modification on ground level climatol-
ogy may be tremendous and need to be
examined for the maximum economic
benefit.
Two half-day sessions were held 29

December on the ecological aspects of
ground level climatology to plants. In
the morning session the regional anal-
ysis of selected problems was presented.
The importance of evaluating the inter-
actions of physical and biological fac-
tors was emphasized. The afternoon ses-
sion on applications of ground level
climatology examined four specific
problems in detail and the results which
have been obtained.
The final day's sessions on 30 Decem-

ber were devoted to ecological aspects
of ground level climatology to animals.
"Animal climatology" was discussed in
the morning session with emphasis on
physiology and performance of animals
in hot and cold climates. The afternoon
session was devoted to climatic physi-
ology with climatic effects on the physi-
ological performance of animals as the
theme.

HAROLD B. SPRAGUE,
Secretary

Seven papers were presented in the
session on ecological aspects of ground
level climatology on the physiology
and performance of animals.
Major emphasis in most of the pres-

entations was the interrelation of en-
vironment to physiology and perform-
ance. Basic physiological effects or re-
sponses of domestic animals to micro-
climates were discussed from the heat
balance point of view. Emphasis was
also placed on the mechanisms by which
environment may effect reproduction of
sheep, and circulatory compensations
as related to heat balance. The modifi-
cation of the micro-environment by
shelter engineering for cattle and swine
was fully described. Relative effects of
micro-climate in terms of temperature,
radiation, humidity, and air velocity
to physiology and performance of cat-
tle, swine, poultry, and sheep were em-
phasized throughout this session. A
need was generally demonstrated for
the formation of teams to scientifically
pursue micro-meterological investiga-
tions on animal physiology and per-
formance, the need for climatologists,
physiologists, engineers, and production
specialists of the various species to join
in these efforts.
As breeds are improved genetically

18 FEBRUARY 1966

and by nutrition for greater production,
a concern was expressed to know the
ideal micro-environment to enable full
genetic expression of the animal.

HAROLD JOHNSON,
University of Missouri

History and Philosophy
of Science (L)

Science Courses for Baccalaureate
Education Project (L2)

Through the financial support of
the Charles F. Kettering Foundation,
a substantial effort has been underway
to develop a new approach to the
teaching of science to college students
who plan professional careers in law,
government, philosophy, economics,
anthropology, sociology, history, edu-
cation, and other fields. The activities
are centered at Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute of Troy, New York, with
participation of faculty from many col-
leges and many disciplines. Two exper-
imental classes have been in progress
for developing the new approach-one
with architecture and management sci-
ence freshmen at RPI and the second
with liberal arts freshmen at Russell
Sage College.

The chairman of the project and of
this session (28 December 1965), V.
L. Parsegian, reviewed the history of
the project and the table of contents
being followed by the 2-year se-
quence. The course emphasizes ideas,
concepts, methods of science, histori-
cal features, and interrelationship of
sciences. While disciplinary divisions
are avoided, the topics are organized
to permit a physicist to teach the first
year of the course and a biologist to
teach the second year, each with some
preparation. Textbooks and a teach-
er's guide are being developed for that
purpose.
A unique feature of the new course

is the early introduction of the sys-
tems, feedback, cybernetics concepts,
and the probability, statistical features
of natural phenomena. These consti-
tute unifying themes throughout the
2-year sequence, equally useful in
physical, biological, and social situa-
tions.

K. M. Thomas (RPI) and K. Scott
Kinerson (Russell Sage College) dis-
cussed the difficulties and successes of
the pilot class experience. Results have
been highly encouraging on the feasi-

bility of an integrated approach to'
topics from the fields of physics, earth
sciences, astronomy, chemistry, biol-
ogy, with bridges to the social sci-
ences.

Henry Margenau (Yale University),
an advisor to the project, presented
ideas that should be impressed on every
college student. Science and scientific
effort constitute a continuing search for
truth rather than embodiment or
achievement of absolute truth. All
knowledge, whether from physical or
social areas, begins with qualitative en-
quiry and progresses toward quantita-
tive research. While science is said to
deal with facts alone, the speaker
pointed out that there is no contrast
between the realm of values and the
realm of facts.

V. L. PARSEGIAN,
Chairman, Science Courses Project

Society for General Systems
Research (L3)
A review of the significance of the

papers and discussions at sessions
of the Society for General Systems
Research shows a distribution between
four levels of communication. Four
papers were primarily aimed at im-
proving public understanding of the
utility of systems theory for dealing
with urgent public problems. Sixteen
were focused on the application of
systems theory to decision-making in
business, government, education, and
research. Ten dealt with definitions and
correlation of concepts and processes
in different fields of science as aids
to interdisciplinary communication.
Four papers had relevance to multi-
disciplinary research where a scientist
must grasp adequately the differing
concepts of several fields of science in
order to maintain perspective of his
research problem.

Examples of papers relating to pub-
lic understanding of the application
of systems concepts are S. Chandra-
sekhar's application of systems con-
cepts to the population explosion prob-
lem in Southern California, and A.
Rapoport's presidential address using
systems concepts to examine the vi-
ability of our national political-mili-
tary system and its relevance to sur-
vival of human civilization.
On the decision-making level, R. 0.

Gibson pointed out how general sys-
tems analysis can increase the prob-

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http://science.sciencemag.org/


History and Philosophy of Science (L)
V. L. Parsegian

DOI: 10.1126/science.151.3712.871
 (3712), 871.151Science 

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1966 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science

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