong side. linen. — linen should always be pressed on the wrong side to preserve the rough appearance on the right side, except on table linen where a gloss is desired. in this case iron half dry on the wrong side and finish ironing dry on the right side with a very hot iron. if a high gloss is desired, dip the linen in very hot water and run through the wringer. fold smoothly and roll in a turkish towel for a few hours and then iron. pile fabrics. — pile fabrics may be pressed on a wire board made for this purpose. the board is made with a heavy canvas back and fine wires set close together in a slanting position. then canvas is tacked over the wire board. the pile is not injured when pressed over the wire board as it sinks between the wires. to remove deep creases, a slightly damp cloth may be placed on the wrong side of the fabric that has been put on the wire board. always press nap fabrics, as broadcloth and panne velvet, with the nap. nap fabrics should be steamed, and this may be done successfully at home. use a one-gallon can having a spout. fill the can half full of water and screw the cap on tight. place a five-foot rubber tube over the end of the spout. a strong steam will come from the end of the rubber tube when the water boils. place the garment on a hanger and hold the end of the rubber tube to the garment, moving it lightly back and forth until the wrinkles are steamed out. then brush the pile lightly with a whisk broom. seams may be pressed by placing a wet cloth over a hot iron turned upside down. hold wrong side of the seam over the steaming cloth. this method may also be used to raise the nap in velvet. from thimble to gown silk and rayon. — À warm iron should be used on silk because a hot iron weakens the fiber, therefore taking the life from the silk. always use a dampened sponge in pressing, and press on the wrong side. tissue paper may be used over the silk. wool. — wool should be pressed with a damp cloth and requires more pressing than any other fabric. a cloth of new cambric muslin gives a degree of stiffness that lends a newness to the fabric. the same cloth may be used several times for this purpose. a colored pressing cloth should be used on dark fabric to prevent lint from showing. wool may be satisfactorily pressed by dampening with a damp sponge and placing a piece of cheese- cloth or wrapping paper on the fabric before pressing. in shrinking, press the fabric lightly so that the steam will circu- late under it. the shine may be removed from woolen fabrics by rubbing with a fine emery paper, teazel, or by using a pressing cloth which has been dipped in water containing a little witch hazel or vinegar (two tablespoons to one pint of water) or a tea- spoon of ammonia. stop pressing before the fabric is dry and brush with a bristled brush. . . shrinking the long and short of it. will it shrink? all fabrics shrink some, whether it is notice- able or not. the amount of shrinkage will depend upon the treatment that the fiber has received. the fibers may have been stretched before and after weaving and, since fibers are affected by hot and cold solutions, the fiber will regain its original size or shrink noticeably. for this reason all fabrics should be shrunk carefully before being made up. garments that have not been shrunk, or are not large enough to allow for shrinkage, cannot be re-dyed because the hot and cold dye baths in the process of dyeing affect the fiber, causing it to shrink. from thimble to gown is thoroughly dampened. then press carefully, first on one side and then on the other, still keeping the fabric folded. press with the warp thread until thoroughly dry. . the removal of stains out, out, i say! — shakespeare stains are unlike dirt marks in that they have penetrated the fibers instead of being held on or between them. the five dif- ferent kinds of fibers composing fabrics cannot be treated the same because, generally speaking, the vegetable fibers — cotton, linen, and rayon — are not injured by alkalies but are by acids. when acids are used, therefore, they should be neutralized by weak ammonia. wool and silk are injured by alkalies, and even washing sodas or strong alkaline soap often seriously injure these fibers. a mild washing soda, therefore, such as borax or diluted solutions of ammonia, should be used. acetic acid will often restore a color that has been changed by alkalies. wool and silk are not injured by acids. each “spot" is a different problem and requires special consideration because of the different fibers and the varieties of dyestuffs. the nature of the stain and fiber should be known, if possible, before its removal is attempted, because this determines the treatment. the stain remover and the method used should be as mild as possible and should be repeated until the stain has entirely disappeared. when acids are used on vegetable fibers, they should be neutralized by weak ammonia. the chief difficulty encountered by the inexperienced are the ring formation and the roughening of the fabric. rings are caused by the excess dressing of the fabric which runs back into the edge of the damp portion and is deposited there as the fabric drys. or the fabric may be soiled, in which case the cleaning agent removes any foreign matter as well as the stain. care cleaning, pressing, and shrinking should be taken to sponge the soiled spot with the least possible amount of cleaning agent. if a small quantity of salt is added to the cleaning agent, it will also help to prevent the customary ring, through absorption. after the spot is removed it is well to go over it lightly with a moist sponge or cheesecloth, absorb- ing the surplus liquid and barely dampening the surrounding fabric enough to spread the dressing out in an irregular indis- tinct line. it is sometimes helpful to go over the spot with a tintless sponging cloth barely moistened in denatured or wood alcohol. alcohol affects some colors, so one must be careful to have the cloth just damp. when it is impossible to prevent rings, the entire garment will have to be cleaned. rapid drying should always be practiced in drying stain removals, especially when there is danger of ring formations. when the fabric becomes rough after the removal of stains, it is due to too harsh treatment when being sponged. . removing agents. — there are four agents used in stain removing, and they should be used as quickly as possible so that the chemical is not left on the textile fibers any longer than necessary. washing. — water is used with soap, soapbark, ammonia, borax, or washing soda. water should be used first on all materials that do not spot or fade. to remove stains, never use hot water on wool and silk as it turns it yellow, shrinks the wool, and injures the finish of the silk. most rayon is weaker when wet than when dry, and boiling is likely to decrease its luster. pre- caution must be used, as water may spot the fabric or cause the color to run. yellow naphtha soap may be used in the wash water for all washable and colored fabrics and will remove the majority of stains. solvents. — the solvents are water and such liquids as chloro- form, ether, carbon tetrachloride, gasoline, naphtha, benzine, kerosene, turpentine, and wood or denatured alcohol. most cleaning, pressing, and shrinking vu. article with hot water, apply a solution of ten grains of oxalic acid and one pint of water, and rinse well. diluted ammonia can also be used on cotton, linen, and rayon. fruits are acid and the stains must be counteracted with an alkali. acetic or oxalic acid may be applied to blue or gray stains after boiling water has been added. this restores the original color and renders the stain more easily soluble in boiling water. stable hydrosulphites or potassium acid oxalate, commonly known as “ salts of lemon” or “salts of sorrel," are very satisfactory for removing stains in white fabrics. treat stains with boiling water and then boil them in a solution of oxalate acid. grass. — use ether, wood or denatured alcohol, or milk on all fabrics. for cotton, linen, and rayon, use ammonia and wash in a soda solution, or molasses, or equal parts of hydro- gen peroxide and ammonia. for all washable fabrics use kerosene, or naphtha soap. traces of stain may be bleached out with javelle water or potassium permanganate. a dry paste of soap and baking soda may be made and allowed to dry on the fabric, repeating the applications until the stain has disappeared. grease. — use any spirit, gas, carbon tetrachloride acetone, or benzol for all fabrics. use alcohol on all unwashable fabrics. for cotton, linen, and rayon, apply lard and wash first in cold and then in hot, soapy water; or cover the spot with fuller's earth, magnesium carbonate, starch, or french chalk; then place the spot between blotting paper and apply a hot iron. ink. — the compositions of ink are so varied that one method will not remove all spots. . india ink. — apply wood or denatured alcohol, glacial acetic acid, chloroform, or gasoline. . marking ink. — moisten with a few drops of tincture of iodine, sponge out, and then remove with a solution of sodium thiosulphate made by dissolving several crystals in half a cup of from thimble to gown water. corrosive sublimate (poison) in dilution is very effec- tive, but because of its poisonous nature, care must be taken to keep it from the fingers and to remove all traces of it from the vessel used. javelle water may be applied for white cotton or linens. soak the stain in ammonia solution and launder well. . printing ink. — rub the stained place with lard, working it well into the fibers, then launder with a strong soapy solution, or soak a few minutes in turpentine, then sponge out with chloroform, ether, or wood alcohol. . writing ink. — sour milk can be used on all fabrics. for all fast-color fabrics, alternate oxalic acid and javelle water, a few drops at a time. for all washable fabrics, either soak in a strong salt-water solution and rinse in a strong solution of ammonia, or moisten the ink spot and rub with salt, cornmeal, or sugar, then wash in cold water. for cotton, linen, and rayon either use salt and lemon, or rub ordinary laundry soap on the spot, wet with kerosene and then peroxide, roll the article, and let stand one hour. white cotton, linen, and rayon can be treated with ordinary laundry soap rubbed on the spot, then wet with peroxide, and the spot held over steam from the iron or tea kettle. for cotton, linen, and rayon of fast colors, use lemon juice and sunshine. for red ink use cold water followed with ammonia, or javelle water, or hot ammonia and alcohol. iodine. — wash all washable fabrics immediately with cold water and sponge with chloroform, denatured or wood alcohol, or an ammonia solution. sponge in sodium if desired. this sulphate consists of one tablespoon of sodium to one pint of water, or sodium sulphate. wash cotton, linen, and rayon in hot, soapy water. on unwashable fabrics, steam the iodine spot until the stain has disappeared, or apply hot ammonia and hyposulphite of soda. mildew. — use alcohol on all fabrics, or ammonia followed by vinegar, or powdered chalk and sunshine. white rit can be cleaning, pressing, and shrinking used on white fabrics. for fast colors of cotton, linen, and rayon, use either lemon juice, salt, and sunshine, or a solution of one pint of javelle water to one gallon of soapy water and soak the mildewed fabric in it, or rub soap on the spots, then a little chalk and dampen with lemon juice. mildew is the hardest of all stains to remove, and a most satisfactory way to remove it is to use two tablespoons of chlorox in one quart of cold water, rinsing thor- oughly. old and persistent stains may also be removed with potassium permanganate. a per cent solution of oxalic acid will remove some forms of mildew. oils. — there are three methods for cleansing all fabrics of oils : gasoline, alcohol, ether, chloroform, or naphtha; carbon tetrachloride; or place the spot between blotting paper and apply a hot iron. turpentine can be used on all washable fabrics, and soap and water on cotton, linen, and rayon. paint and varnish. — all fabrics can be treated in a variety of ways: rub with oil, lard, or butter and wash in a strong soapy solution; use benzine, carbon tetrachloride, chloro- form and alcohol, or gasoline (for delicate colors use chloro- form); or apply equal proportions of turpentine and ammonia to the spot, scrape the loosened paint, and apply ben- zine; or wash out in soapsuds. for all fabrics except rayon, soften with amyl acetate and remove with gasoline. turpentine can be used on all washable fabrics. equal parts of benzine and acetone and alcohol are also very good removers. perfumes and perspiration. — perspiration, if not immediately removed with plain water, will weaken the fibers, and the acid in it may form a permanent stain and remove the color of the fabric. wash cotton, linen, and rayon in tepid, soapy water. use de- natured alcohol on all other fabrics. hydrogen peroxide, javelle water, or potassium permanganate can be used for cotton and linen. from thimble to gown rust. — iron rust is soluble only in acids, and it is therefore difficult to remove iron rust from colored fabrics, as the acid used removes the color. a solution of cream of tartar and boiling water is good for cotton, linen, and rayon. lemon juice, salt, and sunshine can be used on all fabrics. boil four tablespoons of cream of tartar and one pint of water, and pour over the stain on all washable fabrics. for cotton, linen, and rayon fabrics of delicate colors, use javelle water. for silk and wool, use diluted hydrochloric acid, and for cotton and linen, use oxalic acid. hydrochloric acid is an excellent agent but is very corrosive and should be handled with a great deal of care. scorch. — there are several ways to treat all fabrics : dampen the spot and place material in hot sunshine; rub the scorched spot with soft bread crumbs; and for all washable fabrics, rinse in soapy, tepid water, apply white vaseline, and dry in the sun- shine. fast colors of cotton, linen, and rayon may be treated by moistening a cloth with hydrogen peroxide, placing it over the scorch, and, placing a dry cloth over it, pressing with a warm iron. precaution: do not iron directly on cloth moistened with peroxide or moist fabric after dry cloth has been removed. if this is done, the iron rust stain remains on the garment. if the body of the fabric is burned, it is impossible to remove the scorch. soft drinks. — such stains are usually classed as tannin stains, and should be washed out in plain water immediately, as the fibers in the fabric are affected by tannin. it produces a yellow or brown color when exposed to alkalies and heat, and cannot be removed without injuring the fabric. sponge all fabrics with clear warm water or denatured alcohol. use boiling water on dry spots in cotton, linen, and rayon. wine spilled on any fabric may be removed by putting salt on the spot, if it is done immediately. stamping marks on embroidery. — wash cotton, linen, and rayon in tepid, soapy water. sponge all fabrics with denatured alcohol. from thimble to gown . brushing and airing clothes. — before returning any garments or other wearing apparel to the closet, give everything a thorough brushing: hats, clothes, and shoes. take all those little stitches, that, “taken in time, save nine.” get under collars and cuffs; get into the corners of plaits; turn pockets wrong-side out. and whenever the weather permits, do all this brushing out of doors, because the rays of sunlight have cleansing powers. . dressing up closets. — a closet can be made very attractive nowadays, especially if a girl likes to sew and make things herself — cretonne- or wall-paper-covered shoe boxes for her shoes and stockings; matching covering of the hatboxes on the shelves (with fronts of the boxes cut so that they may be dropped down for convenience in reaching a hat) or covered, cone-shaped standards upon which the hats may rest; long muslin bags for the best ” dresses and little shoulder covers of cretonne for the others, so that each dress is kept separate from every other. a complete color scheme may be worked out, so that the closet will harmonize with the bedroom. hangers, too, may be dressed up, with sachet pads sewed on them for faintly scenting each garment. an ideal hanger is one with a covering of soft, webbed material, to keep the garments from sliding off. such a closet is worth striving for. for clothes, you know, take on a charm from attractive surroundings. chapter xiii origins . origin of tools of sewing be not the first by whom the new are tried, nor yet the last to lay the old aside. – pope dar back in the dim corners of old attics, t or in museums, here and there, stand the spinning wheels and the looms upon which your great-grandmothers spun the yarns and wove the coverlets that lay on the canopied beds of colonial days. it was their task to spin as well as bake, and under their agile fingers the flax or the wool became thread or yarn, which in turn was made into cloth for household linens and clothing for the family. and many an old sampler today shows the uneven stitches made by little fingers in their first lessons in the art of sewing. but the beginning of the nineteenth century, with its machines and its fast-growing cities, brought new methods in the produc- tion of textiles and clothing. with tremendous speed machines made the cloth that used to be home-made; and girls went into the mills to work, instead of staying at home and learning to sew by hand. before long the lovely hand-made carpets and coverlets, linens and homespuns, were put away in the attic chests, or given away, and “store” products were bought instead. for many, sewing became a lost art. from thimble to gown when a girl marries and has a home of her own, however, she has need of a knowledge of sewing, and it became evident that somehow and somewhere she must be taught something of the arts of this handicraft. the solution seemed to be in the school. in , the women of boston, with the financial aid of a wealthy bostonian, succeeded in having sewing taught in the schools. from such a small beginning has grown the domestic science courses of our modern schools, up and into the doors, even, of o our colleges; so that today, no girl's education is perfectly rounded out un- less she has acquired enough knowledge of homemaking to cook a little, to sew a little, to purchase articles intelli- gently, to know what is proper to do and to wear, and to budget her time and her money. a girl may well be proud of her ability to make her own clothes, or alter those she buys so that they may be individual and distinctive. scissors. — the words “shears” and scissors from the th to "scissors," although derived from dif- th centuries. feront roots have practical original meaning. “scissors” comes from the latin "scindo," meaning “to part” or “divide,” while the word “shears” is traced back through the old english “seeran," meaning “to cut” or “clip,” to the old teutonic root“skar," "to cut.” all the earlier forms of shears and scissors resembled the modern scissors. bronze scissors were made as early as b.c. by the chaldeans and egyptians. steel scissors were made by the romans about b.c. pins, common. — the earliest forms of pins were thorns, fish- bones, pine needles, and the like. later on, women changed these natural forms into more effective tools by sharpening the umarreras blolararlimaute origins initud dimilitum points and smoothing the surfaces. still later, metal pins were fashioned. pins of bronze and copper have been found in ancient egyptian tombs. in europe, metal pins were first made in the fifteenth century. they were very expensive, as they were fashioned out of precious metals by hand. common pins were made in two pieces: the head, a spiral coil of wire, soldered to a metal shank. when one of the ladies at the court of henry viii cut herself on one of the coils, the king ordered all pins to be made of one piece. the origin of “pin money” belongs to this period when a certain amount of money was set aside by each woman at the first of the year for her supply of pins. pins, with perforated heads, safety pins and fancy pins. — the from upper austria and italy, and primitive fibulae derived use of the safety pin dates back to from them, supposedly, from the early egyptian, greek, and roman sweden and northern italy. days. these pins were hand-made of gold and silver, practically in the shapes of those used today. in some cases they were cov- ered with jewels, examples of which, discovered in archeological excavations, are found in museums throughout the world. the safety pin used today is strictly a triumph of american genius. it was made first, in , with the guard on only one side of the pin, but improvements have been made at various times since. needles. — needles are not a modern invention. the steps in the development of the race can be traced from primitive to modern times by the forms and materials of needles.. eyeless needles of thorns, ivory, bones, or fish-bones were used by all early people who wore skins or woven materials for clothing. from thimble to gown with land made chiefly of wood, about eighty were being used in paris in , making army clothing, when an infuriated crowd wrecked the establishment. thimmonier was not discouraged and in he patented a machine made entirely of metal, a great im- provement over the first model. but the troubles of blasted the hopes of this inventor. he sold the patent and died in , unfriended and unre- warded. elias howe, a native of spencer, massachusetts, di- rected his attention to machine-sewing about . in , he completed a rough this sewing machine, "embellished model, and in patented the first premium and medal at the new his sewing machine. howe york state fair in . its price was was the first to patent a $ . . lockstitch machine, but his invention had two other essential features: the curved eye- pointed needle and the under-thread shuttle, invented by walter hunt, twelve years previously. howe's invention was sold in england to william f. thomas of cheapside, london, a corset manufacturer, for pounds. thomas secured the english patent in his own name in december, , and engaged howe on the basis of weekly wages, to adapt the machine for his manufacturing purposes. the career of the inventor in london proved unsuccessful, and, having pawned his american patent rights in england, he returned in poverty to america in . the most prominent of the manufacturers, and inventors, ulti- mately appeared in isaac merritt singer ( - ) who in secured a patent for his machine. elias howe, hoping to estab- lish his rights, regained possession of his pawned patent and from thimble to gown . boxwood. combs were made in beautiful designs, often ex- quisitely carved and jeweled. many of the decorative combs worn today are made of tortoise shell. cravats. — the cravat