BONDING IN CHILDREN WITH asd: fINDINGS WITHIN AND ACROSS CASE STUDIES


                                                                    

 

 

 

 

Okanagan CHILD-CANINE BONDING IN CHILDREN WITH ASD: FINDINGS 

WITHIN AND ACROSS CASE STUDIES 

 

by 

 

KATHRYN REBEKAH STRUIK 

 

B.H.K. University of British Columbia-Okanagan, British Columbia, Canada 2012 

 

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR 

THE DEGREE OF 

 

Master of Arts in Education  

 

in 

 

The College of Graduate Studies 

 

Education 

 

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA 

 

(Okanagan) 

 

July, 2016 

 

 

© Katheryn Rebekah Struik, 2016 

 

 



                                                                  i 

 

 

 

The undersigned certify that they have read, and recommend to the College of Graduate Studies for acceptance, a 
thesis entitled:   

 

Child-Canine Bonding in Children with ASD: Findings Within and Across Case Studies 

 

Submitted by        Kathryn Struik                                                                in partial fulfillment of the 
requirements of  
 

The degree of      Master of Arts in Education                                                                                             . 
 

Dr. John Tyler Binfet, Faculty of Education, UBC Okanagan 
Supervisor, Professor (please print name and faculty/school above the line) 

 

Dr. Margaret Macintyre Latta, Faculty of Education, UBC Okanagan 
Supervisory Committee Member, Professor (please print name and faculty/school in the line above) 

 

Dr. Greg Garrard, Faculty of Creative and Critical Studies, UBC Okanagan 
Supervisory Committee Member, Professor (please print name and faculty/school in the line above) 

 

Dr. Edward Taylor, Faculty of Health and Social Development, UBC Okanagan  
University Examiner, Professor (please print name and faculty/school in the line above) 

 

 
External Examiner, Professor (please print name and university in the line above) 

 

 

July 29, 2016 
(Date submitted to Grad Studies) 

 

Additional Committee Members include: 

 

 
Please print name and faculty/school in the line above 

 

 
Please print name and faculty/school in the line above 

 
 
  

 

 

 



                                                                  ii 

 

 

 

ABSTRACT 

The demand for support for children and families impacted by Autism Spectrum Disorder 

(ASD) continues to grow, and one increasingly popular avenue of support is the use of 

therapeutic canines.  Parents searching for service canines trained to work with children with 

ASD however face formidable obstacles surrounding the availability and cost of canines.  Due to 

these challenges, parents may seek less formal routes to support their children with ASD, often 

adding companion canines to their family.   Despite enthusiasm for integrating companion 

canines into the care plan, research examining human-animal bonding in children with ASD and 

the mechanisms through which child-canine bonding occurs in this population is needed.  

Furthermore, research identifying factors that influence children on the spectrum’s ability to 

bond with a companion canine is meagre.  Given the nuanced interactions that exist to indicate 

the presence or absence of bonding (e.g., proximity, initiations of interactions and touch), this 

exploratory case study employed interviews and observations to gain insights into the 

mechanisms or pathways through which child-canine bonding occurs and to identify factors 

contributing to this bonding process.  Families (N=6), with a child aged 5-14 years with a 

confirmed diagnosis of ASD and their family canine, participated in the study.  Using the 

components of attachment theory (i.e., safe haven, secure base, proximity seeking, and 

separation anxiety) as a framework to categorize thematic responses, directed content analysis 

was used to identify whether the child-canine relationship could be conceptualized as an 

attachment relationship. Conventional content analysis was used to identify key themes 

characterizing child-canine bonding arising in interviews and observations and later verified by 

field notes.  Findings revealed support for the use of Bowlby’s theory to understanding child-

canine bonding with proximity maintenance identified as the most prevalent component followed 



                                                                  iii 

 

 

 

by secure base, safe haven, and separation anxiety.  A cross-case analysis revealed seven 

prevalent themes characterizing child-canine bonding.  The themes that were identified included: 

1) Canine Acquisition; 2) Bonding Strategies; 3) Canine Characteristics; 4) Canine as Family 

Member; 5) Family Profile; 6) Benefits; and 7) Other.  Theoretical and applied implications of 

these findings are addressed. 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



                                                                  iv 

 

 

 

PREFACE 

This research was approved by the UBC Okanagan Behavioural Research Ethics Board on 

September 2, 2015. Ethics certification #H15-01479. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



                                                                  v 

 

 

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS  

   

THESIS COMMITTEE ................................................................................................................... i 

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii 

PREFACE ...................................................................................................................................... iv 

TABLE OF CONTENTS  ............................................................................................................... v 

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... viii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... ix 

CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1 

1.1 Background and Context ....................................................................................................... 1 

1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................ 3 

1.3 Statement of Purpose and Research Questions ..................................................................... 4 

1.4 Theoretical Frameworks: Family Systems Theory and Attachment Theory ........................ 5 

1.5 Significance ........................................................................................................................... 8 

1.6 Operational Definitions ......................................................................................................... 8 

1.7 Presentation of the Thesis ................................................................................................... 10 

CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................... 11 

2.1 Autism Spectrum Disorder .................................................................................................. 11 

2.1.1 Defining Autism Spectrum Disorder ......................................................................................... 11 

2.1.2 Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder ............................................................................ 14 

2.1.3 Social Skills of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder ........................................................ 15 

2.1.4 Impact of ASD on the Family .................................................................................................... 15 

2.2 Human-Animal Interaction.................................................................................................. 18 

2.2.1 Benefits of Human-Animal Interaction ...................................................................................... 18 

2.2.2 Autism Spectrum Disorder and Human-Animal Interaction...................................................... 20 

2.2.3 Service and Therapy Canines for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder ............................ 22 

2.2.4 Companion canines for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder ........................................... 25 

2.3 Attachment Theory and the Human-Animal Bond ............................................................. 27 

2.4 Summary and Conclusion ................................................................................................... 32 

CHAPTER 3 – RESEARCH METHODS .................................................................................... 34 

3.1 Rationale for a Qualitative Research Approach .................................................................. 35 



                                                                  vi 

 

 

 

3.1.1 Rationale for a Case Study ......................................................................................................... 36 

3.1.2 Case Study ................................................................................................................................. 37 

3.2 Case Selection ..................................................................................................................... 38 

3.3 Data Collection Procedures ................................................................................................. 39 

3.4 Research Sample ................................................................................................................. 40 

3.4.1 Recruitment Procedures and Consent ........................................................................................ 40 

3.4.2 Participant Recruitment .............................................................................................................. 41 

3.4.3 Interviews ................................................................................................................................... 42 

3.4.4 Field Notes ................................................................................................................................. 43 

3.4.5 Observations .............................................................................................................................. 44 

3.5 Data Analyses ...................................................................................................................... 45 

3.5.1 Analysis of Attachment Theory Using Directed Content Analysis ........................................... 46 

3.5.2 The Identification of Emerging Themes Using Conventional Content Analysis ....................... 47 

3.5.3 Ensuring the Fidelity of the Study ....................................................................................... 48 

CHAPTER 4 – RESULTS ............................................................................................................ 51 

4.1 Demographics ...................................................................................................................... 51 

4.1.1 Family Demographics ................................................................................................................ 51 

4.1.2 Companion canine Demographics ............................................................................................. 53 

4.1.3 Child-Canine Attachment Level ................................................................................................ 54 

4.2 Support for Bowlby’s Attachment Theory .......................................................................... 54 

4.2.1 Proximity maintenance .............................................................................................................. 55 

4.2.2 Safe Haven ................................................................................................................................. 58 

4.2.3 Secure Base ................................................................................................................................ 59 

4.2.4 Separation Anxiety ..................................................................................................................... 61 

4.3 Themes Characterizing Child-Canine Bonding .................................................................. 64 

4.3.1 Canine Acquisition ..................................................................................................................... 71 

4.3.2 Bonding Strategies ..................................................................................................................... 76 

4.3.3 Canine Characteristics................................................................................................................ 80 

4.3.4 Canine as Family Member ......................................................................................................... 84 

4.3.5 Family Profile ............................................................................................................................ 86 

4.3.6 Benefits ...................................................................................................................................... 91 

4.3.7 Other .......................................................................................................................................... 98 

4.4 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 100 



                                                                  vii 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 5 – DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION ....... 101 

5.1 Overview ........................................................................................................................... 101 

5.2 Summary of findings ......................................................................................................... 101 

5.2.1 The Nature of the Child-Canine Relationship .......................................................................... 102 

5.2.2 Factors Influencing and Benefits from the Child-Canine Bond ............................................... 105 

5.2.3 Limitations ............................................................................................................................... 120 

5.2.4 Implications .............................................................................................................................. 121 

5.2.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 125 

References ............................................................................................................................... 127 

Appendices .................................................................................................................................. 147 

Appendix A – Consent Form .................................................................................................. 147 

Appendix B– Consent Form .................................................................................................... 153 

Appendix C– Verbal Assent Form .......................................................................................... 159 

Appendix D– Verbal Assent Form .......................................................................................... 161 

Appendix E – Primary Caregiver of Child with ASD: Demographic Survey......................... 163 

Appendix F – Parent Interview Guide ..................................................................................... 167 

Appendix G – Letter of Initial Contact ................................................................................... 171 

Appendix H – Recruitment Flyer ............................................................................................ 173 

Appendix I – Observational Data Map ................................................................................... 174 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



                                                                  viii 

 

 

 

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 1. Ensuring the Fidelity of the …………….…………………………….……………….49 

Table 2. Family Demographics ………….…………………………………….……………….52 

Table 3. Demographics of Children With and Without Autism Spectrum Disorder…………....53 

Table 4. Demographics of Companion canines …………….…………………………………..54 

Table 5. Child to Canine Attachment Level …………….………………….…………………..54 

Table 6. Features of Attachment Evident in the Child-Canine Bond ……….………………….55 

Table 7. Prevalent Themes, Coding Descriptions and Examples ……….……………………...65 

Table 8. The Absence or Presence of Prevalent Themes within Individual Cases ……………..70 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  



                                                                  ix 

 

 

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS  

First off, I would like to say thank you to my supervisor, Dr. John Tyler Binfet, for your 

continual support, encouragement, and guidance throughout this process. Your passion for, and 

expertise in, the field of human-animal interaction was invaluable for the completion of this 

project. Thank you to my supervisory committee members, Dr. Margaret Macintyre Latta and 

Dr. Greg Garrard, for your support and encouragement, which has always left me feeling 

motivated. I would also like to thank the entire Faculty of Education at UBC’s Okanagan 

campus, for believing in my work and cheering me on.  

I would like to thank the participants of this study for welcoming me into their homes; 

their enthusiastic participation not only made this study possible, but also made it an enriching 

experience. I also want to say thank you to the organizations that assisted in recruiting 

participants; the University of British Columbia, Autism Okanagan, and Starbright Children’s 

Development Centre.   

Also, I am so grateful to all of my friends for their support and enthusiasm throughout this 

entire process. I would like to thank my family, Harry, Rita, Matthew, and Laura, for your 

unconditional love and support throughout my academic endeavors.  Mom, thank you for always 

getting my knowledge “up.”  Your guidance, support, and input was instrumental for the 

completion of this study.  Laura, you are a wealth of knowledge. Your ability to deconstruct tough 

philosophical concepts and answer any questions I had regarding qualitative methodologies was 

invaluable.  Finally, I would like to dedicate this thesis to a very important member of our family 

and the reason I am so passionate about the healing power of animals, our Golden Retriever, Payton



                                                                  1 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION 

1.1 Background and Context 

 

Parents of children with autism face unique challenges as they raise their children within 

busy social contexts.  Children with exceptionalities often face obstacles that can be alienating as 

they try to fit into complex social structures and systems (Home, 2002).  The global prevalence 

of autism has increased twenty to thirtyfold over the past 4 decades and is now the most common 

neurological disorder affecting children (current figures are 1 in every 68 children are diagnosed; 

Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014).  Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a lifelong 

developmental disability defined by criteria in The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental 

Disorders: DSM-5, which includes deficits in social communication and social interaction along 

with restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests, or activities (American Psychiatric 

Association, 2013).   

A pervasive characteristic of children with ASD is their difficulty establishing adult-child 

and peer-peer bonds (Autism Canada Foundation, 2011; O’Haire, 2013).  Due to this difficulty, 

children with ASD may struggle to engage with their peers. This struggle can make them prone 

to experiencing social isolation resulting in an inability to participate in activities that both 

provide a source of joy and serve to promote their development (O’Haire, McKenzie, McCune, 

& Slaughter, 2013).   O’Haire and colleagues (2013) assert that social isolation and a lack of 

social interactions early in the neurological process of development for children with ASD may 

lead to further impairment of neurotypical behavioural development, creating a cycle of 

increasing behavioural disturbances.  Accordingly, this signals the need for the child’s primary 

caretaker(s) to address social skill deficits.  Intervention strategies should be delivered as early as 

possible in order to provide the greatest likelihood of successfully improving these skills that are 



                                                                  2 

 

 

 

critical to optimum long-term outcomes (Autism Speaks, 2015; Johnson 2015).  The demand for 

support for social skills development for children on the spectrum continues to grow, and one 

increasingly popular source of support is the use of canines. 

Due to reported benefits, families impacted by autism have become increasingly intrigued 

by the therapeutic effects that service canines can have on children with ASD (Burrows, Adams, 

& Spiers, 2008).  Parents searching for service canines trained to work with children with ASD 

however, face formidable obstacles surrounding both the availability and cost of these canines. 

According to the Canadian National Service Canines (NSD) training centre, there is currently an 

18-24 month waiting list for a service canine at a cost of $18,000 CDN (NSD, 2012).  Even if 

funds are available, the wait time is a deterrent for many families as the implementation of early 

intervention strategies is key to the developmental well-being of newly diagnosed children 

(Autism Speaks, 2015; Johnson, 2015).  

For families impacted by autism, their decision to add a service canine is well-grounded 

in peer-reviewed findings in the field of Human-Animal Interactions (HAI) attesting to the 

benefits of the human-animal bond for children with ASD (e.g., Carlisle, 2012; Fine, 2010; 

Grandin, 2005; Levinson, 1984; O’Haire, 2013).  However, with long wait-lists and the price tag 

for a service canine out of reach for many families, parents are increasingly turning to less vetted 

means of finding canines for their children.   As parents seek informal routes to provide support 

for their child with autism, they are often left considering an untrained canine as a potential 

companion given the long waitlists and prohibitive cost of a service canine.  

 A study by Carlisle (2012; 2014) examining the role of pet canines in families of 

children with autism, revealed that children with autism can develop stronger social skills and 

assertiveness when they are closely connected to their companion canine.  Therefore, a 



                                                                  3 

 

 

 

successful bond between a child with autism and his/her canine is an especially important aspect 

of canine selection.  Ensuring an optimal child-canine bond is critical, especially as canines hold 

potential to serve as social catalysts, facilitating social interactions and connections for children 

with ASD (Carlisle, 2012; McNicholas & Collis, 2000, O’Haire, 2013; Serpell, 1996).   Indeed, 

in order to fully capitalize on the positive benefits that a canine can facilitate for a child with 

ASD, there is a need for a better understanding of what might influence this bonding process and 

how to ensure a successful child-canine bond develops (Hosey & Melfi, 2014).   

1.2 Problem Statement 

 

Autism is the most common neurological disorder affecting children (Center for Disease 

Control and Prevention, 2014).  Human-animal therapeutic interventions based on utilizing the 

emotional aspects of human-animal relationships have the potential to be an effective tool in 

diminishing the withdrawal of children with ASD by targeting the core symptoms of the disorder 

(e.g., impairments in verbal and nonverbal communication, social interactions and restricted 

patterns of behaviour); (Berry, Borgi, Francia, Alleva, & Cirulli, 2013).  Despite enthusiasm for 

integrating companion canines into the care plan for socially withdrawn children with ASD, 

research identifying factors that influence children on the spectrum’s ability to bond with a 

companion canine is meagre (Berry, Borgi, Francia, Alleva, & Cirulli, 2013).  There is a 

particular dearth of empirical research examining the triad relationship between the child, the 

family canine, and the family as a means to identify what might influence a child on the 

spectrum's ability to bond with a companion canine.   

The mechanisms or pathways through which child-canine bonding occurs in typically 

developing children remain largely unexamined.  As well, a nuanced understanding of the 

human-animal bond for children on the spectrum has yet to be identified.  For example, we lack 



                                                                  4 

 

 

 

an understanding of what might influence a child with ASD to bond with his/her companion 

canine and what, if any, strategies are used by families to ensure this bond is established and 

nurtured.  In addition, existing research has been focused on the effects of owning a companion 

canine for a child with ASD from the parents’ perspectives (e.g., Burrows & Adams, 25; Coltea, 

2011; MacKinnon, 2014).  This knowledge gap leads to questions about what might contribute to 

or detract from the bonding process and how families impacted by ASD help ensure a strong 

canine-child bond.  In order to successfully integrate a companion canine into a home 

environment, an understanding of the many personal and external factors influencing this 

interactive relationship is essential.  

1.3 Statement of Purpose and Research Questions 

 

The purpose of this multiple case study was to understand child-canine bonding with a 

focus on identifying the factors contributing to bonding in children with ASD to their family 

canines.  Four areas requiring investigation were identified for this study. These included: 1) the 

identification of what, if any, components of attachment (e.g., safe haven, secure base, proximity 

seeking and separation anxiety) are evident in the relationship; 2) the identification of 

physiological and temperamental characteristics of canines that contribute to their bonding with 

children with ASD; 3) direct observations of interactions between a child with ASD and his/her 

companion canine; 4) and the identification of strategies employed by families to facilitate child-

canine bonding.  The two overarching research questions that guided this study were as follows:  

1. Is there evidence that the attachment components of safe haven, secure base, 

proximity seeking, and separation anxiety are evident features of the child-canine 

relationship? If so, to what extent are these four features of attachment evident? 



                                                                  5 

 

 

 

2.  What are the prevalent themes emerging from interviews and observations of canine-

child bonding? 

1.4 Theoretical Frameworks: Family Systems Theory and Attachment Theory 

 

Both Bowen’s (1976; 1978) family systems theory and Bowlby’s (1969; 1979; 1988) 

attachment theory provided a theoretical framework to guide this study’s research questions. 

Systems theory is a theoretical framework based on the concept that a system can be best 

understood in the context of relationships with other systems, rather than in isolation. Systems 

theory was first introduced in the 1940s by biologist Bertalanffy (1968) and furthered by Ashby 

(1956) and Bateson (1979).  Bowen’s family systems theory is set apart from others as he was the 

first to widen his view of individual functioning to include reciprocal biosocial interactions, 

focusing on how families functions as systems of influence.  

  Murray Bowen, trained as a psychiatrist, worked with individuals diagnosed with 

schizophrenia. Initially, the treatment primarily focused solely on the individual; however, he 

changed his methods after observing the relational interactions between the identified patient and 

his or her family members (Tate, 2015).  Bowen was particularly interested in the dynamics that 

occurred between the patient with schizophrenia and the mother. The emotional intensity within 

this parent-child dyad revealed a level of involvement that made it difficult to view the patient with 

schizophrenia as a separate individual (Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Bowen furthered his examination 

of this type of interaction by including other nuclear family members (i.e., father and/or siblings).  

These breakthrough observations moved Bowen to acknowledge how influential the family system 

is on an individual’s functioning (Kerr & Bowen, 1988).  

Bowen’s family system theory has since been used to describe how the social existence of 

human beings, in family groups, effects the functioning of each individual member within each 



                                                                  6 

 

 

 

family (Craig, 2005). To date, there is no single systems theory about families (Cridland et al., 

2013); Bowen however, was the leader in family systems theory and will therefore be referred to 

in this study.  

Family systems analysis (Bowen, 1976; 1978) framework describes families as a system 

of interconnected and interdependent individuals. To understand an individual, we must 

understand the family system of that individual.  An individual, certainly a young child, cannot 

be understood in isolation from his/her family system (Bowen, 1978).  Children are embedded 

within multiple systems that interact both directly and indirectly to influence development and 

behaviour; the most important influence being the family system (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).  

Bronfenbrenner (1979) asserts that the family system is the most important influence for 

children and subsequently impacts how they develop, behave, and perceive their environment.  

This sheds light on how influential the family system is for a child with special needs and more 

specifically, for a child with ASD.  When families integrate a canine into their home and view 

the canine as a significant other, the family canine becomes a sub-system within the complex 

family system (Jalongo, 2015).  Sub-systems are smaller units within a family (e.g., martial (or 

couple), parental, or sibling sub-systems) that together comprise the larger family system 

(Minuchin, 1974).  From this perspective, family companion canines become nested within the 

family social system (Jalongo, 2015).  Furthermore, Bowen (1979) believed that behaviour was 

best understood when viewed within the context of naturally occurring processes.  Therefore, in 

order to gain an in-depth understanding of the child-canine bonding process this qualitative study 

investigated influences from within the family, including canines as part of the family unit, by 

utilizing a family systems perspective rather than in isolation from the family. 

 



                                                                  7 

 

 

 

 Bowlby’s attachment theory (1979) was initially proffered to explain the development of 

deep emotional bonds characterizing close relationships.  Given the complexities of the child-

canine relationship in children with ASD, the terms “attachment” and “bonding” are used 

interchangeably in the current study.  However, it must be noted that in an infant-caregiver 

relationship, the terms “attachment” and “bonding” have distinctive meanings. In an attachment-

caregiver relationship, bonding refers to the parent’s tie to the infant and is thought to occur 

within the first few hours or days of life (Bowlby, 1969).  Attachment, in contrast, refers to the 

emotional relationship between infants and primary caregivers, which develops gradually 

(Bowlby, 1969).  

Bowlby (1988) described attachment as a lasting psychological connectedness between 

human beings characterised by four distinguished features: 1) Their physical nearness and 

accessibility are enjoyable (proximity maintenance); 2) They are missed and become anxious 

when absent (separation distress); 3) They are dependable sources of comfort and provide a base 

to explore the environment (secure base); and 4) They are sought to alleviate distress (safe 

haven).   

Although family systems theory and attachment theory are two separate theories, they 

complement each other in distinct ways.  For example, the family system and the interactions 

within that system influence attachment styles in children (De Wolff & Van IJzendoorn, 1997).  

De Wolff and Van IJzendoorn (1997), found that attachment security in children is directly 

linked to parental sensitivity.  These attachment styles in children are most commonly thought of 

as the attachments between a child and his/her parents (Bowlby, 1969).  Not all of young 

children’s attachments are to fellow human beings, however (Jalongo, 2015).  Children can 

become attached to companion animals and display classic attachment behaviours, including: 



                                                                  8 

 

 

 

seeking close physical contact (proximity seeking), protesting separation/striving to be reunited 

(separation anxiety), communicating through touch and nonverbal cues, acting as a base of 

security from which the child can explore the surrounding environment (secure base) and turning 

to the other for comfort (safe haven) (Melson, 2003).  

The use of these two theoretical frameworks guided and supported the current study, 

helped determine appropriate research questions, and gave direction to interviews and 

discussions to focus the research.  Both family systems theory and attachment theory provided a 

framework for investigating what factors might influence the child-canine bond.  

1.5 Significance 

 

This research is important because the findings hold potential to provide insights into 

what influences the bonding process between children with ASD and their companion canines. 

This research holds both theoretical and applied significance. Building upon emerging findings 

explicating bonding between children with ASD and their companion canines, this research 

holds promise to inform researchers about the nuanced interactions taking place within family 

contexts that facilitate child-canine bonding. The case study methodology offers unique 

advantages for identifying the salient characteristics of children, canines, and families 

contributing to successful bonding that would otherwise be difficult to access/observe.  From an 

applied perspective, this research holds potential to inform parents seeking to support their 

children through the addition of a companion canine. There are familial, social, and economic 

ramifications arising from increasing awareness of the characteristics found in children, in 

companion canines, and families that nurture successful child-canine bonds.   

1.6 Operational Definitions  

 



                                                                  9 

 

 

 

Animal Assisted Therapy. Pet Partners (formerly the Delta Society) published the 

following widely cited definition for Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT).   

Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT): AAT is goal-directed intervention in which an animal 

that meets specific criteria can be a significant part of treatment for people with a physical, 

social, emotional, or cognitive diagnosis.  AAT is directed and/or delivered by a health/human 

service professional with specialized expertise, and within scope of practice of his/her 

profession.  Key features include: specified goals and objectives for each individual; and 

measured progress (Fine, 2010). 

Service Canine. According to the Canadian Service Dog Foundation (2011) a service 

canine is individually trained to do work or perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a 

disability, including a physical, sensory, psychiatric, intellectual, or other mental disability.  The 

work or tasks performed by a service canine must be directly related to the handler's disability.  

Service canines are typically trained and certified by assistance canine organizations and have 

full public access right.  

Therapy Canine. The Canadian Service Dog Foundation (2011) defines a therapy canine 

as a socially interactive canine trained to work for a handler to provide service and comfort to 

other people.  Therapy canines can be found working in hospitals, retirement homes, nursing 

homes, schools, libraries, and rehabilitation units for children with learning disabilities or 

behavioural challenges.  All therapy canines must have a friendly, patient, and gentle 

temperament.   

Companion Canine. The Canadian Service Dog Foundation (2011) defines a companion 

canine as a family pet with no specific training or certification and does not have public access 

rights (Canadian Service Dog Foundation, 2011).   



                                                                  10 

 

 

 

1.7 Presentation of the Thesis  

 

This thesis is presented in five chapters. The second chapter provides a review of relevant 

literature in highlighting the knowledge gap that this study addresses. This review is followed by 

the research methods, findings, and discussion.   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



                                                                  11 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW 

In this chapter, a review of relevant literature is presented in order to situate the current 

study and contextualize the knowledge gaps it addresses. There are four major sections in this 

chapter. The first section includes a definition of ASD.  This is followed by a description of the 

characteristics and social skill challenges faced by children with ASD as well as a review on the 

impact that ASD can have on the family.  Secondly, a brief description of HAI and its benefits for 

neurotypical adults and children as well as children with ASD is then provided.  In addition, a 

review on the benefits of companion canines for children with ASD is included.  The third 

section describes attachment theory and how this theory could be applied to the human animal 

bond between children with ASD and their companion canine.   In the final section, research 

focused on human-animal bonding for children with ASD is reviewed and described.  

2.1 Autism Spectrum Disorder 

 

2.1.1 Defining Autism Spectrum Disorder 

 

ASD cluster of developmental disorders including Asperger’s Disorder, Autistic 

Disorder, Pervasive Developmental Disorder - Not Otherwise Specified and Childhood 

Disintegrative Disorder have been combined into the new category of ASD in the fifth edition of 

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) (American Psychiatric 

Association, 2013).  The previous version of the DSM, DSM-IV-TR (2000), classified each of 

the disorders listed above in separate categories and included a fifth disorder, Rhett Syndrome.  