was origi- nally a scarf. the word is from the french name “cravat,” a corruption of “croat.” this was the name given by the french in the time of louis xiv to the scarfs worn by croatian soldiers in the royal regi- this stone-age comb was ments. the scaris were usually oi made by placing sticks close to- linen with broad edges of lace. they gether and holding them firmly homofochionohla throughout ronno y became fashionable throughout france in position by a wooden clamp. and the fashion spread to england. the fan. — the fan has an interesting history. the first fan was probably a palm leaf used by man to keep away flies and gnats. in egypt, years ago, fashionable hosts had servants to stand behind dinner guests and fan them with papyrus. the fans were semi-circular, made of leaves and feathers attached to a rigid handle of wood, ivory, or painted sandalwood. the custom of carrying fans soon spread from greece and rome to other parts of italy and europe. venice, quick to grasp the opportunity to produce beautiful things, began to construct fans of ostrich "cravate À l'ameri- feathers. france and spain followed suit, caine," from a french and the fan became an important article book published in , called how to tie the of dress. cravat. the invention of the closing or fold- ing fans is accredited to china and japan. they were made of ivory, turquoise, or mother of pearl slats, combined with wood, gold, silver, and sometimes silk and skins. origins is queen elizabeth was especially fond of fine gloves and proud of her beautiful hands as well, and it has been said that during a single interview, she was known to put on and pull off her gloves a hundred times. people of the court gave her numberless pairs of gloves exquisitely perfumed. many were made to special order and were em- broidered with gold and silver threads with tiny jewels worked into the designs. in france, under louis xiv, gloves of kid made their appear- ance. the women also wore gloves of knitted silk. today, glove making one of queen eliza- beth's gloves, worn in is one of the established . it is half a yard productions of modern long and is made of fine white leather worked manufacturers, and with gold thread, edged gloves are as constantly at the bottom with yel- low, and lined in the changing in style as cuff with drab silk. costumes themselves. hairdressing styles. — as far back as we have record, men and women have carefully ladies' hairdressing dressed and decorated the hair. some styles was at its “height"' about were intended to be purely ornamental, . headdresses were from one to three while others indicated the age or rank of feet high, and were the wearer. in the ancient times, centuries decorated with yards of on, ropes of beads, before the birth of christ, wigs were in artificial flowers and general use, elaborately coiffured. medieval ostrich plumes. hairdressing became more simple, but be- ginning with the fourteenth century styles became more elabo- rate again. men not only curled their hair but their beards ribbo y curled yles becample, but in from thimble to gown as well. from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, mam- moth hairdressing was the vogue — tall headdresses of lace and stiffened muslin, huge edifices of curls stiffened so as to hold their shape. at the beginning of the nineteenth century, styles again became more simple. short hair became the style for men, and women wore their hair in curls, tied back with ribbons. later the curls were dispensed with and the hair arranged in a knot on top of the head. this was followed by the bobbed style of the present day. originally the chinese wore their hair in a knot on the top of their heads. when the manchus captured china, they were compelled to adopt the pigtail as a mark of bondage. it even- tually became a popular fashion, and the braids were frequently lengthened by a silk thread. handkerchiefs. — the first handkerchief was a jackal's tail mounted on a stick. these “handkerchiefs" were used by the bushman in primitive times, and served the double purpose of handkerchief and fan. other savage races wove little mats of rushes to wear on their heads and used them to mop away the perspiration from their foreheads. the greeks and romans had handkerchiefs of small squares of linen, which they carried tucked beneath their girdles. the development of the handkerchief was rapid, and in france in the seventeenth century it reached an elegance hardly con- ceivable. handkerchiefs were made of hand-wrought laces sometimes studded with jewels. in the eighteenth century, women began to use colored handkerchiefs. louis xvi, in- spired by marie antoinette, issued an edict causing handker- chiefs to be made square, rather than oval, round, or oblong, as the individual saw fit. hats. — hats were intended originally as a protection from the sun or cold. later they became ornamental and deco- rative. origins the first form of the hat was the turban, taken from the oriental countries, and had great distinction of style. the headdress of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was introduced into france by isabelle of bavaria. it was a large-meshed fillet, tall and conical in shape. it is said the reason isabelle introduced this hat was because she had lost her hair and disliked wigs. another type of fifteenth-century hat, which was worn in england, was an extravagantly trimmed bonnet resembling an infant's capi and was worn by both men and women. catherine de' medici and mary, queen of scots, introduced the custom of the headdress introduced by isabelle of bavaria. mourning bonnet which still prevails. the “fontanges headdress” was so called after the duchess de fontanges, who, while riding with king louis xiv lost her hat, and taking her ribbon garter, slipped it upon her head to keep her hair in order. this so pleased the fancy of the king, that other court ladies promptly adopted the fashion. the most fantastic headdress in history was worn during the reign of louis xvi by marie antoinette and the ladies in the court. following the revolution the poke bonnet came into popularity. this shape is still in vogue for children. headdress during the the toque is like the turban with the reign of louis xvi. exception of the brim. the tam-o'- shanter owes its name to the hero of burns' poem, “tam o’shanter.” it was first worn by the scottish plowman. origins ornaments. — it was not long after the origin of dress, that the idea of ornamenting one's dress was born. embroidery, bead work, and fringes appeared on early egyptian garments. long sashes were looped up around the waist or hips, with richly ornamented ends, heavy with gold and silver and precious stones, left hanging. fabrics were often embroidered with precious stones, — corals, seed pearls, or even colored glass beads as well as gold and silver spangles. oftentimes the robes were finished at the neck with large pendants, engraved with various designs. besides these necklaces, many bracelets, armlets, and anklets hr of gold and silver and beads were worn. much of the sport jewelry of today goes necklace. – a relic of palaeolithic back to these ancient times times, from barma grande, italy. it was for design. made of stag canines, fish vertebrae, and nassa nerita shells, and was found with in earliest times, men mo- the skeleton of a young man. note the nopolized all ornament. the rhythmical arrangement and balance of design from top to bottom. prettiest shells, the sharpest saber teeth, the most highly polished stone, belonged to them. the chief and the medicine man were particularly resplendent in their ornaments and decorations. they were painted and greased. they wore shells and image idols. they even made for themselves bracelets of the human hair cut from war victims. when man became a hunter, he found that many decorations were a hindrance to him. warriors, too, found the ornaments a hindrance. they could swing a stone ax and wield a great spear much more easily when their bodies were free from heavy orna- ments. they gave up everything except their "good-luck” charm, which they believed would protect them on the battlefield. the dress of man, therefore, became simpler. only the chief and the medicine man, both of whom remained in safe parts of from thimble to gown toun ke bolsileagle bell the battlefield and who did but little hunting, continued to wear many ornaments. it was when man began to find elaborate dress and decora- tion a hindrance that woman began to decorate herself. she found it a pleasant diversion to sit by the fire and string teeth on a long fiber to be worn around her neck. she liked to make ornaments that bronze chain, from lozère, france. — would delight her master. chains like this one probably served as belts, and enjoyed a wide distribution. the the thus, while man hunted form of the bronze age specimens is char- with his neighbors, woman acteristic — flat, ribbon-like pieces alternat- ing with filiform rings. sat before the fire and kept the food in readiness for his return and, while the food cooked in the big iron pot, she made new things for herself to wear. woman gradually began to dress for her own pleasure, as she still does to a very great extent. it would seem, however, that woman adorned herself origi- nally because of man's vanity, rather than her own; the wealthier the man, the more ornaments she wore. parasols. — sunshades were well known in athens, as well as in assyria, egypt, and persia, and were carried only by women. they resembled the japanese parasol which we know, being somewhat flat, and were made of linen or silk the umbrella being introduced by jonas stretched over a framework hanway. v. origins nir of ribs similar to that in the umbrella of today. the women of gaul carried richly ornamented parasols. during the first half of the nineteenth century, the parasol almost usurped the place of the fan in milady's favor and seldom did she emerge for a promenade or drive without her tiny fringed sunshade. no one knows who made the first umbrella, but we know that jonas hanway was the first man to carry one over his head to keep off rain, as he walked through the streets of london. he is said to have used it for thirty years before it came into general use for this purpose. perfume. — the use of perfume in religious ceremonies can be traced back to very early times. the incense which was burned during these ceremonies spread a pleasing, aromatic odor throughout the temples. the bible is full of references to perfumed oils and oint- ments. during the sixteenth century perfumes uny perfumes l'amonières. -- the oldest type is were so popular that gloves were scented and that of a little bag even rings had cavities which held perfume. with a cord by which to open it and hang manufacture of perfumes today has become umes today has become it from the belt. one of the fine arts, and new odors are being placed constantly on the market. milady of fashion may now match her mood to perfume as easily as she may match a hat to a gown. purses. — one of the quaint customs introduced by the cru- saders was the fashion of wearing purses attached to the girdle. they were called “saracen almsbags,” but usually held other things besides coins for the poor. these little purses, or amonières, remained in fashion all through the middle ages and reappeared throughout the century as one of the indispensable adjuncts of cos- tume, and were remarkable either for material or for needlework. from thimble to gown san a later, in france, the little purse was called the reticule. it had a flat, bag-shaped appearance and was usually made of silk. scarfs. — during the nineteenth and twentieth dynasties in egypt ( - b.c.), the wearing of a long mantle became fashionable. this was draped, sometimes under one arm and over the other, sometimes over both shoul- ders, and fastened in front over the breast. later the mantle became a short man- tilla, which was often edged with fringe. though this mantle was worn by grecian adies of later days, it was never adorned with fringe. the style in mantles varied greatly in the different countries throughout the cen- turies. the scarf, or mantilla (borrowed from the spanish mantilla), made of silk or satin was worn about the shoulders, or thrown over the head, and the ends tied loosely in front. during the second quarter of the nine- teenth century, mantles were made of various materials according to the season, veil, worn by a gre- often trimmed with fur for winter wear. cian lady, about to per- the veil. — the veil, like the glove and form funeral rites. the walking stick, belongs to antiquity. in ancient greece veils were worn to distinguish different ranks, and to distinguish the free women from the slaves. often the veil was a symbol of reverence, bereavement, matrimony, or service. these veils were more often worn as head-coverings than face- coverings, and were made of silk or linen, often embroidered. women adopted the veil as a fashion to enhance their beauty during the middle ages. during the early nineteenth century nose veils were considered very fashionable. with the advent origins of the automobile, great veils of chiffon and gauze came into style, only to disappear as the closed car came into vogue. today the wisp of a veil is only a whim of fashion. the walking stick. — the walking stick, or cane, has a history that reaches back to biblical times, for the hebrews carried long, hooked sticks like those of shepherds. the young athenian dandies carried walking sticks. some were long, like those of the hebrews; some were short, like the modern riding crop. in europe, after the age of chivalry, the walking stick gradually took the place of the sword. its use, however, did not become gen- eral until the time of queen elizabeth. under louis xiv, the walking stick was introduced into the french court. men and women alike carried long, slender sticks. coats, jackets, and cloaks. — the ancient asiatic people were the first people to wear another garment over their pantaloon-like a cane as part of dresses. it was made like a vest and fell in the costume of an many folds below a girdled waist. athenian youth. the women of phrygia wore long, straight, close-fitting tunics with sleeves reaching to wrist or elbow, and large mantles of rich material over their shoulders. in greece about b.c. the people wore a rectangular piece of woolen material sufficiently large to wrap about the body. this was known as the “peplos.” the doric “chiton” resembled the peplos to a certain extent, except that it was more ample and of softer and finer material and fell in numerous folds. the garment that was worn by the greeks in rainy or cold weather was a mantle which covered both the head and shoulders, thus serving as a head-covering and cloak combined. another from thimble to gown garment which was often worn by the women of greece was called the “diploidion.” this was a square or oblong piece of material of varying size, resembling our shawls. it was folded double and generally wrapped around the figure so that the center of the material came under the left arm. it was fastened by clasps. the shape of the garment was considerably modified by fashion, and in later times it became a narrow slip hanging from the shoulders, resembling a semi-fitting jacket. הננננננננננננננננעשינו costumes. — a phrygian lady, a dacian man, and a grecian lady. about the same time, the “chlamys” was introduced for the men. it resembled the women's cloaks except that it was smaller and fastened on the opposite shoulder. in the first century a.d. the gallic women of rome began to wear the “palla” or “stola.” this was a loose-fitting jacket-like garment, gathered in at the waist with a girdle. later, the palla was replaced by the mantle which was draped around the figure. it frequently took the form of a full cloak, open in front and secured by a large clasp or brooch. gold tissue was a favorite material for this mantle, but when occasion demanded, heavier stuffs were doubtless used. until the tenth century, mantles of various shapes and sizes were the style. origins at the time of the crusaders, a tendency toward severity set in, and in the eleventh century both men and women adopted the "bliaud” – a long straight garment with large loose sleeves resembling the present- day kimono sleeve. our modern garment, the “blouse,” has preserved the name of “bliaud.” it is this garment, no doubt, which in the thirteenth century was changed into a “surcoat.” these simple and severe costume effects, which came in during the period of the crusades, proved to be only temporary, and from the eleventh century on cloaks became more artistic. during the thir- teenth century, a the chlamys fitted tunic came into use known as the “cote” or “cotta.” a sleeveless garment (surcoat) was worn over this. this surcoat soon merged into the close-fitting, long-sleeved jacket which we know today. the fashion of colored robes was devel- oped in the fourteenth century. these robes and jackets were in vogue until the late seventeenth century, when the little a thirteenth-century shoulder cape or “palattrie” (called "pel- gown erine” by the english) was introduced. it resembled a large drop collar and was usually made of gauze or lace in summer, and fur in winter. om ot from thimble to gown maswamaral u u the long clinging robe was also introduced which, without the suggestion of a plait, revealed the lines of the figure to advantage, and was looked upon with high approval by the leaders of fashion. at the same time a change from the doublet to the waistcoat or coat, for the gentlemen, was seen. toward the middle of the eighteenth century, the scarf or mantilla made its appearance and was worn about the shoulders or thrown over the head and the ends tied loosely. in winter a full mantle or cape was worn, sometimes lined with fur and buttoned all the way down the front. as the years wore on, the old fri- volity and luxury were doomed for destruction, and by everything was changed. english fashions came into favor for a time. close-fitting jackets with large lapels were adopted by women of fashion and waistcoats and cravats were frequently worn. an eighteenth-century gown the dress of the early settlers in america has always been associated with the words “dull,” "drab,” and “sad-colored.” doublet and jerkin were made of leather or heavy woolens; the cassock, a garment similar to a coat, was of canvas and fastened with hooks and eyes, for but- tons were a “vanity.” the puritan women wore large kerchiefs about their shoulders on going out of doors, and in very cold weather the cloak and hoods were of heavier material fur-trimmed or made entirely of fur. in , the doublet was gradually transformed into the full-skirted coat and with the coat came the vest. in the later eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the pelisse was an indispensable item in every wardrobe. in its lumen s diwanasul d origins lar original form it resembled the modern three-quarter jacket with close sleeves. the neck and sleeves were edged with fur, for it was decidedly a winter garment. in france it resembled a cape with large openings for the arms. these large cloaks were worn by the very fashionable, and many of these were lined with bright colored silk. during the summer, shawls, short mantles (like dol- mans), the long silk scarf, and the spensers, were popular. the latter had its beginning in a man's coat, a top coat invented by lord spenser. this gentleman, so the story runs, made a wager that he could set a fashion which would become popular inside of six months and, further, that it would be a form of dress wholly meaningless and unnecessary. he then called for a pair of shears, cut off the tails of his coat, close to the waist, donned his hat and went out for a stroll. a since he was a handsome man and one well known in fashionable circles, it was only a matter of a few days before several london dandies were seen wearing “spensers,” and within two weeks all london had donned the garment. the spensers varied in style. some were shaped like a blouse and opened in front. they were all short, never going below the waistline. for summer wear, the spensers were of silk. all our boleros, etons, and spanish jackets have doubtless been evolved from the spenser. during the second quarter of the nineteenth century, long cloaks, the pelisse, the redingote, and the tippet were worn. by , the dolman was a favorite out-of-doors wrap. these cape-like coats varied in length and were made of the finest from thimble to gown brocades, silks, and satins, elaborately trimmed with fringes and puffings of silk. outdoor jackets with short backs and long fronts were also worn. the corset. — long before the days of tennyson, both men and women wore a corset-like contrivance to keep their waists small. as early as the tenth century, corsets were being worn pretty generally by women everywhere. they were long and tight, mercilessly compress- ing the waist. during the middle ages these “stays” remained, always becoming more and more torturous. the tight- laced bodice also made its appearance. during the elizabethan period, fashion ran to remarkable extremes. fashionable men were never uncorseted and women wore corset covers, or bodices, of steel. these bodices were covered with beads, embroidery, or gold and jewels. in , when harvey made the discovery of the an elizabethan cos- circulation of the blood, people began to tume, showing the neces- think that the corset stopped the circula- sity for a small waist. tion and was the cause of all the little pains and aches and ills they had been suffering. it therefore became more and more modified until it reached the “girdle" of today. undergarments. — it is said that isabelle of bavaria was the first to wear linen undergarments. this fashion was readily adopted by the ladies of the period. the linen chemise was regarded as a luxury, and called “robe-linge." in order to allow a glimpse of the underlinens, the ladies of the court cut slashes in the sleeves of their gowns and also in the hips of their skirts. this vanity finally led to a deception; only that part of the chemise which could be seen was made of linen, and tin from thimble to gown instead of a fine silk one. the queen, you see, was very vain and fond of gorgeous clothes. in order to please her, william lee constructed a frame with twenty needles to the inch instead of eight, on which, in , was made a pair of silk stockings which the queen accepted and praised, but she refused him a patent because she claimed it would take away the means of living from many poor subjects. in , the first circular knitting machine was invented. a few years later, steam was applied to this machinery, and now there are great factories which knit not only stockings but gar- ments of almost every description. the clothes closet. — queen elizabeth who had three thousand separate dresses, found chests wholly inadequate for her ward- robe, nor were the cupboards any more convenient, since the frocks and gowns were stiff with crinoline. therefore, a special room was set aside for the queen's gowns, and each gown was hung on a separate wooden peg. this room with the wooden peg developed into the modern clothes closet with its separate hangers. a coat, a cape, a hat, a veil, a scarf, a glove or two, a pocket-book, a dainty fan, a parasol of blue — supplied with these, my lady, be she dark or be she fair, is equipped for any climate, any country, anywhere. appendix to the teacher the text and illustrations of this book teach the pupil the technique of sewing. they present the necessary processes clearly and logically, thus giving the learner a firm founda- tion. upon this foundation may be built a course of study of any desired length based upon any approved method. the following projects and exercises are suggested to those who wish material of this sort, either as a guide or as a supplement to their own courses of study. whenever necessary, page references to the text are given, so that the pupil may turn directly to the text for directions for completing the project. the time allotment for the various assignments is purely suggestive. they will be found flexible enough to allow the adaptations which necessarily vary with locale. many of the projects, in their consummation, hold valuable suggestions and data for future reference. such material should be collected in a notebook and kept as the pupil's per- sonal guide to the “art of being well-dressed.” the score card on page could then be copied in the notebook whenever a project is to be scored, the entries becoming a permanent record of the degree of mastery of each construction project. other suggested score cards can be found on pages – . appendix projects and exercises project i: the sewing room equipment . what are the physical requirements of a convenient sewing room? explain your reasons for your choice. . make a list of the things necessary for a well-equipped sewing box and tell something about the various articles; their use, their origin, etc. (pages – .) project ii: the use of the sewing machine ( to lessons) . name the principal parts of a sewing machine. (the book of instruction which comes with a machine will be helpful for this exercise.) . practice threading a machine, winding a bobbin, treadling, and putting in the needle. (pages – .) . practice stitching exercises, given below, on a piece of paper. a. stitch on lined paper so that the stitching will coincide exactly with the lines. b. stitch on lined paper as near to the line as possible without touching it. c. stitch from edge of paper the width of the large and small parts of the presser foot. d. stitch along drawn curves, circles, points, and squares. interest is obtained by stitching holders and individual monograms. e. fold a hem of paper and stitch as near the edge as is possible. f. on unmarked paper, stitch uniform, specified widths, as ģ, ), and į inches apart, using the eye as a gage. appendix . practice putting on bias banding (page ), first cutting true bias and dressmaker's bias from paper, and then from cloth. put on both single and double bindings. (pages – .) . discuss suitable kinds of lace to use for trimming. (page .) a. practice various methods of attaching lace. (pages – .) b. practice mitering the corners of lace trimming. (pages , .) . how can you determine the kind of neckline. to use? explain your choice. (page .) . when you have completed your garment, have it judged and enter the scores on your score card. project v: gift or christmas problem ( to lessons) . discuss suitable gifts which can be made by hand or machine, and make a choice for your own construction. . list all the various processes necessary to complete the work chosen in a. . practice the decorative stitches to be used. (pages – .) . when you have completed the problem, have it judged and then enter the scores on your score card. project vi: textile studies and judging textiles (cotton, silk, wool) ( to lessons) . a. discuss the various fibers. (pages - .) bring some samples from home and study them under the microscope. make the various tests suggested on pages , , , , . appendix b. make a line graph showing how these fibers rank in length, strength, diameter, elasticity, luster, capacity for holding mois- ture, heat conductivity, and cleanliness. fiber length strength diameter elasticity etc. cotton linen rayon silk wool . be able to identify several kinds of cotton materials. make tests for fastness of colors. (pages – .) . what qualities should one look for in buying fabrics ? collect and mount samples of materials suitable for underwear. . examine samples of each kind of weave. (pages – .) why is each weave suitable for a certain purpose ? . what are the various qualifications of good material ? . experiment with the effect of sun, heat, and dye upon rayon. . learn to distinguish between woolen and worsted. (page .) make various tests of woolen and worsted. (page .) project vii: construction of a wash dress lessons) . cut out from the fashion magazines pictures of dresses suitable for school and bring them into class for discussion, together with samples of appropriate materials. . after making a choice of style and material for a dress, take proper measurements for a pattern and purchase the size necessary. (pages – .) . purchase the necessary amount of material and findings, such as thread, lace, ribbon, buttons, and so on. appendix . study the pattern, reading the instructions carefully and noting the markings. (pages - .) . demonstrate altering the pattern. (pages – .) . cutting. (pages – .) a. straighten material. b. lay out pattern economically (pages – ) and pin. c. mark notches. d. demonstrate tailor's tacks. (pages – .) . decide on seam allowance and demonstrate how the seams are to be finished. . make an outline of the steps to be taken in the order of their accomplishment. . review the sewing processes to be used, and practice any of which you are not sure. . make your dress, asking your teacher's approval after each step before starting the next. . when the dress is finished estimate the cost of it, item by item. enter your scores on the score card. project viii: selection of design and material for a graduation dress and its construction ( lessons) . discuss those things which improve one's personal appear- ance; such as care of hair, nails, skin, teeth. . discuss well-chosen clothing: dress, shoes, hosiery, under- wear, accessories. (pages - , – , – , – .) . discuss the desirable qualities in a well-selected dress design: becomingness, suitability, lines, sleeves, material to be used. (pages – .) . try out various colors, different shaped neck lines (page ), collars, placing of belts, and so on, in class. . follow construction processes as outlined in project vii. appendix project ix: selection and construction of a silk dress ( to lessons) . collect samples and pieces of figured silks. which would you choose as correct for your own "type"? why? (pages - .) . test various samples of silk, and review what you have learned about silk and rayon. (pages – .) . follow construction processes as outlined in project vii. practice carefully any processes not previously used. (select pattern, select material, make dress, demonstrate fitting, record scores.) project x: selection and construction of a wool dress ( to lessons) this unit should be started so that the dress will be finished and ready to wear at the time of year when it is needed. . review study of woolens and worsteds (pages – ) and test various pieces of woolen fabric. . demonstrate methods of shrinking woolen fabrics. (pages – .) . demonstrate methods of pressing woolen fabrics. (page .) . make samples of suitable types of seams to be used on woolen material. (pages – .) . make samples of different methods of turning or finishing hems. (pages – .) . make a model pocket suitable for a woolen dress. (pages – ) . make a bound buttonhole and a loop. (pages – .) . make a model placket for skirt or sleeve opening. (pages – .) appendix . make a sample collar, appropriate for a woolen dress. (pages – , , , .) . make the dress, following construction processes as out- lined in project vii. project xi: how to dress in good taste ( lessons) . bring to class pictures of a well-dressed girl and discuss the points which you consider necessary to being well-dressed. (pages - .) enter in your notebook the points agreed upon by the class. . discuss the value of the three factors: appropriateness, becomingness, durability. . illustrate with pictures cut out of the fashion books, or by lists, various types of clothes suitable to various occasions, and enter the approved choices in your notebook. . a. paste on separate sheets of notebook paper pictures cut from fashion magazines which illustrate the following: dresses and hats suitable for the short girl. dresses and hats suitable for the tall girl. dresses and hats suitable for the stout girl. b. write briefly the reasons for your choice and explain the details of the costume in order. (if you can make original draw- ings for this project, do so.) . study your own type and decide on the texture of material ; waistline, armline, shoulder line, and neckline most becoming. have the class judge your selections. (pages – .) enter these items in your notebook for reference. . plan a color chart to suit your particular type. (pages – .) when it has been accepted by the majority of the class, enter it in your notebook for reference. appendix project xii: planning the high school wardrobe ( lessons) . what are suitable clothes for a high school girl ? list those you think you will need. after class discussion, amend your list, if necessary, and enter the result in your notebook for future reference. (pages - .) . what types of dresses should never appear in the class room? . consider the question of silk stockings for the high school girl's wardrobe. what are your conclusions ? . cut from the fashion magazines a school costume for your- self, which includes dress, coat, shoes, hose, gloves, and purse. be prepared to defend your choice. when you are sure your choice is excellent in all details, enter it in your notebook. project xiii: budgets in relation to high school girls' spending and clothing allowance ( to lessons) . make the following lists: a. the clothing i have on hand. b. the garments which may be made over. c. the clothing i shall need this semester. d. the repairs necessary for the clothing on hand. e. the approximate cost of my needs in clothing. f. the clothing i should like to have this semester. . compare the approximate amount which your family can allow you for clothing for the semester with the approximate cost of your needs in clothing. is there any way in which you may cut the approximate cost, without sacrificing qualities you need, and thus be able to buy some of the things you want? appendix . how do your lists compare with other lists in the class ? does comparison make it possible for you to cut down on either list c or f in the first exercise of this project? . if e amounts to more than your family can allow you, what can you do? . state in a few sentences reasons why you should be given a clothes allowance. . list all the suggestions you can think of which would be of value to you if you were buying on a limited income. (pages – .) . discuss the care and repairs which make garments more usable. (pages - ; – .) . make a one-year, two-year, or three-year clothing budget for a high school girl, with a clothing allowance of $ a year. choose the best budget in the class and copy it in your notebook. project xiv: alterations in patterns to suit individual figures ( to lessons) practice altering patterns following suggestions given in chapter . project xv: variations in plain patterns to suit individual tastes ( lessons) . demonstrate shifting fullness from one place on a pattern to another. . design different styles of collars and cuffs. . draft a pattern to fit yourself. . choose a pleasing pattern from a fashion magazine and demonstrate the variations you will have to make in a simple pattern to create a garment like it. appendix . from a simple, kimono sleeved pattern, work out variations in plaits, collars, cuffs, front facings, or trimmings. project xvi: designing and constructing children's clothing ( to lessons) . make a child's dress from a simple pattern, adding varia- tions in fullness, yokes, collars, cuffs, or trimmings. . design several dresses for children, giving a detailed account of the kind of fabric to choose, colors, finishes, and trimmings. project xvii: renovation of clothing and care of clothing ( lessons) . make a sample of a neat patch. (pages - .) . make a sample of a darn. (pages , - .) . make a laundry bag, clothes cover, clothespin bag, or shoe bag. . repair and press a garment. . make an outline to follow for the daily care of clothing. (pages - , – , – .) . discuss various stains and methods of removal. demon- strate one of them. (pages – .) . plan how one old dress in your wardrobe might be re- modeled. . launder two samples of white silk and white wool; one sample of each in tepid water, the other in very hot, soapy water. compare the results. (pages – .) . wash and press a simple blouse or dress. (pages – .) appendix score card for project.---- workmanship appraisal problem hand sewing machine sewing | | | | | || color: seams hems tucks design: plaits, godets bindings, facings yokes fabric: plackets collars sleeves cuffs pockets cost: material $---- belts, girdles finding fasteners my time finishes (decorative stitches) total total scores total score appendix score card for fancy work perfection of stitches.......... harmony of color and materials neatness of finish. ............ total................... suitability of article to purpose. beauty and quality of design.. score card for women's garments general appearance. ......... economic aspects............. general design and color durability of materials combination......... and design.......... individuality .......... value in relation to cost. suitability to person for whom judgment shown in dis- planned. ................ tribution of cost among artistic aspect......... articles .............. design and color. cost of upkeep......... materials. suitability to occasion........ health aspects.......... workmanship................. comfort. (neatness and quality of stitch- protection. ing, seams, hems, etc.) completeness of costume...... total........ score card for made-over garments be sure the material is worth remaking, as to durability and time. general success of project..... textile design combina- ingenuity shown in the tions................ problem............. workmanship................ economical use of ma- choice and neatness of terial................. seams, hems, finishes, suitability of result to etc.................. purpose for which in- perfection of stitching tended. ............. (hand or machine)... durability of result..... relation of value to cost in time design and color. ........ and money .............. beauty of design ....... total. ........ ........ color combinations..... texture combinations... er : er or appendix score card for children's garments suitability of design and ma- artistic aspects....... terials.......... ....... beauty of design and health aspects......... color comfort and protec- simplicity tion completeness of costume...... ease of putting on and general attractiveness of ex- removing.......... hibit......... ........... design relation of value to cost in time fastenings and money .............. economic aspects....... workmanship.... durability (neatness and quality of stitch- provision for growth ing, seams, hems, etc.) of child total. ........ ease of laundering .......... and cleaning outline for budget planning number number number unit required on hand to buycost total cost years | yearly used cost outer clothing coats hats dresses, etc. underwear union suits chemises bloomers, etc. boots, shoes, stockings, etc. gloves sundries index library college of agriculture university of wisconsin ndison index accessories, - , – | appenzell stitch, origin of, – appliqué, acetate rayon, appropriateness, - acid tests for fibers, , , , armseye, - , , arm measurement, - cotton, arrowhead, - cotton from linen, attached cuffs, cotton from silk, attaching laces to edges, – cotton from wool, rayon, back measurement, – silk, back stitch, – wool, balance, - adding fullness to patterns ball and socket fasteners, – bust, - bands on garments, – collar, – bar tack, hips, - bar tack at end of buttonholes, neck, – basic stitches, - neck and shoulders, basting stitches, - shoulder, - diagonal, skirt, – dressmaker's, sleeves, - , – even, sway-back, - guide, waist, - uneven, - adjustments of patterns, – ending threads in machine stitch- altering patterns, - ing, belts, knot stitches, bust, – plain knot, collars, - plain stitches, - cuffs, back, – figures, - blind slip, hips, - buttonhole, neck, – catch hemming, shoulders, - combination, skirts, – darning, sleeves, - overcast, waistline, - overhand, waists, - running, - index color (continued) neutrals, frontispiece, – black, gray, - white, primary, frontispiece scheme, - blend with eyes, secondary, frontispiece setting of, shades, frontispiece terms of, frontispiece tertiary, frontispiece tinting, - tints, frontispiece types, - demi-blonde, gray, pale brunette, pure blonde, pure brunette, titian, value, frontispiece warm, frontispiece color cycle, frontispiece colors, – blue, brown, green, orange, purple, - red, yellow, – combination stitch, combing, combs, – commercial pattern, – commercial seam, common pins, – complementary color, frontispiece construction problems, - belts, girdles, sashes, and ties, - double, – girdles, sashes, single, ties, fasteners, – buttonholes, - bound, – cord, elastic, frogs, looped (fabric), - looped (worked), – worked, - buttons, , - cloth-covered, – metal, pearl, hooks and eyes, – , snaps, – , laces, - attaching to edges, – corners, - fagoting to fabric, insertions, - joining of, medallions, - linings, – coat, – waist, - mending, - darned in, darning, darning holes, diagonal tears, hemmed, - overhand patch, – set-in, - straight tears, three-cornered tears, neckline finishes, - convertible collar facing, - detached, index - – - , middy, - non-convertible, – peter pan, rolled, – shawl, stand-up, - straight band, tailored, - plackets, – continuous, – cut-out continuous, fly, – lap, neck binding, - tailored, – tucked, – two-piece, – pockets, - bound, – flap, – lap, – patch, - set-in, - welt, - sleeve finishes (bottom), - attached, cuffless, detached, - double, - single, - tailored, - sleeves, – epaulet, kimono, – raglan, set-in, – shirt, yokes, - double, – single, – construction processes, – bias, true, bindings, – conspicuous, inconspicuous, in general, - cordings, pipings, tucked, darts, – , - making of, – placement of, - facings, - fitted, shaped, - straight, gathering, - garment bands, – machine, ruffles, shirring, – godets and flares, - inconspicuous, tailored, gussets, – hems, - bound hem, - curved, - damask, establishing hemline, - faced, french, method of sewing in, napery, plain, pointed, – rolled, scalloped, - squared, – mitering, - bias tape, embroidery, finish miter, - firm fabric, lace, - ing, - index darned patch, darning, , - hole, darts, – , - making of, – placement of, - decorative stitches, – appenzell, appliqué, arrowhead, bar tack, blanket, bow, deerfield, or oriental, briar, buttonholed eyelet, cable, catch or catstitch, chain, - couching, cross, – crowfoot, embroidery, blanket, fagoting, – bermuda, - diagonal, net, - straight, feather, french knots, hemstitching, - diagonal or rickrack, double, italian, - single, ladder, long and short, lazy daisy, magic chain, needlepoint, - outline, punch work, rambler rose, rolled rose, satin, – seed, shadow stitch, – smocking, – stem, zigzag chain, deerfield stitch, design, – elements of design, – fabrics, - classification of, – cotton, - linen, - rayon, – silk, - terms, - wool, - figure and posture, - individual types, - weaves and knits, - figure, – knitted, – warp, – weft, – lappet, pile, plain, sateen, - satin, - twill, | detached collar, detached cuffs, - diagonal basting, diagonal fagoting, diagonal hemstitching, difficulty when stitching, - , direct printing, discharge process, double belts, - double crocheting, - double cuffs, - double hemstitching, double ring tatting, – index grass bleaching, hosiery, - gray, - how to alter patterns, – green, belts, guide basting, stitch, bust, – gussets, – collars, - cuffs, hackling, figures, – hairdressing styles, – hips, - handkerchiefs, origin, neck, – hand stitches, see stitches shoulders, - hats, origin, - skirts, – hem line, - , sleeves, - hemmed patch, - waistline, , hemming stitch, waists, – hems, - how to clean, press, shrink, and basting, remove stains, – bound, - care of clothes closet, – curved, - cleaning garments, – damask, pressing, – faced or false, removal of stains, , french, shrinking, - plain, how to dress in good taste, – pointed, - rolled, how to make a coat, , – scalloped, - square, - assembling coat, - sewing in, assembling muslin coat, - turning, hemstitching, - cutting coat, diagonal, cutting muslin pattern, double, fabric, italian, - making single collars, rickrack, measurement, single, muslin, hand, pattern, sewing machine, pattern study, herringbone stitch, pinning pattern, , hip line, shrinking, hip measure, how to make a drafted pattern, historic costume figures, – , - , back of fitted waist, - hooks and eyes, collars and cuffs, - origin, fitted skirt, – index setting-in, – testing, - slide fasteners, slip stitch, slips, sliver, smocking, - snaps, origin of, sorts, spinnerets, square end buttonhole, square hem, - square knots, stains, – , - absorbents, – bleaches, blood, bluing, boiling, chewing-gum, chocolate, cocoa, coffee, dry cleaning, – egg, fruit, - grass, grease, ink, – india, marking, - printing, writing, iodine, ironing, mildew, – oils, paint, perfume, perspiration, pressing, rinsing, – rust, scorch, soaking, soaps, soft drinks, solvents, – stamping mark on embroidery, tarnished metallic laces, tea, varnish, washing, water, wax, standing fell seam, - stand-up collar, – staple, stitches, - basic, - back, basting stitches, - diagonal, dressmaker's, even, guide, uneven, - blind stitch, buttonhole, catch hemming, combination, darning, diagonal basting, dressmaker's basting, ending threads, even basting, guide basting, hemming, - catch, running, slip-stitch, warp, – knot, overcast, index foundation stitches, - tucked placket, – single ring, tucks, - tears, - corded, diagonal, turned seams, holes, twill weave, straight, two-piece placket, – three-cornered, two-ply, teaseling, types, – teddies, , athletic, cutting, dramatic, finishes, , ingenue, illustrations, tension, , umbrellas, see