With the release of the new DSM-5, one of the most significant changes is that the separate 

diagnostic labels of Autistic Disorder, Asperger’s Disorder, and PDD-NOS are replaced by one 

umbrella term “Autism Spectrum Disorder” (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).  This is 

in response to the need for a greater understanding of ASD (Autism Speaks, 2015).   



                                                                  12 

 

 

 

The earliest publications on autism described atypical behaviours between child and adult 

social interactions, documented the presence of repetitive object use and insistence on sameness, 

and distinguished between autism and childhood-onset schizophrenia (Asperger, 1944; Kanner, 

1943).  The observations made by Dr.’s Asperger (1944) and Kanner (1943) remain relevant 

today and have shaped the current definition of autism (Ousley & Cermak, 2014).  The use of the 

term “autism spectrum disorder” reflects the idea that the core features of ASD can be measured 

dimensionally and that they fall along a continuum of severity (Grzadzinski, Huerta, & Lord, 

2013).   

Prior to the publication of the DSM-5, children with an ASD diagnosis were specified by 

a level of functioning identified according to specific criteria in the DSM-IV-TR (American 

Psychiatric Association, 2000).  Levels of functioning ranged from high-functioning ASD to low 

functioning ASD (4th ed., text rev.; DSM–IV–TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000).  

With the release of the new DSM-5, distinctions are now made according to severity levels 

(American Psychiatric Association, 2013).  The first two core criteria include: 1) An impairment 

in reciprocal social communication and social interaction; and 2) restricted, repetitive patterns of 

behaviours, interests, or activities (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015).  The 

severity levels are based on the amount of support required by the individual due to challenges 

with social communication as well as restricted interests and repetitive behaviours (American 

Psychiatric Association, 2013).  For example, an individual might be diagnosed with ASD, Level 

1 (support required), Level 2 (substantial support required), or Level 3 (very substantial support 

required); (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).  In the DSM-5, in addition to evaluating the 

two core ASD domains, the characterization of ASD involves specifying whether or not 

intellectual and language impairments are present (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).  



                                                                  13 

 

 

 

Further specifications include: whether or not the individual’s diagnosis is associated with a 

known medical or genetic condition or environmental factor; whether or not the individual’s 

diagnosis is associated with another neurodevelopmental, mental, or behavioural disorder; and 

whether or not the individual’s diagnosis is associated with catatonia (Center for Disease Control 

and Prevention, 2015). 

According to the DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013), the defining 

characteristics of ASD include deficits in each of the following four criteria (A, B, C, & D): 

A. Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across 

contexts, not accounted for by general developmental delays, and manifest by all 

3 of the following:  

1. Deficits in social-emotional reciprocity; ranging from abnormal 

social approach and failure of normal back and forth conversation 

through reduced sharing of interests, emotions, and affect and 

response to total lack of initiation of social interaction, 

2. Deficits in nonverbal communicative behaviours used for social 

interaction; ranging from poorly integrated- verbal and nonverbal 

communication, through abnormalities in eye contact and body-

language, or deficits in understanding and use of nonverbal 

communication, to total lack of facial expression or gestures. 

3. Deficits in developing and maintaining relationships, appropriate to 

developmental level (beyond those with caregivers); ranging from 

difficulties adjusting behaviour to suit different social contexts 

through difficulties in sharing imaginative play and in making friends 

to an apparent absence of interest in people  

B. Restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests, or activities as manifested 

by at least two of the following:  

1. Stereotyped or repetitive speech, motor movements, or use of 

objects; (such as simple motor stereotypes, echolalia, repetitive use of 

objects, or idiosyncratic phrases).  

2. Excessive adherence to routines, ritualized patterns of verbal or 

nonverbal behaviour, or excessive resistance to change; (such as 

motoric rituals, insistence on same route or food, repetitive 

questioning or extreme distress at small changes).  

3. Highly restricted, fixated interests that are abnormal in intensity or 

focus; (such as strong attachment to or preoccupation with unusual 

objects, excessively circumscribed or perseverative interests).  

4. Hyper-or hypo-reactivity to sensory input or unusual interest in 

sensory aspects of environment; (such as apparent indifference to 

pain/heat/cold, adverse response to specific sounds or textures, 



                                                                  14 

 

 

 

excessive smelling or touching of objects, fascination with lights or 

spinning objects).  

C. Symptoms must be present in early childhood (but may not become fully 

manifest until social demands exceed limited capacities)  

D. Symptoms together limit and impair everyday functioning (pp. 88-89). 

 

2.1.2 Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder 

 

According to the DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013), ASD is characterized 

by persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts. 

This includes deficits in social reciprocity, nonverbal communicative behaviours used for social 

interaction, and skills in developing, maintaining, and understanding relationships.  In addition to 

social communication deficits, a diagnosis of ASD requires the presence of restricted, repetitive 

patterns of behaviour, interests, or activities (e.g., repetitive use of objects, excessive resistance 

to change, preoccupation with unusual objects, excessive smelling or touching of objects). 

Within the diagnosis of ASD, individual clinical characteristics are noted through the use of 

specifiers (i.e., with or without accompanying intellectual impairment; with or without 

accompanying structural language impairment; associated with a known medical/genetic or 

environmental/acquired condition; associated with another neurodevelopmental, mental, or 

behavioural disorder), as well as specifiers that describe the autistic symptoms (i.e., age at first 

concern; with or without loss of established skills; severity). These specifiers provide clinicians 

with an opportunity to individualize the diagnosis and communicate a richer clinical description 

of the affected individuals (Autism Speaks, 2015).  

Impairments in verbal and nonverbal communication, age-specific play patterns, social 

interactions and restricted patterns of behaviour are key features indicative of ASD (Berry et al., 

2013).  The most disabling challenges are limitations in social skills, which can include, but are 

not limited to the following areas: social reciprocity (a range of back-and-forth actions, such as 



                                                                  15 

 

 

 

gestures, sounds, play, attention, and conversation), non-verbal communication and both the 

development and maintenance of relationships (Leach & LaRocque, 2011; O’Haire, 2013). 

2.1.3 Social Skills of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder 

 

Social limitations represent the most pervasive characteristics of children with ASD often 

leading to difficulties establishing adult-child and peer-peer bonds (Autism Canada Foundation, 

2011; Johnson, 2015; O’Haire, 2013).  Although children with ASD range in their severity 

levels, deficits in the ability to socially interact and engage with others remain consistent 

(Chamberlain, Kasari, & Rotheram-Fuller, 2007).  Thus it is common across severity levels 1 to 

3 and represents an important area to address for children with ASD.  Given these findings, it is 

of utmost importance to develop new strategies and identify therapies in which children with 

ASD can enhance their social skills in order to successfully participate in their environments and 

develop skills necessary for future employment opportunities (Johnson, 2015).  

Interventions based on improving social skills, communication and reducing problematic 

behaviours (e.g., tantrums and repetitive behaviours) currently represent the most effective tool 

for ASD management (Vismara & Rogers, 2010).  Furthermore, addressing social skill deficits 

and problem behaviours with ASD may be an effective approach to reducing parental stress 

(Carlisle, 2012; 2014).  Despite the large and varied number of behavioural and developmental 

interventions that exist, no one method has proven to be universally effective for the treatment of 

ASD (Berry et al., 2013).  Therefore, the need for further research is imperative in order to 

identify alternative approaches to support children with ASD. 

2.1.4 Impact of ASD on the Family  

 

Having a family member with autism may present particular challenges for the family 

unit (Kaminsky & Dewey, 2002).  Such challenges include accommodation of inflexible daily 



                                                                  16 

 

 

 

routines, management of sudden mood changes and tantrums, and management of withdrawal 

during social interactions (Heiman & Berger, 2008; Macks & Reeve, 2007).  ASD therefore 

affects the individual diagnosed with the disorder as well as the family in a variety of ways 

(Macks & Reeve, 2007).  For this reason, Neely-Barns, Hall, Roberts, and Graff (2011) referred 

to families who have a member with ASD as families living with ASD. 

 A number of studies have examined the effects of ASD on the family (e.g., Altiere & 

von Kluge, 2009; Dabrowska & Pisula, 2010; DeGrace, Hoffman, Hutson & Kolobe, 2014; Ekas 

& Whitman, 2011; Weitlauf, Vehorn, Taylor, & Warren, 2014).  DeGrace and colleagues (2014) 

conducted a qualitative study to explicate the experiences of living everyday life following the 

diagnosis of autism.  Seven families were interviewed using grounded theory methodology, a 

systematic methodology involving the construction of theory through data analysis. The families’ 

experiences aggregated into a three phase model: 1) experiences; 2) mediators; and 3) family 

outcomes.  DeGrace and colleagues (2014) used the term ‘navigating the unknown’ to 

collectively describe the families’ experiences following the diagnosis of their child.  The 

unknown was defined as a phase of questioning, feelings of uncertainty, and worrying.  These 

feelings could stretch from utter confusion on how to manage their child’s behaviour and 

accommodate everyday tasks, to tentative feelings on how to implement new ways of doing 

things as a family unit.   This study revealed that the prevailing experience of these families was 

the feeling of “not knowing.”   

In an exploratory study by Nealy, O’Hare, Powers and Swick (2012), the authors 

examined mothers’ perspectives of ASD.  Qualitative semi-structured interviews with mothers 

were conducted and four primary themes emerged.  Prevailing themes of loss and depression 

were apparent.  As well, reduced opportunities for fun and recreational activities, changes in 



                                                                  17 

 

 

 

social relationships, and personal sacrifices became evident as issues affecting the well-being of 

mothers of a child with ASD.  This study sought to identify ways of supporting families 

impacted by autism.  Based on their findings, Nealy and colleagues (2012) recognized that there 

is a need to utilize alternative strategies and provide services that focus on family well-being in 

order to support the family unit as well as the well-being of each family member.   

To further explore the impact of ASD on the family unit, Ekas and Whitman (2011) used 

a daily diary methodology to examine the daily stress and coping in mothers with a child with 

ASD.  This study sought to assess the day-to-day impact of child related stress on maternal 

negative affect.  Through the use of daily diaries, this study found that mothers of children with 

ASD experienced increased negative affect.  However, when mothers experienced above average 

stress due to both life stressors and child stressors, there was a decrease in negative affect.  This 

finding suggests that when mothers who have a child with ASD experience high levels of stress 

in multiple domains of their life, they eventually seek out supports and resources to cope and 

seek relief (Ekas & Whitman, 2011).  In addition, Ekas and Whitman (2011) identified that 

increased positive affect served as a protective factor for mothers who have a child with ASD.  

Despite these findings, intervention strategies designed to help mothers generate positive 

emotions during stressful times are meagre (Ekas & Whitman, 2011).  Strategies that are 

available tend to teach mothers how to cope with their child’s challenging behaviours (e.g., 

Sofronoff & Farbotko, 2002) rather than assisting mothers in addressing the other numerous 

challenges and daily obstacles that often occur (Ekas & Whitman, 2011).  

Overall, researchers suggest that having a family member with ASD can present a range 

of distinct challenges on the family unit.  Families, and especially mothers, living with children 

with ASD experience high levels of stress (DeGrace et al., 2014; Nealy et al., 2010).  Further 



                                                                  18 

 

 

 

research examining the complex interplay of factors contributing to the stress and challenges for 

families impacted by ASD is needed (Cridland, Jones, Magee, & Caputi, 2014).  An 

investigation of coping and support mechanisms to alleviate the stress experienced by families 

living with ASD is warranted (Cridland et al., 2014; MacKinnon, 2014).  Support from 

companion canines can be one source of support for these families (e.g., Berry et al., 2013; 

Carlisle, 2012; Sams, Fortney, & Willenbring, 2006; O’Haire, 2013).  Evidence for the idea that 

the addition of a companion canine can act as an informal therapeutic intervention for both the 

family and the child living with ASD is found throughout human-animal literature.   The effects 

of companion animals, and especially companion canines, on reducing stress are presented next.   

2.2 Human-Animal Interaction 

 

2.2.1 Benefits of Human-Animal Interaction 

 

The field of HAI explores the bond between humans and animals and the role the human-

animal bond plays in empathy development, social development, the ability to form and express 

attachments, reaction to grief and loss, the challenges of aging, and other developmental 

passages throughout the lifespan (Human-Animal Interaction, 2015).  In addition, the field of 

HAI examines the role of AAT in prevention and intervention programs within a variety of 

settings (Human-Animal Interaction, 2015).   

Although it is still a relatively new area of research, there is ample and emerging 

empirical evidence supporting the therapeutic benefits of animal companionship.  The human-

animal bond has long been documented and is a well-known phenomenon that has existed since 

humans began domesticating animals (Turner, 2007).  The benefits of the human-animal bond 

are widely reported in literature for typically developing children and adults (e.g., Cole, 

Gawlinski, Steers, & Kotlerman, 2007; Fine, 2010).  Researchers have identified that HAI can 



                                                                  19 

 

 

 

influence psychological (Cole, Gawlinski, Steers, & Kotlerman, 2007; Jofre, 2005), 

physiological (Havey, Vlasses, Vlasses, Ludwig-Beymer, & Hackbarth, 2014; Kaplan & 

Ludwig-Deymer, 2004; Friedmann & Thomas, 1995), and social-psychological parameters 

important to health and well-being (Banks & Banks, 2002; Johnson, 2010).   

Many studies have addressed the contribution of HAI to human psychological well-being.  

Findings have revealed that HAI can decrease stress (Allen & Blascovich, 2002), increase 

emotional support and sense of psychological well-being (Straede & Gates, 1993), and increase 

resilience during times of adversity (Mulcahy & McLaughlin, 2013).   

In addition to psychological benefits, researchers have also reported on the physiological 

and social psychological benefits of HAI (e.g., Fine, 2010; Friedmann & Thomas, 1995; 

McNicholas & Collis, 2000).  Researchers have argued that AAT and companion pets can 

enhance social well-being for typically developing children and adults (Friedmann & Son, 2009; 

McNicholas & Collis, 2000; O’Haire, McKenzie, McCune, & Slaughter, 2013).   

  In a study by O’Haire and colleagues (2013), the researchers investigated the effects of 

a classroom-based animal-assisted activities program using guinea pigs was examined.  

Participants randomly selected to be in the experimental group were enrolled in the animal-

assisted activity program.  Participants in the experimental group (n = 64) compared to 

participants in the waitlist control group (n = 64) demonstrated significantly greater 

improvements in social functioning.  Social functioning was defined by greater increases in 

social skills and decreases in problem behaviours.   

In a study by McNicholas and Collis (2000), the authors found that canines act as social 

catalysts by facilitating social interactions and increasing interpersonal interactions and 

connections.  They measured this effect by recording the number and quality of interactions 



                                                                  20 

 

 

 

experienced by a canine handler when in public with a canine compared to interactions without a 

canine.  When the canine was present, the length and frequency of social interactions increased.   

Additionally, Friedmann and Son (2009) reviewed studies examining the human-

companion animal bond and concluded that companion animals can provide social support by 

facilitating social interactions thereby reducing social isolation and psychological distress.  

Johnson (2010) also identified psychosocial benefits from HAIs including reduced feelings of 

depression, loneliness, and anxiety.  

For individuals with disabilities, who may be socially avoided by others and therefore 

experience social isolation and feelings of loneliness, the role of animals as social catalysts is 

especially important.  Children with ASD face unique challenges establishing adult-child and 

peer-peer due to social interaction and communication deficiencies (Ekas & Whitman, 2011; 

O’Haire, 2013).  In the following section, research detailing how companion pets, and especially 

canines, have the potential to enhance social skills by providing social support, reducing stress 

and facilitating social interaction is presented.   

2.2.2 Autism Spectrum Disorder and Human-Animal Interaction 

 

There is ample empirical evidence supporting the therapeutic benefits of animal 

companionship.  Given the established benefits of HAI, it is not surprising that researchers in 

child development have found that animals can play a vital role in a child’s life.  Interactions 

with pets can contribute to the development of the sense of self, imagination, play, empathy, and 

social responsibility in children (Ascione 2005; Fine, 2010; Jalongo, 2015; Melson, 2001; 

Solomon, 2010).   

The beneficial effects of animals on severely withdrawn children date back to the 1960s 

(Berry, Borgi, Francia, Alleva, & Cirulli, 2013).  Dr. Boris M. Levinson (1969), a renowned 



                                                                  21 

 

 

 

psychologist and founder of the modern pet therapy movement, recognized that playful 

interaction with canines could improve sociocommunicative abilities of children with autism.  

He believed that the use of a well-trained animal could serve as a catalyst to help children deal 

with emotional and behavioural problems.  Levinson’s (1969) recognition of animals’ potential 

as communicative partners and their ability to provide emotional support was perhaps the 

foundation for the first use of canines as therapeutic adjuncts (Solomon, 2010).   

Individuals with autism may exhibit behaviours toward animals that they do not exhibit 

toward their family (McNicholas & Collis, 2000).  For children with ASD, handling social 

relations can be challenging (Bystrom & Persson, 2015).  Because of these challenges in 

establishing and maintaining social connections, bonding with a companion animal may lead to 

opportunities to practice social interactions and facilitate subsequent social connections to others 

(Bystrom & Persson, 2015).   

Temple Grandin (2005), a renowned author, lecturer, and animal behaviour expert, has 

written extensively about her experiences with autism and her ability to relate to animals.  

Grandin and her colleague Johnson (2005), hypothesized that people with ASD and animals 

share cognitive similarities.  Animals rely on their sensory-based thinking (visual, auditory, and 

tactile senses) in order to gather information regarding their surrounding environments (Grandin 

& Johnson, 2005).  Individuals with ASD, and in particular non-verbal individuals, have 

difficulty comprehending the thoughts and feelings of their peers and will negotiate their 

environments through the use of sensory-based thinking (Grandin & Johnson, 2005).  Children 

with ASD have been described as having a deficit in theory of mind; the ability to understand the 

thoughts or intentions of others (Baron-Cohen, 1995).  Although animals are interactive, children 

perceive them as non-judgemental participants and are not influenced by the expectations of 



                                                                  22 

 

 

 

typical human relationships (Friesen, 2010).  The absence of the necessity to “read” a canine’s 

mind may provide an explanation for the increased ability of a child with ASD to interact in a 

social way with a canine (Solomon, 2010).  This unique interaction offers typical and atypical 

children a valuable form of social and emotional support (Friesen, 2010).   

The human-animal bond transcends companionship.  It is a strong, positive and mutual 

interaction between humans and animals that has the potential to provide emotional support and 

comfort as well as affection (Berry, Borgi, Francia, Alleva, & Cirulli, 2013).  Human-animal 

therapeutic interventions based on utilizing these emotional aspects of human-animal 

relationships have the potential to represent an effective tool to diminish the withdrawal of 

children with ASD by targeting the core symptoms of the disorder (e.g., impairments in verbal 

and nonverbal communication, social interactions and restricted patterns of behaviour); (Berry et 

al., 2013).   A meta-analysis of 49 studies investigating AAT by Nimer and Lundahl (2007), 

found that its use led to improved behavioural symptoms of ASD, and canines were the type of 

animal associated with the most significant benefits.  The simple interpretable feedback 

behaviours that characterize animals, especially canines, facilitate social interactions that do not 

require the interpretation of verbal cues (Solomon, 2010).  This nonverbal engagement is 

especially important for children with ASD given their potential difficulties participating in 

social interactions requiring verbal exchanges (Solomon, 2010).    

2.2.3 Service and Therapy Canines for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder 

 

Burrows, Adams and Spiers (2008) studied the effects of service canines on the general 

welfare of ten families affected by ASD.  The primary function of integrating service canines 

into these families was to ensure safety by inhibiting children from bolting and wandering 

dangerously (e.g., walking in the middle of a road).  Their findings extended beyond children’s 



                                                                  23 

 

 

 

physical safety to communicative and therapeutic realms (Burrows et al., 2008).  Parents 

reported that the integration of a service canine resulted in beneficial effects on children’s 

behaviour including reduced levels of anxiety and emotional outbursts, increased calmness and 

overall happiness, and more manageable bedtime routines.  Parents also reported an additional 

sense of security due to the presence of the service canine.  Furthermore, when outside of the 

home, the service canine became the focus of attention alleviating some of the stress felt by the 

family and the siblings during social activities.  

In another study examining the therapeutic use of service and therapy canines’ for 

children and teens with autism, Solomon (2010) conducted two case studies investigating how 

canines mediate social engagement of children with ASD.  The findings of this study illustrated 

how canines can support and encourage children’s communication, emotional connection with 

others, and participation in everyday life.  The author described how canines’ participation in 

social interaction can support the sociality of children with ASD.  For a child with ASD, sociality 

refers to the quality or state of being social and interactive with others (Solomon, 2010).  It was 

concluded in this study that canines have the ability to elicit prosocial behaviours and seem to 

possess a unique capacity to serve as an emotional bridge and act as social catalysts. 

In another study by Viau, Arsenault-Lapierre, and Fecteau (2010), the physiological 

effects of owning a service canine for a child with ASD were examined.  Viau and colleagues 

(2010) measured cortisol levels, a stress hormone, by taking saliva samples before, during, and 

after children with ASD interacted with a service canine.  The aim of this study was to examine 

whether the effects of a service canine altered the levels of cortisol and the cortisol awakening 

response (CAR) in a child with ASD.  CAR responds to an increase in cortisol secretion and is 

an indication of stress and disease (Viau et al., 2010).  The authors found that CAR decreased 



                                                                  24 

 

 

 

upon introduction to the canines and increased after removal of the canines.  These findings 

suggest that CAR is sensitive to the presence and absence of a service canine for children with 

ASD.  In addition, parents also reported that problematic behaviours (e.g. repetitive behaviours, 

aggression, tantrums) decreased when the canines were present (Viau et al., 2010).   

In another study exploring how canines can modulate the behaviour of children with 

ASD, Silva, Correia, Lima, Magalhaes, and de Sousa (2011) conducted a case study on a 12 year 

old boy diagnosed with ASD (N = 1).  The participant participated in forty-five minutes of 

structured sessions of one-to one activities with the therapist in the presence of a therapy canine 

or without the presence of the therapy canine (as a control).  The behaviour of the participant was 

continuously video-recorded during both experimental and control conditions to allow for cross 

condition comparisons.  In the presence of the canine, negative behaviours decreased (e.g., 

physical and verbal aggressive behaviours, repetitive behaviours) and positive behaviours 

increased (e.g., smiling, play, positive physical contact, affection).  In another study examining 

the effects of canines on the behaviour and social skills of children with ASD, Martin and 

Farnum (2002) observed children’s social behaviour when interacting with a live canine 

(treatment 1) compared to a stuffed canine (treatment 2) or toy ball (controlled condition).  Their 

findings revealed that children with ASD were less distracted and more aware of their social 

surroundings when the live canine was present during their therapy session.  Furthermore, 

children were most likely to engage in conversation and initiate focused eye gaze when the live 

canine was present.   

 The studies reviewed here provide a foundation for the present investigation and identify 

the beneficial effects of integrating a service and/or therapy canine into the care plan for a family 

impacted by ASD.  Language impairments and social deficits are the most pervasive symptoms 



                                                                  25 

 

 

 

characterizing children with ASD (Berry et al., 2013).  Interaction with a therapy and/or service 

canine proves to be an effective tool in promoting verbal and nonverbal behaviours as well as 

decreasing problematic behaviours (Berry et al., 2013).  However, as previously identified, 

therapy canines are trained to work for a handler to provide service and comfort for other people.  

Therefore, therapy canines are only temporarily available to spend time with a child with ASD 

and do not become a permanent part of the family unit.  Furthermore, the high cost and long 

wait-list for a highly trained service canine become a deterrent for most families leaving them to 

turn to less vetted means of finding canines for their children.  Being one of the most popular 

pets in North America, companion canines (a family pet with not specific training or 

certification) often become the canine of choice for families impacted by ASD (Coltea, 2011).   

It is important to stress however, that the studies reviewed in this section focus on the beneficial 

effects of service and therapy canines for children with ASD.  There are only two peer-reviewed 

studies (e.g., Bystrom & Persson, 2015; Carlisle 2012; 2014), discussed in the following section, 

that have examined how children with ASD benefit from the presence of a companion canine on 

an everyday basis within their family lives.  

2.2.4 Companion canines for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder 

 

Emerging work by Bystrom & Persson (2015), used focus-group discussions to 

understand parents’ perspectives on how children and adolescents with ASD benefit from a 

companion animal.  Three main themes emerged in this study regarding the importance of 

companion animals for children with ASD: 1) the quality of the relationship with the companion 

animal; 2) increased interaction with people; and 3) optimization of the child’s function and 

development.  The relationship shared between these children and their companion animals were 

categorized as close or general.  Close relationships were characterized by mutual contact and 



                                                                  26 

 

 

 

signs of affection (e.g., petting, snuggling, and grooming) whereas general relationships were 

characterized by children who were more content when their companion animal was nearby 

however, did not seek contact or display obvious signs of affection.   

Findings also revealed that social interaction and contact with other children was 

facilitated when the children were in the presence of a canine (Bystrom & Personn, 2015).  

Companion animals, especially canines, were found to reduce social anxiety and give the child 

the courage to respond to people who initiated contact with them.  Additionally, parents reported 

that the companion animal reduced stress, helped regulate emotions and depression, and 

provided support through challenging life events.  The quality of the child-animal relationship 

was found to enhance these positive effects when their relationship was characterized as being 

close.  Although this study did not identify what might influence the strength of the relationship 

shared between these children and their companion animal, the present findings support the 

notion that companion animals can provide social and behavioural support and improve mental 

health and quality of life for children with ASD.  Canines in particular were reported to have the 

most significant impact on helping children with ASD socially interact with people outside of the 

family.   

In her doctoral dissertation (2012) and subsequent publication (2014), Carlisle examined 

the role of pet canines in families of children with ASD.  In this descriptive study, data was 

collected through a telephone interview with both parents (N = 70) and children (N = 47).  

Parents who decided to integrate a pet canine into their family described having previous 

experience with canines and beliefs in their beneficial effects for children with ASD as 

influential in their decision-making process (Carlisle, 2012; 2014).  The Companion Animal 

Bonding Scale (CABS), a survey used to identify the quality of human and pet relationships and 



                                                                  27 

 

 

 

attachment to pets, was administered to the children participants to assess information regarding 

child-canine bonding.  Increased interaction time, positive affect (e.g., they say they love their 

canine), positive ideas about their canine (e.g., their canine provides support and 

companionship), and positive behaviour towards their canine (e.g., active play) were identified as 

primary interactions influencing the bonding process.  Carlisle’s work (2012) examining the 

topic of bonding between family companion canines and children with ASD, suggests that 

children’s social skills may be enhanced, particularly around exercising assertion (e.g., making 

requests, expressing views or opinions).  Carlisle’s study adds additional evidence that for 

children with ASD, the ability to establish a secure attachment with a canine may increase their 

ability to seek social relationships with others (Carlisle, 2014).   