parasols tertiary color, frontispiece underarm measure, testing fibers, , , , , | underarm seam, testing patterns, - undergarments, – , - textiles, - bloomers, – cotton, - kimono, linen, - nightgowns, rayon, – origin of, - silk, - pajamas, – wool, - patterns and measurements, thimble, – , - slips, , origin, - suitable materials, position, teddies, , use of, - uses of lace, - thread, – , origin, value, color, frontispiece table of size, value of fibers, – threading the machine, – | veil, origin of, - throwing, ties, waist-back draft, - tints, frontispiece waist-front draft, – tools of sewing, - , – waist line, – tops, waist lining, - treadling the machine, – waist measurement, trimmings, , , – walking stick, origin of, dress, – warm colors, frontispiece underwear, , warp, trom, washing, – , , true bias, - cotton, – garment, flannel, mitering. garments, – home decoration with fabric and thread wyeth spears »«»hiahiiri library of tbe mniverstt^ of wisconsin home decoration with fyajfuc and knead home decoration with fycmuc and ^ibieadl illustrations and text by ruth wyeth spears . • m. barrows and company new york incorporated copyright, , by ruth wyeth spears ja c k o t u s tra li o n courtesy of window shade institute all rights reserved. no part of this book may be reproduced in any form without the permission of the copyright owner. rilnted in thr united states of america ■ y j. j. little * ives company. new york a dictionary of fabrics used in home decoration artificial leather. new processes of manu- facture have made leather substitutes both attractive and durable for upholstery. they may be obtained in a wide range of novelty and staple colors, and may be stitched on an ordinary sewing machine with strong thread and a coarse needle. this material has a cotton fabric base treated with many coatings of pyroxylin, a nitrated cellulose solution—a kind of flexible celluloid kept soft by oil ingredients. after a number of layers of pyroxylin have been applied, the material is embossed under heat and pres- sure to give it a grained leather surface. art linen. a linen fabric in plain-weave, made of round, hard-twisted yarns. may be obtained in wide and narrow widths. used for cross-stitch, drawn work and other fancy work, as well as undecorated runners and table linens. awning material. a heavy cotton fabric of the duck or canvas type, woven with the characteristic wide, brilliant-colored awning stripes. bobbinet. a net having hexagonal open- ings but no designs. originally made by hand with bobbins from which it is named. used for glass curtains, bed springs and dressing table skirts. batik. the javanese process of coloring fabrics. the design is covered with melted wax; the material is then dyed, after which the wax is removed, leaving uncolored the portions that were waxed. batting. a thick sheet of cotton or wool used for padding. batting is used for the filling or padding of tied comforters. bias tape. prepared bias trimming pressed in double or single fold to be applied for a binding or in flat bands. may be obtained in a wide variety of colors in lawn, percale or silk. the usual width is vi-inch. bias trim. see bias tape. boucm. french word meaning curled. a cotton or wool material with a curled nap. brocade. the name for a variety of silk, wool and other fabrics woven with raised figures, often in several colors or with metal thread used in the pattern. brocade has an embossed appearance, while damask has a flat effect. brocatelle. a type of brocade with warp and filling yarns unequally twisted and an extra set of yarns for backing. the pattern stands out in raised or blistered effect. buckram. a very stiff material made by gluing two layers of open-mesh cotton to- gether. used for interlining valances. burlap. a coarse, plain-weave low price fabric made of jute or hemp. may be ob- tained in a variety of widths and colors for drapery and upholstery purposes. calico. a plain-weave printed cotton fabric. the designs are very small and closely spaced. a fabric in typical calico pattern gives a quaint effect for cushions, chair pads, curtains or slip covers. cambric. a fine fabric with a glazed finish. lining cambric is an inexpensive material to use for garment bags or for the under part of a transparent dressing table skirt or bed spread. candlewick. a cotton yarn used for hand tufting on muslin sheeting. the yarn may be white or in color and the tufted design elaborate or simple. the muslin sheeting is a dictionary of fabrics used in home decoration xi druid's cloth. a basket-weave fabric of loosely twisted cotton yarn or cotton mixed with jute. the basket weave is coarser than in friar's cloth and the texture of the ma- terial is generally not so rough as monk's cloth. used for draperies and couch covers. duck. a heavy plain-weave cotton fabric. sometimes used for outdoor cushion covers. felt. most felt is made by pressing wool or mixed fibers into a compact sheet without weaving. felt is also made by weaving the fiber and then shrinking and pressing it to give the felted texture. filet net. a cotton or linen net with square mesh. hand netted filet has a distinct knot at each corner of the square mesh. used for curtains, tablecloths, luncheon sets and scarves. filling. the woof or cross-wise threads of the material. flannelette. a twill or plain-woven cotton fabric with nap on one side. see canton flannel and outing flannel. friar's cloth. same as druid's cloth except that the basket weave is finer. fringe. an ornamental border of pendant threads, cords, or tassels. unusual and in- teresting fringes may be purchased by the yard in drapery departments to trim cur- tains and slip covers. frise". an upholstery material made from cotton, mohair, or other fibers, in a pile weave with uncut loops. gabardine. a cotton or worsted material in a twill weave showing distinct diagonal cordings. used for draperies and up- holstery. galloon. a narrow tape of cotton, silk or rayon, usually in a fancy weave. used for a binding or finish. gimp. narrow tape used for covering tacks in upholstery. gingham. a plain-weave yarn-dyed cotton fabric often woven in stripes, plaids, or checks. may be used for curtains, slip covers, and cushion covers. glass curtain materials. semi-transparent fabrics used next to the window pane as dis- tinguished from heavier over-drapery ma- terials. glazed chintz. see chintz. habutai. a light-weight silk made in japan. slightly heavier than china silk and used for the same purposes. hair cloth. a fabric with cotton warp and a filling of horsehair. may now be obtained in colors and a variety of woven patterns. heavy duty sewing thread. strong mercer- ized thread in colors, especially made for use on heavy drapery, slip cover and upholstery materials. jacquard weave. in jean marie jacquard, a frenchman, invented an ap- paratus which greatly simplified the weav- ing of damasks, brocades, and other ma- terials with a woven pattern. most fabrics of this type are now woven on the jacquard loom and the woven patterns are frequently called jacquard designs, jaspe. a french term meaning streaked or striped. fabrics having warp threads of dif- ferent colors giving the material a streaked appearance. kapok. a soft fiber from the seed pods of a tree growing in the west and east indies. used for padding and for stuffing pillows. lame*. a fabric of silk and metal threads in plain weave or with a woven pattern. lawn. a slightly starched, sheer, smooth, soft, cotton material in a plain weave; plain or printed in small floral designs. used for sheer curtains. metalasse. a french word meaning to cushion or pad. a fabric with a brocaded pattern in raised, padded or blistered effect. marquisette. a curtain material in a gauze weave of cotton or rayon yarn, often having a woven figure. coarser and more open in texture than voile. mercerizing. a chemical process used to give cotton a permanent luster. perfected by an englishman, john mercer, whose trade was printing designs on calico. a dictionary of fabrics used in home decoration xiii fiber. caution should be used in applying heat and moisture to rayon materials. handle carefully while wet and press with a warm, not a hot, iron. rep. a fabric similar to poplin but woven of coarser yarns with the cross rib very dis- tinct. used for draperies and upholstery. round-thread linen. see art linen. sail cloth. a coarse cotton material similar to canvas. used for ships' sails. when ob- tainable, it is found in soft reds, blues and tans, and in wide widths suitable for couch covers. sanforizing. a preshrinking process used for cottons, linens and some rayons. most materials that have been shrunken by this method are labeled sanforized-shrunk. sateen. a cotton fabric woven in the same manner as satin. after weaving it is mer- cerized and calendered to increase its luster. used for lining draperies or wherever a firmly woven lustrous cotton material may be needed. scrim. a curtain fabric of coarse two-ply yarns in a plain, open weave. frequently mercerized. seersucker. a medium weight plain-weave cotton fabric with lengthwise crinkled stripes made by different tensions on alter- nating groups of warp yarns. often used for bedspreads and sometimes for curtains. shade cloth. .a plain-weave linen or cotton cloth treated with a filler to give it stiffness and body. used for window shades. the quality of the shade depends upon the fine- ness of the fabric before the filler is applied. shantung. a pongee type of silk fabric made in shantung, china. it has a slightly rougher texture than pongee, also being made from wild silk. may be obtained in the natural ecru color or bleached or dyed. often used for curtains. sheeting. muslin, percale or linen material in widths from to -inches. un- bleached muslin sheeting is often used as a foundation for candlewick and other types of bed spreads. sheet wadding. a thin sheet of cotton used for padding quilts or to be placed between any two layers of material that are to be quilted together either by machine or by hand. shot silk. see changeable silk. silkaline. a soft, glazed cotton used for curtains and comforter covers. swiss. a crisp, transparent, cotton curtain fabric. frequently made with dots or fig- ures woven with an extra thread. when this material is made with a low thread- count it does not hold its stiffness. taffeta. a smooth, slightly stiff fabric in plain weave. used for draperies, bed spreads and dressing table skirts. tapestry. hand woven tapestries are made with bobbins containing different colored wool yarn worked over the wrong side of a cotton of linen warp stretched vertically or horizontally. machine made tapestry is woven on a jacquard loom with two sets of warp and filling yarns in different colors making the partem. terry cloth. in cotton or linen this ma- terial is called turkish toweling. it is woven with an uncut loop pile on both sides. the weaving is sometimes in designs of one or two colors. thread count. the number of warp and fill- ing threads or yarns per square inch in a fabric. the number of warp threads is stated first. for example, a fair grade of percale is " - ". in percale sheeting of good quality the thread count is " square" or more. a material woven of coarser yarn may be of excellent quality and still have a low thread count. tie dyeing. a method of resist dyeing in which patterns are developed by tying parts of the fabric, that are to resist the dye, with string or narrow tape. when the fabric has been dipped in dye, the string or tape is removed revealing the undyed pattern. ticking. finn, twilled, cotton fabric in stripes, floral, and herringbone patterns. used for pillow and bed ticks and mat- whenever i inspect a model house i think of all the homes i know which have been furnished by homemakers. how would these real homes compare with the model houses? could mrs. average homemaker buy as much or more for the same money? the first room of a model house that one steps into is the living room. usually an itemized list of the cost of its contents may be found near the entrance. when the total adds up to a substantial figure there is a feeling of richness and quality in the room. when it scales down to a smaller sum, the little things that give individuality and color take on more importance. if the individual touches are eliminated the room has the cold, imper- sonal appearance of a corner in a furniture department. what is there in all this that mrs. homemaker can supply herself? slip covers and curtains head the list of things that she can make. the saving buys some extra comfort or luxury—a better chair or rug; a smarter lamp; venetian blinds; or a number of small things to add charm and interest. slip covers give color and a certain crisp freshness to any room, and the homemaker finds that they have practical uses as well. the living room is the first and sometimes it is the only room that the visitor sees. it should reflect the owners individuality. if she uses her ingenuity and skill her money will go farther and the room will have the stamp of her personality. so thread up the sewing machine, bring out the hammer and screw driver; but first take inventory. there may be hidden assets in your attic or buried treasure in the basement. within the limits of good taste and with one eye focused on what is smart and new in decoration, many a discarded piece of furniture may be reconditioned for the living room. new lamp shades may be created from parts of old ones; modern rugs or quaint old fash- ioned ones may be made from worn out clothing; and such things as empty spools, cans and packing boxes may serve a useful purpose. things to make for the living room sources for (? ja^ cawiainxduuti a piece of chintz—if you have ever fallen in love with a fabric you can under- stand how the colors for a whole room hap- pened to be planned around a lovely piece of chintz which was used for draperies and a slipcover for one chair. these were the colors in the material: . background. pale putty tan. . dominant. wine red. s. secondary. moss green. . accent. bright peacock blue. the walls, an old desk and a desk chair were painted the pale putty color with the inside of the desk and line trimmings for the chair in bright peacock blue. a wine red rug was chosen. the couch and smaller chairs were slip covered in moss green. lamp bases were made of tin tea caddies enameled peacock blue with putty colored shades edged in wine red braid. a picture—a picture over the mantel— a fine reproduction of a famous autumn painting set the color scheme for another living room. the grey blue of an autumn sky became the color of the walls. here is how the color plan worked out: . background. grey blue. . dominant. orange red toning into brown. . secondary. deep blue green. . accent. golden yellow. all of these colors were repeated in the oriental colorings of the room size rug with the orange red tones predominating. the grey blue of the walls also blue and deep blue green appeared in striped material for draperies and upholstery for brown walnut furniture. plain gilt picture frames, brass fireplace equipment, brass ash trays and other small ornaments gave the yellow accent. a chinese vase—this vase had been in the family for a long time. it was decided to have it made into a lamp base and use its coloring throughout the room. this is the way the color scheme was plotted: . background. pale grey with slightly violet tint. . dominant. neutral rose (ashes of roses). . secondary. turquoise. . accent. coral. a figured wall paper in the grey, rose and turquoise was found, and a grey rug was used. mahogany furniture toned in with the rose colorings and the upholstery material was a greyed tone of turquoise with a tiny coral figure. cream glass curtains were used at the windows and turquoise draperies with coral pleatings. variations of the color plan the background color of a color plot similar to these may be used in a much paler tone for walls and the accent color may be even brighter for your room accents. the other colors may either exactly match those of the color plot or may be used in more neutral shades. here is another thing that you may do. the background color and the accent color may change places by making the one very much more intense and the other very much paler. in the case of the color plot shown on the opposite page, the rose-beige would become brilliant rose, or even lacquer red to be used for small accents, and the blue would be- come a pale tone for walls. this would vary the rug coloring and at the same time harmonize with it. things to make for the living room upholstery fabric turn ends and tack stain and then wax new uses for a gamp, stool have you ever wished for a small, low table that would appear from nowhere and disappear again when you were through with it? have you ever thought it would be nice if father's ottoman could be folded up and put out of the way when not in use? or perhaps you have unpacked a suit case in a guest room and wished for something other than the bed, a chair or the floor to put it on during the process? a camp stool plus a tray to fit the top makes a very satisfactory small table to place beside a game table or to set up for your books or mending basket by your favor- ite chair. but be sure to dress it up so that it will look its best either when in use or when folded up and placed in some out of the way corner. a remnant of material and some upholstery braid will do the trick. stain and wax are suggested for the base as paint might be marred in folding the stool. things to make for the living room save cans for a one thing always leads to another. after directions for making hanging shelves of spools were published, someone wanted to know if we couldn't think of something to do with empty cans. we have a long memory. there came to life a picture of a rather fat little girl sitting on a small foot stool in a vic- torian parlor while her great aunt rocked and visited. and there was something about qoot stool the foot stool—yes, it had cans inside. the cans were filled with sand to make the foot stool heavy. the cover was red carpet with handles of the carpet material at the ends. so we saved six cans. a piece of upholstery material was substituted for carpet, and here is a step-by-step sketch of the foot stool that resulted. it is a great success. yes, the cover is red, but not quite so bright as that red carpet. i r st itch ij handles tn cover seams muslin cardboard cotton muslin sew to (f^w^% muslin^j cover-y^ cardboard muslin home decoration with fabric and thread a braided rug that was c a certain grandmother surprized every- one with the braided rug that she made for her favorite grandson's wedding present. it was no hit and miss affair. she used her best wool rags and dyed them to match the color scheme of the new house. it is no wonder that the rug occupied a place of honor at the bottom of the front stairs. the center was made of five ovals of the size shown in the sketch— black and blue. these were of braided strips sewn with carpet thread. the ovals were then sewn together. around them were sewn four braided rows of rust; rows of black next; then of rust; of black; blue; black; then of blue around the outside. if you have difficulty in keeping a braided rug flat, work with it flat on a table. it will ripple if you full the strips in too much. if you stretch them, the rug will cup. things to make for the living room a rug from an old coat and the owner of this rug was so pleased with it that she took a snapshot to send. i have shown half of the rug in detail here with all the colors numbered. the finished rug is -inches long and -inches wide. the foundation part was made from the back width of a very heavy old coat. an allowance was made for a hem to add weight at the edge. felt purchased by the yard could be substituted if no old coat is available. after the foundation was pre- pared, circles of felt were cut from old hats and discarded school pennants. the largest circles were '/ -inches in diameter, and the next size -inches. all of the small circles were -inch in diameter. contrast- ing circles were sewn one on top of the other with carpet thread, as shown at a. the edge of the larger circle was then sewn to the rug, as at b. dark blue yellow on gray bright blue on red yellow on bright blue gray on red bright blue red home decoration with fabric and thread lorange bright blue yellow dark green bright red wine red crochet in a jb&liyn off qvicui this rug is made of %-inch rag strips crocheted in the single crochet stitch in cir- cles, squares and triangles. these are joined with the crochet slipstitch in color as indicated in the diagram. use a wood or metal crochet hook with %-inch shank. the border may be made in single crochet or braided. circlet: st row. chain . join. make single crochet stitches in circle. nd row. s c in each stitch. rd row. change colors. add s c in every nd stitch. th row. add s c in every rd stitch. th, th and th rows. add stitches spacing them differently than in preceding row. change colors at beginning of th row. squares: st row. ch. . s c in first ch. ch. . turn. nd row. s c ch . turn. rd, th, th, th and th rows, s c in st and last stitch of previous row. s c in each of the other stitches. ch. . turn. th, th, oth, th and th rows skip st and last stitch in previous row. ch. i. turn. th row. s c in last stitch of previous row. triangles: same as squares through the th row. things to make for the living room a knitted r«f it is the right color arrangement that makes a rag rug of simple design interest- ing. this rug is knitted in three strips, each strip divided into five squares of different colors. if the color plan indicated in the sketch is followed the colors will shade from dark to light diagonally across the rug. if other colors should be substituted do not use more than three—medium, light and dark—and arrange them as shown here. wooden knitting needles %-inch in di- made in strips ameter are used for this rug. cut or tear the rags %-inch wide and knit them in strips -inches wide changing colors every -inches by cutting the material close to the needle and sewing a new color to it. when three strips have been knitted with the colors arranged as shown here, sew them together on the wrong side with heavy car- pet thread. use a crochet hook of about the same size as the knitting needles for the edge of single crochet. medium green blue dark sreen i sew knitted strips crochet edge-) home decoration with fabric and thread stitc close t© cord wit cording foot crease double frill with warm iron us ,-rii_l.ww ^-^u/cording v bacmng////foot- right side si! /////"' baste to right side f pillow cover silk scraps make every once in a while there comes a letter brimming with enthusiasm. one told of a living room that was completely made over. 'ten dollars and thirty-five cents was all i spent," the letter read. "the sewing ma- chine and i did the rest." when the new slip covers, curtains and lamp shades were all in place, it seems that the room still lacked color. there was no money left but there were odds and ends of bright silks on hand. these made cushion covers that gave just the warmth and glow needed. remnants and the best parts of old silk dresses may be used for this purpose. con- trasting pieces should be joined with seams piped with covered cords, and edge cordings with neat little frills may repeat the strong- est tones in the room. the diagrams show some of the tricks that help to give cushions a tailored appearance. things to make for the living room plan ^beiicftu here are two suggestions that will start you thinking of many original ways to com- bine materials that you have, in smart de- signs. for the pillow of striped material, cut four triangles striped exactly alike, in the dimensions shown at a. join these with the stripes matching. flowered material combined with plain green in checkerboard fashion is also interesting. cut the squares, as at b. be sure to center the flower pat- tern in each of the figured squares. with flowers and stripes this is really a very good way to make use of odds and ends of old finery. a hand- some roman stripe scarf that will never be worn again will make a stunning pillow top. a piece of old fashioned flowered taffeta may seem too light in color for a living room cushion but if its darkest tone is repeated in plain squares it suddenly takes on char- acter and may be fitted into the room color scheme very nicely. pieced designs of this kind also offer endless possibilities for sum- mer cushions of gay cottons. home decoration with fabric and thread an unlined shade of shantung, crepe, soft taffetas and novelty weaves are all good for this type of shade. white, egg shell and the cream tones are most popular and fit into every color scheme. some bright tone often finishes the edges. frames that flare require more material than those with straighter sides. the average fabric requirement is the depth of the shade plus -yard. you may esti- mate the material accurately by fitting a muslin pattern first. plain silk wind the wire frame with silk binding tape as shown here at a. slip the tape off the card, bind it with a rubber band and then work from the inside end. now, fit the covering material around the frame, as at b, smoothing the surplus material toward the top, the bottom and the seam line. sew and then trim, as at c. whip the seam and then cover with a bias fold, as at d. pin finishing braid over the top and bottom edges and sew through slanting the needle. home decoration with fabric and thread i. draw around a dime blue gingham . red cwain stitch stretch iover card- board before framing ha^fmbm ail § mary ann made two mary ann was named for the grand- mother who, at the age of nine, made an elaborate sampler of embroidery stitches. everyone thought it would be nice if the modern mary ann could also do a bit of hand work to be framed and kept. thanks to a series of rainy afternoons, this was actually accomplished. mary ann's mother started the project with a rather large piece of blue gingham, a pair of embroidery hoops and some odds and ends of bright six strand mercerized em- broidery thread. outlines for flower de- signs were made by drawing around coins and the flowers were embroidered as shown here. stems were done in outline stitch and leaves in groups of straight stitches. from the many attempts, two flower groups were neatly framed and lend a gay note at each side of an old mirror. things to make for the living room embroider a bouquet this colorful embroidered picture is worked on heavy natural colored linen with odds and ends of bright wool yarns. the yarn colors are turquoise, wine red, ma- genta, old gold and bottle green. a narrow gold frame with a scalloped mat of dark green paper under the glass is used. plan the picture to be about -inches deep and -inches wide finished, but cut the material large enough so that it may be stretched over cardboard for framing, as shown on opposite page. place thin writing paper over the flower outlines given here and trace them with a very soft pencil, making duplicates of the oval shaped flow- ers, the leaves and the berries. cut these out and arrange them on the material to make a bouquet, drawing in the stems. turn the cut-out flowers pencil side down and trace their outlines onto the cloth. embroider the solid parts in satin stitch and the more open parts in blanket stitches. the fine stems are done in outline stitch. if you would like to work your flower picture out in other colors, you might start with black sateen or colored velvet for a background. blue is always an effective background; then your brightest flower color could be coral pink or strawberry color or geranium red; and the scalloped mat, black. trace these outlines and transfer them to cloth, as described here. the em- broidery is done in tur- quoise, wine red, magenta, old gold and bottle green. things to make for the living room how to do the this chair set is made of heavy cream colored linen. the diagram below gives all the dimensions and shows how to pull the fabric threads for the italian hemstitching which is done over two, instead of one open space, as in plain hemstitching. the edges are finished with rolled hem- stitched hems. the threads are pulled %-inch from the raw edge, and then the edge is rolled up to the opening. take three fabric threads on the needle as at a in sketch on opposite page. draw the needle through, then pass it under the threads again catching through the rolled edge as at b. draw the needle through and continue as at a. remember that a moist thumb is always helpful in rolling an edge. pass the needle under three threads of the lower row. bring it through, then un- der the threads again and out in the upper row, as at c. now, under three threads of the upper row, as at d. bring it through and repeat, as at c. hemstitch the other edge of the lower row, as at e. the little scroll and diamond design shown here may be added at all the out- side corners if desired. practice drawing it on paper first and then in pencil on the fabric. embroider the scrolls in outline stitch and the diamonds in satin stitch, as shown here. then there are the tassels at the corners. these are made by cut- ting strips of the linen -inches wide and -inches long, raveling one edge to within vi-inch of the top of the strip and then roll- ing it up and sewing the top. j/ - % % pull two threads, skip four and pull two iiiummmi i i | mihiiiiilll | | | more things to make for the living room made of runicufi and old stocjzihfi the colorful roughly woven table mat, chair cover and cushion are made of burlap sacking with dyed strips of old silk stockings drawn through. dye the stockings before cutting. cut the strips %-inch wide and about an inch longer than the space they are to fill. taper one end of the strip so that it will pull through the burlap easily. if long strips are needed, cut around and around the stocking spirally instead of lengthwise. now, draw out one thread of the burlap; then tie one end of the next thread to the tapered end of the stocking strip, as at a. pull the other end of this thread, as at b, to draw the strip through. even though we live with our furniture a long while our cur- tains may be changed often. the whole mood of a room becomes different with new curtains and we may have a change of scene right at home by using less formal curtains of lighter fabrics in the summer than those for winter. with this in mind i have shown in this chapter a variety of curtains to fit every mood, season and type of room. more people write me about curtains than anything else. some rooms have what might be called problem windows. i have shown how some of these problems have been solved. many ask about the right finishes and about methods of hanging curtains. choosing the right style when furniture of different types and periods is combined curtains of almost any style may be used. if you are furnishing a period room, study pictures of rooms of that period before selecting drapery and curtain styles. draped valances and tie-backs are used for formal th cen- tury rooms and rooms of the victorian period. they seldom harmonize with ultra-modern furnishings. for simple early american rooms, frilled curtains or plain glass curtains and dra- peries with an informal valance or with a cornice board may be used. color and fabric most curtains must be planned to be used with things one already has. if you make a color plot similar to those on pages and , you will be able to determine which colors you should use. then there is texture and pattern to think about. for rooms in the ultra modern style, an interesting texture is espe- cially important. with formal period furniture, use rich plain fabrics or figured materials that harmonize with the period of the room. for informal early american rooms, sheer white curtains and quaint patterned materials are always right. here again you will find much inspiration by studying pictures and actual rooms of the period. avoid too many figured materials in one room. plain draperies to match some color in figured wall paper, rug or slip covers generally give a more harmonious effect. if walls and rug are plain, pattern in the draperies and some of the slip covers will add interest. living room curtains how to make a window *led have you ever had a feeling that there was something wrong with the size and shape of your windows and wall spaces? a small diagram or scale drawing of a wall will often show with startling clearness where the proportions are bad. just measure the walls and openings and make a bare outline drawing as shown; counting 'a-inch as a foot. use the outside dimensions of windows and door frames. make several tracings of your outline drawing and then experiment with filling in curtains of various types to improve the pro- portions of windows and the spaces around them. this is the method that was used in developing the charming window effect sketched below. just for fun, try filling in draperies covering each side of each of the windows in the diagram, and see the difference. an outline drawing of wall made to scale shows that window^are^ should look wider the two windows treated as a unit- drapes extend "over wall at sides home decoration with fabric and thread how to make . /}./*<?. windows l<«f**t h<$ z your heart's desire as to the size and shape of windows, and the windows you actually have may be two different things. don't let the matter rest there. if you want to lend dignity with tall win- dows or give a homey effect with broad ones, here are some suggestions for changing the apparent height or width. on opposite page is still another way to hang curtains to add width, though the real problem there is to allow french doors to open when draperies are used at the sides. actually, all three of the windows shown here are the same size. the one in the center is made to look higher by screwing blocks of wood at the top of the window frame as at a and b, with metal straps from the hardware store. the window at the right is made to seem wider with blocks placed as at c and d for the curtain rod, and as at e and f to hold the tie-back hooks. living room curtains draperies for use a curtain rod that extends beyond the sides of the door frame — sew curtains to rin s when there are draperies at the windows in a room it is often desirable to have them at french doors instead of curtaining the doors with the glass curtain material as shown on page . a wooden curtain rod, a pair of hooks that will hold the rod and some ordinary brass curtain rings are needed. the rod should be about -inches longer than the width of the door frame. this allows it to extend -inches over the wall at each side of the door. be sure to place the hooks for the rod near the top of the frame so that the doors may open without interfering. this and the arrangement of the rings is clearly shown in the sketch. make groups of pleats in the top of the draperies and sew the rings to the back of them. home decoration with fabric and thread curtains for doors your front door greets your guests before you do. since the curtains should look well from both sides, net or ninon is generally used. but if you wish to match your door curtains to other curtains in a room, and if the fabric to be used is uninteresting on the wrong side, you can line it with self material, or a harmonizing plain color. three types of curtains for ordinary doors, and one type for french doors, are shown. they are held top and bottom with rods over hooks, as at a. living room curtains top, ordinary curtain rings may be sewn to the back of each group of pleats, as at e. linings and interlinings sateen is generally used for lining dra- peries, and cotton flannel for interlining. cut both an inch narrower than the drapery material, and hem the bottom of each sepa- rately. catch the interlining to the drapery, as at a; then attach the lining, turning the material back and sewing, as at b. hem the front and back edges down over the lin- ing, as at c. home decoration with fabric and thread add your own the first curtains of this kind i ever saw were made of the long pieces of good mate- rial left at each side of a sheet after the center part had begun to wear. these were dipped in dye to make a soft cream color for the foundation part of the curtains. wide stripes of gingham and narrow ones of prepared bias trimming were then stitched in place to make stripes. the chart shows the colors that were used and gives the widths and spacing of the stripes. of course, you will have some ideas of your own about the stripes and colors. per- haps you can copy the color scheme of the rug in the room or the wall paper. whatever the materials used you will have fun planning the stripes. in case you should want to use short lengths of goods for the foundation part of the curtains, stitch these together with the seam on the right side; then place a stripe over the joining. living room curtains trimmed with try inexpensive cotton fringe in oyster white for summer curtains and slip covers of blue or mulberry sail cloth. applied in diagonal rows, as shown here, it gives a very smart and modern effect. silk or dull finish rayon fringe might trim plain draperies or more luxurious materials. the fringe used here is -inches wide for the curtains and -inches wide for the chair. about hemming curtains for unlined curtains or draperies finish the front edges and the bottom with hems - or vi-inches wide. cut away unneces- say material at the corners, as at a. if the selvage edge along the front is woven tighter than the rest of the goods it will cause the hem to draw. cut it away be- fore turning the hem or clip it every few inches. if fringe has a decorative top edge, sew it on the right side, as at b. home decoration with fabric and thread you will need a valcmce boa/ua here, the shelf type of valance board is shown at a. it is -inches wide and vi-inch thick and is fastened in place with metal angles. a double curtain rod should be screwed to the window frame just under the shelf. cut the draped center swag of this valance -inches deep and -inches longer than the valance board, then shape it, as at b. the dimensions for the end or jabot sections of the valance are given in dia- gram c. pleat the center section and tack to the board, then add the jabots. living room curtains we make a valance this valance is slightly more complicated than the one on the opposite page. if you are making it for a number of windows in a room you will find it convenient to have a pattern of heavy wrapping paper. for the looped sections, cut paper - inches deep and half as wide as the window measures over the frame. from the upper right corner to point a is half of the width of the paper less two inches. point b is -inches below the upper left corner. draw a diagonal line from a to b, and a curve from b to the lower right corner. place the edge marked c on a fold of the goods when cutting. the diagonal ends are pleated and stitched in a band as at d. for the end pieces, cut paper -inches wide and -inches deep. e is -inches be- low the upper left corner. f is -inches in from the upper right corner. g is -inches down from the upper right corner. finish the top, as at h. living room curtains a davenport in front of there were three windows, and the only space for the davenport was in front of them. a difficult situation of this sort is a challenge and many a charming effect is the result of accepting the challenge and making an asset of it. these windows were treated in a group with the davenport as a center of interest. it was slipcovered in a soft biege with corded pipings and bands of turquoise. the glass curtains were cream color with draperies of turquoise and biege striped material edged in matching blue fringe. a -inch valance board was screwed over the windows with l brackets. the curtains and side drapes were hung on rods under this shelf. the plain valance was made over a foundation of crinoline with a -inch fold at the top. this was thumb tacked to the valance board. valance board over windows thumb tack fold to wlance boar wlfff llll a full valance with a ruffled curtains with a scalloped valance and tie-backs of plain glazed chintz make the smart window shown here. this offers a simple method of introducing a color ac- cent. here the curtains are cream color and the chintz is a soft mulberry red. the color used should repeat some strong tone in the room, and may be bright or subdued. a double curtain rod will serve for both valance and curtains. the valance is made double and should scalloped cdtpe be about twice as long as the space it is to fill. fold the length of material inside out according to the dimensions in the upper diagram. mark the scallops, as at a, draw- ing part way around a saucer. stitch as at b, and trim, as at c, clipping up between the scallops. also stitch along the ends of the folded material. turn right side out and fold the top down, as at d. stitch, as at e, with two rows spaced far enough apart to make the rod casing. living room curtains concentrated color with here is a quick and easy way to get an unusual color effect for any informal room or for gay summer curtains. the curtains in the sketch were made of green and white striped gingham and used in a living room with cool plain green slip covers. the striped material was pleated so that only the green stripes showed for a space about -inches deep across the top of each cur- tain. this gave the effect of a plain green pleated shlpei band with the green and white stripes bil- lowing out beneath. there should be a strong contrast be- tween the stripe colors and the fabric should be in just two tones. here the stripes were %-inch wide and spaced vi-inch apart. make a -inch hem in the top of each curtain first, then pleat the material, as shown at a. the curtains are hung with bone or brass rings, as at b. slip covers are easy to make add color with figured curtains and a plain chair, both trimmed in fringe of the same color, make an unusually harmonious ensemble. the diagrams show how fringe is applied when used in the seams of a slip cover and for an edge trimming. use the same fringe trimming through- out the room. if curtains are of a figured material, the best effect is generally ob tained if not more than one slip cover is figured. several different colors may be used for the plain slip covers, repeating tones in the draperies, the rug or the wall paper. a new idea now is to cover the seat cush- ions of chairs and davenports with a con- trasting color. here again the repetition of fringe trimming will soften the contrast and draw the room color scheme together. home decoration with fabric and thread other trimmings and decorative drapery departments offer an assortment of fringes and prepared seam welting to har- monize with any color scheme. bias trim may also be used for contrasting seam bind- ings or to cover cable cord to make seam welting. heavy or fine cable cord may be used according to the effect you wish to obtain. moss fringe offers another interesting means of trimming slip covers and curtains. you can make the fringe yourself, with the aid of a special attachment for your sewing machine. still another type of edging is a narrow pleating of fabric which may be made with the gathering attachment of your sewing machine. most slip covers have a line of contrast- ing trim along important seams. if color contrast is not desired, a french seam finish is used for seams outlining the structural lines of the piece of furniture. welted seams ... to cover cable cord for seam welting, place a bias strip over the cord and then stitch with the machine cording foot, which allows the stitching to come close to the cord. to make a welted seam, place the covered cord next to the right side of the material between the seam edges and then stitch, using the cord- ing foot as shown. bound seams ... when seams are to be outlined with contrasting bias binding, stitch the seam first on the outside of the slip cover with a very narrow seam allowance, then place the bias trim over the seam and stitch as shown. french seam finish ... stitch the seam first on the inside of the slip cover, using half the seam allowance. turn to the outside and press the seam in a true line before making a second stitching near the edge as shown. slip covers are easy to make we seat a slip gove* when you pin a shaped piece, as for the fronts of the arms and wings of this chair, pin the material to the chair first; then press it down along the edges to make an outline of the shape of the chair section. cut around this outline, leaving the usual seam allowance. also see method shown on page . fit and pin the top, sides and bottom of the seat cushion cover. if a zipper is used for the opening, the method of applying it in the lower back seam before sewing the other seams is shown on page . the way to bind the seams for this slip cover is shown on page . ruffle material for closely spaced box pleats should be cut three times as long as the meas- urement around the bottom of the chair. ma- terial for a gathered ruffle should be twice the measurement around the chair. hem the ruffle before you pleat it. stitch the pleats as at d. baste the binding around the slip cover as at e. stitch ruffle and binding in place as at f. this chair requires just one rather long open- ing. either a zipper or snap fasteners may be used for it. if snap fasteners are used, add an extension to the underlap edge of the open- ing. here the contrasting binding continues along the overlap edge, and a stay piece is added for the fasteners. home decoration with fabric and thread pattern if you make a there are two ways to make a slip cover. one is to pin and then cut the actual ma- terial right on the chair, the other is to cut muslin or old