2.3 Attachment Theory and the Human-Animal Bond 

John Bowlby was the first attachment theorist (1969, 1979, 1988).  Understanding 

attachment formation in children has since been a focal point in child development research.  

Attachment theory was proposed by John Bowlby (1969, 1979, 1988) and advanced by 

Ainsworth’s (1989) work on how the bond between a mother and child may extend to other 

attachments a child makes as he/she matures.  The bonding process in humans using attachment 

theory as a framework have been well researched.  Studies investigating its application on 

human-animal bonding have also been conducted (e.g., Beck & Madresh, 2008; Kurdek, 2008; 

Kwong, 2007).  Three distinct areas comprising attachment theory support the present 

investigation and include: 1) attachment theory and its application on human-animal bonding for 

adults and children; 2) attachment theory and its application on human-animal bonding for 

children with ASD; and 3) influences on the canine-human dyad.   



                                                                  28 

 

 

 

One of the major challenges with research in this area has been the lack of theoretical 

rigour in relation to the ideas, concepts and definitions that underpin the notion that humans can 

form strong attachments to animal companions (Beck & Madresh, 2008; Hosey & Melfi, 2014; 

Rockett & Carr, 2014).  Employing attachment theory in the exploration of human-animal 

bonding provides researchers with a conceptual framework (Rockett & Carr, 2014).  As an 

example of research investigating the human-animal bond, Kurdek (2008) examined the extent to 

which the four features of attachment (i.e., proximity seeking, separation anxiety, safe haven, 

and secure base) are exhibited in human-canine relationships.  Kurdek (2008; 2009) applied 

attachment theory to study human-canine bonding by asking participants to indicate how 

strongly (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree) they agreed with four statements for each of 

the four features of attachment regarding their pet canine.  His results suggest that canines satisfy 

these four attachment functions.  However, Kurdek identified that proximity seeking was the 

most salient function of attachment and safe haven the least salient.  Despite the variation in 

attachment functions, Kurdek (2009) concluded that humans can form attachment with animals 

that are consistent with the human literature on attachment theory.   

A secure attachment to a primary caregiver is one of the first and most basic needs in an 

infant’s life (Bowlby, 1988).  In a study investigating attachment security, Beck and Madresh 

(2008) sought to compare how secure participants felt in their relationship with their pets versus 

their romantic-partner.   A web-based survey of 192 pet owners was conducted.  Their results 

revealed that pets were a consistent source of attachment security.  Pet owners claimed to 

experience more security in relationships with their pets than with their partner.  The authors 

speculate that the reason for this finding could be attributed to the idea that companion animals 



                                                                  29 

 

 

 

can provide a consistent, controllable and dependable source of security than is provided in 

relationships with humans.   

Building from these findings, Kwong and Bartholomew (2011) explored individual 

relationships with a service canine.  Semi-structured interviews were used to assess the extent to 

which the four features of attachment were evident.  This qualitative study employed thematic 

methods to analyze semi-structured interviews with participants regarding their relationship with 

their service canines.  Findings from this study revealed that the most salient characteristics of 

attachment between an individual and his/her service canine were safe haven and secure base.  

Their research demonstrated that animals can fulfill all attachment figure functions.  However, it 

must be noted that the specific characteristics of this relationship (e.g., the participants have a 

disability that requires assistance from their service canine) might influence the human-animal 

bond in a distinct way.  For example, the participants are more reliant on their service canines 

therefore increasing the likelihood of developing a bond that reflects an attachment bond.   

The notion that animals are capable of providing safe haven and secure-base functions 

was supported in a study by Zilcha-Mano, Mikulincer, and Shaver (2012).  Pet owners were 

asked to perform one of two distinct tasks to assess the extent to which a pet canine can provide 

safe haven and secure base.  Study 1 consisted of 165 pet owners who were asked to perform an 

exploration activity which consisted of thinking about their future goals.  Participants who were 

in the physical presence or cognitive presence (i.e., thinking about their pet) of their pet 

generated more goals and reported greater confidence in attaining these goals than the 

participants with no pet presence.  Study 2 consisted of 120 pet owners who were asked to 

perform a distress-eliciting task (i.e., an extremely difficult cognitive task).  Participants who 

were in the physical or cognitive presence of their pet exhibited lower blood pressure elevation 



                                                                  30 

 

 

 

during the distressing task than the participants in the no pet presence condition.  Findings 

revealed that the presence of a companion animal (canine or cat) was sufficient to heighten self-

confidence, lower distress and increase task performance in participants compared to participants 

not in the presence of an animal.  The findings lend support to the contention that a pet provides 

safe-haven and secure-base functions.  

To date, most studies examining the development of human-animal attachments have 

focused on adults’ interactions with the canines that they own rather than on children (Jalongo, 

2015).  Much less is known about the development of a relationship between children and their 

companion animals (Westgarth et al., 2013).  In one study by Melson (1990), the author 

described human-animal attachment between children and their pets using a four component 

model.  Each component provides insights into the quality and strength of the bond and included: 

1) “time with pet; 2) affect toward pet; 3) ideas about pet; and 4) behaviours toward pet” 

(Melson, 1990, p. 89).  Following Melson’s (1990) four component model, Carlisle (2012; 2014) 

found that increased interaction time, positive affect, positive ideas about their canine, and 

positive behaviour towards their canine were associated with a stronger bond.   

In a study by Daly and Morton (2006), findings revealed that elementary school aged 

children who reported to be more attached to their pets were more empathetic to others (Daly & 

Morton, 2006).  In studies examining pet attachment and gender differences, girls were more 

likely to own a pet, however, boys were just as likely to be attached to their pets as girls 

(Stevens, 1990; Westgarth et al., 2013).  This is important to note given that ASD is almost 5 

times more common among boys (1 in 42) than among girls (1 in 189) (Centers for Disease 

Control and Prevention, 2015).  However, the topic of human-animal bonding for children with 

autism remains largely unexamined and even the studies done to date are wrought with sampling 



                                                                  31 

 

 

 

and methodological limitations.  For example, Carlisle (2012; 2014) administered CABS via a 

telephone survey to gather information regarding child-canine bonding for children with ASD.  

Given that children with ASD often face challenges in their ability to socially interact and 

engage with others, data collection methods such as telephone interviews and surveys are often 

inappropriate to use for this particular population.  Although studies examining how children 

bond with their animal companion and more specifically, how children with ASD bond with 

their animal companion remains meagre, several studies have investigated what might influence 

the human-animal bonding process in typical children and adults.   

In Kurdek’s (2008) study, the author found that high levels of human caregiving were 

associated with high levels of attachment to canines.  In addition to this study, caregiving was 

also found to be an important feature contributing to the development of strong human-canine 

bond in Kwong and Bartholomew’s study (2011).  This suggests that caregiving toward a canine 

may facilitate the formation of a mutual bond (Kurdek, 2008).  This aligns with Bowlby’s (1969) 

notion that the attachment behavioural system is complimented by reciprocal caregiving.  In 

addition to these findings, Cohen (2002) identified that the more time adults spent with their 

pets, the more likely they would report a strong bond with their pets.   

Drawing from broader child-pet literature, several findings inform our understanding of 

factors contributing to strong child- canine bonds.  Melson (2001) posits that children are more 

likely to establish a strong bond with their companion animal when they are involved in caring 

for it.  For example, when children are involved in grooming, feeding, watering, exercising, and 

playing with their canines a stronger bond is more likely to develop (Myers, 2007).  

Additionally, in another study examining pet attachment in grade school children, it was 



                                                                  32 

 

 

 

identified that when children played with their pet and were involved in pet care, a stronger 

attachment was more likely to develop (Melson, Peet, & Sparks, 1991). 

2.4 Summary and Conclusion 

This review of the literature argued that attachment theory is an appropriate framework 

supporting the investigation of the human-animal bond.  However, there has been limited 

investigation on the human-animal bond for children with ASD.  More specifically, the 

mechanisms or pathways through which child-canine bonding occurs remains largely 

unexamined and a nuanced understanding of the human-animal bond for children on the 

spectrum has yet to be identified.  There is a particular lack of research investigating children 

within the context of everyday life, including family influences that potentially impact the 

bonding process (Hosey & Melfi, 2014).  To address these gaps, this study will examine the triad 

relationship between the child, the canine, and the family as a means to identify what might 

influence a child on the spectrum's ability to bond with a companion canine.    

For a child with autism, an attachment to a canine companion may provide a positive 

relationship experience, provide opportunities for social skill development and in turn, increase 

the willingness of these children to seek out other social relationships.  Currently, data collection 

methods in the field primarily rely on formats that do not directly involve children themselves 

and are often inaccessible to children, particularly, for children with ASD (e.g., surveys, 

telephone interviews, detailed representational drawings) (Jalongo, 2015).  Methods including 

direct observation, individual interviews, and the use of photographs and drawings are needed 

given the nuanced interactions that exists to indicate the presence or absence of bonding (e.g., 

proximity, frequency of interactions, initiations of interactions, touch).  Without the use of 

appropriate methods that are accessible to this population, children with ASD will continue to be 



                                                                  33 

 

 

 

under-represented in the research (Hosey & Melfi, 2014; Jalongo, 2015).  To address this issue, 

this study employed semi-structured interviews with the parents as well as observations of child-

canine interactions in order to gain insights into factors contributing to the bonding process.   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



                                                                  34 

 

 

 

 CHAPTER 3 – RESEARCH METHODS 

This chapter begins with a discussion of the rationale for the research design followed by 

a description of the research methods that were employed in this study.  The first section includes 

a brief review of the purpose of the study and an outline of the research questions that guided this 

investigation.  This is followed by an overview of qualitative research and why this paradigm 

was best suited for this particular study.  The final section details the selected case, the research 

sample, data collection procedures, approaches to data analysis, and how the fidelity of this study 

was ensured. 

Despite enthusiasm for integrating companion canines into the care plan for children with 

ASD, research examining factors that might influence children on the spectrum’s ability to bond 

with a companion canine is lacking (Berry et al., 2013).  Further investigation into the process of 

the human-animal bond is needed; specifically, the process of the human-animal bond for 

children with ASD.  The choice of a qualitative case study methodology responds to, and is best 

suited to address, the limitations identified in the HAI literature reviewed in the previous section 

and is in alignment with research needs identified by key writers in the field of HAI (e.g., Berry, 

Borgi, Francia, Alleva, & Cirulli, 2013; Fine, 2010; Millman, Adams, & Burrows, 2008; 

O’Haire, 2013).  We currently lack an understanding of what might influence a child with ASD 

to bond with his/her companion canine and what attachment looks like across cases.  Given the 

nuanced interactions that exist to indicate the presence or absence of bonding (e.g., proximity, 

frequency of interactions, initiations of interactions and touch) this study employed observations 

and interviews to gain insights into factors contributing to child-canine bonding.   

Four areas requiring investigation have been identified for this study. These included: 1) 

the identification of what, if any, components of attachment (e.g., safe haven, secure base, 



                                                                  35 

 

 

 

proximity seeking and separation anxiety) are evident in the relationship; 2) the identification of 

physiological and temperamental characteristics of canines that contribute to their bonding with 

children with ASD; 3) direct observations of interactions between a child with ASD and his/her 

companion canine; 4) and the identification of strategies employed by families to facilitate child-

canine bonding.  The two overarching research questions that guided this study were as follows:  

1. Is there evidence that the attachment components of safe haven, secure base, 

proximity seeking, and separation anxiety are evident features of the child-canine 

relationship? If so, to what extent are these four features of attachment evident? 

2.  What are the prevalent themes emerging from interviews and observations of canine-

child bonding? 

The aim of this research was to examine the dynamic, triad relationship between the 

child, the family companion canine, and the family unit.  The objectives of this research were to 

observe child-canine interactions, identify strategies used to facilitate child-canine bonding and 

identify characteristics of children with ASD, family companion canines, and families 

themselves that contribute to a successful child-canine bond.  

3.1 Rationale for a Qualitative Research Approach 

 

Due to the exploratory nature of this study and the paucity of research elucidating factors 

impacting the child-canine bond, a qualitative approach was deemed best suited to uncovering 

answers to the above-stated research questions.  Qualitative research is useful in generating new 

ideas and theories and examining an area where little is known and findings remain scarce 

(Richards & Morse, 2013).  

Qualitative research is an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct 



                                                                  36 

 

 

 

methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem. The 

researcher builds a complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, reports detailed 

views of informants and conducts the study in a natural setting (Creswell, 1998, p. 

15).   

Given the dearth of research exploring the child-canine bond for children with ASD, 

qualitative methods hold potential to uncover, identify and highlight key dimensions of the child-

canine bond.  Further, qualitative methods, particularly those grounded in case study analysis and 

observations are best suited to the target population, children with ASD and family canines.  

Though the use of quantitative paper-and-pencil measures (i.e., public domain scales assessing 

various dimensions of parenting or child-parent bonding) could be used with parent participants, 

given the developmental challenges of the children in this study, the completion of quantitative 

surveys is unsuitable.  The use of qualitative methods here holds the potential to advance our 

understanding of autism as well as inform researchers and practitioners about the nuanced 

interactions taking place within family contexts that facilitate child-canine bonding.  

3.1.1 Rationale for a Case Study 

This study’s research questions necessitated a research approach that could identify 

factors that might influence the child-canine bonding process.  The appropriate research 

approach, therefore, must take into account the everyday details and significant events of family 

interactions and do this in a way that is conscious of the contributions of all participants, both 

human and canine.  Given the subjective and contextually dependent nature of the human-animal 

bond, a case study approach was used to investigate the phenomena of bonding between children 

with ASD and companion canines. 



                                                                  37 

 

 

 

3.1.2 Case Study 

A case study is an approach to research that focuses on gaining an in-depth understanding 

of a particular entity or event and emphasizes a detailed contextual analysis (Stake, 1995).   

Studies in the social sciences, in particular, have made wide use of this data collection strategy to 

examine real-life situations (Cassell & Symon, 1994, 2004; Stake, 1995).  For example, case 

studies have been used to examine student motivation (Shaffer, 2015), to investigate the social 

engagement of children with ASD (Conn, 2014), and to document and examine breast cancer 

survivors’ experiences (Burke & Sabiston, 2012).  

 According to Stake (1995), in order to understand complex social phenomena, 

investigators need to retain the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real-life events and the 

use of the case study approach allows this.  Case study research stresses the holistic examination 

of phenomenon (Jorgensen, 1989) and seeks direct engagement with the social world and in-

depth investigation through observations, interviews, documentary analysis and examination of 

artifacts (Gomm, Hammersley, & Peter, 2000).  The case studied may be a culture, society, 

community, subculture, organization, group, or phenomenon such as beliefs, practices, or 

interactions, as well as almost any other aspect of human existence (Creswell, 2007).  Rather 

than being a methodological choice, a case study is a paradigmatically flexible approach (Luck, 

Jackson, & Usher, 2006) that signifies an intensive focus on a particular case(s) (Rosenberg & 

Yates, 2007; Sandelowski, 2011).  Employing a case study approach for the present study was 

fitting because of its particularistic nature.  That is, the focus of this study was on a particular 

population (i.e., a family with a child aged 5-14 years with a confirmed diagnosis of ASD and 

their family canine) (Stake, 1995).  Stake (1995) identified three different types of case studies: 

1) Intrinsic (used when the intent is to better understand that particular case.  It is not undertaken 



                                                                  38 

 

 

 

to represent other cases or generalize a problem); 2) Instrumental (the purpose of the case is to 

facilitate understanding about something else outside of the case; it provides insight into an issue 

or refines a theory. The case is of secondary interest); and 3) Collective (involves more than one 

case; multiple cases are under study).  Because the focus of this study was on multiple cases (6 

families impacted by autism with a companion canine), this study is considered a collective case.   

Due to the exploratory nature of my research, the use of a case study was well suited 

given that this approach is found to be most appropriate for exploring new processes, of which 

there is little understanding (Baxter & Jack, 2008).  Case studies also enable researchers to 

concentrate on the experiential knowledge of the case while paying close attention to the 

influence of its setting and social contexts (Stake, 1995).  For children with autism, the family 

system is the most important influence impacting how children develop, behave, and perceive 

their environment (Cridland et al., 2014).  When families integrate a canine companion into their 

home and view the canine as a family member, the family canine becomes a sub-system within 

the complex family system (Jalongo, 2015).  From this perspective, family canines become 

nested within the family social system and thus within my case. Therefore, in order to gain an in-

depth understanding of the child-canine bonding process I needed to investigate the experiential 

influences from within the family system in the setting of their home as part of my case, rather 

than in isolation from the family.   

3.2 Case Selection 

Case study research is a qualitative approach in which the researcher explores a bounded 

system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (cases) through detailed, in-depth data collection 

involving multiple sources of information (e.g., observations, interviews, audiovisual material, 

and documents and reports), and reports case descriptions and case-based themes (Creswell, 



                                                                  39 

 

 

 

2007).  In order to ensure specificity for my study (i.e., that families met pre-specified criteria), 

each case consisted of: 1) a family with a child aged 5-14 years with a confirmed diagnosis of 

ASD; 2) and their family canine. The child must have been receiving or had received autism 

funding which, according to criteria established by British Columbia’s Ministry of Children and 

Family Development, requires a confirmed diagnosis of autism by a qualified specialist (i.e., 

paediatrician, child psychiatrist, or registered psychologist).  The proposed levels of ASD 

severity were chosen due to the increased ability for children diagnosed with level 1 or 2 ASD to 

engage in verbal and nonverbal communication and comprehend social overtures (American 

Psychiatrist Association, 2013).  

The inclusion of a family canine who had not received specialized therapeutic training (as 

a service or a therapy canine) was established for this study as families, unwilling to be put on a 

wait list (recall that there is currently an 18-24 month waiting list for a service canine in British 

Columbia) and/or unable to afford a trained service canine (costs of a trained service canine run 

$18,000 CDN; Canadian National Service Canine, NSD, 2012), often seek canine therapeutic 

support via less formal channels.  Therefore, family canines were restricted to companion pets 

with no formal therapeutic or service training as this was determined to be representative of a 

typical family’s experience.  The above-described criteria adhere to the specificity requirements 

for a case to be considered a bounded system (Creswell, 2007)  

3.3 Data Collection Procedures  

In qualitative research, the researcher is most commonly considered the primary 

instrument for data collection, analysis, and interpretation (Paisley & Reeves, 2001).  In this 

study, three main data sources were used to gather information related to the research questions: 

1) semi-structured interviews with the parent(s); 2) field notes; and 3) observations of child-



                                                                  40 

 

 

 

canine interactions.  In case study research, multiple rather than single methods of data collection 

are employed (Creswell, 2007) to facilitate the full exploration of a phenomenon within a 

particular context (Baxter & Jack, 2008).  “This ensures that the issue is not explored through 

one lens, but rather a variety of lenses which allows for multiple facets of the phenomenon to be 

revealed and understood” (Baxter & Jack, p. 544).  The strategic use of multiple sources of data 

is referred to as triangulation (Mills, 2003).  Sources of data used for triangulation in this study 

included semi-structured interviews with the parents, observations of child-canine interactions, 

and field notes, and collection of artifact that represented the child-canine relationship (e.g., 

photographs and videos of the child interacting with the canine companion).  The advantage or 

strength of triangulation is that it affords opportunities to compare and cross-validate findings 

derived from distinct data collection methods (Creswell, 1998).  Furthermore, triangulation helps 

to safeguard against distortion and bias by using multiple data sources thus strengthening the 

credibility of subsequent claims that arise (Merriam, 2001).  Because case study research seeks 

direct engagement with the social world and in-depth investigation through interviews, 

observations, and examination of artifacts (Gomm, Hammersley, & Peter, 2000 ), an intimate 

examination of the dynamic relationship between the child, the canine and the family was 

enabled through case study research.   

3.4 Research Sample 

3.4.1 Recruitment Procedures and Consent 

Six families meeting the specified criteria for participation in this study were purposively 

selected.  The proposed sample size for this study was determined based on recommendations by 

Guest and colleagues (Guest, Bunce, & Johnson, 2006) that “a sample of six interviews may be 

sufficient to enable development of meaningful themes and useful interpretations, especially 



                                                                  41 

 

 

 

when group differences are not sought” (p. 78).  Furthermore, case studies that use more than one 

method of data collection require fewer cases (Mason, 2010).  In the end, the optimal number of 

cases is determined when saturation is reached - the point at which new information or themes 

observed in the data do not add anything to the story (Mason, 2010).  Strauss and Corbin (1998) 

concluded that the longer the researcher examines, familiarizes and analyzes the data there will 

always be the potential for the new to emerge.  Therefore, saturation should be more concerned 

with reaching the point where “the newly discovered” does not add anything to the overall story.  

As Mason (2010) suggests, it is the point when continued analysis of the data does not generate 

additional findings or insights about the particular research questions.  

3.4.2 Participant Recruitment 

In compliance with university ethics, parents provided written consent to participate and 

children provided verbal assent.  Participating families received a $30 cash honorarium as an 

incentive for their participation.  Families were recruited from within the municipality of a mid-

sized western Canadian city.  To ensure that the majority of canine-owning families had an equal 

chance to participate in this study, flyers were posted at the eight on/off leash canine parks 

throughout the city for four weeks.  These flyers were, in turn, circulated via social media by 

both the researcher and via informal sharing by the public (e.g., photos of flyers were posted on 

autism support groups on Facebook; see Appendix H).  Interested individuals e-mailed the 

researcher to receive a document outlining and describing the research project and its aims 

(Appendix G).  Individuals were then invited to contact the researcher via email or telephone, at 

which time, they were screened for eligibility and invited to participate if they met eligibility 

criteria.   

The first six families meeting eligibility criteria were then invited to participate in the 



                                                                  42 

 

 

 

study.  Prior to scheduling the interview, a pre-visit was offered to each family.  The pre-visit was 

offered in order to provide an opportunity for introductions and build rapport between the 

researcher and each participating family.  Although the option to schedule a pre-visit was given, 

each family respectively declined as each felt it was unnecessary.  Next, a time and date were 

scheduled to capture a representative or typical experience during which the interview could be 

conducted and observational data collected.  

3.4.3 Interviews  

The primary form of data collection was in-depth, semi-structured interviews with the 

parent(s).  Conducting these interviews in a semi-structured fashion ensured that all participants 

were asked the same questions so that a cross-comparison of all participants’ responses could 

occur which helped generate particular patterns of information and significance.  Semi-structured 

interviews allowed the researcher to be guided by a list of questions and topics that could be 

explored based on the participant’s responses without necessarily following the exact wording of 

the interview questions (Merriam, 2009).   

All of the interviews were conducted in the participants’ homes. The interviews were 

conducted individually in a single session with the participants choosing a time that was most 

reflective of a typical family experience.  To collect descriptive information, a brief questionnaire 

was administered to parents prior to the interview in order to obtain demographic information 

regarding their family, their child’s ASD diagnosis, previous experience with animals, and 

information about their companion canine (see Appendix E).   

The interviews lasted, on average, 40 minutes (i.e., range = 27 - 64 minutes).  It was 

expected that the interviews would vary in length due to differences in the child-canine 

relationship and how this relationship was situated within the family.  In addition, some 



                                                                  43 

 

 

 

participants spoke at length when prompted whereas in 4’s case, a variety of questions and 

approaches to address topics were used due to these participants providing brief responses.  In 

the six interviews, the participants’ child/ren with ASD were present.  In five out of the six 

interviews, the child’s siblings were also present. The children were free to participate and 

contribute to the interview if they wanted to, however interview questions were directed 

primarily to parents not children.  

The interviews began by asking the participants to read the informed consent forms 

(Appendix A, B, C and D) with the researcher, which described the research project and the 

procedures that insured confidentiality and anonymity of the data collected (the form was also 

sent by e-mail prior to the meeting).  A verbal overview of each form, highlighting that 

participation was voluntary and that participants had the right to withdraw from the study at any 

point and could elect to withdraw some or all of the information they provided without any 

consequences was then provided.  Signed consent was obtained for participating in the interview 

and for allowing the interview to be audio-recorded (Appendix A) and verbal assent was 

obtained from the child/ren with ASD for participating in the study (Appendix C).  Additional 

consent forms (Appendices B & D) were provided for other participants who might be present 

during the study (e.g., siblings, grandparents, and friends).  None of the participants declined to 

participate in the study or to have the interviews audio-recorded.  

3.4.4 Field Notes 

Field notes were recorded immediately following each interview. This provided an 

opportunity for the researcher to reflect and include additional information regarding the 

interview process, characteristics of the child, characteristics of the companion canine, 

characteristics of the family unit, and any additional information offered by the participants (i.e., 



                                                                  44 

 

 

 

one family discussed the need for the school system to allow children with ASD be accompanied 

by their companion canine in the classrooms).  Field notes were also recorded during the 

collection of observational data.  Observational field notes consisted of highly descriptive 

information and were completed throughout the interview process and immediately following the 

observations.  

3.4.5 Observations  

Observation, unlike other research methods, does not depend on the research participant’s 

ability to understand or produce speech; therefore, as a research method, the use of an 

observational case study was well suited for gathering data on children with autism who may 

have limited verbal communication skills.  Observational data collected at one time point 

consisted of observing child-canine and family interactions.  Throughout this process, the 

researcher was an active participant, interacting with the other participants as part of the 

interview process.  Observational data of child-canine interactions was unstructured and 

representative of a typical experience shared between the child, the companion canine, and the 

family unit.  Observational data was gathered prior to, during, and following the interview, 

recording participant actions and behaviours (e.g., family interactions, canine behaviour, and 

child behaviour).  Observational data also included artifacts (e.g., photographs and videos of the 

canine) presented by the child/family.  

  As suggested by Kutsche (1998), observational data begins by first mapping out the 

setting (Appendix I).  Mapping out the setting for this study included a count of attendees, a 

physical map of the interview setting and description of the physical surroundings, a description 

of the canine companion being observed, a description of the child with ASD, and a description 

of the activities being observed, detailing activities of interest.  Observations were documented 



                                                                  45 

 

 

 

using field notes.  

3.5 Data Analyses 

Data analysis is a process that involves moving back and forth between concrete data and 

abstract concepts, as well as between description and interpretation (Merriam, 2009).  In order to 

address the two research questions driving this study, notably, “What features of Bowlby’s 

attachment theory are evident in the child-canine bond?” and “What are the themes 

characterizing child-canine bonding”, a two-step process of data analysis was used.  