sheets on the chair and then use the pieces for a pattern. whichever method is used, fit and pin the pieces smoothly but do not stretch them. allow vi-inch seams and a -inch tuck-in around a spring seat. notch the seams to show how they should be joined. when fit- ting a pattern, mark each piece with an arrow, as shown, to indicate which way the grain of the goods should run. at the bottom of the sketch the pattern pieces are shown pinned to the material. if figured fabric is used, be sure to place the pattern pieces so that the design is cen- tered for the back and the seat of the chair. slip covers are easy to make trace around shaped sectforui when cutting a slip cover of striped ma- terial remember to center stripes in the back and seat, just as you would any figured .material. the stripes used crosswise often make a smart finish or trimming. for a chair of this type the main part of the cover is generally fitted right on the chair and paper patterns are made for shaped sections such as the fronts of the arms and the outside of the wings. pin the paper in place as at a, then mark the outline of the shaped section on the paper, feeling your way along with the side rather than the tip of the pencil point. cut the pattern %-inch outside the marked line as at b. this allows for the regular vi-inch seam and a little ease in the fabric. in fitting fabric over the rounded part of arms and wings, a few gathers are often needed as shown at c. how to make a this zipper is covered by the lapped edge of the opening. another method of apply- ing a zipper in a seam opening is shown on page . to apply a zipper so that it is covered by a lapped edge, turn the slip cover inside out and crease the seam open. cut a fac- ing strip vi-inches wide and -inch longer than the opening. join the facing strip to the back edge of the opening as shown at a. slash the front of the seam edge %-inch above the top of the opening and crease it over the back facing as shown at b. when the edges of the opening have been prepared in this way, press the edge creases with a hot iron. next, baste and stitch the zipper in place as at c, sewing close to the metal. the machine cording foot is useful for this purpose. do not trim away the tape at the ends of the zipper. whip the upper ends down as at d, and cover the lower ones with the hem as at e. slip covers are easy to make a number of neatly here is proof that almost any type of chair may be slip covered. a rough sketch of this chair came with a letter which read, "i want to make slip covers for the living room furniture because with three young ones the furniture is soon going to be ruined. the job completely baffles me. can you suggest any way that a removable cover can be made for a chair like this?" for a difficult chair, always fit a muslin pattern. snip until it fits perfectly around arms and other supports. if you make a mistake in the pattern, stitch a patch over it and start again. either bindings or fac- ings may be used for the irregular edges of the finished cover. before removing the pattern from the chair, plan the openings so that they will lap neatly, and be sure that they are long enough. fit cover around chair. supports, and fasten with snaps- make side openings long enough to slip over widest part of back home decoration with fabric and thread cut ties "wide, then fold sew ties to slipcover seams, then tie tightly under seat turn in edges and stitch anchor firmly the method shown here for anchoring slip covers under the seat with ties of muslin or other strong fabric is often used by profes- sional decorators. another way is to fit a piece of ticking to the bottom; fastening it to the sides of the cover with zippers of the type that come apart at both ends. the slip cover in the sketch is especially interesting because of its color scheme and the woven braid used for trimming. in fact, the whole slip cover was inspired by the -inch wide braid with a woven pattern in bright blue, green and red. the material is a plain blue glazed chintz. green bind- ings around the main seams match the green tone in the braid which is used around the front of the cushion and to trim the ruffle. the box pleats at the corners only are a smart touch. slip covers are easy to make a slip cover for a making a slip cover for a davenport is almost the same as for a chair. it is seldom satisfactory to try to avoid piecings by cut- ting the material lengthwise of davenport back. with figured goods the pattern must run vertically. a large design is usually centered in each of the seat cushions and the back pieces match the cushions. some- times the joinings of the back are accented. again they are made with plain seams. always the design of a patterned fabric should be carefully matched. this slip cover has welted seams, so it is fitted inside out. the arms are rounded, as at a; making gathers necessary, as at b. cable cord for the welting is covered with bias strips, as at c; and is basted, as at d, before stitching the seam. use the machine cording foot. the seat cushion opening fastens with snap fasteners, as at e. home decoration with fabric and thread how to use some chintz chairs are covered in the same way as any upholstered chair. no special tools will be needed, other than an upholsterer's needle (see page ); plenty of medium-sized tacks, a tack hammer and some long, straight strips of cardboard about %-inch wide. the methods used at the points numbered on this chair are de- scribed here. . cover inside of wings by tacking edge of mate- rial to back through cardboard; then tack outside edge over top and front of wing. . cover tacks along front of wing with strip of cardboard inside folded strip of material, as at right. tack raw edges to chair, then turn fold edge over tacks as shown. . tack inside of arm piece in place through strip of cardboard. . use a board to hold seat springs down while tacking sides and back of seat cover. and . tack through cardboard from inside as in step . . pin and then slip-stitch in place, using uphol- sterer's needle as shown at right of this sketch. . slip-stitch as in step . . pleat flounce and tack in place through card- board strip, as shown. . tack as in step . slip covers are easy to make fix those many a chair or couch has been discarded because it was supposed that the springs were broken. the twine and the webbing that hold springs in place break or wear out, thus throwing the springs out of position. if you have more time than money to spend why not fix them yourself? first, remove the springs and all the old tacks and webbing. use new webbing across the bottom of the seat, turning the ends over and tacking them, as at a; then stretch taut, using a block of wood for leverage, as at b. sew the bottom of the springs to the webbing with twine and an upholsterer's needle, as at c. next, turn the seat over and tie the springs at the top with uphol- sterer's twine, as at d. the tacks are driven only part way in, as illustrated. the twine is tied to them and to each side of each spring. when the position of the springs has been regulated with the twine, the tacks are driven in. perhaps you don't use the dining room three times a day. you may have a corner in the kitchen where breakfast is served and where the children have a quick lunch and back to school. you may eat your own lunch from a tray wherever you may happen to be. let's hope that you eat it some days by the fire in the living room and that there are many meals eaten out-of- doors in the summer. wherever meals are served they are more casual than they used to be. the full length white table cloth often rests in state from one holiday season to another. i have suggested in this chapter that you make a neatly inscribed case for it, and then that you have a perfect spree of designing gay and colorful table mats. it seems to me that in many homes the dining room is just a step-child! new things are purchased often for the living room and there is little money left to make the dining room presentable. yet, no matter how out-of-date your present fur- nishings may be, it is possible to make this room look fresh and smart and cheerful. start with a color plan. if you have to use an old rug that is worn or the wrong color, look into the matter of dyeing it with cold water dye right on the floor. even faded, scarred wall paper may be painted if new is not available. crisp curtains of inexpensive material may cheer you far more at meal time than expensive ones that are dull and unimagina- tive. in this chapter are some curtains that were planned espe- cially to give good cheer in this room. in the chapter on curtains for the living room you will also find a number that should add zest to meals and tone to any dining room. a scarred and out-moded table often looks more up-to-date if the varnish is removed and it is then waxed to bring out the grain of the wood. even a cheap pine table rubbed down and waxed is not to be despised. a table painted dull black and then waxed is good looking and inconspicuous. as for chairs—inexpensive simple ones may be painted in colors or old and unattractive ones may be slip-covered. the quilted chair pads shown in the living room chapter are another thought. no, there is no excuse for even one meal a day in a cheerless room. home decoration with fabric and thread a fresh start for dining room give your dining room chairs a fresh start with seat covers of substantial, firmly woven cotton material. a plain color in an inter- esting weave or a fabric with a small figure is most suitable. to make a pattern for the covers, place a sheet of paper on the seat and press it down along the chair edges to make an im- print of the seat outline. when using this pattern add a vi-inch seam allowance as at a. a straight band and a frill covers the wood frame at the sides. give the covers a professional finish with welted seams. the cable cord for the welt- ing is covered with bias strips of the mate- rial or with prepared bias trim as at b. this is basted to the right side as at c, and then stitched as at d with the machine cording foot. a finished welted seam appears at e. tapes are sewn to the inside of the front corners to be tied around the legs. snap fasteners are used for the closings. things you see three times a day a uai+d gcw&i for an old chair this slip cover for a dining room chair is of green chintz with a tiny burnt orange fig- ure in it. the bindings and the amusing ties down the sides are of orange bias trim. place the material on the chair and cut it to follow the lines of seat and back, being sure to allow seams. the side sections should be three inches deep and the ruffles deep enough to cover the chair rounds. where two sections are joined with a tape binding, baste the raw edges together and then pin and stitch the tape, as at a. the sides of the back should be bound first and then the top may be bound in with the front binding. the ties are made of the bias tape stitched double. home decoration with fabric and thread the result of a golden oak dresser, a fish bowl, an old portier, a chromo in a wide gold frame and an old piano stool. these were found in an attic. varnish remover and plain drawer pulls transformed the dresser into a good looking chest of drawers. a glazier put a mirror in the oval gold frame. those are dusky pink branches in the fish bowl—lovely against the rose-red brocade hanging. the attic maxfdc diagram shows how the hanging was made from a part of the portier. the edges were finished with dull gold colored braid and fringe; and it was hung with matching gold cord, tassels and an ordinary curtain rod. this arrangement of a chest and a hang- ing also might be used in a hall. what be- came of the mirror and the piano stool from the attic corner? you will find them in the bed room chapter. i -—i attic corner picture x-hook casing for curtain rod j^brald /—fringe (-turn edges to right side things you see three times a day color harmony for cupboard and knitted (luxj the shelves are backed with medium blue fabric and the dishes are in tones of rose and green. the same colors are repeated in the rug. cut or tear the rags %-inch wide and use knitting needles %-inch in diameter. knit the oval center first. cast on four stitches and increase one at the end of each row until the depth of the work is -inches, then knit evenly for -inches. bind off one stitch at the end of each row until you have four stitches left. bind these off. the dia- gram gives the dimensions and colors for the bands that are sewn to this center oval. cast on seven stitches to start each band. for the outside band, start with color . knit -inches, then cut the fabric strip and sew color to it. continue. use a large crochet hook and fabric strips to crochet around the oval and the outside edges of the bands. sew together with double carpet thread following directions in sketch. home decoration with fabric and thread dining room ^ .// j . , windows in qtduhi chuty these ruffled draperies of plain moss green glazed chintz make a charming din- ing room window. the drapery material is cut -inches wide. pin -inch darts at the corners and cut away the extra material, as at a. stitch these bias joinings, then make your ruffle and apply it with a french seam. make the tie-backs next. they should be straight strips -inches long, made double so they are vi-inches wide finished. the drapery material is gathered along the corner seams and sewed to the under part of the tie-backs, as in diagram b. rings are sewed along the top and are slipped over hooks screwed into the window frame, as in diagram c. things you see three times a day tones of pink for the here palest pink linen is embroidered in darker pink and deep rose. cut the scarf the desired size allowing 'a-inches all around for hems. turn the hems and sew at the corners. now, embroider around the top of the hem with plain catch-stitching in pink, as at a. next, interlace these stitches with the rose, as at b. three vi-inch squares are embroidered in each corner. mark each square with a pencil. the method of laying the pink foundation threads is shown in diagram c. bring the needle out at , place it in the material again at , and bring it out again at . continue, following the numbers and weaving the stitches over and under, as shown. next, interlace these stitches with rose. start at d and follow the diagrams until all the stitches are interlaced, as at e. i ( ? , i c home decoration with fabric and thread embroidered script for a case for the table cloth that is brought out on christmas, thanksgiving and other "special" days is shown here. it is made of green chambray with white bindings of bias trim, and the script is embroidered with white six-strand mercerized embroidery thread. you may write the word you wish to em- broider directly on the goods with a pencil; however, if you do not feel sure of your handwriting, do it on paper first and then trace it. the paper may be ruled with guide lines to keep the letters even. when the word has been written, blacken the back of the paper with a soft pencil, place it black side down over the cloth and trace, being careful not to smudge the material. the script is embroidered by working over a cord, as shown here at a. for bold writ- ing such as is used for this case, use heavy cotton twine and all strands of six-strand embroidery thread. things you see three times a day a luncheon gloth with a this luncheon cloth was made of un- bleached muslin bags with a striking pieced border in a twisted band effect. one bag makes the center of the cloth and pieces from two others are added at the sides and corners to make it the desired sire. the pieced bostde* seams are covered with -inch bands of the red and blue material, as shown here at the right. the sketch also shows how the border is applied after piecing. the pat- terns for the pieces may be traced from this page. home decoration with fabric and thread a luncheon set this exquisite luncheon set will go with the daintiest china. it is of white organdie with applique flowers of the same fine ma- terial in pink, turquoise and pale yellow. the stems are apple green. the design is shown here in actual size so that you may trace the flowers to use as patterns. add a tiny seam allowance to be turned under as at a. the applique stitch for sewing the flowers in place is also used for the hem and gives the effect of fine hemstitching though no threads are drawn. use no. sewing thread. the steps in making the stitch are numbered in the sketch. . bring the thread through and insert the needle four threads to the right, taking up the applique edge. bring the needle through, pulling the threads of the goods together. . insert the needle, taking up the applique edge. draw the thread through. . insert the needle in the hole where the thread was first brought through and take a stitch threads to the left. . insert the needle in the first hole to the right and make a stitch, taking up the applique. repeat, beginning with step . things you see three times a day the design is shown in ac- tual size. white linen is used with end facings of green. stems and leaves are also green and cherries red. the diagram shows how applique edges are turned by pressing over a stiff pattern. cherries for mats and napkins of jleaay jlinen watch any class of kindergartners cut- ting patterns from colored paper, and your fingers will itch to pick up the scissors and try it yourself. why not? the luncheon mat and napkin shown here offer a sugges- tion for a way to use your cut-out designs for simple but effective applique work. the long sides of the mats are hemmed and the ends faced with one-inch bands of green, as at a. the napkins are also hemmed on two sides and faced with green bands on the other two. the stem for the bright red cherry follows a circular line em- broidered in green outline stitch. the leaf is of the green material. experiment with cutting the cherry and leaf in paper. when you have cut a design that pleases you, make a pattern in light- weight cardboard. cut the fabric a little larger than the pattern, clip the edge as at b; then press it over the pattern with a warm iron as at c to make a firm crease. remove the pattern, and sew the pieces in place with fine hemming stitches. home decoration with fabric and thread table mats bordered in if you have been following the trend of swedish modern handcrafts you realize that the old swedish crafts are being cleverly adapted to modern use. here is a letter that shows how easy it is to do this. "i thought you might be interested in a luncheon set planned to go with a set of blue dishes. there are four mats and a long runner in medium blue linen with bands of swedish weaving in darker blue across the ends. just two edges of the napkins are banded with the weaving." some of you who have pink dishes might like to try the same idea in tones of rose. use a rather coarse linen. prepare the work for the weaving by drawing out the fabric threads, as for hemstitching. either linen or mercerized embroidery thread may be used; and a dull pointed tapestry needle will be best. begin as indicated at the right of the lower sketch weaving over and under two groups of threads. when these threads are half covered, start to work over one new group as at the left of this sketch. when the bottom is reached, pass the needle up to the center, and work over the groups indi- cated, as at a. when the top is reached, pass the needle down to the center again. ^ t ~ wivi/l /^buttonhole the end pass needle under'stitches, \then work over and under threads at a- medium blue linen with bands of swedish weaving in darker blue is used for this luncheon set. here are all the instructions for doing this fascinating type of things you see three times a day gouge your stitches so that they are the same size as the ones in the sketch. the colors are all indicated here. if you set a table for four you will like this combina- tion of center square with mats around it. these stitches are fam an old *dlt this luncheon set has a square for the center of the table and four mats to go around it. here again colored linen is used —this time light blue. the embroidery is a design taken from a light blue satin patch of an old crazy patch quilt. all of the colors indicated here in the sketch are the same as those used for the quilt patch. the gay little double house effect is built upon blanket stitches with chain stitches flaunting from all the gables. use all six strands of six-strand mercer- ized embroidery thread. hem the mats first, then blanket stitch, as shown at the lower right, running the needle between the two layers of the hem and bringing it out at the edge. the method of making all the stitches is clearly illustrated here in actual size. for the napkins, the edge stitches without the little house are used. it is fun to invent embroidery designs by combining well known stitches. our grand- mothers were masters at this art. for years i have been making a collection of sketches of the stitch combinations that they used for their quilts. many of these are shown on pages and . you will certainly want to copy some of these not only for linens but for other trimmings. we wave a magic wand over bedrooms some bedspreads need a a smart new house it was, and when we came to the second floor i was particularly impressed with the treatment of the beds. in one room a beautiful old quilt was used as a bedspread. the spread in the other room was of bright flowered cretonne. for each of these beds there was a full valance of contrasting material that was not re- moved at night. this full ruffle reaching to the floor gave the whole room a gracious appearance, that is very pleasing. the flowered cretonne spread is shown here in the sketch. there are accents of green in the flowered pattern and this color is repeated in the corded seam, edge bind- ings and the valance which is fastened to muslin under the mattress—a clever idea, my young hostess pointed out, as the muslin makes a cover for the springs if they are not the box type. yd . flowered chintz, &yds.blue chintz yds bias binding mattress stitch the valance to an old sheet or muslin cut to fit the top of the bed springs - home decoration with fabric and thread rejuvenation for an betsy was all agog to have a bed with no foot piece and a padded head to match her spread. ingenuity would have to substitute for money and she was seriously consider- ing this and that when the plumber was called to fix a leaky pipe. as a tiny tot betsy always said, "let me watch", when workmen were coming, and at sixteen she hadn't grown up much. the plumber took a fine saw out of his tool bag and sawed a pipe in two just as if it were old bed wood. right then something clicked for betsy. that old iron bed in the attic! it could be cut down. it was cut down, as shown in this sketch. the head of this bed is padded with cot- ton basted to muslin, and then slip covered with material to match the spread. betsy used an old comforter for padding. her mind seemed to jump with the greatest of ease from water pipes to beds and from padding to old comforters. make a slipcover for the head of the bed match spread - pad with cotton basted to muslin- we wave a magic wand over bedrooms this spread is zcmf, ia j*g ld&l this bedspread is as easy to launder as a sheet. it is made of plain -inch-wide gingham to match the soft, deep rose tone in the window draperies and rugs. it is trimmed in straight -inch bands of bottle green. flower sprigged cottons are also at- tractive when banded in a contrasting color in this way. the lengthwise bands cover seams where the lengths of material are joined. the crosswise bands and the ones at the edge are added to give the trimming balance and interest. if the spread is made for a double bed, the three widths are joined without split- ting. if the spread is for a single bed, one of the two widths of material is split length- wise through the center. you then have one wide length and two narrow ones. the nar- row strips are stitched to the sides of the wide one. the joinings should be made by lapping the selvages and stitching, as at a. the trimming bands are stitched over these joinings, as at b. the edges are turned to the right side, as at c; and the contrasting edge band is stitched over the turning, as at d. we wave a magic wand over bedrooms from every once in a while i meet an efficient homemaker with a zest for figuring the costs of things right down to a split penny. this is how i know that the material for this taf- feta spread cost exactly half of what the spread would have cost ready made. that is what i call luxury at a saving. here are cutting dimensions for the double bedspread of - or -inch material. you will need % yards, and this makes the spread long enough to cover the pillows. cut the center panel first, then divide the material that is left, as shown in the upper diagram. join the two pieces of ruffle ma- terial to make one long piece, then divide it evenly; for the two ruffles. these cutting dimensions allow generous seams. enough material may be taken from the seam edges to cover cords for welted seams if desired. a very narrow machine stitched hem should be used at the bottom of the ruffles. ruffles 'uvds. ruffles narrow panels cutting dimensions ^yards of inch taffeta required home decoration with fabric and thread n ww \ \ \ \ \« \ \ \ \ \ \ \ n \ n \ ~i \ n \ n \ black red horizontal mixed stripes -vertical mixed stripes blue tan how to make why not hook a bedroom rug? a rug hook such as may be purchased in fancy work and notion departments and a piece of bur- lap -inches wider and longer than your finished rug are the essentials. most rug hookers also use a frame of slats bolted to- gether at the corners. they overcast the edge of the burlap, mark the pattern on it, and then stretch it over the frame and tack it. some like a rather large stationary frame. others use a small one, stretching and tacking two or three square feet of the jloohed (lucfi work at a time. many hooked rugs are made without any frame at all. wool rags make the nicest hooked rugs. cut the strips not wider than %-inch and fold the raw edges in. hold the strip with the left hand under the burlap and use the right hand to draw loops of it through to the right side with the rug hook, as shown. make the loops very close together. draw the ends of strips through to the right side and clip them. when the rug is finished, hem back the burlap around the edge. we wave a magic wand over bedrooms a braided rug with a we went to see an old fashioned garden around a very old house. inside of the house we found this braided rag rug with its quaint scroll border. rag rugs have always been used on the wide pine board floors of that house and the wearing apparel of many generations has been torn into car- pet rags before its fireplace. all of the dimensions of the rug are given here in the diagram. always remember that the first round of the center of an oval rug is as long as the difference between the length and the width of the finished rug. the scrolls for the border are made of braided strips %-yards long. mark the center of the strip with a pin, as at a; then sew, as at b, working toward the center marking. the center of the oval part of the rug is green; then comes a band of mixed braiding and then one of red. the pairs of scrolls are alternated red and green. i we wave a magic wand over bedrooms dutch curtains trimmed with the rod for the top curtains is fastened to the window frame and the lower rod to the lower sash. when the window is pushed | up, the lower pair of curtains goes up with it. a wonderful idea for bedrooms ... no curtains blowing in the wind at night! to make the scalloped facings, cut • straight strips of material av inches wide, < then follow the three steps shown here. . baste right side down on the inside of the curtain, taking out extra fullness at fyaced bcau&pa, the corner, as shown. . trim away this extra material and press open the seam. outline the scallops starting at the corner, by tracing around a saucer or tumbler. stitch over this outline, then trim a seam's width from the stitching and slash the points between the scallops and along curves. . turn the facing to the right side; baste along the turned edge, and press. turn un- der the raw edge; baste and stitch it. home decoration with fabric and thread a skirt for your if your dressing table skirt is shirred or gathered, let the material be really full. twice the measuremnt around the table is not too much to allow. for soft matrials, even more fullness is needed. if the dress- ing table has hinged arms, the skirt should be mounted on a strip of stiff buckram which is thumb-tacked to the arms as at a. cut the buckram about vi inches wide, and cover it as at b. the heading at the skirt top is just deep enough to cover the table edge when the arms are closed. use '/»-inch cable cord for the corded shirring at the top; also for shirring the bottom ruffle. sew one end of the cable cord to a safety pin or bodkin; then run it through tucks in the material, pushing the fabric back on the cord as at c. sew to the buckram as at d; then tack to the table. we wave a magic wand over bedrooms stems. home decoration with fabric and thread flounces for a table a dressing table in front of a window is well lighted and saves valuable wall space. glass curtains must be planned to give pri- vacy and here they are made in dutch style of dotted swiss trimmed in ball fringe applied, as at e. the flounced chintz skirt for the dressing table is designed so that the top ruffle may be turned back to open the drawer. if the table edges extend more than an jautk a >teuue& inch beyond the sides, have them sawed off, as at a. the three bottom flounces are stitched to a slightly full foundation of mus- lin, as at b. this is tacked to the table just below the drawer, as at c. the top ruffle is narrower than the others though it gives the effect of being the same width. it is finished at the top with a half-inch band which is tacked to the edge of the table top with colored thumb tacks, as at d. home decoration with fabric and thread pad with cotton batting - cover with glazed & chintz- use upholstery tacks for tufting back metal angle metal strap you can make this there came a letter one day which read, "... most women can't drive a nail straight, but i can do that better than i can sew. i have been thinking that one could make a chair of lumber and cover it." the chair in the sketch is the result of that letter. it would be appropriate for the living room or the hall, but it looks espe- cially well when used as a slipper chair, against the wall in the bed room or for a dressing table chair. all the dimensions for making it are given here. the metal straps to strengthen the back may be pur- chased at the hardware store along with the nails and screws. the back and the seat of the chair are heavily padded with cotton batting. here the box pleated skirt is paprika red and the back and seat covers a warm tan, bound in the red. red upholstery tacks are driven right through the cover and the padding into the wood to make the tufting. we wave a magic wand over bedrooms tufted tassels * i for curtains and a i>l <u a rather dark guest room was a problem in a certain house where spare minutes were used instead of expensive materials to ob- tain smart effects. it was decided to brighten the room up with yellow, and touches of brown were used to add charac- ter. the result was very chic and modern. tufted tassels in brown on yellow ging- ham were used for curtains and the skirt of the dressing table stool. the stool was made of a box and the top was padded and covered in plain brown. the bedspread reversed the colors with yellow tassels on brown material. several rows of tassels may make a border for a bedspread or cur- tains instead of using an all-over design. the diagram at the upper right shows exactly how the little tassels are made. they should be spaced about inches apart. use a pencil and ruler to mark the material with dashes where the tassels are to be made. browm candlew/ckiwg i ^yellow gingham for curtains and ruffle - use a box for seat- pad top with cotton and cover with brown gingham home decoration with fabric and thread make your own design for a this dresser scarf is of deep cream linen embroidered in tones of blue, rose and green. any colors that harmonize with your room might be used. here are all the directions needed for the embroidery. cut the linen -inches wide and - inches long. turn and baste hems %-inch deep. use a soft pencil and a ruler to mark squares measuring -inches each way just inside the hem; or draw out threads of the material to mark them in straight true lines. outline these squares in chain stitch in a light blue, as at a; then back stitch over each link in a darker blue, as at b. the chain stitching also sews the hems. draw around the open end of your thimble or a dime to outline the larger flowers, then embroider in rose, as at c. the loop stitch used for leaves and the light blue part of small flowers is made, as at d. back stitch- ing is used for stems and slanted stitches for small leaves. make the tiny dark blue chain stitches, as at e. home decoration with fabric and thread thin muslin glazed chintz cotton sheet wadding machinei a y \ x* \ quilter h */. a • / » > i.'^ • y x a t • * x£\ v • / * u * s □ • * * / / ™ ft# ft # ft . * ■ * s \ / \ a bias binding^ s v i ■ «—- \ i \ dresser drawers fitted with time was when a clean newspaper was put in the bottom of a dresser drawer every so often, and the date of the one removed proclaimed how long it had been since this housewifely task had been performed. now we make pads to fit the drawers. machine quilting is just the thing to give the pads stiffness and body. glazed chintz in plain soft blue with darker blue bindings of bias trim are used for the pads shown udtedpcuk here. each pad is made of three layers of material as shown in the upper diagram. before quilting these are basted together with diagonal rows of basting about -inches apart starting in the center of the pad. the machine quilter is a foot with a guide attached. the guide runs along the previ- ous row of stitching making an accurate gauge for spacing the rows. home decoration with fabric and thread save space with )ooa pocketi have you door space going to waste? there is always the inside of the closet door —even in the tiniest apartment. a pocket like the one shown here gives a place for shoes, whisk broom, hat brush and even a dust cloth to have within easy reach when tidying up the bedroom. the large pocket at the bottom is used for small pieces of laundry. you will need v -yards of material - inches wide and -yards of bias trim to make this door pocket. all the dimensions and directions for making are given here in the diagram. there are other places in every house where door and wall pockets are useful. the broom closet door offers a place for cleaning brushes and bottles of furniture polish. a large pocket of heavy ticking makes a good place for old newspapers. home decoration with fabric and thread how to make a there is a delectable array of colors from which to choose blankets to fit any room color scheme these days, and matching pro- tectors for the upper edges will not only make them wear longer but will reduce the number of times that they must be washed or cleaned. a length of washable silk two inches longer than the width of the blanket will make protectors for a pair. any soft cotton material or a cotton and rayon fabric is also good to use for this purpose. cut the mate- rial lengthwise through the center and use one piece for each blanket. turn narrow hems along the lengthwise edges and sew with feather stitching or other decorative stitch, as shown here at a. now, turn to the wrong side and stitch a tuck just inside each hem, as at b and c. hem the ends next, as at d and e. baste the protector over the top of the blanket sewing through the tucks on the under side. by sewing it in place this way it may be removed easily for washing. home decoration with fabric and thread catch stitch with contrasting stitches added variation of catch stitch with contrasting stitches chain or loop stitch giajaf, patch wonk in a modern setting this is one of the oldest quilt designs and, when it is made of silk pieces embroidered along the edges, it fairly glows with color. these quilts, backed and bordered with taffeta, are being used now instead of afghans, in the living room or bedroom; or to make luxurious bed covers. i have shown corners from two very old quilts of this type here. these quilts are much more simple to make than one in a set pattern for a crazy patch is not quilted when it is finished but tied like a comforter. the pieces are always irregular in shape and usually not more than we wave a magic wand over bedrooms blanket stitch with french knots back stitches interwoven in two colors three sided canvas stitch with contrasting stitches four or five inches long. they are fitted together on a foundation of soft muslin, flannel or an old wool blanket. the raw edges are turned under where one piece laps over another, as shown in the sketches. a number of pieces may be pinned or basted in place before the edges are sewn down with the embroidery stitches. plain taffetas and satins, soft pieces of velvet, necktie silks, small flower designs, stripes, plaids, changeable silks and ribbons may be used. avoid thin silks and modern looking designs. the diagrams show the old fashioned stitches that were used for crazy patch embroidery. here also are some of the amusing little designs that were used to fill odd corners. variations and elaborations of a few fundamental stitches were invented until some quilts displayed several hundred different combinations. all colors of embroidery thread of various weights and tex- tures were used in a single quilt. many of these stitches look quite different in fine and in heavy thread. fine floss and rope silk as well as cotton embroidery threads were used. beetle come into the kitchen red oilcloth *-mark scallopsi by drawing around a cupi — cut out and paste on the window frame red rick rack crease curtain hems / 'wide with a hot iron stitch from right o,lclotht <hame a wi«dom when a kitchen has been fitted with all the most modern equipment, the windows seem to call for some strong treatment that will make them stand out and look smart and new, and modern, too. in one kitchen of this kind the windows were framed in cut-out scallops of red oil cloth pasted to the window frame. red and white dotted swiss curtains edged in red rick rack and tied back with bands of red oil cloth com- pleted the window plan. if red and white is not your color scheme, this idea might be worked out in brilliant blue or green. the whole story of how the oil cloth scallops and the curtains were made is told here in the sketch. wall paper paste was used to hold the scalloped strips in place. the scallops for the top strip were started at the ends of the strip. the center scallop was made larger than the others by drawing around a plate. curtain tie-backs were made of -inch strips of the oil cloth folded and pasted with the raw edges to the center of the inside. come into the kitchen white with these curtains may be adapted to win- dows of almost any type. the casement curtains in the center are made of white dimity with -inch heading and a curtain rod at the top and bottom. they are held in with -inch bands of bright gingham fas- tened with hooks and eyes. the loops, made as at a, slip over the hooks. the side curtains might be used by them- selves for any type of window. they are made of white muslin trimmed in bands of plain gingham. the diagram indicates the width and spacing of the bands. the top edge is turned over va, inches to the right side and a band of the colored fabric is stitched over it to form the rod casing. the colored bands may be green, blue, red, yellow, or even black if that is what you happen to be using for accent, in your kitchen. bands of a figured print, or a combination of colors may be used such as red and blue, blue and green. zzzzzzzzza co home decoration with fabric and thread white i green quilt block design for potjlaldesu a green-and-white kitchen is as fresh and crisp as a lettuce leaf. one that i know has white walls, a green floor and green organdie curtains. everything is green and white and over the stove there hangs a set of patchwork pot holders like a row of green and white tiles. the design of them is the nine pointed star that most of us remember in old-fashioned quilts. it is made of tri- angles of two sizes. here are patterns for them that you may trace. the block is made by piecing eight squares of one green and one white triangle, then four oblongs of two green and one large white triangle. these are joined to make the star pattern. a layer of sheet wadding is used for padding and the back- ing is made of the white material. the three layers are quilted together by sewing just inside the white pieces of the pieced top. the edge is finished with a bias bind- ing and a loop is made at one corner. come into the kitchen applique the two flower designs used for this pair of pot holders are made by combining flowers cut by the patterns outlined on this page with plain circular pieces and then adding leaves and stems made of prepared bias trimming. slash the seam allowance of all curved edges as indicated here in the pattern pieces and then sew the pieces in place, as at a. it will not be necessary to slash the edges of the bias strips for stems and leaves except where the leaves are turned over, as shown at b. the bias pieces are folded in four thicknesses for stems. i home decoration with fabric and thread door pockets for there can be a place for everything in the tiniest kitchen. for many things, narrow shelves are more efficient than wide ones. racks with slats on the front are better for pie tins, pot lids and cake pans than shelves where they are stacked one on top of the other. this sketch shows a kitchen closet that is less than a foot deep. the twin pockets on the door are for dish towels—the upper one for clean towels; the lower for soiled ones. over the pockets is a rack for the towels that are in use. the pockets themselves are made from four dish towels with bright red borders. all the dimensions and step-by-step directions are given in the sketch. if toweling by the yard is used, yards will be needed. the pair of pockets is hooked to the door with brass rings sewn to the corners. come into the kitchen handwriting to mark >tia "mi there is logic in the idea that glasses, china and pots and pans should have their own towels. here is a simple way to make that logic work. write across the corner of each towel the purpose for which it is to be used. use a soft pencil and your best script with the tall letters at least two inches high. if you want to trace the words from paper, blacken the back with your pencil, place it black side down on the material, then trace over the outline. work over the handwriting with heavy, bright colored embroidery thread. chain stitch, as shown here at the upper right, gives a good strong outline and may be done quickly. use a different color for each kind of towel. colored facings of prepared bias binding used flat as shown at the lower left make a practical edge finish. if you use flour and sugar sacks for dish towels, these suggestions for adding color will be espe- cially useful. home decoration with fabric and thread n <? . /. on a bright q*f squdmeli background the squirrel shown here in the cross- stitched design is to be embroidered in soft grey, yellow and brown yarn, and he will show up best on cushions and draperies of some clear brilliant tone such as red, bright blue, orange or green. the draperies and the cushion in the sketch are made of red cotton material. the number of fabric threads you take up on the needle for each stitch will depend upon the coarseness of the fabric. to make the squirrel v -inches high, each cross- stitch should be /s-inch long. the stitches slanting in one direction may be made across the row first, and then the stitches slanting in the opposite direction may be made to cross them. follow the design row by row counting the stitches. if the mate- rial hasn't clearly defined warp and woof threads, baste coarsely woven canvas over it. cross stitch through the canvas and then pull the canvas away thread by thread. things the children will like an old fashioned there is a certain store in new york where parents take their children to see the marvelous display of toys at christmas time. among all the modern wonders a season or so ago, a large bandanna doll was a striking object to behold and the cause of much comment. a big doll of this kind requires two hanks of yarn and the biggest bandanna you can find. tie the hanks as at a, then cut across the bottom. make the head as at b, then separate the sides and bind, as at c and d. cut these off, as at e. bind the body, as at f. make the eyes and mouth with stitches of white darning cotton and sew black beads in the center of the eyes. cut a square out of the center of the handkerchief large enough to be cut diago- nally to make two triangles—one for the head kerchief and one for the shoulders. gather around the square hole in the ban- danna and draw it up to make the skirt. home decoration with fabric and thread join sides with. a " strip between for a stuffed toy i z i a f v> f '//f ,\ //' c \i / 'ml s \ \ h / fl \ ll ^ ii \ ii \ r \ \ v for applique on cushion rule paper in squares! then draw scottie as shown make a pattern for a by far the most admired toy in a gay and modern nursery was a red and black striped scottie with a gleam in his pearl-button eye. a college girl in the family pilfered the pup for a