The first step in the process of analyzing the data involved transcribing the digitally 

recorded interviews and observation field notes into usable data.  The transcribed data was then 

transferred to electronic documents and stored in the researcher’s computer as Microsoft Word™ 

documents.  The transcribed data was then converted from word format into rich text file format 

in order to process and store them as NVivo™ (a software program specifically designed for 

qualitative data analysis) document files and use NVivo’s rich text and visual coding features.  

During the transcription process the researcher examined the data for patterns and 

preliminary notes were made as to potential codes.  Following transcription, a detailed reading 

and re-reading of the transcript for each case was conducted in order to become familiar with the 

data (Sandelowski, 1995; Spradley, 1979) and identify global or general themes from each data 

source that addressed the research questions.   

The second step in analyzing the data involved a more exhaustive process.  In order to 

complete a more in-depth analysis the researcher first examined what, if any, features of 

attachment were prevalent in the child-canine bond using directed content analysis.  Then, the 

researcher sought to identify what personal and external factors influenced the child-canine bond 

and what interactions between the child, the family canine, and the family facilitated a strong 



                                                                  46 

 

 

 

child-canine bond using conventional content analysis.  In the following sections, both 

conventional and directed content analysis are described.   

3.5.1 Analysis of Attachment Theory Using Directed Content Analysis  

In order to identify what, if any, features of attachment were prevalent in the child-canine 

bonding process, Bowlby’s (1969, 1979, 1988) attachment theory was used to help focus these 

particular research questions (e.g., questions regarding proximity maintenance, separation 

anxiety, safe haven, and secure base). Using this existing theory allowed the researcher to ask 

open-ended questions followed by targeted questions about the predetermined categories of safe 

haven, secure base, separation anxiety and proximity maintenance.  Given that a strong 

theoretical framework does exist about this particular phenomenon, directed content analysis was 

used to analyze this section of the research study (Hickey & Kipping, 1996). 

Using directed content analysis, findings across case studies were compiled to identify 

what, if any, components of attachment theory were evident in the child-canine bond.  The 

findings from using directed content analysis offer supporting evidence for a theory (Hsieh & 

Shannon, 2002).  Using Bowlby’s attachment theory, the researcher began by identifying key 

concepts as initial coding categories (Potter & Levine Donnerstein, 1999).  Next, definitions for 

each category were determined using Bowlby’s attachment theory (Hsieh & Shannon, 2002). 

Bowlby’s four features of attachment served as a framework to identify what features of 

attachment were prevalent in the child-canine bond within and across cases.  

Coding began immediately with the predetermined codes (i.e., proximity maintenance, 

separation anxiety, safe haven, and secure base).  First, each case was analyzed individually (N = 

6) and coding frequency for each of the predetermined categories was counted using NVivo™.  

Finally, a cross case analysis was done where the number of codes from each category were 



                                                                  47 

 

 

 

combined and a composite score was tallied (see Table 6).  

3.5.2 The Identification of Emerging Themes Using Conventional Content Analysis  

Given that existing theory and research literature on human-animal bonding in children 

with autism is limited and that themes describing the child-canine bond have not previously been 

identified in educational or psychological literature, conventional content-analysis was used to 

identify the personal and external factors influencing child-canine bonding including interactions 

between the child, the family canine, and the family unit.  Conventional content analysis 

involves a “systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns and is 

used to make sense out of participant generated data” (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005, p. 1278).  Given 

the dearth of empirical work on child-canine bonding in children with ASD, this approach offers 

advantages over other content analysis approaches (e.g., directed content analysis where 

predetermined thematic categories derived from prior research are used).  

Using conventional content analysis, an individual case analysis was completed for each 

of the six cases in which initial global themes were developed.  Identifying the prevalent themes 

was done in two stages.  First, each transcript from each case was reviewed independently by 

both the researcher and her supervisor, who identified general or global initial themes (e.g., 

canine acquisition, canine as family member, family profile).  These themes were pooled across 

raters and resulted in 32 general or global categories.  The second step involved a winnowing 

process (Wolcott, 1990) whereby global themes were discussed by raters and collectively 

grouped into thematic categories.  This was done to reduce redundancy (e.g., “change to child 

behavior” and “benefits to child” were merged).  This process resulted in a mean of 9 themes. 

Following the completion of an individual case analysis for each of the six cases, a cross 

case analysis was then done.  Using the identified themes from each individually analyzed case, 



                                                                  48 

 

 

 

the cases were then compared to determine if there were similar patterns and themes among 

them.  These themes were then used for within and between case study comparisons in order to 

identify commonalities and differences.  This process resulted in a total of 7 themes.  

Descriptions and examples of each theme were identified and listed next to the theme (e.g., 

theme = canine as family member;  description = treatment of canine as part of the family unit; 

examples = allowed on furniture, permitted to sleep on the child’s bed, travels with family; see 

Table 7).  Finally, an individual case analysis was completed using the 7 themes to identify the 

presence or absence of each theme within the individual cases (see Table 8).  

3.5.3 Ensuring the Fidelity of the Study 

In order to maintain the fidelity of this study, Tracy’s (2010) eight “big-tent” criteria for 

excellent qualitative research was used which includes the following end goals of high-quality 

qualitative studies: worthy topic; rich rigor; sincerity; credibility; resonance; significant 

contribution; ethical; and meaningful coherence.  Each of these markers of quality is described in 

Table 1. 

Table 1 

Criteria to Conduct High-Quality Qualitative Research  

 Criteria Execution in Design 

1. Worthy Topic A worthy topic for this study was ensured by being interesting, relevant, 

timely, and significant.  My study sought to examine and identify how 

children with autism bond with their canine companion.  This is an 

interesting, relevant, and timely area of study – to date, few studies have 
examined how children with autism bond with their canine companion 

and the process through which this bond occurs remains largely 

unexamined.  “Studies of little- known phenomena or evocative contexts 
are intrinsically interesting” (Tracy, 2010, p. 841).  Additionally, this 
study has potential for significant practical and theoretical implications.  

This research holds promise to inform researchers about the nuanced 

interactions taking place within family contexts that facilitate child-canine 

bonding as well as the potential to inform parents who are seeking to 

support their children through the addition of a companion canine.  



                                                                  49 

 

 

 

2. Rich Rigor 

 

 

High-quality qualitative research is marked by descriptions and 

explanations that are rich. Richness is generated through a variety of 

theoretical approaches, data sources, contexts, and samples. This study 

exemplifies rich rigor through the thorough review of the literature that is 

presented.  The rigor of this study extends beyond the rich review of 
literature to the way in which the researcher adapted to the complexity of 

the research topic by including a variety of data collection methods (e.g., 

semi-structured interviews, observations, and field notes). In addition, the 

sample and context of the study is appropriate given the goals of the 

study. Furthermore, the researcher has familiarized herself with the 

theoretical approaches suitable for this study.  For example, in order to 

conduct a study examining what personal and external factors might 

influence the child-canine bonding process, this study required insights 

from attachment and family systems analysis as well as the flexibility 

offered via case study methods.   

 

3. Sincerity 

 

 

 

 

Sincerity in this study was ensured through self-reflexivity.  Self- 

reflexivity, one of the most important practices of qualitative research, is 

the act of being honest with one’s self, one’s research, and one’s audience 
(Tracy, 2010).  Reflexive researchers are aware that they are bringing 

their own beliefs and experiences to the research project (Rinaldi, 2013). 

Throughout this research project, the researcher recognized that her 

presence and behaviour affected participants responses therefore, 

influencing the findings. Therefore, the researcher was mindful of her 

impact and noted other’s reactions. Transparency, being honest about the 
research process, was ensured through keeping an audit trial, documenting 

all research decisions and activities.    

4. Credibility 

 

 

 

 

Credibility was achieved in this study through thick description and 

triangulation.  Thick descriptions were ensured through the data 

collection process and the description of findings in sufficient detail so 

that the audience can evaluate the extent to which the conclusions drawn 

are transferable to other people in similar contexts. Rather than telling the 

reader what to think the researcher showed the reader by providing the 

audience with enough detail so that they can come to their own 

conclusions about the case(s), through text data, direct quotes, and 

artifacts presented by the participants.   

Triangulation was accomplished by using multiple sources of data which 

allowed for different facets of problems to be explored, deepened 

understanding, and encouraged consistent interpretation (Tracy, 2010).  
5. Resonance 

 

 

 

Resonance refers to the ways in which a research study resonates with an 

audience (Tracy, 2010). Resonance is achieved when readers feel that the 

research story overlaps with their own situation.  A key path to resonance 

is aesthetic merit (Tracy, 2010). The researcher attempted to construct 

the text aesthetically by narrating the findings.  Qualitative narratives 

should aim to be vivid, engaging, and structurally complex, or, in short, a 

story that moves the “heart and belly” as well as the “head” (Bochner, 



                                                                  50 

 

 

 

2000).  Resonance also emerges through transferability, meaning that the 

study has potential to be valuable in similar contexts or situations. For 

families who are impacted by autism, it is hoped that the findings of this 

research holds potential to inform parents seeking to support their children 

through the addition of a canine companion. As I engage with the write up 

of the research report, I will be reflective as to who my audience is so that 

my research findings resonate with the readers. 
6.  Significant 

Contribution 

 

 

 

It is hoped that this study will make a significant contribution to literature 

in the field of HAI by addressing research questions that were ultimately 

driven by the identified gaps in the literature. The case study methodology 

builds upon prior survey research examining child-canine bonding and 

offers unique advantages for identifying the salient characteristics of 

children, canines, and families which contribute to successful bonding.   

In addition, given the relative lack of research in the area of human-

animal bonding for children with autism, it is hoped that this research will 

not only provide insights but also stimulate more questions and inspire 

future research topics.   
7.  Ethical 

 

 

 

To ensure that this study was ethical, procedural, situational, relational, 

and exiting ethics were considered.  Procedural ethics were met by 

seeking ethics approval from the University of British Columbia. 

Participants were informed about the aim of the study and any potential 

consequences of participating in the research study, as well as understood 

that their participation was voluntary.  In order to participate in the study, 

parents provided written informed consent and children provided verbal 

assent.  As a method of procedural ethics, all data collected for this study 

was stored in password protected files and locked cabinets.  The 

researcher engaged in reflexive journaling as data collection and analysis 

commenced in order to address situational ethics.  In consideration of 

relational ethics, the researcher ensured that her interactions with research 

participants demonstrated reciprocity and mutual respect.  To address 

exiting ethics, the researcher ensured that the participants’ remained 
anonymous in the write up of the results.   

 

8. Meaningful 

Coherence 

 

 

 

 

Meaningful coherence means that a study’s research design, data collection, 
and analysis are eloquently interconnected to the theoretical framework 

and situational goals of the study (Tracy, 2010). In an effort to identify 

factors that might influence the bond between a child with autism and their 

canine companion, an attachment and family systems analysis was 

employed in this study.  The use of these two theoretical frameworks guided 

and supported the study, helped determine appropriate research questions, 

and gave direction to interviews and discussions to focus the research.   

 

  



                                                                  51 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 4 – RESULTS 

The purpose of this multiple case study was to understand child-canine bonding with a focus 

on identifying the factors contributing to bonding in children with ASD and companion canines.  

Multiple case studies provide an opportunity to examine the phenomenon of child-canine 

bonding in children with ASD by exploring the differences and similarities that occur among 

each case and identifying how they are situated within their respective family context.  Recall 

that there were two research questions guiding the study: 1) What features of Bowlby’s 

attachment theory are evident in the child-canine bond? and 2) What are the themes 

characterizing child-canine bonding?   

This section will first provide an overview of the demographic characteristics of 

participants including demographics of the families and companion canines, followed by a 

description of each child’s attachment to his/her companion canine.  Next, a report on the 

findings that support the first research question, including prevalence and examples of 

participants’ responses corresponding to each of Bowlby’s four features of attachment, will be 

addressed.  Following this, across-case findings addressing the second research question will be 

presented.  

4.1 Demographics 

4.1.1 Family Demographics 

Data were collected from 6 participating families.  Participants included in the analysis 

totaled 8 parents of children with ASD (see Table 2 and 3).  In cases 1 and 5, both parents were 

present for the study (mother and father).  In the remaining cases only one parent was present.  

Parents ranged in age from 44-38 years with a mean of 40 years.  Out of the eight parents, five 

were female and three were male.  Each parent had at least some university or college education.  



                                                                  52 

 

 

 

The racial and ethnic background of parents included five Caucasian and one 

Aboriginal/Caucasian.  Children with ASD ranged in age from 12-6 years with a mean of 8.62 

years (SD = 2.62).  The racial and ethnic background of children included seven Caucasian and 

one African American.  Two families (4 and 5) had two children with a confirmed ASD level 1 

diagnosis. The remaining four families had only one child with a confirmed ASD diagnosis.   

One family (1) had a child with a level 2 ASD diagnosis and all other families had a child with a 

level 1 ASD diagnosis.  

Table 2 

Family Demographics 
Participant(s) Birth 

Year 

Gender Ethnicity Marital 

Status 

Education Occupation Language 

1 1977 F 

M 

Caucasian/Abori

ginal 

Married College 

Degree 

Real estate 

agent 

English 

 

2 1977 M Caucasian Married Undergraduate 

Degree 

Student English 

3 1975 F Caucasian Married Master’s 

Degree 

Doctoral 

Candidate 

English 

4 1974 F Caucasian Married College 

Degree 

Stay at 

home 

English 

5 1975 F 

M 

Caucasian Married Other: Some  

University 

Flight 

attendant 

English 

6 1971 F Caucasian  Married Undergraduate 

Degree 

Business 

owner 

English 

 

 

Table 3 

Demographics of Children With and Without Autism Spectrum Disorder 

Participant Number 

of 

Children 

Age Gender Ethnicity Diagnosis Medication 

Use 

Type of 

Medication 

1 2 6 

 

NA 

M 

 

M 

Caucasian ASD-

Level 2  

 

No NA 

2 2 12 

 

NA 

M 

 

M 

Caucasian ASD-

Level 1 

Yes Intuniv 

Pasconal 

3 2 5 

 

5 

M 

 

M 

Caucasian 

 

ASD-

Level 1 

No NA 

4 4 10 F Caucasian ASD- No NA 



                                                                  53 

 

 

 

 

12 

 

NA 

 

NA 

 

M 

 

NA 

 

NA 

Level 1 

ASD-

Level 1 

5 2 7 

 

9 

F 

 

M 

Caucasian ASD-

Level 1 

ASD-

Level 1 

No NA 

6 2 8 F Black ASD-

Level 1 

No NA 

 

4.1.2 Companion canine Demographics   

Five of the six families owned one companion canine and one family owned three 

companion canines.  Case 1 owned three companion canines however, they only included their 

two bull canines in the study as their third companion canine was very elderly and had no 

particular attachment with their child with ASD.  In the six families, there were a variety of 

breeds identified as seen in Table 4.   All of the companion canines included in the study were 

small-medium sized breeds and ranged in age from 14 weeks to 10 years (SD = 4 years).  Four 

out of the six companion canines were bought from a breeder.  The remaining two companion 

canines were bought from a local animal shelter.  Length of time that each family owned the 

companion canine ranged from 4 weeks to 8 years (SD = 3.57 years).   

Table 4 

Demographics of Companion canine(s) 

Participant  Number of 

Canines 

Bought From Breed Age(s) 

in years 

Length of 

Time Owned 

(in years) 

1 2 Breeder English Bullcanine 1 1  

2 1 Breeder Miniature Golden 

Doodle ( ¾ Poodle & ¼ 

Golden Retriever  

2 1.5  

3 1 SPCA Black Lab/Border 

Collie 

7 7 

4 1 SPCA Pomeranian/Chihuahua 10 8 



                                                                  54 

 

 

 

5 1 Breeder Australian 

Labradoodle 

14 

weeks 

4 weeks 

6 1 Breeder Havanese/Bichon 10 

months 

8 weeks 

 

4.1.3 Child-Canine Attachment Level  

Each participating family completed a self-assessment of child-canine bonding in 

response to the statement: “How attached is your child with ASD to your canine (Not very 

attached; Attached; or Very attached)?”  Each participating family was also instructed to answer 

a question in the demographic survey regarding the age of the child(ren) when the companion 

canine(s) was brought into the family home (see Table 5).   

Table 5 

Child-Canine Attachment Level 

Participant Age of Child when Canine was 

Bought 

Attachment between Child with 

ASD and Companion canine 

1 5 Very Attached 

2 9 Very Attached 

3 N/A (prior to birth of children) Attached 

4 2 (F) & 4(M) Attached 

5 7 (F) & 9(M) Very Attached 

6 8 Very attached 

 

4.2 Support for Bowlby’s Attachment Theory 

One of the guiding questions in this research study was whether the child-canine bond in 

children with ASD could be conceptualized as an attachment relationship and to what extent 

these features of attachment are evident.  Table 6 illustrates the extent to which each component 

of attachment is evident in each individual case which is then followed by a total score where 

each category is combined and a composite score is tallied.  

Table 6 

Features of Attachment Evident in the Child-Canine Bond 

 PROXIMITY 

SEEKING 

SAFE 

HAVEN 

SECURE 

BASE 

SEPARATION 

ANXIETY 



                                                                  55 

 

 

 

1  X 11 X 3 X 2 X 2 

2 X 7 X 5 X 4 X 2 

3 X 3 X 3 X 4 X 0 

4 X 2 X 3 X 2 X 2 

5 X 7 X 2 X 0 X 4 

6 X 7 X 1 X 2 X 1 

COMPOSITE 

SCORE = 
 

37 

 

17 

 

14 

 

11 

 

 In the following section, each feature of attachment will be discussed (from the most 

prevalent to the least prevalent).   

4.2.1 Proximity maintenance  

  Proximity maintenance is a key component of an attachment relationship and is 

characterized by a child’s desire to be near to the attachment figure and the attachment figure’s 

physical proximity and accessibility are enjoyable (Ainsworth, 1991).  For this study, proximity 

maintenance refers to the extent to which a child with ASD maintains proximity to the 

companion canine and was identified as being the most prevalent feature of attachment in the 

child-canine relationship.   

4.2.1.1 Evidence from Parents 

 In each family (cases 1-6), the parent(s) shared that their child(ren) with ASD enjoyed 

the accessibility and physical nearness of the companion canine(s).  The following statements are 

illustrations of proximity maintenance as described by parents during the semi-structured 

interviews.  

In this particular section of the interview with case 1, the parents were describing the 

temperament of their two bull canines and how tolerant these canines were of their son’s 

(ChildOne) multiple behaviours (e.g., squeezing, pinching, and laying on the canines).  As the 

conversation continued, they both commented on how, for the first six weeks, ChildOne initially 



                                                                  56 

 

 

 

did not display any interest in the canines and would actually avoid any physical contact with 

them.  Much to there surpise, ChildOne’s parents proceeded to remark that one day, a drastic 

change in their son's behaviour towards their two bull canines occurred and since then, they have 

become inseparable.  

It went from wanting nothing to do with the canines to inseparable. After six 

weeks it was all of a sudden, it was like a light switch turned on with ChildOne 

and all of a sudden he follows them around, he pinches them and he wants to be 

with them all of the time. One day he wanted nothing to do with them and the 

next day he won’t stop following them around (1).  

In case 6, the mother discussed how her daughter had an immediate bond with the 

companion canine saying “she bonded right away, the first day we got him she calmed him and 

fed him.  He was in her arms right from the get go and pretty much never left her arms since.”  

In Bowlby’s (1979) description of proximity maintenance, a child’s desire to maintain 

close proximity to the parental figure is because he or she provides a sense of safety and security.  

This feature of proximity maintenance was also depicted in the child-canine relationship.  

Sometimes when he needs to talk things through he still wants the canine 

there…The canine kinda needs to be there for him to have the physical 

comfort…When he is distressed and doesn’t have anything to discuss he will just 

go and sit with CanineThree…He likes to keep CanineThree close to him as much 

as possible (2).  

Proximity maintenance is also characterized by seeking out behaviours. In case 5 the 

parents explain how their two children with ASD continually seek out their companion canine: 

First thing ChildSix and ChildSeven do when we pick them up from school is seek out 



                                                                  57 

 

 

 

CanineSix…They just love him! First thing they do when they get in the car from school 

is say “oh hi CanineSix!” First thing in the morning they will look for CanineSix. They 

are VERY attached.   

Although proximity maintenance was identified as the most salient feature of attachment 

in the child-canine relationship, in two cases (3 and 4) the parents did not report that their 

child(ren) with ASD would purposefully seek out or maintain physical nearness to the 

companion canine.  For example, in case 3, the mother described her son’s relationship with the 

companion canine as ‘fine” however, there was “nothing to indicate that he has some sort of 

special bond with CanineFour.”   In case 4, the mother explained that although her two children 

with ASD are “always happy to see CanineFive, there are no issues with the canine not being 

there.”  Observational data collected by the researcher corroborated these findings from case 3 

and 4 with no behaviours reflecting proximity maintenance observed.   

4.2.1.2 Evidence from Observation 

Throughout the duration of the interviews, the researcher noted each child’s physical 

nearness to the companion canine in the observational map (see Appendix I).  In cases 2, 5, and 6 

each child maintained close proximity to their companion canine and appeared to make a 

conscious effort to engage with their companion canine.  Interactions consisting of ongoing play, 

cuddling, grooming, and obedience training throughout the interview process with each child’s 

parent(s).  In case 1, ChildOne engaged with the companion canines often moving back and forth 

between the canines and other interests (e.g., tech-driven games).  These interactions continued 

and it appeared as though ChildOne would consistently refer to them for physical comfort and 

reassurance in between other activities.   

The researcher did not observe behaviours reflecting proximity maintenance in cases 3 or 4.   



                                                                  58 

 

 

 

In each case, the children with ASD appeared to be accustomed to their canines presence 

however, did not seek to actively engage with their canine.    

4.2.2 Safe Haven  

Safe Haven is another essential feature of an attachment relationship and refers to the 

extent that the children with ASD turn to their companion canine for comfort when distressed.  

Following proximity maintenance, safe haven was the second most prevalent feature of 

attachment evident in the child-canine relationship.  In each case it was identified that the 

companion canine provided comfort to the children with ASD during times of emotional upset 

and distress. 

4.2.2.1 Evidence from Parents 

 

When he is feeling stressed he seeks comfort from them. I think when he is 

feeling stressed or anxious he gets those stemming behaviours and that is when 

the pinching of CanineOne and CanineTwo come into play (1).  

CanineThree is very comforting for ChildTwo when he is upset, I’ve noticed a lot 

more emotional regulation happens when CanineThree is present. He is able to 

navigate his feelings a little more and express and ask for what he needs (2).  

During the interview with case 6, the child with ASD (ChildEight) was present and free 

to participate in the discussion.  At one point during the conversation ChildEight proceeded to 

tell the researcher that “CanineSeven is very comforting. He cuddles me. When I feel lonely I 

will go find CanineSeven.” 

4.2.2.2 Evidence from Observations 

 

An important feature of the child-canine bond was close physical contact.  This coincides 

with the attachment features of proximity maintenance and safe haven where close physical 



                                                                  59 

 

 

 

contact is enjoyable, purposefully sought out and provides a source of comfort.  Cuddling, 

kissing, skin-to-skin contact, extended mutual gazing is characteristic of the infant-caregiver 

relationship Hazaan & Ziefman, 1994).  Although Hazaan & Ziefman (1994) clearly state that 

these behaviours are restricted to the infant-caregiver and romantic relationships, these 

behaviours have also been exhibited in studies examining the human-canine bond (e.g., Beck & 

Madresh, 2008; Kurdek, 2008; Kwong & Bartholomew, 2010).  In the current study, the 

researcher identified that physical contact behaviours characteristic of an attachment relationship 

also occurs freely in the child-canine bond in children with ASD. These behaviours were both 

observed as well as noted by some of the participating parents.  

… Since you’ve been here, he’s probably looked at you twice, which is obviously 

the social aspect. But with these canines, he will stare at them for longer than he 

will actually stare at us…For him, he has a lot of sensory issues so for him to kiss 

the canines is huge. When I give him a kiss he wipes my kisses off but with the 

canines he never wipes the kisses off (1). 

There is a lot of petting, a lot of hugging, a lot of cuddling, a lot of time! He likes 

to keep CanineThree close to him as much as possible...Mainly he plays and 

cuddles him. Especially at bed time, when he goes to bed CanineThree will go 

cuddle up with him in the bed while he falls asleep (2).  

4.2.3 Secure Base  

Secure base, the third most prevalent feature of attachment evident in the child-canine 

relationship, refers to the extent that children with ASD perceive their canine as a dependable 

source of comfort and support.  This felt security provided a base for the children with ASD to 

explore the environment and engage in typical interactions that otherwise might be stressful 



                                                                  60 

 

 

 

them.  

4.2.3.1 Evidence from Parents 

 

Secure base was identified in five out of the six cases.  In case 5 however, secure base 

was not identified at the time of the interview perhaps due to the fact that this participating 

family acquired their companion canine less than four weeks ago.  In the remaining cases, it was 

clearly indicated that the children derived a sense of security from their companion canine.  For 

example, in case 1, the parents explained the positive impact the canines have had on their son’s 

willingness to engage in social interactions. “I think with ChildOne, just the sense of familiarity, 

it makes him feel at ease in social situations. He will be calmer longer if the canines are around.”  

When the researcher asked participating families how the companion canine has 

influenced their child’s willingness to engage in otherwise stressful situations, some of the 

participating families indicated that their child’s(ren’s) relationship with the companion canine 

has enabled them to engage more fully with the world and feel more confident about their 

abilities.  

In the last year we have seen a lot more of an ability to ask and communicate 

needs rather than get to the point where he can’t anymore…We have noticed 

more of a willingness to engage in general, there has been a general improvement 

that is definitely related to CanineThree (2). 

Oh yes, I would say especially in social interactions. When people come to the 

house it is that topic starter and something that everyone has, that common ground 

to interact because people will ask questions about the canine so if we are meeting 

someone new or whatever, CanineFive can do that (4). 

4.2.3.2 Evidence from Observations 

 



                                                                  61 

 

 

 

The most evident depiction of secure base was each child’s willingness to engage with, 

and eagerness to introduce their canine, to the researcher.  For instance, in case 3, the researcher 

observed that when she first entered into the participating family’s home, the son with ASD 

opened the door and immediately introduced himself by saying “Hi! I am ChildThree, this is my 

brother, and this is our canine, CanineFour.”  ChildThree evidently identified himself through his 

family, which included their companion canine.  This, in turn, appeared to deconstruct social 

barriers and increase his willingness to engage.  During the interview, ChildThree’s mother 

pointed out that: 

Having CanineFour around to interact with has opened up ChildThree’s 

interactions with other canines and being more comfortable in social settings…By 

having CanineFour, ChildThree has gotten used to being bumped, being touched, 

and hearing CanineFour bark loudly. The sort of things he would normally find 

disruptive.  

4.2.4 Separation Anxiety  

An individual’s resistance to separation of an attachment figure and their experience of 

distress when separated are a reflection of separation anxiety.  In the current study, separation 

anxiety was identified as the least prevalent feature of attachment evident in the child-canine 

relationship.  Separation anxiety refers to the extent that the children with ASD miss their 

companion canine and become anxious when the companion canine is absent.  When the 

researcher asked participating families how their child copes when separated from the 

companion canine only one participating family (case 2) provided an example of their child with 

ASD expressing behaviours consistent with separation anxiety when a part from their companion 

canine. 



                                                                  62 

 

 

 

From an attachment theory perspective, separation anxiety serves to maintain an infant’s 

proximity to the caregiver for protection and safety when he/she feels discomfort.  When the 

researcher asked participating families how their child(ren) copes when separated from the 

companion canine(s), only one participating family (case 2) provided an example of their child 

with ASD expressing behaviours consistent with that of separation anxiety when separated from 

their companion canine.  For example, case 2 reported that their son with ASD felt distressed 

when separated from his companion canine which is indicative of an attachment bond. “He does 

not handle it well, a couple of times we have gone on vacation, just the three of them…and he 

missed CanineThree quite a bit…He definitely gets distressed when he is away from 

CanineThree.” 

 Separation anxiety was difficult to assess due to the fact that the children with ASD were 

seldom separated from their companion canine(s).  For instance, in cases 1, 5 and 6, reports 

regarding separation anxiety were hypothetical as the children with ASD were either never 

separated from the canine or had separations for only a few hours (e.g., during school days).   

Four out of the six participating families (cases 1, 2, 5, and 6) treated the canine as an equally 

important member of the family and therefore, the canine would be included in day-to-day 

activities as well as family travel.  This is illustrated in the following quotes. 

It is a strong bond. He would miss those canines if they were not around. The 

canines are always with us though, there is not a time the canines are not with us 

and ChildOne, unless he is at school. If we go on vacation they always come with 

us and we haven’t had a situation where they are not with us yet (1).  

They are not really away from him (CanineSix) aside from school and I take him 

with me in the car…They (ChildSix and ChildSeven) can cope without him but 



                                                                  63 

 

 

 

they miss him…But yeah, we haven’t really been away from him. If anything 

were to ever happen to him though it would be devastating (5)! 

In case 4, both the eldest daughter and eldest son were diagnosed with ASD however, 

there was no evidence (during the interview process or throughout the collection of observational 

data) indicating a typical expression (e.g., upset or distressed when away from the canine) of 

separation anxiety experienced by the son with ASD when absent from the companion canine. 

However, in the following statement by the mother in case 4, the researcher noted that perhaps 

his demonstration of separation anxiety was unique.  

Thinking about their bond with him, children with autism, you may think 

something is a certain way but it isn’t. There was a time we were thinking of re-

homing CanineFive just because we thought it was too much to look after. 

ChildFive (their son with ASD) was so upset and it surprised us! We were like 

okay, this canine IS pretty special to him. Although our daughter shows more 

affection, doesn’t necessarily mean she is more bonded to him. Our son has a 

more severe degree of ASD than her too.  

As was mentioned earlier, separation anxiety, from an attachment theory perspective, 

focuses on how the dependent (the child) maintains close proximity to the caregiver in order to 

seek protection and security.  Comparatively, separation anxiety that focuses on the dependent’s 

needs is characteristic of a caregiving relationship where the caregiver seeks proximity to the 

dependent in order to provide protection and security.  In case 4 the children experienced a form 

of separation anxiety suggesting that their caregiving system had taken precedence over the 

attachment system.  For example, even though the children with ASD did not display typical 

separation anxiety behaviours when separated from their companion canine, the parents did  



                                                                  64 

 

 

 

report that “they do recognize he is away because they will ask ‘who is with CanineFive, who is 

looking after him? I hope he is okay!’”  

In this section of the chapter, the findings of this exploratory case study examining 

whether the child-canine bond in children with ASD could be conceptualized as an attachment 

relationship and to what extent these features of attachment are evident, are presented.  Given 

that a strong theoretical framework does exist about this particular phenomenon, directed content 

analysis was used to analyze this section of the research study (Hickey & Kipping, 1996).  The 

analysis revealed that the four features of attachment were evident in the child-canine bond 

indicating that children with ASD have the ability to form an attachment relationship with their 

companion canine.  Proximity maintenance and safe haven were identified as being the most 

prevalent features of attachment while secure base and separation anxiety were the least 

prevalent features of attachment.    

4.3 Themes Characterizing Child-Canine Bonding  

The second research question addressed in this study was: What personal and external 

factors influence the child-canine bonding process in children with autism?  Recall that the 

prevalent themes within each case were identified using conventional content analysis.  

Following the completion of an individual case analysis for each of the six cases, a cross case 

analysis was completed.  Using the identified themes from each individually analyzed case, the 

cases were then compared to determine if there were similar patterns and themes among them.  

These themes were then used for within and between case study comparisons in order to identify 

commonalities and differences.  Through the completion of the cross-case analysis, the 

researcher identified 7 major themes characterizing child-canine bonding (see Table 7).  An 

individual case analysis was completed using the 7 themes to identify the presence or absence of 



                                                                  65 

 

 

 

each theme within the individual cases (see Table 8) which are discussed in the following 

sections. 

Table 7 

Prevalent Themes, Coding Descriptions and Examples 

THEMES DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES 

CANINE ACQUISITION 

 

Considerations made by family 

members when selecting a 

canine(s) that increase or 

decrease the likelihood of a 

strong child-canine bond 

 

 

 

 

 

 

AGE OF CANINE The age of the canine when 
introduced into the family 

home 

Puppy versus adult canine 

PRE OR POST ASD 

DIAGNOSIS 

Timing of decision to integrate 

a canine into the family 

Prior to the child’s/ren’s ASD 

diagnosis or following the 

child’s/ren’s ASD diagnosis 

 

INTENTIONAL 

VERSUS 

OPPORTUNISTIC 

Whether decisions and 

considerations regarding 

canine selection were carefully 

made versus flexible, open, 

and not driven by specific 

selection criteria  (e.g., 

whether the canine was 

intentionally acquired or 

happened upon). 

Specific considerations (e.g., 

breed, size, temperament, fit 

into family lifestyle, 

portability, durability, physical 

appearance) versus non-

specific considerations (e.g., 

immediate availability at the 

local animal shelter, not breed 

bound) 

BONDING STRATEGIES 

 

Strategies that facilitated child-

canine bonding  
 

 PRE-CANINE 

ACQUISITION 

 

Strategies that facilitated child-

canine bonding 

Child is involved in canine 

buying process (e.g., 

following the breeder on 

social media, involved in 

selecting the puppy/canine, 

involved in naming the 

puppy/canine, preparing the 

house for the puppy’s/canine’s 

arrival) 



                                                                  66 

 

 

 

POST-CANINE 

ACQUISITION 

 

Strategies that facilitated child-

canine bonding Canine is trained to sleep in 

child’s bed, child is involved 

in training the canine/taking 

the canine to obedience 

classes, child is involved in 

canine husbandry (e.g., 

feeding, walking, grooming, 

and picking up after the 

canine), physical contact is 

encouraged (e.g., petting, 

cuddling, hugging) 

 

ONGOING 
Strategies that facilitated child-

canine bonding Continued obedience training 

(e.g., ten minutes of obedience 

training per day at home), 

physical contact (e.g., petting, 

cuddling, hugging), playing 

with the canine, husbandry 

(e.g., feeding, walking, 

grooming, picking up after the 

canine) 

CANINE CHARACTERISTICS 

 

Behavioral and temperamental 

characteristics of the canine as 

described by the families 

 

 

 

DESIRED 

 

Characteristics contributing to 

a strong child-canine bond 

Tolerant, reliable, gentle, 

patient, submissive, social, 

intuitive (e.g., responds to 

human emotions), high 

attachment ability (e.g., breed 

known for loyalty, ability to 

connect), affectionate, 

bombproof (e.g., accepting of 

multiple and unpredictable 

behaviors characteristic of a 

child with ASD) 

UNDESIRED Characteristics detracting from 
a strong child-canine bond Dominant, possessive, 

aggressive, insecure (e.g., shy, 

untrusting/fearful), disengaged 

(e.g., aloof), selective 

attachment (e.g., attachment 

geared toward a specific 

population such as a male 

adult) 

CANINE AS FAMILY Treatment of canine as part of Allowed on furniture, 



                                                                  67 

 

 

 

MEMBER the family unit permitted to sleep in the 
child’s bed, travels with the 

family, incorporation into 

daily routine, normalization of 

canine (e.g., the canine is a 

normal part of the family’s 

activities) 

FAMILY PROFILE 

 

Family characteristics 

contributing to a strong child-

canine bond  

 

 

 

 

CHILD PREVIOUS 

EXPERIENCE 

Child with ASD had 

previous experience with 

animals  

Accustomed to having other 

family pets (not limited to 

canines) and/or being around 

other family pets (e.g., 

neighbours and/or friends 

pets) 

PARENTAL 

KNOWLEDGE AND 

EXPERIENCE 

 

Prior knowledge and 

experience with canines 

Knowledge regarding breed 

specific behaviours and breed 

characteristics, research 

knowledge on the therapeutic 

benefits canines can have on 

children with ASD, and 

previous experience with 

canines (e.g., growing up with 

canines)  

MOTIVATION  

 Motivation to integrate a 
canine into the family unit 

Parental and familial desire to 

integrate a canine into the 

family home is shared, the 

canine is intentionally 

acquired for the child with 

ASD, the child with ASD is 
motivated to get a canine (e.g., 

persistently asking for a canine, 

demonstrating responsibility 

for canine ownership such as 

saving up money for a canine 

bed, writing out a list of things 

he/she will do to take care of 

the canine, showing 

attachment behaviors towards 

other canines) 

BENEFITS 

 

Positive influences identified 

from presence of canine 
 

 

 

 

TO CHILD 

 

Positive influences identified 

from presence of canine 

Developmental changes (e.g., 

increase in maturity, capability 

and responsibility), emotional 

regulation, other regarding 

(e.g., demonstration of  



                                                                  68 

 

 

 

empathy and care towards 

animals as well as peers), 

increased social interactions 

and communication, increased 

patience and tolerance (e.g. 

sitting quietly for long 

periods)  

TO FAMILY UNIT Positive influences identified 
from presence of canine 

Increased togetherness or 

cohesion of the family, 

increased social outings and 

activities, decreased level of 

stress experienced by the 

family due to a reduction in 

emotional outbursts.  

 OTHER Miscellaneous themes not 
fitting in categories above 

Incubation period – a period 

during which attachment is not 

immediately evident but is in 

development. 

Bi-directional effects, children 

with ASD may exhibit 

multiple and unpredictable 

behaviours (e.g., stemming, 

squeezing, pinching, yelling). 

These behaviours were 

tolerated by the family canines 

which evidently had a bi-

directional effect where the 

children tolerated canine 

behaviours which normally 

would not be accepted from 

another human being (e.g., a 

child with ASD would wipe 

his face after his mother 

kissed him on the cheek  

however, he happily accepted 

kisses from the canines). 

 No competing interests - 

though interest was evident in 

interacting with canines, other 

more attractive activities could 

usurp this (e.g., tech-driven 

games).   

 

 

 



                                                                  69 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



                                                                  70 

 

 

 

 

Table 8 

The Absence or Presence of Prevalent Themes within Individual Cases 

 CANINE ACQUISITION BONDING STRATEGIES CANINE 

CHARACTERISTICS 

 AGE 

OF 

CANI

NE 

 

 

 

PRE OR POST 

ASD 

DIAGNOSIS 

INTENTIONAL 

VERSUS 

OPPORTUNISTIC 

PRE 

CANIN

E 

POST 

CANI

NE 

 

ONGOING DESIRED UNDESIRED 

1 Puppy Post Intentional  X X X  

2 Puppy Post Intentional X X X X  

3 Adult Pre Opportunistic   X X  

4 Adult Post Opportunistic  X  X X 

5 Puppy Post Intentional X X X X X 

6 Puppy Post Intentional X X X X  

 

 CANINE 

AS 

FAMILY 

MEMBER 

FAMILY PROFILE BENEFITS OF 

CANINE 

OTHER 

  CHILD PRIOR 
EXPERIENCE 

PARENTAL 

KNOWLEDGE 

& 

EXPERIENCE 

MOTIVATION TO CHILD TO FAMILY  

1 X X X X X X X 

2 X X X X X X  

3 X    X X X 

4    X X  X 

5 X X X X X X  

6 X X X X X X  



                                                                  71 

 

 

 

 

4.3.1 Canine Acquisition  

Canine acquisition was a prevalent theme that emerged during the cross-case analysis and 

is described by the researcher as decisions that the families made when selecting a canine(s) that 

increased or decreased the likelihood of a strong child-canine bond.  Throughout the researcher’s 

semi-structured interviews with the parents and collection of observational data, three sub-

themes related to canine acquisition were identified and included: 1) the age of the canine (puppy 

versus adult); 2) the timing of acquisition (pre or post ASD diagnosis) to integrate a canine into 

the family home; and 3) whether the decision to integrate a canine into the family home was 

intentional or opportunistic.  In the following sections, support for each of these subthemes will 

be provided including participant comments and corroborating researcher observations. 

4.3.1.1 Age of Canine 

 

A prominent sub-theme that was noted by the researcher was the age at which the canine 

was introduced into the family home.  An attachment relationship was more evident in the 

families who integrated the companion canine(s) into the family home when the canines were 

puppies, following their child’s(ren’s) ASD diagnosis (4/6 cases supported this).   During the 

cross-case analysis, this subtheme became especially apparent to the researcher when differences 

in cases 3 and 4 emerged.  In comparison to cases 1, 2, 5, and 6, where a stronger child-canine 

bond was evident, a lack of bond was evident in cases 3 and 4.  This prompted the researcher to 

investigate potential explanations for this finding.  Notably, in cases 1, 2, 5, and 6, the 

companion canines were acquired as puppies whereas in cases 3 and 4, the companion canines 

were either an adult by the time the child with ASD was born (case 3) or was acquired at an adult 

age (case 4).  



                                                                  72 

 

 

 

4.3.1.1 Evidence from Parents 

 

  In case 3, the companion canine was acquired prior to the birth of their son with ASD 

and was an adult (2 years of age) at the time of their son’s birth.  Although the bond between the 

child with ASD and the companion canine was reported as “attached” the mother stated that 

there was “nothing that indicated ChildThree has some sort of special bond with CanineFour.”  

 A weaker bond was also exhibited in case 4.  In this particular family, the companion 

canine was adopted from the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA) and 

integrated in to the family home at the age of two years.  “He was not a young pup when we got 

him, he is ten years old but we got him eight years ago, so we got him when he was two years 

old.”  The mother did report that her two children with ASD were “attached” to CanineFive 

however, given his current age and personality, she pointed out the following: 

I think it is a little tough for them to bond more with CanineFive…he is not overly 

playful…he is not the kind of canine you take the park and throw a Frisbee…If he 

was more playful and would run the ball to them I think they would be all over 

that. It is limited to a certain degree because of his nature and age. 

4.3.1.2 Evidence from Observations 

Throughout the interview process with cases 3 and 4, the researcher observed minimal 

interactions between the children with ASD and the companion canines.  Rather than directly 

engaging with the canines, the children seemed distracted by other interests.  In both cases, the 

children appeared to be accustomed to the canine’s presence however, their actual engagement 

was minimal.  



                                                                  73 

 

 

 

4.3.1.2 Pre or Post ASD Diagnosis 

The timing when the companion canine was acquired into the family home was another 

prominent subtheme that correlated with the strength of the child-canine bond.  It became 

evident that the children whose families had decided to integrate a canine into their home 

following their ASD diagnosis (post-ASD diagnosis) exhibited a stronger bond to their 

companion canine compared to those who integrated a canine into their home prior to their ASD 

diagnosis (pre-ASD diagnosis).  

This was illustrated in cases 3 and 4 where an attachment relationship between the 

children with ASD and their companion canines were found to be least prevalent.  As previously 

mentioned, case 3 acquired their companion canine prior to the birth of their son with ASD and 

therefore prior to his ASD diagnosis.  Additionally, in case 4, their companion canine was 

acquired prior to their daughter’s ASD diagnosis.   

4.3.1.3 Intentional versus Opportunistic Canine Acquisition   

Decisions and considerations regarding canine selection were evident in participants’ 

responses to the researcher’s questions during the semi-structured interviews (e.g., looking back 

to when you first brought (name of canine) home, could you tell me what drew you to getting 

(name of canine) versus any of the other canines you perhaps looked at? What or who influenced 

you to get a companion canine?).  Two distinct pathways regarding the acquisition of companion 

canines emerged.  Several of the families (cases 1, 2, 5 & 6) acquired canines through what may 

be considered intentional efforts (e.g., specific considerations, such as breed, size, and 

temperament, were carefully made).  Alternatively, the remaining two families (cases 3 and 4) 

reported being more opportunistic regarding canine acquisition and selection (e.g., flexible, open 

and not driven by specific selection criteria).  A trend between the strength of the child-canine 



                                                                  74 

 

 

 

bond and the acquisition strategies used by the participating families’ (intentional versus 

opportunistic) emerged. 

A stronger child-canine bond was evident in the families who made intentional and 

careful decisions regarding canine selection.  Intentional decision criteria included breed, size, 

temperament and physical appearance of the canine, and fit into family lifestyle and portability 

of the canine.  In the following section, illustrations of intentional decisions regarding canine 

selection gathered from the interview data are presented.  

We needed a canine that was great with kids. Bull canines are in the top ten 

canines that are best with kids. We had a really big big canine, a Leonberger, he 

was great with kids but so big and Joe did not interact with him, really at all. He 

was just too big…We wanted a canine that was great with kids, a sturdy canine. 

We have two boys and they wrestle. So temperament was important and yeah just 

good with kids. Temperament, personality and sturdiness…The bullcanine, no 

matter what you do, doesn’t get angry or aggressive. You can do anything to them 

(1).   

 

We decided on the Golden Doodle for the mixture of retriever temperament and 

poodle intelligence. We were looking for a breed that was known for 

unconditional attachment and ease of attachment and no aggression…We went 

with ¼ Golden Retriever and ¾ Poodle…a friend of ours has a full sized Golden 

Doodle and that is a big big canine, we were always concerned about the boys 

walking him so a bigger canine would have a been a concern for us. CanineThree 

is a good size. ‘He can sit on our lap when we call him!’ Yes, as ChildTwo says, 



                                                                  75 

 

 

 

he is like a lap canine (2).   

 

We looked around at a lot of canines and I think that we really liked the red color, 

and size wise, we did not want anything too big or too dominating…we wanted 

something that was medium sized, so he will be 45 lbs which will be a nice size. 

He is a lab and poodle so they brought down the size (5).   

Five out of the six participating families stressed the importance of size, portability, and 

fit with family lifestyle.  Large breeds appeared to present an obstacle from the child-canine 

bonding process with concerns of being overwhelming for the child with ASD as well as the 

overall family unit.  

The last canine was too big, so the kids could not play with the canine. So that was the 

drive with this breed, something small, stalky, solid. Something that we could take with 

us camping, because we camp and we boat. ChildOne LOVES walking CanineOne on the 

leash, so a larger canine, you know, I wouldn’t want a kid dragging down the street (1).  

We didn’t want a bigger canine. We didn’t want to change our lifestyle…We wanted 

something that could still travel with us…we thought a smaller canine that could come 

with us is a little easier than a big canine. We didn’t want a canine we would always have 

to walk and take outside (6).   

Comparatively, case 3 reported that they were not driven by specific breed characteristics 

and were more elusive regarding the type of temperament they were seeking when they decided 

to integrate a companion canine into the family home. 

We were primarily interested in getting a canine from the SPCA, rather than being 

focused on breed per say we were being opportunistic keeping an eye on what 



                                                                  76 

 

 

 

was coming up…We were interest in a larger canine but not necessarily really 

large and there were some breeds that we were not very interested in due to 

reputation but we were fairly open to a mix of things (3).  

Additionally, case 4 appeared to be more focused on canine availability rather than 

selecting a canine that would be suitable for a child with ASD.  

When we went to the SPCA, we were having trouble finding one that was out in 

display so the SPCA worker went to the back and brought CanineFive in his arms. 

We were then like "oh he is so cute!" It was not the breed in particular he just 

looked like this ball of snow.  

4.3.2 Bonding Strategies  

In addition to canine acquisition, bonding strategies were also found to be a factor 

influencing the development of an attachment relationship between children with ASD and their 

companion canine.   Bonding strategies emerged as the second theme identified across cases and 

are defined as strategies that appeared to facilitate child-canine bonding.  

 Discussions with the participating families included noteworthy dialogue around 

bonding strategies that were implemented to facilitate a strong child-canine bond.  Five out of the 

six participating families indicated that they intentionally implemented strategies to help 

facilitate a bond however, the researcher also identified and categorized strategies that may have 

been unintentional yet appeared to contribute to the child-canine bonding process.   

Strategies were categorized into three distinct phases and included strategies that 

occurred: 1) prior to integrating the companion canine(s) into the family home (pre-canine 

acquisition); 2) immediately following acquisition of the companion canine(s) (post canine 



                                                                  77 

 

 

 

acquisition); and 3) continuing after a bond between the child with ASD and the companion 

canine had been established (ongoing).   

4.3.2.1 Pre-Canine Acquisition   

The cross-case analysis revealed that by involving the child with ASD in the canine-

acquisition process helped encourage the development of an attachment relationship.  Children 

with ASD often exhibit restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests, or activities that can 

be manifested as excessive adherence to routines or excessive resistance to change.  Adding a 

companion canine into the family home will inevitably result in changes to daily routines and 

require an adjustment to the family system.  For children with ASD, preparation for change is 

essential in order to facilitate smooth transitions and minimize disruptions.  For the majority of 

cases, involving the participating children with ASD in the canine-acquisition process helped 

prepare them for these changes and increased their excitement about the addition of a companion 

canine.  

In this study, child involvement included strategies such as frequent communication with 

the breeder, following the breeder on social media (e.g., the breeder’s Facebook page where 

pictures of the puppies would be posted), and having the child with ASD help select the canine.  

When it came to choosing the puppies we followed the breeder on Facebook and 

she would post pictures of them once a week…as the puppies got older I would 

ask the kids ‘okay, which one catches your eye?’…It is so good for the kids 

though because every morning they would go to the breeder’s website and every 

day she would post new pictures or videos so they really followed the process. 

We knew we were getting him before the mom was even bred yet. So we 

followed them since April (5).  



                                                                  78 

 

 

 

We wanted the Havanese breed, we wanted a fluffy canine …we were told to get 

a blend and we found the Havanese-Bichon …so we all looked on the internet and 

found him on Kijiji…We got him from a breeder and we all went to get him. All 

of us (6)!  

Other forms of involvement included having the child(ren) with ASD name the 

puppy/canine and help prepare the house for the canine’s arrival.  

Linda (ChildTwo’s Mom) channelled his excitement and made him take some 

ownership, he had to save up money to help pay for a canine bed and he had to 

promise and he wrote out some things he would do with the canine and he’s lived 

up to it. He did lobby for the canine and some responsibility attached to it (2).  

4.3.2.2 Post-Canine Acquisition   

The most common child-canine bonding strategies were strategies implemented 

following the acquisition of the companion canine.  Post-canine acquisition strategies were 

strategies that the parents’ intentionally put into action to help encourage child-canine bonding.  

Participants reported that close physical contact such as having the companion canine sleep in 

the child’s(ren’s) bed, was frequently encouraged. 

We also set up, immediately after CanineThree was house trained he started 

sleeping with ChildTwo and stays for a while and then leaves…that is something 

we worked with CanineThree to do. It was trained, we trained CanineThree to do 

it (2). 

Honestly, I would pick the bullcanines up and drop them on ChildOne’s lap and 

ChildOne would squish them…there was no easing into it. We used to have the 



                                                                  79 

 

 

 

canines go into his room and the canines would go in there and cuddle him as well. 

It is all about cuddling and connection. When he sees them laying he will go curl 

up in there stomach, it is so sweet (1).  

Post-canine acquisition strategies also included involving the child in the care of the 

canine (e.g., feeding, walking, grooming, and picking up after the canine) and taking the canine 

to obedience classes. 

I think that is where encouraging him to help feed CanineFour because he has 

expressed interest in it and encourage him to hold the bowl and have CanineFour 

to sit. To always be encouraging his independence to complete tasks and feel 

good about it (3).   

With me, when walking I would have ChildOne hold the leash and he really, he 

thought it was really cool, and of course me trying to read his mind being nonverbal, 

but you could just tell he thought it was really cool because he would look at the 

leash and then look down the line and see that he was holding CanineOne. So I 

think he thought it was really cool (1). 

Also, ChildTwo walks CanineThree…And then, CanineThree has been through 

two rounds of obedience training, and ChildTwo and Linda (ChildTwo’s Mom) 

did that together and we asked that ChildTwo be able to attend because they only 

wanted one owner and one animal, so they made the exception. We thought this 

would give him the opportunity to bond and work with CanineThree in the 

obedience setting (2). 



                                                                  80 

 

 

 

4.3.2.3 Ongoing    

 Ongoing strategies included strategies that continued well after the companion canine 

was integrated into the family home and had become a part of the child’s day-to-day routine.  

Ongoing strategies included: continued obedience training (e.g., ten minutes of obedience per 

day at home); physical contact (e.g., petting, cuddling, hugging); playing with the companion 

canine; and continued care of the companion canine (e.g., daily feeding, walking, grooming and 

picking up after the canine).  

Normally in the morning they will play with him, take him outside…walk him to 

the tennis courts and to school and back. Because he is still a puppy the kids will 

follow him around to make sure he doesn’t get in trouble. For the most part, it is 

just following him around, and they will obedience train him and teach him new 

tricks…They will play with him, feed him, and give him fresh water. “Whenever 

it is possible we play with him. Whenever he is not sleeping (5)!” 

ChildTwo walks him five days a week and I encourage it on the weekends. If the 

boys go outside to play CanineThree will go out and they will play the ball for 

him …A lot of playing. ChildTwo helps with poop pick up in the backyard and 

walking and the playing and a bit of the training.  