mascot. the baby cried, so it was necessary to make another scottie. the same pattern was used for an applique for sonny's pillow which met with his en- thusiastic masculine approval. you can make a pattern for a scottie yourself by following this diagram. rule scottie > f paper in squares measuring vi-inches. number these around the edge as this will help you to follow the diagram. now, draw the pattern so that the outline crosses the squares just as it does here. this makes a dog '/»-inches high. two sides are cut for the stuffed toy and these are joined with a -inch strip of plain material. by ruling the paper in either larger or smaller squares, you may make a dog any size de- sired. things the children will like dolls for bnxdlt&i and si&tek here is a boy and a girl doll that you can make quickly. each body is two tubes of material made of fabric stitched together to simulate socks and shoes and then stitched, turned and stuffed as indicated at the left of this sketch. the head is a -inch ball of cloth covered first with cotton and then with tightly stretched cloth sewed in the back as in steps and . the wig is made as in step . the diagram shows how the tubes and the head are sewn together. sew across the top of the legs to make the doll jointed. sew the arms down and the tips of the feet up as indicated. sew clear through the head when adding the bead eyes about half way between the top and bottom. this shapes the cheeks. a few stitches in red make the mouth. the pleated skirt is cut straight. the trousers are slightly shaped in the crotch. the sweaters are made from the striped tops of children's socks. things the children will like this is the way to cut socks and slippers are applied right on the doll. slipper straps are worked in out- line stitch. underwear may be applied in the same manner. the dress is of straight pieces. rule paper in -inch squares and then outline patterns for the coat and hat as shown. the piece marked a is the front of the coat. the lengthwise dotted line indicates where the front facing is turned. b is the back of the coat. the dots indicate that the center back is placed on a fold in cutting the goods. c is the sleeve. the notches match the notches in the armholes. d is the hat. the seam allowances in the pattern pieces are v^-inch. the pointed ends of the brim lap over the center sec- tion of the hat in the back. the coat collar is a straight double piece of fabric about vi-inch wide finished. home decoration with fabric and thread a * it is a simple matter to make a yoke and sleeve pattern to fit any doll. the skirt of the dress is then cut perfectly straight with the measurement around the top three times that of the bottom of the yoke. the front and back of the yoke pattern require pieces of paper vi-inch wider than half of the doll's chest measurement. di- vide these pieces evenly as shown by the dotted lines in diagrams and . now, outline the front of the pattern as in dia- gram and the back as in diagram . the cut to fit line marked a is placed on a fold of the goods in cutting. b marks the center back opening. the sleeve pattern requires a piece of paper as deep as the yoke and twice as wide as the measurement around the top of the doll's arm. draw a triangle with the upper point at the center top and the base one-fourth the depth of the paper from its lower edge as in diagram . shape the front of the sleeve top to curve over the left side of the triangle and the back to curve out and then over the right side. things the children will like this is the way to cut a use the front of the yoke pattern from the doll's dress as a guide for cutting pat- tern for the slip. it is shown by the dotted lines in the diagram at the upper left. the center front line is flared slightly as at a. the neck and armhole are cut a little deeper than those of the yoke, and the underarm seam is cut to flare. the back of the slip pattern should be like the front except that the center back line is straight and the bot- tom curves up slightly toward the side seam but not toward the center. both the center back and center front are placed on a fold of the goods in cutting. the front of the panty pattern is shown at b. the back should be cut just like the front except that the waistline is straight instead of curved. cut the paper for the pattern pieces slightly wider than half the doll's hip measurement. divide the paper, as shown by the dotted lines in the diagram, and then outline the pattern, as shown. home decoration with fabric and thread i ■ % paste- face on ir» #j ^knotj soft wire cord draw eyes with use soft-^mg> wcrayon wire. draw it up tightly ani twist ends around tail cord it's fun to make remember that it is only fair to let the children join in some of the fun of making toys. they will love to help you make little miss spools and her dog, bastings. the two spools for the doll's arms are strung together with cord. start with these, then bend the body wire over the center of the cord. run both ends of the wire through the two body spools, then bend the wires and run them through the spools for the legs. bend in flat loops for the feet. twist wire around the bonnet spool and fasten to body tightly so the bonnet tips up at the back. cut a face out of a fashion maga- zine or draw one and paste it on the front of the bonnet spool. the dress is of two straight pieces; the bright sash and bonnet ribbons match. one end is cut off the spool for the dog's head. bend the wire over the whiskers, then run both ends through the head and neck spools. run one end through the two leg spools, then both through the body and one through the back spool. ><ul you can see for yourself how sleepy this rag baby is. a really companionable bed- time doll should be at least -inches high. you can make a pattern by ruling a paper into -inch squares, as shown here at the left; then drawing the doll outline over them. cut the front and back of the doll by the pattern, using unbleached muslin tinted flesh color. stitch together leaving an opening at the top. turn right side out through the opening at a. use cotton or bits of clean rags for stuffing; forcing the pieces in tightly with the blunt end of a pencil. stuff the arms and legs first, then sew across as at b and c. stuff the body and head and sew up the opening. make yarn fringe along the bottom of the eyelids and then sew them in place as at d. draw the mouth in a modified heart shape and em- broider in red as at e. sew the yarn hair in place as at f. the doll pattern may be used as a guide for cutting the pajamas, making them a little larger than the doll. march, i circular rbw ab spc v. ftne vent strong mar. extension servioe bma clothing club work pattern city ihil em eeee steenbock memorial library university of wisconsin- madison babcock drive madison, wi - . outline of projects and . extension service of the college of agriculture the university of wisconsin, madison -h clothing club work n very girl should be interested in making herself attrac- k tive. styles change and -h girls should be aware of these changes. knowledge of beauty in line, color, design and workmanship cannot help but bring satisfaction to any girl who desires to be well dressed. the -h girl who chooses clothing for her project is taking an interest in an art which will always be helpful to her. the clothing requirements are planned so that a girl not only learns clothing con- struction but also the principles of good design whether it be of a towel or a dress. the first year project teaches the details of funda- mental construction. in the second year the -h girl makes gar- ments for herself applying the principles learned in project i. a person inconspicuously well dressed gains poise and con- fidence in herself. equipping the work box every girl enrolled in the first year terial. without a thimble our fingers clothing project should first of all equip soon become so sore that it is impossible a work box. almost any fair sized box to sew. is good for a sewing box. a strong thimbles—some of the cheap ones candy or stationery box or a small are made of bone, celluloid, and alum- wooden or metal box may be used. inum. after we have used these thim- here are the things every girl needs bles a long time, they may become rough. in her workbox: thimble; package of they should be thrown away then for needles, to sharps; pins number they may catch the threads of the ma- bb; tape line, inches in length (with terial and ruin the appearance of the numbers on both sides and a number cloth. silver thimbles are best for long at each end); white thread numbers continued use. to ; emery bag; small pin cushion or needles—there are many kinds of box; and a pair of sharp shears with not less than a three-inch cutting blade. needles and each has its own particular use. the size depends upon the kind we can find most of these tools for our of material, and it is always wise to workbox right at home. use the very finest needle possible. these the thimble is the first thing on our are some of the kinds we will use: list. it is always worn on the middle finger of the right hand and should fit “sharps" no. or no. for ordin- snugly enough so that it will not fallary hand sewing; "sharps" no. for off while we are working, but it should basting, or if you prefer longer needles, not be so tight that our finger tip gets use “milliners" no. to no. ; “be- numb. it is a good thing to put it on tweens” no. to no. for fine hand the first thing when we sit down to sew. sewing and for buttonholes, for these we will soon get so used to it that we needles are short and fine and do no do not notice it and it is very helpful bend or break easily; "crewel” needles in pushing the needle through the ma- with a long eye for embroidery. - - needles that are bent, rusty, or blunt- sewing thread, but it is strong enough ed should always be thrown away. they for basting and is much cheaper than are hard to sew with and may pull the the regular thread. for most of the threads of the material. the rusty sewing we are to do, in this circular, needles may also leave stains. leaving we will use number . if we buy the needle in the material is dangerous thread with raised numbers on the spool because the needles may rust and spot when paper tags come off it is still the cloth. possible to tell size of thread. emery bag—the emery bag is in- shears or scissors the difference be- cluded in the workbox because needles tween the two is in the shape of the that are thrust into it often keep sharp handles. shears may be used for al- and shining. use it often. most all cutting. they have a place pins-fine pins, about an inch long, for the thumb and three fingers while are used by most dressmakers. they scissors have a place for the thumb and may be bought in paper packages or in one finger. scissors should be used only boxes. those in boxes are called “dress- for light cutting such as trimming seams maker” pins, and when many are to be and clipping threads. buy a good pair used, it is cheaper to buy them in this of shears of guaranteed make and with form. in buying pins, be sure to see at least a -inch cutting blade. (left that the points are sharp, because a blunt handed people can buy shears made es- pin, like a blunt needle, may pull the pecially for them.) threads of the material. in holding shears place the thumb in pin cushion or box-after pins are one handle, the last three fingers in the once taken out of a paper, we need other handle and hold the first or index some way of keeping them. a box or finger around the outside of the handle. pin cushion is best and is one of the cut with long firm slashes which leave most used tools in the workbox. when no jagged edges. a box is used, it is a good plan to keep k eep the shears sharp and do not use a rubber band around it so the top will them for cutting anything but cloth. not come off and spill the pins in the when shears are not in use, insert a cork sewing box or on the floor. at the tip to prevent the points from tape lines—the tape line that we se- being broken or from sticking into a lect will need to be made of some garment or sewing bag. material that wears well, because we measuring gauge-a cardboard gauge will use it often. paper tape lines tear is very useful in marking accurate hems, easily, so those made of sateen, cambric, and tucks. or oil cloth with metal ends are best. sixty inches is the length that we all judging and scoring find most useful. the tape measure that at the end of each project three ques- we can use most easily is numbered on tions are listed merely to give you an both sides and has a “ ” at each end. idea of the points to consider when use tape measure frequently, for accu- judging and scoring articles. read rate measurements are necessary for them carefully before starting project. good work. all clothing members should bring com- thread-several sizes of thread are pleted articles to project meeting and handy in the work box. for basting, do the judging and scoring themselves we will want white basting thread no. with suggestions from the club leader. , which comes on a large spool. this learn to use the score card; it will thread is not so strong as the regular help you improve your work. in proj- — — . stitch across the holder diagonally from one corner to another or straight across from one side to another to hold lining in place. a straight line for stitching may be marked using a ruler and a pin in place of a pencil. (see fig. .) sees.ee......... . to fasten threads firmly and neat- ly reverse and double stitch / inch at beginning and end of stitching. . remove bastings and press. fig. questions . is the holder of the correct thickness to prevent heat from penetrat- ing and yet not clumsy and stiff ? . stitching—is it straight? tension regulated correctly? stitch cor- rect length? . is the material washable? use score card p. demonstrations . correct posture at machine. . how to make a neat corner on a holder and sew on the hanger. . selecting the correct size and color of thread for holder. laundry bag, garment protector, or shoulder protector learning to stitch seams. the problem is much the same for all three articles. this project is also planned to teach the -h girl to care for her own clothing. laundry bag pattern a good size for individual use is make a bag that is simple and easily inches by inches. for this size it will laundered for either personal or family be economical to buy material inches use. a laundry bag that is very decora- wide. one for family use should be tive is not in good taste. both the hanger and draw string type considerably larger. a good proportion are good, however, directions will be is to have the width of the bag equal given for only the hanger bag. / or / of the length. ha acom we sur either personal or family - miiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii wwwmmmm iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiidid тор cut on this center fold stitching from center bottom this same type of laun- dry bag may be made by folding the ma- snaps terial length- wise bringing the selvages to center front and lapping them about inch. "hem a inch sea m is then taken from one end to within inches of opopsite end. the seam is pressed open and a hem made from the end of the stitching to the top of the bag. the curve is then cut across the top to correspond with the curve of the 'hanger. no facing is needed. " d's'diag laundry bag fig. laundry bag with opening at bottom the older girl who has had considera- longer than the front. this hem should able sewing experience may want to make be of a size that will make the flap the an opening at the bottom of the bagsame width as the bag. where the laundry can be removed. . baste and stitch / inch hem across steps in making end of flap. . the same pattern as given above . sew on snap fasteners to hold is used except that the front and back flap in place, using buttonhole stitch. the are cut separately and front of bag is thread is fastened securely under the inches longer and back of bag snap and then the needle is brought up inches longer. from the wrong side part way through . the opening is faced as in above the hole. wrap the double thread from directions. the eye of the needle around the point from right to left, bring the needle . turn under raw edge inch across through the eye of the snap and pull it bottom of the front section. baste in out until the knot or "purl" is on the a -inch hem and stitch. edge of the snap. continue working . baste and stitch seams on two sides from the right to left until each and across top of bag. eye is securely fastened. be sure that . baste small hem on the two sides the two parts of the snap are opposite of the back flap which is now inches each other on the hems. - – questions . will the protector or bag stand frequent laundering? . have the seams been finished so that they will not fray? . have fasteners been sewed on neatly with button hole stitch? does the knot of the stitch come to the outside edge of the snap? use score card on page demonstrations . how to apply a facing. . how to make a french, overcast and self-stitched seam. . sewing on fasteners with button hole stitch. simple wash dress to select material and to make a simple linen or cotton dress that is suited to the girl for home or school wear. . pattern with lengthwise threads to prevent select a very simple, up-to-date com stretching out of place. mercial pattern that is the correct size . gingham, print, percale, indian for your bust and hip measurements. head, poplin, broadcloth, seersucker, for your first dress select a pattern pique and non-crush linen are serviceable, with a simple sleeve. some kimono and practical and suitable for a home or cap sleeves are attractive and a raglan school dress. each season brings new sleeve gives a graceful line as well as and interesting material, but be sure that freedom of movement. a set-in sleeve it meets the above requirements before is a part of the second year project. purchasing. material . soft cool colors are best for sum- . materials for a wash dress should mer and designs that are rather small be fine yet durable, color-fast, easily are usually more appropriate. plain laundered, reasonable in cost, and suited colors, checks, stripes, small plaids, geo- to the pattern as well as to home or metric or small floral designs are usual- school wear. ly in good taste. if plaids are used they . if the material has not been san- should be matched. remember too gaudy forized it should be shrunk before mak- colors and designs take from the attrac- ing. tiveness of the girl herself. consider your own coloring and personality as the following method may be used: well as the accessories which you have on a. leave material folded and soak hand when buying materials. until entirely saturated or about fifteen minutes in slightly warmed trimmings water. the same material as the dress in con- b. hang on clothes line with center trasting color, fine cotton or mercerizecho crease on line. pin so that the bias tape, buttons and buckles that are threads remain straight. not too heavy and bulky, and simple c. iron when almost dry. press decorative stitches may be used. - tunum mimi mumwil questions was the collar made so that there are no raw edges showing ? . can it be easily detached from the dress? . does it fit smoothly? use score card on page . . demonstrations the effect of various necklines on different faces. selecting a design and color that is appropriate to the dress with which the collar is to be worn. how to make a pattern of a collar. . slip to make a slip that fits smoothly with no extra fullness, yet one which allows for freedom in walking and has shoulder straps that stay in place. . the material should be durable so that it will stand frequent laundering. it should be free from sizing. when a heavily starched material is rubbed be- tween the hands starch will be loosened and show on the fingers. design . a built-up or semi-built-up neck- line is comforable because the straps stay in place. the back line may be straight or built up. . a straight line slip is best because it is not as apt to twist around the body as the bias cut slip. . it should fit closely and smoothly at the hips, waist line and bust yet be wide enough at the hem line to allow freedom in walking as well as in active sports. darts at the waist line will take care of extra fullness. . a commercial pattern should be altered to meet these requirements. (see fig. .) . white nainsook, batiste, zephyr gingham is excellent and long cloth are suitable. other materials which meet the above requirements may be used. material . a smooth, fine, light to medium weight cotton material is suggested for the slip. . if the material has not been pre- shrunk or sanforized it should be shrunk before it is made up to insure an ex- cellent fit. the method may be used as described on page . - % score card mngs ............ . ...... materials used, including trimmings hygienic aspects ........ ............ durability of materials ....................... ..................... laundering qualities --------.... workmanship ................ choice and neatness of seams, hems, finishes, etc. ............ perfection of stitching (hand or machine) ..................... design ...... suitability ......... ............. protection and modesty comfort beauty in line and color ............. originality general appearance ....... cleanliness pressing ................. relation of garment value to cost in time and money ............ ener ............. en ...... total score wash dress for school or blouse and skirt or blouse and jumper to make a dress for school which will best meet your needs and which is attractive yet simple in design. design material . select an up-to-date commercial . cotton and linen are suggested. if pattern which is simple in design. you have done a considerable amount of . the style should be suited to your sewing you may make the skirt and figure and personality. jumper of woolen material. . tailored garments are suited to . colors that do not show soil are sport and active wear for which this especially good for school wear. large garment is intended. plaids must be matched at the seams. . choose a design with simple trim- small figures, checks, stripes and plain mings which are easily laundered and colors are good. large conspicuous de- will remain attractive after considerable signs and colors are not in good taste amount of wear. buttons and buckles for school wear. may be used effectively if they are not . gingham, print, pique, seersucker too heavy and bulky. in fast color and of a durable quality are . remember that simple, beautifully suitable for school wear. made tailored dresses when commercially . if wool is used select material that made are more expensive than the fussy is firmly woven. a mixture of wool and cotton does not wear as well as all wool, ones. - %