4.3.3 Canine Characteristics  

Canine characteristics emerged as the third theme in the cross-case analysis. Canine 

characteristics included age, size, and behavioural/tempermental traits. The families with older 

canines appeared to be less tolerant of physical touch from children and therefore less inclined to 

interact with them.  Comparatively, the families with younger canines who were integrated into 

the home as a puppy appeared to happily engage with the child(ren), were more energetic and 



                                                                  81 

 

 

 

playful, and more tolerant of multiple and unpredictable behaviours often exhibited by children 

with ASD.  The families who had older canines in their home (i.e., cases 1, 3, & 4) exhibited 

avoidant behaviour and were less likely to engage with the children perhaps affecting the ability 

to establish an attachment relationship. 

 

Size of the canine also emerged as a prevalent theme across cases.  The importance of 

size was reported by each family.  Large breeds appeared to present an obstacle from the child-

canine bonding process with concerns of being overwhelming for the child with ASD as well as 

the family unit.  This was exemplified in case 1 where they discussed the relationship between 

their son and the first companion canine they acquired prior to deciding upon a smaller breed. 

“We had a really big big canine…he was great with kids but so big and ChildOne did not interact 

with him, really at all. He was just too big. He (the canine) now lives with my parents (Case 1).”  

Small-medium sized breeds were the preferred size chosen by the families with reported fears 

that a larger breed might be overpowering (e.g., pulling the child while walking or knocking the 

child over).   

Behavioural/temperamental traits of the companion canine as described by the 

participating families and observed by the researcher, also appeared to impact the strength of the 

child-canine bond.  Throughout the researcher’s semi-structured interviews with the parents and 

collection of observational data, two subthemes related to canine characteristics were identified: 

1) desirable; and 2) undesirable.  Desirable characteristics are operationalized as qualities of the 

canine that contributed to a strong child-canine bond. Whereas undesirable characteristics are 

operationalized as qualities of the canine that detracted from a strong child-canine bond.   



                                                                  82 

 

 

 

4.3.3.1 Desired    

Behavioural/temperamental variations existed between the companion canines 

participating in this study.  Despite these variations, the most frequently discussed 

behavioural/temperamental characteristic of the companion canines was tolerance (i.e., a 

canine’s willingness to endure specified conditions or treatments).  

The bullcanine, no matter what you do, doesn’t get angry or aggressive. You can 

do anything to them…ChildOne will grab their wrinkles and squeeze them…he 

will squeeze when he’s excited and sometimes he needs that input and he will 

grab underneath their jowls…His behaviour interventionists are amazed by what 

these canines will let him do. He will lay right on top of them. He sits on them 

and lays on them and they will not run away, they will just lay there and take it 

(1). 

You can do anything to him. He is very tolerant and the kids have always played 

with him like this. They can do anything…He puts up with a lot (6).  

Submissive canine behaviours were also described as being desirable for a child with 

ASD.  A canine that readily surrenders authority, seeks human leadership, is highly trainable and 

reliable and has no desire to dominate is often characterized as being submissive.   

He is happy to go along with things but generally not the leader. Not the one to 

charge out there. Always has an eye out to check what is going on and what he 

should be doing. He is very gentle. He is more submissive and is looking for what 

the right moves are and wants to follow along and stay close…he was really really 

good with them as little babies crawling on the floor. There were never any 

feelings of there being some sort of issue. He is a fantastic family canine (3)! 



                                                                  83 

 

 

 

A common canine behaviour that was both sought after and described as being desirable 

was a canines’ ability to tolerate multiple and unpredictable behaviours characteristic of a child 

with ASD (e.g, stemming behaviours, pinching, squeezing, jumping and shouting).  This 

behaviour can also be referred to as being “bombproof” meaning nothing within the bounds of 

reason, will startle the canine.  

We decided on the Golden Doodle…we were looking for a breed that was known 

for unconditional attachment and ease of attachment and NO aggressions, very 

tolerant of multiple behaviours (2).  

Children on the spectrum can be, like ChildOne jumps, and canines can be scared 

because they are unpredictable and ChildOne can be unpredictable and these 

canines are so patient. Their calm demeanor, their size and structure, their 

personality, I truly don’t believe there is a better canine for an autistic child (1). 

4.3.3.2 Undesired     

 Several participating families reported characteristics exhibited by their companion 

canine that were undesirable and potentially detract from a strong child-canine bond.  The most 

salient undesired behavaioural/temperamental characteristics were dominance possessiveness 

and/or aggression.   

He can be so sweet and cuddly but then he wants to dominate, definitely…at first 

he was so quiet and then all of a sudden, yeah like if you wake him up from his 

nap or something he might growl and if he goes out with other puppies he really 

wants to be the dominant one…It does worry me a bit, but he is still a puppy…but 

yeah that worries me a little bit because with our friends canine, the kids would lie 

all over her and they would just dress her up and she was so easy going…he 



                                                                  84 

 

 

 

definitely has aggressive tendencies (5).   

Insecurity (e.g., shy, untrusting/fearful), disengagement (e.g., aloof), and attachment 

issues (e.g., attachment geared towards adults versus children) were also reported as undesirable 

canine characteristics.  

He is very insecure because he is a rescue, so you can see signs of that insecurity 

in him…He is not overly playful…He is more geared towards adults, he is not as 

kid oriented. If he was more playful and would run the ball to them I think they 

would be all over that. It is limited to a certain degree just because of his nature. 

He likes adults more than children… He has a very dysfunctional attachment to 

my husband. I think that has affected his bond with the kids, in a negative way. 

He has an insecurity without that approval from a male adult, you can never fill 

that need in him. He wasn't socialized properly with other canines or people so we 

can't take him to canine parks because he will just start barking at the other 

canines (4).  

4.3.4 Canine as Family Member  

 

One of the most remarkable findings that appeared to have a strong influence on the 

child-canine bonding process was the placement of the canine within the family system.  For 

example, consideration and treatment of the companion canine as part of the family unit 

evidently had a significant impact on the child-canine bond.  Treatment of the companion canine 

as a family member was most evident in cases 1, 2, 5, and 6.  

 4.3.4.1 Evidence from Parents  

In case 1, the parents reported that the development of an attachment relationship 

between their son with ASD and the companion canines occurred suddenly and described it as a 



                                                                  85 

 

 

 

“light-switch moment.”  The family reported that by treating the canines as members of the 

family may have contributed to the change in their son’s behaviour toward the companion 

canines.  

After six weeks it was all of a sudden, like a light switch turned on with ChildOne 

and all of a sudden he follows them around he pinches them and he wants to be 

with them all of the time. One day he wanted nothing to do with them and the 

next day he won’t stop following them around…We would always encourage him 

to spend time with the canines and they were always up on the couch, they were 

the first canines we had that we allowed to come up on the couch and cuddle and 

maybe he saw that (1).   

Case 6 explained how important it is that their companion canine be included in all 

family activities: “he comes everywhere with us, he will come in the car. If we go travelling he 

will come with us. He will go with us everywhere.”  Other participating families also indicated 

that their companion canine(s) would be included in day-to-day activities. 

The canines are always with us, there is no time the canines are not with us and 

ChildOne, unless he is at school. If we go on vacation they always come with us 

and we haven’t had a situation where they are not with us yet (1).  

They are not really away from him aside from school. And I take him in the 

car…yeah, it is a little tough to answer because we haven’t really been away from 

him. If anything were to ever happen to him though it would be devastating (5)! 

To illustrate a comparison for the reader, case 4 reported that at one point they considered 

giving their companion canine away. “There was a time we were thinking of re-homing 

Caninefive just because we thought it was too much to look after.”  The concept that the canine 



                                                                  86 

 

 

 

was replaceable became evident and perhaps contributed to the lack of bond observed between 

the children with ASD and their companion canine.  These cross case comparisons highlight the 

notion that how the canine is situated within the family system can impact the child-canine 

bonding process.  

4.3.4.2 Evidence from Observations  

These findings were also corroborated by the researcher’s observations.  The researcher 

identified that families who treated and described their companion canine(s) as an equal member 

of the family also reported a strong child-canine bond.  Treatment of the companion canine as 

part of the family unit was characterized by families who allow their companion canine(s) on the 

furniture, travel with their companion canine(s), and permit the companion canine(s) to sleep in 

their child’s bed.  

4.3.5 Family Profile  

Family profile was the fifth prevalent theme to emerge during the cross-case analysis and 

is described by the researcher as characteristics of the family and characteristics of the child with 

ASD that contribute to child-canine bonding. Throughout the researcher’s semi-structured 

interviews with the parents and observations, three subthemes related to family profile were 

identified and included: 1) child’s previous experience; 2) parental knowledge and experience; 

and 3) motivation.   

4.3.5.1 Child Previous Experience 

A prominent subtheme noted by the researcher is whether or not the child with ASD had 

previous experience with animals prior to integrating companion canine into the family home.  

Previous experience with animals was not limited to canines and did not require extensive 

involvement with animals however it was identified that the participating children with ASD 



                                                                  87 

 

 

 

who were accustomed to having other family pets (i.e., the normalization of family pets) and/or 

being around other pets (e.g., neighbors and/or friends pets) formed a strong bond with their 

companion canine(s).   

4.3.5.2 Parental Knowledge and Experience 

 

Parental prior knowledge and experience with canines is the second subtheme falling 

under family profile.  Parental knowledge included knowledge regarding breed specific 

behaviours and breed characteristics, research on the therapeutic benefits canines can have on 

children with ASD, and previous experience with canines (e.g., growing up with canines).  

Four of the participating families (i.e., 1, 2, 5, 6) reported having specific knowledge 

regarding various canine breeds and were selective about choosing a canine that matched their 

family’s lifestyle and child’s needs.  

With two young boys, we needed a canine that was great with kids. Bull canines 

are in the top ten canines that are best with kids. The last canine was too big, so 

the kids could not play with the canine. So that was the drive with this breed, 

something small, stalky, and solid… I love big canines, so the drive for me to get 

these canines was for ChildOne (1).  

So he is an Australian Labradoodle, and the reason we chose him was because our 

friends had a Golden Doodle and the kids were just so attached to her…we always 

knew if we got a canine that is the type of breed we wanted because it is a known 

breed to be good with kids and it is a family canine and with our kids we weren’t 

going to do SPCA because you just didn’t know what you were going to get and 

so far us we just wanted a little bit more of a sure thing and was more known to 

have a good reputation for being good with families so we didn’t want to take any 



                                                                  88 

 

 

 

chances (5).    

To illustrate a comparison for the reader, cases 3 and 4 appeared to have little knowledge 

regarding breed specific behaviours and breed specific characteristics.  This lack of knowledge 

appeared to contribute their decisions concerning canine selection which may have detracted 

from the child-canine bond.  For example, in case 4, although size was an important determinant 

when the family was selecting a companion canine, they reported being very opportunistic and 

open-minded regarding breed, temperament, and history (e.g., the background of a rescue 

canine).  

We wanted something in between a small and medium size…When we went to 

the SPCA we were having trouble finding one that was out in display so the 

SPCA worker went to the back and brought Caninefive in his arms. We were then 

like "oh he is so cute!" It was not the breed in particular he just looked like this 

ball of snow (4) 

Knowledge of the therapeutic benefits canines can have on children with ASD and 

previous experience with canines (e.g., growing up with canines) also appeared to contribute to 

the formation of a strong child-canine bond.   

There was definitely research…I think it started with just the therapeutic benefits 

of owning a canine in general and then kind of went into the ASD connection and 

AAT as an avenue (2). 

Positive previous experience with canines was a common subtheme among the 

participating families.  Families with positive previous experiences expressed a consistent 

understanding that a companion canine could provide therapeutic benefits for children with 

ASD.  



                                                                  89 

 

 

 

We owned all kinds of canines and I owned 20 canines over my life and all kinds 

of breed…We have always had canines around here. Both of us growing up…we 

really wanted our children to have the same experience that we did when we were 

kids (1).  

 4.3.5.3 Motivation   

Motivation was the third subtheme to emerge under family profile.  It became apparent 

that participating families identified motivational factors as influential in their decision to 

integrate a companion canine into the family home.  Motivational factors included whether or 

not the desire to integrate a canine into the family home was equally shared by all members of 

the family, whether or not the canine was intentionally acquired for the child with ASD, and 

whether or not the child with ASD was motivated to get a canine (e.g., persistently asking for a 

canine, demonstrating responsibility for canine ownership such as saving up money for a canine 

bed, writing out a list of things he/she will do to take care of the canine).  

The cross-case analysis revealed that there was a stronger child-canine bond in the 

participating families who collectively agreed upon integrating a companion canine into the 

family home and shared mutual excitement regarding this decision.  In five out of the six 

participating families, parental and familial desire to integrate a companion canine into the 

family was shared.  Comparatively, in case 3, motivation to integrate a companion canine into 

the family home was not shared by all family members which may have detracted from the child-

canine bonding process: 

It was more my husband who wanted a canine than I did…My husband’s sense of 

enjoying the companionship is more than mine, not that I don't like having a 

canine, but I don't necessarily feel like I need to fill up the house with another 



                                                                  90 

 

 

 

thing to take care of and I am sure that comes with having the kids. I think the 

bonding thing is what drew him to having a canine, I am more of a cat person. 

The canine was more his idea than mine, but I certainly like canines (3).  

The data also revealed that a strong child-canine bond was evident in families who 

intentionally acquired a companion canine for their child with ASD. A majority of the 

participating families indicated that their child’s(ren’s) keen interest and motivation to integrate a 

companion canine into the family home was an influential deciding factor.  

We knew that eventually we would want a canine in our family and that a canine 

would be a positive addition to our family and so I think that it was mostly the 

kids but mostly something that we wanted as a family anyways. But the key 

motivation would definitely be the kids. Mostly our daughter but our son has 

actually been so helpful and involved… I think that just the unconditional love. 

We watched something on it about kids with more severe ASD and canines and 

how they would do really well with canines (5). 

Through the analysis of the semi-structured interviews with the participating families it 

became evident that a strong child-canine bond occurred when the child with ASD was 

motivated to get a companion canine.  For example, one participating family (2) reported that 

their son with ASD was highly motivated to integrate a companion canine into the family home 

which helped facilitate a strong bond.  

He was just so interested in having the canine so that facilitated his interest in 

bonding…He was persistent and my wife channeled that and made him take some 

ownership, he had to save up some money to help pay for a canine bed and he had 

to promise and he wrote out some things he would do with the canine and he's 



                                                                  91 

 

 

 

lived up to it. He did lobby for the canine and some responsibility attached to it 

(2).  

Case 5 also contested that their children’s keen interest facilitated a strong bond.  

They bonded right away. They both wanted to be around him all of the time! It 

was not necessary to try to facilitate a bond. If anything it was the opposite, they 

need to let him be sometimes and I tell them he needs to sleep, let him sleep!  

4.3.6 Benefits 

The sixth theme to emerge from the cross-case analysis was benefits. Familial benefits 

elicited by companion canines for families impacted by ASD was not initially intended to be a 

focal point in this study.  However, throughout interviews with the participants the positive 

effects that the companion canine(s) have had on the families often became a focus of discussion 

throughout the interview process and therefore must be acknowledged.  Two overarching 

benefits of companion canine acquisition for families impacted by autism were identified.  These 

included: 1) benefits for the children with ASD (e.g., increased maturity, responsibility, and 

capability, increased social interactions communication skills development, emotional 

regulation); and 2) familial benefits (e.g., reduction in parental stress, increased togetherness or 

cohesion of the family unit, increased social outing). 

 4.3.6.1 Benefits to Child 

Parents reported that their children with ASD were benefiting through companionship, 

unconditional love and stress relief. 

I think just that unconditional love… it would be good for the kids’ self-esteem 

and what not, they have trouble at school, they don’t have a lot of friends and we 

thought with canines, no matter what happens they will love them. He will want 



                                                                  92 

 

 

 

to kiss them when they get home from school and even if we are mad at them or 

the school is mad at them. That was something we thought it would be good for 

them. That consistency (5).  

In case 6, ChildEight’s mother explained how their companion canine provided an 

opportunity for her daughter to develop an attachment relationship.  

Canines will always come back for you. That unconditional love, kids need to 

feel that…to have an animal you know, kids just need to feel that…I remember 

our behaviour interventionist came over and they told me I had to teach her 

attachment and I was just blown away! Having an animal can facilitate that 

learning. CanineSeven has taught ChildEight about attachment…(6)” 

 Other prominent benefits included developmental changes (e.g., increase in maturity, 

responsibility, and capability), emotional regulation, other regarding (e.g., demonstration of 

empathy and care towards animals as well as peers) increased social interactions and 

communication and increased patience and tolerance (e.g. sitting quietly for long periods).  

Participating parents reported that their children with ASD were fascinated with their 

companion canines and showed them more affection and positive social behaviour than they 

showed people.  The quality of the relationship with the companion canine was, according to a 

majority of the participating parents’ descriptions, often strong, unique, and deep.  One mother 

said: 

The way he looks at these canines, he studies them and he actually puts their ears 

on his lips and looks at them. I truly believe that he studies them. It is a 

connection that I can’t explain. He wouldn’t give a person that much attention. He 

has a connection with these canines that he has with nobody outside of his 



                                                                  93 

 

 

 

immediate family. Since you’ve been here, he’s probably looked at you 

twice…but with these canines, he will stare at them for longer than he will 

actually stare at us.  

A majority of the parents reported that interactions with the companion canines facilitated 

considerable growth in the areas of emotion recognition, perspective taking, and empathy.  One 

mother said: 

It brought ChildEight out and her ability to think of others is the biggest thing we 

have noticed. She will think to care for CanineSeven and that transfers to others. 

She will think to feed CanineSeven and that is something we have never seen 

before. She has much more empathy and showing care because she is feeling that 

love with CanineSeven you know, I love something and it loves me back (6). 

ChildEight’s mother further stated that the relationship between her daughter and the 

companion canine has increased her ability to think of others (other regarding) which has 

transferred to her relationships with other peers.   

It is growing that empathy part. Instead of you know laughing at someone who 

gets hurt she has much more empathy. For example, her friend cut her finger at 

school the other week and she took her to the teacher and stood by her side the 

entire time to make sure she is okay, and that would not typically happen. It was 

not there two years ago, before CanineSeven (6). 

Participating parents additionally reported that the interactions with the companion 

canines facilitated more responsibility-based relationships, such as grooming and caring for the 

animals’ needs, and encouraged the children to engage in activities such as walking the canine 

and taking the canine to obedience classes.  Responsibility-based relationships were evident 



                                                                  94 

 

 

 

across each case.  In case 6, ChildEight’s mother offered, “she is more active now that we have 

CanineSeven, just having that responsibility…She will think to feed CanineSeven and that is 

something we have never seen before.”  ChildSix and ChildSeven’s parents (case 5) pointed out 

that they are both very involved in the care of CanineSix, “…they will take him out to go to the 

bathroom, they will take him for short walks, and they will feed him…they have demonstrated 

more responsibility.”   ChildTwo’s father pointed out that since getting CanineThree, they have 

seen tremendous developmental changes. 

It has been very good for ChildTwo’s development…over the last six months we 

have seen a huge change in maturity and capability and responsibility…There has 

been some really good quality changes in relation to, I think part of it is looking 

after a canine… Yes, definitely so many increases in responsibility (2).  

Responsibility-based relationships also require the ability of the individual to take 

perspective and recognize the needs of others based on contextual information as well as their 

expressions, words and/or actions (cognitive empathy) (Smith, 2008; 2006).  ChildTwo’s father 

narrated that his son demonstrates a level of care for his companion canine that has never been 

seen before they integrated their canine into their home.  The following quotation is from a story 

that ChildTwo’s father shared to illustrate how a responsibility-based relationship is evident 

between his son with ASD and the companion canine.  At this time in the interview ChildTwo’s 

father was telling the researcher a story of when they took their canine on a hiking trip up in the 

mountains following a snowstorm. 

After our hike, I left to take our other son to school and when I got home 

ChildTwo took CanineThree and put him in the bath to take the snow off of 

CanineThree and it was just such a fantastic demonstration of care…That was a 



                                                                  95 

 

 

 

level of care for CanineThree that ChildTwo would not demonstrate for himself or 

other humans.  

 Parents have also reported increased social skills development in their child(ren) with 

ASD due to the presence of the companion canine(s).  In case 3 the mother stated:  

…one of the first things he says when he meets people is “Hi, I am ChildThree, 

and we have a canine named CanineFour!” Even if CanineFour is not with us, it is 

front and centre in terms of how he defines himself and his family and what is 

most real to him…Having CanineFour around to interact with has opened up 

ChildThree’s interactions with other canines and being more comfortable in social 

settings (3).  

ChildFour and ChildFive’s mother stated that their canine has increased her children’s 

willingness to engage with people outside of their immediate family.  

When people come to the house, it is that topic starter and something that 

everyone has that common ground to interact because people will ask questions 

about the canine so if we are meeting someone new or whatever, CanineFive can 

do that (4).  

In case 1, ChildOne’s mother described how her son is proud of the canines which puts 

him at ease during social interactions.  

He is very proud of the canines, if we are with the canines and they draw some 

attention he is very proud of the canines.  I think with ChildOne, just the sense of 

familiarity it makes him feel at ease in social situations. He will be calmer for 

longer if the canines are around (1).   



                                                                  96 

 

 

 

4.3.6.2 Benefits to the Family Unit 

A child with ASD presents pervasive and bidirectional influences on the entire family 

system.  That is, not only do behaviours persist overtime but these behaviour’s impact both the 

child and the family’s functioning.  Living with a child with ASD presents different challenges 

for everyone, however there were commonalities that most participating families expressed.  

Throughout the conversations, parents reported challenges and stresses associated with having a 

child with ASD.  Parents described household chaos, family dysfunction, and feelings of unease 

because they never knew when an emotional breakdown was going to happen. 

 The present study presents emerging evidence that companion canines can positively 

impact families affected by autism.  Benefits included increased togetherness or cohesion of the 

family unit, increased social outings and activities, and decreased levels of stress experienced by 

the family unit due to a reduction in emotional outbursts which are characteristic of children with 

ASD.  

In case 1, the mother described how their companion canines have inadvertently 

increased togetherness and cohesion of the family unit by increasing their child’s tolerance for 

typical family experiences (e.g., sitting on the couch watching a movie, going on family 

vacations).  

If we are all cuddling on the couch watching a movie it would be unusual if they 

were not there. Because he will sit there for hours with us if they are there…this is 

a perfect example, instead of ChildOne sitting with us for ten minutes, he will sit 

with us for two hours if the canines are there (1).  

We went to Tofino last year and ChildOne would normally be very upset going 

long distances but with the canines next to him that seemed to calm him…he 



                                                                  97 

 

 

 

would not normally last as long in a travel situation if the canines were not there 

(1).  

In case 2, the mother commented on how their companion canine has provided an 

opportunity to engage in family outdoor activities.  

90% of the exercise CanineThree gets is me taking him out with the boys. When 

they were little I would push them in the stroller and we would take him to the 

canine park. Now that they are getting older we will take them up to the hills and 

go around the hiking trails and stuff (3).  

Several parents reported a reduction in stress due to a decrease in their child’s emotional 

outbursts.  One family in particular described how the companion canine has increased their 

son’s ability to recognize emotions and discern how the canine is feeling based on nonverbal 

information, such as gestures, body position, and expressions (e.g., tail in between the leg, ears 

pinned back, cowering under the table).  This in turn, has increased their son’s ability to regulate 

his emotions.  

ChildTwo used to get very angry and that would scare the HELL out of 

CanineThree. So, he actually works to keep himself calm by reading 

CanineThree’s response. It hasn't happened in so long I have forgotten but yeah 

there used to be a lot of yelling before CanineThree. When there was anger 

CanineThree would withdraw away from that (2).  

 For families impacted by autism, emotional outbursts in children with ASD may occur 

frequently. For this family in particular, they felt relief and were able to relax again as the fears 

about their child having a “melt-down” were eased.   



                                                                  98 

 

 

 

4.3.7 Other 

Also noteworthy was the identification of miscellaneous themes not fitting in categories 

above.  Although they were not prevalent across all cases, they were stressed within individual 

cases and merit recognition.  Miscellaneous themes included incubation period, bi-directional 

effects, and no competing interests.  

Incubation period refers to a period of time during which attachment is not immediately 

evident but is in development.  This was demonstrated in case 1 where the parents pointed out 

that their son’s attachment to the companion canines did not occur immediately after integrating 

the canines into the family home.  The parents referred to the sudden occurrence of an 

attachment bond as though a “light-switch turned on” after six weeks.  

ChildOne did not interact with them for the first six weeks, he would recoil and 

pull his hands away and he wanted nothing to do with the canines.  I still 

remember the day, my husband pointed out, he was in the bed and CanineTwo 

was in the bed with him lying. It went from wanting nothing to with the canines to 

inseparable.  After six weeks it was all of a sudden, like a light switch turned on 

with ChildOne and all of a sudden he follows them around he pinched them and 

he wants to be with them all of the time. One day he wanted nothing to do with 

them and the next day he won’t stop following them around.  

 Other families reported that a bond formed immediately without the need to implement 

any bonding strategies. One mother said, “They bonded right away! They both wanted to be 

around him all of the time! It was not necessary to try to facilitate a bond (5).”  It is evident that 

the formation of an attachment relationship between a child with ASD and their companion 



                                                                  99 

 

 

 

canine does exist however, can vary.  Autism is a complex neurobehavioural disorder and 

therefore might affect the child’s ability to immediately form an attachment bond.  

 Children with ASD may exhibit multiple and unpredictable behaviours (e.g., stemming, 

squeezing, pinching, yelling).  These behaviours were tolerated by the companion canines which 

evidently had a bi-directional effect.  For example, the children appeared to be more tolerant of 

behaviours exhibited by their companion canine(s) (e.g., licking, jumping, barking) which 

normally would not be accepted from another human being (e.g., kissing, physical contact, 

making loud noises).  This was illustrated in case 1 where the son would wipe his face after his 

mother kissed him but would happily accept kisses from the canines.  “For him, he has a lot of 

sensory issues so for him to kiss the canines is huge. When I give him a kiss he wipes my kissed 

off but with the canines he never wipes the kiss off.” 

 Lastly, the cross-case analysis revealed that competing interests could potentially hinder 

the formation of a strong child-canine bond.  Children with ASD often exhibit highly restricted, 

fixated interests that are heightened in intensity or focus; such as a strong attachment to or 

preoccupation with unusual objects, or excessively circumscribed or perseverative interests.  

Though interest was evident in interacting with companion canines, other more attractive 

activities could usurp this (e.g., tech-driven games).  For example, in case 1 the mother 

mentioned that her son with ASD has a fixated interest with electronics and said: “if he walks 

past them and sees them and he’s got no electronics in his life, he will get up and go squeeze 

them and pinch them…(1).”  ChildThree’s mother also indicated her son’s fixation for inanimate 

objects and mentioned that if they are available, her son prefers to play with flashlights and tech 

gadgets over interacting with the companion canine.  In reference to her son’s interactions with 



                                                                  100 

 

 

 

the companion canine she said, “I would say it’s sporadic, he is much more pre-occupied in his 

own things than engaging CanineFour (3).”   

 4.4 Summary 

In this chapter, the findings of this qualitative case study were presented.  Using 

Bowlby’s Attachment Theory as a theoretical framework, it became evident that the child-canine 

bond in children with ASD can be conceptualized as an attachment relationship.  Proximity 

maintenance and safe haven were identified as being the most prevalent features of attachment 

while secure base and separation anxiety were identified as being the least prevalent features of 

attachment.  

Additionally, the seven major themes characterizing child-canine bonding were presented 

and included: 1) canine acquisition; 2) bonding strategies; 3) canine characteristics; 4) canine 

as family member; 5) family profile; 6) benefits; and 7) other.  Each of the major themes and 

subsequent subthemes were described and discussed as factors that either contribute to or detract 

from the child-canine bonding process.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



                                                                  101 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 5 – DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION 

5.1 Overview  

 This is one of the first studies to examine child-canine bonding in children with ASD.  

The findings highlight useful information regarding features of attachment characterizing the 

child-canine bond, factors influencing this bonding process, and the positive impact of the child-

canine bond for children with ASD as well as the family unit.   

 In this chapter, the most salient aspects of the findings will be discussed.  This discussion 

will focus on the nature of the child-canine relationship and the factors influencing the bonding 

process and how families impacted by autism can help ensure a strong child-canine bond.  As 

well, the perceived benefits of a companion canine for families impacted by autism will be 

discussed.  Next, the theoretical and applied significance of this research will be presented and 

the limitations of the study will be addressed.  Finally, this chapter will close with a conclusion.  

5.2 Summary of findings  

Recall that the aim of this case study was to examine the dynamic, triad relationship 

between the child, the family companion canine, and the family unit.  The objectives of this 

research were to observe child-canine interactions, identify strategies used to facilitate child-

canine bonding and identify characteristics of children with ASD, family companion canines, and 

families themselves that contributed to child-canine bonding.  The two overarching research 

questions that guided this study were as follows:  

1. Is there evidence that the attachment components of safe haven, secure base, 

proximity seeking, and separation anxiety are evident features of the child-canine 

relationship? If so, to what extent are these four features of attachment evident? 



                                                                  102 

 

 

 

2. What personal and external factors influence the child-canine bonding process and 

what are the prevalent themes characterizing child-canine bonding? 

Three main data sources were used to gather information related to the research 

questions: 1) semi-structured interviews with the parent(s); 2) field notes; and 3) observations of 

child-canine interactions.  First, the analyses revealed that the child-canine bond in children with 

ASD exhibits the dynamics of an attachment relationship and secondly, seven emerging themes 

characterizing child-canine bonding emerged.  Important factors influencing the formation of a 

strong child-canine bond were identified and included characteristics of the child with ASD, 

characteristics of the companion canine, and characteristics of the family unit.  The key findings 

of this study will be discussed in this chapter.   

5.2.1 The Nature of the Child-Canine Relationship 

One of the primary questions guiding this study was whether the child-canine relationship 

could be conceptualized as an attachment relationship.  Julius (2013) postulates that if 

attachment theory is representative of the relationship between humans and their companion 

animals, then the companion animal has to meet the criteria of an attachment figure as defined by 

Ainsworth (1991).  Recall that an attachment relationship is defined as having the following 

characteristics: 1) The physical proximity of an attachment figure is associated with positive 

emotions; 2) The attachment figure is approached in the case of emotional stress in order to 

achieve proximity and a feeling of security; 3) The attachment figure is a reliable source of 

comfort and reassurance that allows for exploration; 3) and 4) Separations from the attachment 

figure are associated with negative emotions (Ainsworth, 1991).  The present study suggests that 

children with ASD can develop attachment-like relationships to their companion canines.     



                                                                  103 

 

 

 

Proximity maintenance was identified as the most prevalent feature of attachment 

exhibited in the child-canine relationship.  The children with ASD often maintained close 

physical nearness to their companion canine(s) and would seek out their companion canine(s) 

immediately following a separation (e.g. returning home from school and/or extra-curricular 

activities).  Interestingly, several families reported that the need for their child(ren) with ASD to 

maintain proximity to the companion canine(s) was often greater than the need to maintain 

proximity to fellow peers and even members of the immediate family.  This was perhaps one of 

the most important findings as it signifies how meaningful the child-canine relationship can be 

for a child with ASD.   

Following proximity maintenance, safe haven was the second most prevalent feature of 

attachment in the child-canine relationship.  Parents reported that the companion canine(s) 

provided comfort for their child(ren) with ASD during times of emotional upset.  As a result, the 

children with ASD were better able to regulate their emotions during distressing situations.  The 

companion canine appeared to provide an emotional outlet for the children with ASD, which, in 

turn, relieved pressure felt by the family by reducing the intensity and occurrence of emotional 

breakdowns.  Many children with ASD have a strong need for a structured, routine environment, 

as change can create feelings of fear and/or anxiety which may lead to emotional outbursts 

(Burrows, Adams & Spiers, 2008).  This study revealed that the companion canine may provide 

a source of consistency in an ever changing environment for a child with ASD.   

Interestingly, parents reported that the companion canine(s) also provided comfort in the 

form of physical contact and social support for their child(ren) with ASD.   

I think just that unconditional love… it would be good for the kids’ self-esteem 

and what not, they have trouble at school, they don’t have a lot of friends and we 



                                                                  104 

 

 

 

thought with canines, no matter what happens they will love them. He will want 

to kiss them when they get home from school and even if we are mad at them or 

the school is mad at them. That was something we thought it would be good for 

them. That consistency (5).  

Outside of school, the children with ASD would spend a majority of their time with their 

immediate family (e.g. parents, siblings, and grandparents).  As a result, they were consistently 

in proximity to a number of family members.  Not surprisingly, parents reported that their 

child(ren) with ASD would most often seek comfort from their mother during times of  distress.  

Remarkably however, if the mother was not present during a time of emotional upset, several of 

the children with ASD reportedly turned to their companion canine for comfort despite the 

availability of alternative sources of comfort (e.g. their father, siblings and/or grandparents).  

This is indicative that the companion canine is a selective preference as an attachment figure and 

not merely influenced by physical proximity.  Furthermore, when parents were asked who their 

child with ASD turns to during times of distress, two fathers surprisingly reported similar 

statements explaining that there was a “pecking order” of who their child with ASD turns to 

when upset.  Both fathers stated that their child with ASD will seek their mother first, then their 

companion canine(s), and lastly, themselves.     

Proximity maintenance and safe haven were identified as the two most prevalent features 

of attachment in the child-canine bond.  This now guides us to our third most prevalent feature of 

attachment; secure base.  Throughout some of the discussions with the participating families, it 

was noted that safe haven and secure base would often coincide.  For example, the companion 

canine would act as a reliable and consistent source of comfort (safe haven) for the child with 

ASD, which, in turn, would nurture a sense of felt security (secure base).  Parents frequently 



                                                                  105 

 

 

 

reported that the companion canine provided a sense of comfort to their child(ren) with ASD, 

which, as a result, would increase their child’s(ren’s) willingness to engage situations that might 

otherwise be stressful.   

ChildOne would normally be very upset (travelling) long distance but with the 

canines next to him that seems to comfort him. Whenever we travel, one of the 

canines will be sitting beside ChildOne and when we are driving he will be 

pinching the ears, stroking the head, just pinching the canine. One of the sweetest 

things, he will grab the folds of their ears and rub them against his lips just 

because they’re soft, or he will rub them on his cheek…he also likes to put his 

face in CanineThree’s belly (1).  

Separation anxiety was the least prevalent feature of attachment evident in the 

child-canine relationship.  Similar to Kwong’s (2011) challenges examining the human-

assistance canine relationship, the assessment of separation anxiety in the current study 

was complicated.  In Kwong’s study, separation anxiety was difficult to assess due to the 

participants’ functional dependence on their canine.  In the current study, most of the 

children with ASD were never apart from their companion canine and expressed no 

interest in being separated.  Parents did indicate however, that the possibility of their 

child(ren) with ASD being separated from his/her companion canine(s) would likely 

cause significant upset for them.  

5.2.2 Factors Influencing and Benefits from the Child-Canine Bond 

Seven major themes characterizing child-canine bonding emerged during the cross-case 

analysis.   Emerging themes included external and personal factors that contributed to or 

detracted from the child-canine bond (i.e., canine acquisition, bonding strategies, canine 



                                                                  106 

 

 

 

characteristics, canine as family member, and family profile), benefits of owning a companion 

canine for families impacted by ASD, and miscellaneous themes not fitting in categories above 

(i.e., incubation period, bi-directional effects, and no competing interests).  These findings are 

discussed in more detail below.  

 5.2.2.1 Canine Acquisition 

When and how the canine was acquired emerged as a prevalent theme that appeared to 

effect the strength of the child-canine bond.  It became evident that a stronger child-canine bond 

occurred between the children with ASD and their companion canine when the family acquired 

the canine as a puppy.  Previous research has postulated that children are more likely to establish 

a strong bond with an animal when they understand the animal’s specific needs and participate in 

caring for it (Melson, 2001).  A puppy requires constant care and regular obedience training 

which may have provided an opportunity for the children with ASD to establish a stronger bond.  

It has also been established that activities shared together between a child and their canine 

develop a stronger bond (Jalongo, 2015).  Therefore, children who participate in attending to a 

puppy’s needs are investing more to establish an attachment relationship (Jalongo, 2015).   

In addition to the age of the canine at the time of acquisition, the timing when the canine 

was acquired also appeared to impact the strength of the child-canine bond.  For example, 

children whose families integrated a companion canine into their home following their ASD 

diagnosis exhibited a stronger bond compared to those who integrated a canine into their home 

prior to their ASD diagnosis.  This subtheme was apparent even if the family already had a 

companion canine living in the family home who was acquired prior to their child’s ASD 

diagnosis (with which their child appeared to have no particular attachment to the canine) and 

later, following their child’s ASD diagnosis, integrated another companion canine into the home 



                                                                  107 

 

 

 

(with which their child demonstrated a strong bond to).  This was illustrated in case 1 where the 

family already had companion canines in the house prior to their son’s ASD diagnosis with 

which he demonstrated no particular interest towards.  

I didn’t think ChildOne would ever connect with a canine because we already 

have Bouone then we bought Boutwo, he was our Leonberger, and he never paid 

any attention to them at all. So we bought them (the bullcanines) never knowing 

there would be a bond between them (1).  

Perhaps the intentionality of acquiring a companion canine specifically for the child(ren) 

with ASD positively influenced the development of a strong child-canine bond.  For example, 

the families who acquired a canine following their child’s ASD diagnosis reported specifically 

selecting a canine to match their child’s needs (e.g., a smaller sized breed that is playful and 

tolerant of multiple behaviours).  Furthermore, establishing a bond immediately following canine 

acquisition provides an opportunity for a stronger child-canine bond to occur (Jalongo, 2015) and 

in the current study, appeared to contribute to the development of an attachment relationship.  

The timing when the companion canine was acquired (e.g., pre or post-ASD diagnosis) as 

well as decisions and considerations regarding canine selection evidently affected the strength of 

the child-canine bond.  A pattern emerged between the acquisition of companion canines and the 

strength of the child-canine bond.  For instance, families who made intentional decisions 

regarding canine selection reported a stronger child-canine bond between their child(ren) with 

ASD and their companion canine(s) compared to the families who reported being opportunistic 

regarding canine selection (e.g., flexible, open and not driven by specific canine selection 

criteria).  These findings were also corroborated by the researcher’s observations who noted each 

child’s proximity to the companion canine, initiation of contact, and each child’s attitude towards 



                                                                  108 

 

 

 

the canine (e.g., displays of affection, demonstration of pride toward the canine, and initiation of 

social communication with the researcher when discussing the canine).   

Intentionality was defined as careful and purposeful decisions regarding canine selection.  

The most widely reported decisions regarding canine selection between the families who 

intentionally acquired a canine included selecting a breed that suited the families’ needs and 

lifestyle and the size of the canine.  Across cases, breed considerations predominantly revolved 

around temperament and canine size.  Families who made intentional decisions regarding canine 

selection reported a stronger child-canine bond compared to the families who were opportunistic 

and not guided by specific canine selection criteria.  For families impacted by autism who are 

considering integrating a companion canine into the care plan, this finding signifies the 

importance of carefully selecting a companion canine that meets the child’s, as well as the family 

unit’s needs.  

5.2.2.2 Bonding Strategies 

Strategies that appeared to influence the bonding process between the child(ren) with 

ASD and the companion canine(s) also emerged as a prevalent theme.  Strategies included those 

that were intentionally implemented by the parents (e.g., training the canine to sleep in the 

child’s bed, involving the child in the care of the canine, having the child enroll and take the 

canine to obedience classes) as well as unintentional strategies (e.g., involving in the child in the 

canine-acquisition process, continued obedience training well after a bond has been established) 

that appeared to contribute to the child-canine bonding process.  Strategies included those that 

occurred: 1) prior to integrating the companion canine(s) into the family home (pre-canine 

acquisition); 2) immediately following acquisition of the companion canine(s) (post canine 



                                                                  109 

 

 

 

acquisition); and 3) continuing after a bond between the child with ASD and the companion 

canine had been established (ongoing).   

Involving the child(ren) with ASD in the canine-acquisition process appeared to foster 

positive attitudes and excitement about integrating the companion canine(s) into the family home 

as well as helped prepare the child(ren) with ASD for changes.  Additionally, encouraging 

positive interactions such as play activities, obedience training, and caring for the canine 

corresponded to a stronger child-canine bond.  These activities also provided an opportunity for 

the child to learn how to care and love another sentiment being, which for a child with ASD, is 

important given their challenges developing cognitive empathy (Smith, 2006; 2008).  Having the 

children with ASD spend time with the companion canine helped develop trust, confidence, and 

love and created a feeling of familial belonging.  Activities such as playing, walking, hiking and 

training appeared to nurture intimacy therefore positively contributing to an attachment 

relationship.  In addition, obedience training taught the child about cause and effect and provided 

the child a way to communicate with the canine.  Interestingly, for children with ASD who have 

social deficits and may not have the ability to use voice commands as in case 1, signs can be 

used to teach commands (e.g., holding your hand out with your palm facing up means “sit”). 

Ongoing strategies such as continued obedience training (e.g., ten minutes of obedience 

training per day), physical contact (e.g., petting, cuddling, hugging) playing with the canine, and 

continued care of the canine (feeding, walking, grooming, and picking up after the canine) 

encouraged the maintenance of a strong child-canine bond.  

5.2.2.3 Canine Characteristics  

The characteristics of the canines had a salient influence on the child with ASD as well as 

the family unit.  Filiatre, Millot, and Montagner (1986) claimed that a canine’s characteristics 



                                                                  110 

 

 

 

influences children’s interaction with them.  Canine characteristics include age, size, and 

behavioural traits.  Filiatre and colleagues postulated that older canines were less likely to 

interact with children due to a lack of energy and tolerance. It was observed in this study that the 

children with ASD would often seek out the companion canines during times of distress or 

anxiety and would engage in physical contact (e.g., pinching, grabbing, touching) with the 

canines to alleviate stress.  According to Filiatre and colleagues (1986) older canines might be 

less tolerant of physical touch from children and therefore less inclined to interact with them.  

Comparatively, the families with younger canines who were integrated into the home as a 

puppy would happily engage with the child(ren), were more energetic and playful, and more 

tolerant of multiple and unpredictable behaviours often exhibited by children with ASD.  

Children with ASD can be very tactile and may seek sensory stimulation when feeling anxious, 

stressed or excited (e.g., pinching, grabbing, touching).  Canines who are not accustomed to 

these behaviours may become fearful or avoidant of that stimuli (Burch, 2012).  This avoidant 

behaviour was both reported and observed in the families who had older canines in their home 

(i.e., cases 1, 3, & 4).  

The age of the canine, as well as the time of acquisition, may explain this trend.  During a 

puppy’s developmental stages, socialization and habituation is established (Burch, 2012).  

According to Burch (2012), socialization can be described as the process whereby the canine 

learns how to recognize and interact with the species it cohabits with.  For the domestic canine, 

this would include the family unit and other family pets (e.g., cats, birds, guinea pigs).  By 

learning how to interact with the family and other species, the canine develops the ability to 

recognize whether or not it is being threatened and how to recognize and respond to the 

intentions of others.  Burch (2012) described habituation as repeated exposure to a particular 



                                                                  111 

 

 

 

stimuli.  When a puppy is exposed to a specific stimuli several times it will become accustomed 

to that stimuli and learn to ignore it.  This might explain why a stronger child-canine canine was 

reported and observed in the families who acquired the companion canine as a puppy.  Perhaps 

because the puppies were exposed to these behaviours characterized by children with ASD 

during the developmental stages, it provided the puppies with the opportunity to become 

accustomed to these behaviours therefore influencing their willingness to engage with the 

child(ren) with ASD.  Moreover, younger canines might be more likely to engage with the 

child(ren) and exhibit more playful behaviours.  When the canines elicited engagement from the 

children with ASD by reciprocating interest through play and responding to instructions, a 

stronger child-canine bond was evident.   

In addition to age, size of the canine arose as an important characteristic impacting the 

child-canine bond.  Large breeds appeared to present an obstacle from the bonding process with 

concerns of being overwhelming for the child with ASD as well as the family unit.  Small-

medium sized breeds were the preferred size chosen by the families with reported fears that a 

larger breed might be overpowering (e.g., pulling the child while walking or knocking the child 

over).   

 Portability of the canine, which corresponds to size of the canine, also affected the child-

canine bond.  Having a small-medium sized breed of canine allowed the families to easily 

include the canine in family travel as well as incorporate them into their daily routines (e.g., 

driving in the car, laying on the couch, sleeping in the child’s bed).  Perhaps as expected, by 

consistently including the canine in the child’s day-to-day life, the child-canine bond 

strengthened.   

When the families were asked what drew them to acquiring their particular canine(s) versus 



                                                                  112 

 

 

 

other canines they may have considered, temperament emerged as the primary reason across 

cases.  A stronger child-canine bond was evident in the families who described their canine as 

being submissive (e.g., readily surrenders authority, highly trainable, reliable) tolerant of 

multiple behaviours (e.g., stemming behaviours, pinching, squeezing), and “bombproof.”  Not 

surprisingly, these findings indicate that children with ASD are most likely to benefit from 

interacting with canines that are well-behaved and show high affinity for human social contact.  

Further, canines who exhibited dominant, possessive and/or aggressive temperament traits were 

described as being undesirable across cases.  Although one family reported concerns over their 

canine’s temperament (case 5), neither dominance nor aggression problems were negatively 

associated with the child-canine bond.  It should be noted that in this isolated case, the canine 

was only 8 weeks of age at the time of the interview.  Therefore, the dominant, possessive and 

aggressive behaviours might have been exaggerated given the young age of the canine and lack 

of training at that time.   

This finding highlights the notion that canines exhibit individual characteristics that 

affect their behaviour (Gosling, 2009).  Although this family (5) had previous experience taking 

care of and bonding with their neighbours Goldendoodle, their Goldendoodle puppy exhibited 

behaviours that varied from their neighbours Goldendoodle. There is an erroneous tendency to 

generalize canine-related findings to canines as a species rather than canines as individuals 

(Coltea, 2011).  This signifies that even canines from the same breed and in the same family may 

behave very differently from one another, highlighting the need for families to consider a 

canine’s individual characteristics when selecting a companion canine for their child with ASD.  

5.2.2.4 Canine as Family Member  

How the companion canine was situated in the family system appeared to impact the 



                                                                  113 

 

 

 

strength of the child-canine bond.  How the families treated and viewed their canine(s) appeared 

to influence how, in turn, their child(ren) with ASD viewed and treated the companion canine.  In 

the families where the canine was viewed as a member of the family and included in day-to-day 

activities (e.g., sitting on the couch with the family, sleeping in the bed, included in family 

travel), a stronger child-canine bond was evident.   

In case 1, the family owned several companion canines with which their son with ASD 

exhibited no particular interest towards.  When they acquired their two companion canines 

following their son’s ASD diagnosis they reported that “they were the first canines we had that 

we allowed to come up on the couch and cuddle.”  They offered that perhaps their son saw this 

interaction which helped establish a bond.  This correlation is evidenced by Melson (2003) who 

suggested that parental influence needs to be investigated when looking at children’s interactions 

with companion animals.  Melson (2003) postulated that parents’ attitudes shape children’s 

relationships with others.  When the parents viewed the canine as a family member they were 

more involved in their children’s interactions with the companion canines.  For example, the 

parents created the context in which their children interacted with their canines.  The current 

study supports the view that children’s bond with their canines are positively correlated with 

their parents’ bonds suggesting that the parents’ attitudes towards the companion canine(s) are 

mirrored by the children (Coltea, 2011).  By families encouraging the canines’ participation, the 

children with ASD appeared to develop a strong attachment relationship.   

5.2.2.5 Family Profile 

Welsh (2009) suggested that previous interactions with canines are important in defining 

individuals’ present interactions with companion canines.  This finding was evident in both the 

children with ASD and the parents.  Children with ASD who had previous experience with 



                                                                  114 

 

 

 

animals exhibited a strong bond with their companion canine(s).  Previous experience was not 

limited to canines and did not require extensive involvement with animals however it was 

identified that the participating children who were accustomed to having other family pets and/or 

being around other pets formed a stronger bond with their companion canine.   

  Parental prior knowledge and experience appeared to influence canine selection, which, 

in turn, influenced the child-canine bonding process.  Knowledge regarding canine behaviour, 

breed characteristics, and research on the therapeutic benefits canines can have on children with 

ASD, influenced the families decisions concerning canine selection.   Families who reported 

positive previous experiences owning canines expressed a consistent understanding that a 

companion canine could provide therapeutic benefits for the family unit as well as children with 

ASD.  A strong knowledge base and previous experience owning canines appeared to increase 

understanding regarding what type of canine would best suit their child’s needs as well as fit 

with their family’s lifestyle.   

In addition to child previous experience and parental knowledge and experience with 

canines, family motivation also contributed to the child-canine bonding process.  It has been 

established that motivation affects behaviour (Maehr & Meyer, 1997).  Motivation directs 

behaviour, leads to increased effort and energy, and increases initiation and persistence in 

activities (Maehr & Meyer, 1997).  Not surprisingly, when parental and familial motivation to 

integrate a canine into the family was shared and the motivation to acquire a canine was 

specifically for the child(ren) with ASD, a stronger child-canine bond was evident.  Further, a 

stronger child-canine bond was evident when the children with ASD were excited about 

integrating a companion canine into the family home and demonstrated motivated behaviours 

(e.g., persistently asking for a canine, demonstrating responsibility for canine ownership, writing 



                                                                  115 

 

 

 

out a list of things he/she will do to take care of the canine).  It must be noted that children with 

more severe forms of ASD may lack the ability to display typical motivational behaviours due to 

deficits in social communication.  This however, did not appear to decrease the likelihood of an 

attachment relationship forming between the child with ASD and the companion canines in case 

1.  Although child motivation emerged as a prevalent theme across most cases, it evidently 

cannot be generalized to all families impacted by ASD.  

5.2.2.6 Familial Benefits and Positive Effects for the Children with ASD  

 Mentioned earlier in the Results chapter, benefits elicited by companion canines for 

families impacted by ASD was not initially intended to be a focal point in this study.  However, 

positive influences identified from the presence of the companion canines were routinely 

discussed across cases and therefore could not be omitted from the study.   

The children in this study benefitted from their companion canines in various ways, 

similar to what has been described in previous research (e.g., Carlisle, 2014; Bystrom & Personn, 

2015).  Many of the parents referenced that the canines’ presence provided a sense of 

consistency for their children with ASD and supported them emotionally through 

companionship, unconditional love and stress relief.  It has been identified in previous research 

that companion animals can provide socio-emotional support that facilitates coping, recovery, 

and resilience (e.g., Cain 1985).  Bonds with pets offer comfort, affection, and sense of security 

which can reduce feelings of vulnerability, loneliness, or depression (Welsh, 2009).   Families 

impacted by ASD also receive similar benefits.  For instance, one of the family’s (case 5) 

described how their children with ASD would often experience feelings of isolation due to 

difficulties establishing peer-peer relationships at school.  Since acquiring their companion 

canine, they stated that their children now acquire socio-emotional support through the 



                                                                  116 

 

 

 

unconditional love provided by the companion canine.   

In addition to providing socio-emotional support, many of the parents reported that the 

companion canines’ facilitated learning for their child(ren) with ASD.  Although the children 

with ASD may have had difficulties understanding other people’s perspectives and establishing 

attachment relationships outside of their immediate family, they were able to learn about 

emotions and attachment based from the experiences provided by their companion canines  

A companion canine can be accepting, affectionate, loyal and consistent, qualities that are 

necessary to satisfy a person’s basic need to be loved and feel self-worth (Nebbe, 2001).  Many 

of the parents reported that their child(ren) with ASD were able to experience these feelings 

provided from their companion canine.  For many of the children with ASD, experiencing a bi-

directional attachment (i.e., a mutual interaction between the companion canine and the child. 

The child demonstrates attachment behaviours towards the companion canine and the companion 

canine demonstrates attachment behaviours towards the child) was a novel experience.  Children 

with ASD often face challenges in establishing and maintaining social connections due to the 

social complexities often associated with peer-peer and peer-adult relationships, therefore, 

bonding with a companion animal might be easier to negotiate (Bystrom & Personn, 2015).  

The child-canine relationship was often described as a strong, unique and deep 

connection.  This is in accordance with Boris Levinson’s (1969) theory of emotional 

relationships between children and animals and McNicholas and Collis’s (2000) finding that 

people with autism may exhibit behaviours toward animals that they do not exhibit toward their 

family.  The findings from the current study suggest that the child-canine bond is unique in the 

way that the children with ASD demonstrate more affectionate and positive social behaviours 



                                                                  117 

 

 

 

than they do with people.  This is in alignment with Baron-Cohen, Leslie, and Uta’s (1985) 

theory of mind.   

Baron-Cohen and colleagues (1985) postulate that children with autism face challenges in 

understanding thoughts different from their own.  This has been suggested as one of the reasons 

children with autism have trouble negotiating peer-peer and peer-adult relationships.  Although 

canines are interactive, children perceive them as non-judgemental participants and are not 

influenced by the expectations of typical human relationships (Friesen, 2010).  The absence of 

the necessity to “read” a canine’s mind may provide an explanation for the increased ability of a 

child with ASD to interact in a social way with a canine (Solomon, 2010).  This unique 

interaction offers typical and atypical children a valuable form of social and emotional support 

(Friesen, 2010).   

 In addition to this unique child-canine connection, many of the parents reported that the 

interactions with companion canines facilitated considerable growth in the areas of emotion 

regulation, perspective taking, and empathy.  These findings are significant given children with 

autism often have specific deficits in these areas (Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright, 2004).  Baron-

Cohen and colleagues (1985) posit that children with autism may have a sever deficit in empathy 

which underlie difficulties in social interaction.  The companion canines in the current study 

appeared to develop empathy in the children with ASD which may have contributed to their 

ability to take perspective and recognize the needs of others which in turn, increased social 

interactions.  This ability to think of others was also enabled through the responsibilities 

associated with caring for an animal.  Responsibility-based relationships require the ability of the 

individual to think of and recognize the needs of others based on contextual information as well 

as expressions, words and/or actions (Smith, 2006).   Caring for a companion animal requires the 



                                                                  118 

 

 

 

ability to recognize the animal’s needs without the use of verbal communication.  Parents 

reported that by having their child(ren) with ASD care for their companion canine(s) they saw a 

substantial increase in maturity, responsibility, and capability.  Caring for another living being 

requires the ability to think of others, which can be a difficult issue for children with ASD, 

signifying the significance of this finding.  Although the companion canine initiated these 

positive developmental changes they were reportedly transferred to other areas in their lives 

including peer-peer and peer-adult relationships.   

Interestingly, social skills development was evident across cases.  The companion canine 

provided consistency for the children with ASD reducing their feelings of anxiety during 

stressful situations.  With a reduction in anxiety, the children may have become more willing to 

engage in activities outside of their home increasing their opportunities to expand their social 

world.  In addition to reducing anxiety, the presence of the companion canines also appeared to 

reduce social barriers.  The canine would often attract their peers and other people in public 

settings which, in turn, provided an opportunity for the children with ASD to practice social 

skills.  Furthermore, the children with ASD were often described by the parents as being proud 

of the canine.  The canines were a comfortable and socially acceptable topic to discuss, for 

children with verbal skills, this pride often resulted in the children wanting to “show off” their 

canine which in turn, enabled social interactions.   

Perhaps the most significant positive impact on the family systems were the canines’ role 

in managing behavioural challenges (e.g., emotional breakdowns/tantrums, resistance to change, 

and tolerance).  The canines acted as a form of support for the children with ASD which 

appeared to alleviate some of the negative outcomes for the parents.  Researchers examining 

coping strategies for families impacted by autism emphasize the importance of helping parents 



                                                                  119 

 

 

 

develop coping strategies that reduce strain on the family (Sivberg, 2002).  In the current study, 

the parents reported that the presence of the companion canine has encouraged normalization of 

day-to-day living in the home and in the community.  Previous research by Burrows and 

colleagues (2008) examining how autism trained service canines impact the family system are in 

alignment with the current study in that the companion canines also provided family 

independence and functioning.  Interventions that maximize the family’s independence and 

functioning are two important components needed to help families impacted by autism cope with 

autism.  Typical activities such as driving in the car, recreational activities, and social outings 

were all facilitated by the companion canine(s).  The presence of the companion canines 

appeared to have a calming effect on the children with ASD which reduced the occurrence of 

emotional breakdowns.  

 5.2.2.7 Miscellaneous themes  

Given the inevitable changes that occur (e.g., changes to daily routines and changes to the 

family system) when integrating a companion canine into the family home, some children with 

ASD may take longer to become accustomed to the new addition.  One family in particular (case 

1) reported that an “incubation time” of approximately six weeks occurred before any evidence 

of a bond being established.  Given this capriciousness, families impacted by autism who are 

considering acquiring a companion canine for their child with ASD should be aware that the 

timing to establish a bond can vary across cases.   

Another interesting theme that emerged in a discussion with case 1 was their child’s 

acceptance of sensory contact from the canines that would not normally be accepted from 

another human being.  This finding was termed as a bi-directional effect.  Described earlier in the 

Results section, the canines in this study tolerated multiple and unpredictable behaviours 



                                                                  120 

 

 

 

characteristic of children with ASD.  In turn, the children accepted affectionate behaviours from 

the canines (e.g., licking, nudging, pawing, barking) that would normally not be accepted or 

tolerated.  Currently there is no evidence in the literature to explain this phenomenon.   

Children with ASD often exhibit highly restricted, fixated interests that are heightened in 

intensity or focus; such as a strong attachment to or preoccupation with unusual objects, or 

excessively circumscribed or perseverative interests (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 

2013).  It became evident that these competing interests (e.g., tech gadgets) may usurp 

interactions with companion canine.  Therefore, early-on in the canine acquisition phase, families 

may want to consider limiting competing interests that could potentially detract from interactions 

with the companion canine and consequently, the bonding process.  

5.2.3 Limitations 

The findings should be considered in light of several limitations.  First, the use of a 

relatively small sample size narrows the frame of reference for this study and limits the ability to 

wholly represent this population.  Although small sample sizes are considered to be appropriate 

for qualitative research (Patton, 2002), this is a limitation that is important to consider when 

reading this study, as these findings may not be representative of all families with a child on the 

autism spectrum and a family companion canine.  Considering too that families self-selected for 

participating in this study.   Furthermore, only families who reported a strong child-canine bond 

were included in the study.  It is possible that if families who reported a weak child-canine bond 

were included, comparisons could be made and additional themes may have emerged. 

As with any research study, there were inherent time constraints to conduct the study. In 

addition, the interview style of data collection has inherent limitations as it is subject to the 

biases of the both interviewer and the participating subjects.  In order to include the children 



                                                                  121 

 

 

 

themselves and reduce potential bias, the researcher collected observational data of child-canine 

interactions. Although observational data was collected throughout the interview process, it was 

difficult to perfectly time a natural interaction between the child(ren) with ASD and the 

companion canine(s). Furthermore, this study was limited to being conducted within the homes 

of each participating family.  Examining this unique relationship in a variation of contexts 

(contexts outside of the home) may provide further insights into the child-canine bonding 

process in children with ASD.  

In addition, when identifying what, if any, features of attachment were evident in the 

child-canine relationship, observational data of secure base was limited due to the time 

constraints of the study (e.g., observational data was collected at one time point and in the 

families homes rather than multiple times in multiple locations).  Additionally, on multiple 

occasions during the analyses, the researcher found it difficult to differentiate between safe 

haven codes and secure base codes.  Furthermore, the identification of separation anxiety was 

complicated due to the fact that most of the children with ASD were never separated from their 

companion canine and parental reports were relied upon.  Moreover, length of companion canine 

ownership varied between families.  This variation made it difficult for a few of the families to 

accurately answer some of the interview questions (e.g., when case 5 was asked whether their 

children with ASD seek comfort from their canine when upset the parents reported that there has 

not been an opportunity to observe that interaction since they only recently acquired the 

companion canine).  

5.2.4 Implications 

This exploratory case study is a contribution to the limited human-animal bond literature 

examining child-canine bonding in children with ASD.  The intent of this study was to contribute 



                                                                  122 

 

 

 

knowledge that service providers and families who are impacted by ASD might draw upon when 

considering integrating a companion canine into the care plan.  The most pressing implications of 

this study’s findings for theory, practice, and research will be presented in the following sections.  

 5.2.4.1 Implications for Theory 

Both Bowen’s family systems theory and Bowlby’s attachment theory were used to guide 

the current study.  Given that the family system is the most influential system for typical children 

(Bronfenbrenner, 1979) and subsequently, for children with ASD (Cridland et al., 2014), this 

study demonstrates the value of utilizing a family systems approach as a guiding framework for 

family-focused ASD research.  In a review by Cridland and colleagues (2014), the authors 

highlight the need to conduct family-focused ASD research in order to increase our 

understanding of the impact of ASD and inform support services for these families.  In addition 

to providing a framework to conduct this study, family functioning and how the companion 

canines were situated within the family systems appeared to impact the strength of the child-

canine bond.  This finding highlights the notion that “research focusing on within families is 

critical for developing an understanding of how to best support families living with ASD 

(Cridland et. al., 2014, p. 214).”  Applying a family systems approach when conducting research 

on the impact of both formal and informal support services for children with ASD sheds light on 

the importance of how these services are situated within the family unit (Heiman & Berger, 

2007).  This study provides evidence that using family systems theory is an appropriate, and 

perhaps critical, approach to drive and inform future family-focused ASD research.   

In addition to Bowen’s family systems theory, Bowlby’s attachment theory proved to be 

an appropriate framework to categorize child-canine bonding in children with ASD.   Studies 

investigating human-animal bonding using Bowlby’s attachment theory have been conducted 



                                                                  123 

 

 

 

and its application has been successful (e.g., Beck & Madresh, 2008; Kurdek, 2008; Kwong, 

2007).  Despite its application on previous studies examining human-animal bonding, to date, 

this is the first study to utilize Bowlby’s attachment theory to investigate the relationships 

between children with ASD and their companion canine.  The results from the current study 

suggest that the bond between children with ASD and their companion canine has the potential 

to fulfill the same attachment functions as human relationships.  This study provides evidence 

that Bowlby’s attachment theory is an appropriate framework when examining human-animal 

bonding in children with ASD which, in turn, will inform future research in this field.   

5.2.4.2 Implications for Practice  

Emergent themes identified in this study suggest that there are several benefits to having 

a companion canine in the family system of the child with ASD that extends to the family unit.  

This data contributes to existing literature on the therapeutic benefits of the human-animal bond 

for children with ASD and can be used to further understand the social and emotional benefits of 

having a companion canine, particularly for families faced with the unique stressors of having a 

child with autism.  From an applied perspective, these findings invite service providers working 

with children with ASD to support families in exploring this possibility.  In addition, the findings 

inform parents seeking to support their children through the addition of a companion canine.  

The findings from this line of research have scope to inform parents and help ensure a strong 

child-canine bond is established.  There are familial, social, and economic ramifications arising 

from increasing awareness of the factors in children, in companion canines, and within families 

that nurture successful child-canine bonds which warrants the need for further investigations.  

5.2.4.4 Implication for Future Studies  



                                                                  124 

 

 

 

The findings from the current study converge to suggest that companion canines can 

fulfill attachment needs for children with ASD.  These findings highlight the challenges faced by 

families who decide to integrate a companion canine into the care plan for their child with ASD 

due to social policies that place restrictions on companion canines.  For example, given that 

acquiring a companion canine for a child with ASD is such a new phenomenon, there are 

currently no policies in place to allow companion canines into the school system.  This issue was 

raised by multiple families in the study.  Research in applied settings such as schools could 

increase awareness regarding the familial, social, and economic benefits of acquiring a 

companion canine for a child with ASD.   In addition, future research could help inform policy 

makers and educators so that the challenges are minimized and allowances could be made to 

bring a companion canine into a classroom setting.   

Furthermore, the findings advance future studies in the field of HAI by informing 

researchers about the nuanced interactions taking place within family contexts that facilitate 

child-canine bonding and provide insights into the factors that influence this bonding process. 

Given the need for alternative therapies and interventions for children with ASD, the 

accessibility and feasibility of acquiring a companion canine over a trained autism service 

canine, and the merits of acquiring a companion canine for children with ASD, further research 

is warranted.  This study encourages the exploration of alternative family-based support for 

families impacted by ASD that may extend beyond the existing conventional practices.  The 

process of acquiring a companion canine that meets the needs of the family and the child with 

ASD as well as implementing strategies to encourage a strong child-canine bond may be a 

critical piece in the success of the child-canine bond.  Future studies are warranted to examine 

further elements of this process and their outcomes.  



                                                                  125 

 

 

 

Finally, future studies examining bonding in children with ASD are needed to fully 

understand this unique relationship.  To date, studies investigating child-canine bonding in 

children diagnosed with level- 3 ASD have not been identified.  It is recommended that 

researchers who seek to examine this phenomenon in children with a more severe ASD diagnosis 

and who may be non-verbal, immerse themselves in the field longer and continue to utilize 

observation as a primary research tool to identify the nuanced interactions that exist to indicate 

the presence or absence of bonding (e.g., proximity and initiations of interactions and touch).  

5.2.5 Conclusion  

Autism is the most common neurological disorder affecting children (Center for Disease 

Control and Prevention, 2014) and therefore, there remains a critical need for further studies to 

investigate the effectiveness and successful implementation of therapeutic interventions for this 

population.  Human-animal therapeutic interventions have only recently become recognized and 

appreciated for the beneficial effects the human-animal bond and more specifically, the child-

canine bond, can have on children with ASD.  The findings of this study provide important 

suggestions for how families impacted by ASD can integrate a companion canine into the care 

plan and help facilitate a strong child-canine bond.   

The present study demonstrated that children with ASD may be capable of forming an 

attachment relationship with their companion canine.  For children with ASD, having the ability 

to bond with a companion canine is significant given this population often faces challenges 

establishing relationships which can lead to social isolation and feelings of loneliness (Ekas & 

Whitman, 2011; O’haire, 2013).  The child-canine bonding experience was reportedly associated 

with positive emotions that align with that of an attachment relationship (e.g., empathy, love, 

trust, joy).  These positive emotions provided an opportunity for the children with ASD to 



                                                                  126 

 

 

 

experience attachment outside of their immediate family which, in turn, increased their 

likelihood of establishing peer-peer and peer-adult relationships.  Thus, developing a relationship 

with a companion canine may help children with ASD to develop a capacity to trust and care for 

others that may generalize to human relationships.  Although the strength of attachment varied 

among cases, the social and emotional benefits of having a family companion canine were still 

evident.  

  Themes and subthemes identifying factors that contributed to, or detracted from, the 

child-canine bonding process emerged through the collection of interview and observational 

data.  These emergent themes provide insights into the phenomenon of child-canine bonding in 

children with ASD and can be used to further understand how to facilitate a strong child-canine 

bond.  To date, this is the first study to examine and identify characteristics of the child, 

characteristics of the companion canine, characteristics of the family unit, and other personal and 

external factors that might influence the bonding process in children with ASD.  Although the 

present study provides insights into the factors influencing this unique bond, future studies are 

needed to fully understand this complex relationship.  The integration of a companion canine for 

a child with ASD is a relatively untapped source of support to effectively and positively impact 

the social and emotional well-being of children with ASD as well as their families.  

 

 

 

 

 



                                                                  127 

 

 

 

References 

Ainsworth, M. D. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44(4), 709-716. 

doi:10.1037/0003-066X.44.4.709 

Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1991). Attachments and other affectional bonds across the life cycle. In C. 

M. Parkes, J. Stevenson-Hinde, & P. Marris (Eds.), Attachment across the life cycle (pp. 33-

51). London: Routledge. 

Allen K, Blascovich J (2002) Anger and hostility among married couple: Pet canines as 

moderators of cardiovascular reactivity to stress. Retrieved on May 12, 2015, from 

http://www.petpartners.org/document.doc?id=311. 

Altiere, M. J., & von Kluge, S. (2009). Searching for acceptance: Challenges encountered while 

raising a child with autism. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 34(2), 

142-152. doi:10.1080/13668250902845202. 

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders 

(4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing. 

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders 

(5th ed). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. 

Ascione, R. (2005). Children and Animals: Exploring the Roots of Kindness and Cruelty.  West 

Lafayette: Purdue University Press. 

Ashby, W. R. (1956). An Introduction to cybernetics. London: Chapman & Hall. 

Asperger, H. (1944). Die Autistischen Psychopathen” im Kindesalter. European Archives of 

Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 117(1), 76-136. 

http://www.petpartners.org/document.doc?id=311


                                                                  128 

 

 

 

Autism Canada Foundation (2011). Retrieved February 18, 2015, from 

http://www.autismcanada.org/aboutautism/characteristics.html 

Autism Speaks. (2015). Answers to Frequently Asked Questions about DSM-5. Retrieved 

February 18, 2015, from https://www.autismspeaks.org/dsm-5/faq#changes. 

Autism Speaks. (2015). Early Intervention. Retrieved February 18, 2015, 

fromhttps://www.autismspeaks.org/family-services/tool-kits/100-day-kit/early-intervention. 

Banks, M. R., & Banks, W. A. (2002). The effects of animal-assisted therapy on loneliness in an 

elderly population in long-term care facilities. The Journals of Gerontology, Series A, 

Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 57(7), 428-432. 

Baron-Cohen, S. (1995). Mindblindness: An essay on autism and theory of mind. Cambridge, 

 Mass: MIT Press.  

Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a “theory of 

mind” ? Cognition, 21(1), 37-46. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8 

Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2004). The empathy quotient: An investigation of adults 

with asperger syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal of 

Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(2), 163-175. 

doi:10.1023/B:JADD.00022607.19833.00 

Bartholomew, K., & Kwong, M. (2011). "Not just a canine": An attachment perspective on 

relationships with assistance canines. Attachment & Human Development, 13(5), 421-436. 

doi:10.1080/14616734.2011.584410. 

Bateson, G. (1979). Mind and nature: A necessary unity. New York: Ballantine. 

https://www.autismspeaks.org/dsm-5/faq#changes
https://www.autismspeaks.org/family-services/tool-kits/100-day-kit/early-intervention


                                                                  129 

 

 

 

Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative case study methodology: Study design and 

implementation for novice researchers. The qualitative report, 13(4), 544-559. The 

Qualitative Report, 13, 544-559.  

Beck, L., & Madresh, E. A. (2008). Romantic partners and four-legged friends: An extension of 

attachment theory to relationships with pets. Oxford International Publishers Ltd. Berg 

Publishers.  

Berry, A., Borgi, M., Francia, N., Alleva, E., & Cirulli, F. (2013). Use of assistance and therapy 

canines for children with autism spectrum disorders: A critical review of the current 

evidence. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 19, 73-80.  

Bertalanffy, L. (1968). General system theory: Foundations, development, applications. New 

York: George Braziller. 

Bochner, A. P. (2000). Criteria against ourselves. Sage Publications. 

Bowen, M. (1976). Theory in the practice of psychotherapy. P. J. Guerin. (Ed.). Family

 therapy. New York: Gardner. 

Bowen, M. (1978) Family therapy in clinical practice. New York: Aronson. 

Bowlby, J (1969). Attachment (Attachment and loss vol 1.) New York: Basic Books. 

Bowlby, J. (1979). The making and breaking of affectional bonds. London: Tavistock. 

Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and health human development. New 

York: Basic Books. 

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). Contexts of child rearing: Problems and prospects. Child and Youth 

Care Administrator, 5(1), 59-64.  



                                                                  130 

 

 

 

Burch, M., (2012). AKC S.T.A.R puppy: A positive behavioral approach to puppy training. 

CanineWise Publishing. Wenatchee, WA.  

Burke, S. M., & Sabiston, C. M. (2012). Fostering growth in the survivorship experience: 

Investigating breast cancer survivors' lived experiences scaling mt. kilimanjaro from a 

posttraumatic growth perspective. The Qualitative Report, 17(16), 1-19. 

Burrows, K.E., & Adams C.L., (2005). Service canines for children with autism spectrum disord

er: Benefits, challenges and welfare implications. University of Guelph Publications.  Guelp

h, ONT. 

Burrows, K. E., Adams, C. L., & Spiers, J. (2008). Sentinels of safety: Service canines ensure 

safety and enhance freedom and well-being for families with autistic children. Qualitative 

Health Research, 18(12), 1642-1649. doi:10.1177/1049732308327088. 

Bryman, A., Becker, S., & Sempik, J. (2008). Quality criteria for quantitative, qualitative and 

mixed methods research: A view from social policy. International Journal of Social 

Research Methodology, 11(4), 261-276.  

Bystrom, K.M., & Persson, C.A. (2015). The meaning of companion animals for children and 

adolescents with autism. The parents’ perspective. Anthrozoos: A Multidisciplinary Journal 

of the Interactions of People & Animals, 28(2), 263-275. 

Cain, A. (1985). Pets as family members. In M. Sussman (Ed.), Pets and the family (pp. 

5-10). New York: Haworth Press. 

Canadian National Service Canine Foundation (2012). Certified Service Canines for Autism. 

Retrieved February 22, 2015, from http://www.nsd.on.ca/programs/certified-service-

canines-for-autism.  



                                                                  131 

 

 

 

Canadian Service Dog Foundation. (2011). Service Dog. Retrieved February 19, 2015, from 

 http://servicedog.ca/programs/therapy-canines. 

Carlisle, G., K. (2012). Pet canine ownership in families of children with autism: Children's 

social skills and attachment to their canines. (Dissertation. University of Missouri – 

Columbia, Columbia, Missouri). Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10355/16523.  

Carlisle, G. (2014). Pet canine ownership decisions for parents of children with autism spectrum 

disorder. Journal of Pediatric Nursing-Nursing Care of Children & Families, 29(2), 114-123

. doi:10.1016/j.pedn.2013.09.005 

Cassell, C., & Symon, G. (1994). Qualitative methods in organizational research: A practical 

 guide. Thousand Oaks, Calif; London: Sage Publications. 

Cassell, C., & Symon, G. (2004). Essential guide to qualitative methods in organizational 

 research. Thousand Oaks; London: Sage Publications. 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): Data and 

Statistics. Retrieved May 18, 2015 from http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html. 

Chamberlain, B., Kasari, C., & Rotheram-Fuller, E. (2007). Involvement or isolation? the social 

networks of children with autism in regular classrooms. Journal of Autism and 

Developmental Disorders, 37(2), 230-242. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0164-4 

Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in 

qualitative research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.  

Cohen, S. P. (2002). Can pets function as family members? Western Journal of Nursing 

Research, 24(6), 621-638. 

http://servicedog.ca/programs/therapy-canines
http://hdl.handle.net/10355/16523


                                                                  132 

 

 

 

Cole, K. M., Gawlinski, A., Steers, N., & Kotlerman, J. (2007). Animal-assisted therapy in 

patients hospitalized with heart failure. American Journal of Critical Care: An Official 

Publication, American Association of Critical-Care Nurses, 16(6), 575-585. 

Coltea, C. (2011). Companion canines: Helping families of children with and without autism. 

ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.  

Conn, C. (2014). Investigating the social engagement of children with autism in mainstream 

schools for the purpose of identifying learning targets. Journal of Research in Special 

Educational Needs, 14(3), 153-159. doi:10.1111/1471-3802.12010. 

Corsaro, W. A. (1985).  Friendship and Peer Culture in the Early Years. Norwood, NJ: Ablex 

Publishing Corporation. 

Cridland, E. K., Jones, S. C., Magee, C. A., & Caputi, P. (2014). Family-focused autism spectrum 

disorder research: A review of the utility of family systems approaches. Autism, 18(3), 213-

222. doi:10.1177/1362361312472261. 

Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches.

 Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 

Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five 

traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.  

Creswell, J. W. & Clark, V. L. P. (2007). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. 

Thousand oaks, CA: Sage. 



                                                                  133 

 

 

 

Dabrowska, A., & Pisula, E. (2010). Parenting stress and coping styles in mothers and fathers of 

pre-school children with autism and down syndrome. Journal of Intellectual Disability 

Research, 54(3), 266-280. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2010.01258. 

Daly, B., & Morton, L. (2006). An investigation of human-animal interactions and empathy as 

related to pet preference, ownership, attachment, and attitudes in 

children. Anthrozoos, 19(2), 113-127. doi:10.2752/089279306785593801. 

DeGrace, B.W., Hoffman, C., Huston, T.L., & Kolobe, T.H.A. (2014). Families’ experiences and 

occupations following the diagnosis of autism. Journal of Occupational Science, 21(3), 309-

321. doi:10.1080/14427591.2014.923366. 

De Wolff, M. S., & Van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1997). Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis 

on parental antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, 68(4), 571-591. 

doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1997.tb04218. 

Dey, I. (1999). Grounding grounded theory. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 

Ekas, N.V., & Whitman, T.L. (2011). Adaptation to daily stress among mothers of children with 

an autism spectrum disorder: The role of daily positive affect. Journal of Autism and 

Developmental Disorders, 41(9), 1202-1213. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1142-4. 

Esteves, S. W., & Stokes, T. (2008). Social effects of a canine's presence on children with 

 disabilities. Florida: Berg Publishers. doi:10.2752/089279308X274029. 

Filan, S. L., & Llewellyn-Jones, R. H. (2006). Animal-assisted therapy for dementia: A review of 

the literature. International Psychogeriatrics, 18(4), 597-611. 

doi:10.1017/S10416102063322. 



                                                                  134 

 

 

 

Filiâtre, J. C., Millot, J. L., & Montagner, H. (1986). New data on communication behaviour 

between the young child and his pet canine. Behavioural Processes, 12(1), 33-44. 

doi:10.1016/0376-6357(86)968-9 

Fine, A.H. (2010). Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic 

 Press. 

Finlay, L. (2002). “Outing” the researcher: The provenance, process, and practice of reflexivity. 

Qualitative Health Research, 12(4), 531-545.  

Foden & Anderson (2011). Canines, horses and ASD: What are animal-assisted therapies? 

Retrieved on May 9, 2015, from 

http://iancommunity.org/cs/articles/asds_and_animal_assisted_therapies. 

Friedmann, E., & Son, H. (2009). The human-companion animal bond: How humans 

benefit. Veterinary Clinics of North America-Small Animal Practice, 39(2), 293-293. 

doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2008.10.015 

Friedmann, E., & Thomas, S. A. (1995). Pet ownership, social support, and one-year survival 

after acute myocardial infarction in the cardiac arrhythmia suppression trial (CAST). The 

American Journal of Cardiology, 76(17), 1213-1217. doi:10.1016/S02-9149(99)80343-9. 

Friesen, L. (2010). Potential for the role of school-based animal-assisted literacy mentoring 

programs. Language and Literacy, 12(1), 21-36. 

Fung, S., & Leung, A. S. (2014). Pilot study investigating the role of therapy canines in 

facilitating social interaction among children with autism. Journal of Contemporary 

Psychotherapy, 44(4), 253-262. doi:10.1007/s10879-014-9274-z. 

http://iancommunity.org/cs/articles/asds_and_animal_assisted_therapies


                                                                  135 

 

 

 

Gall, M., Borg, W. & Gall, J. (1996). Educational Research. New York: Longman. 

George, C., & Solomon, J. (1996). Representational models of relationships: Links between 

caregiving and attachment. Infant Mental Health Journal, 17(3), 198-216. 

doi:10.12/(SICI)1097-0355(199623). 

Gomm, R., Hammersley, M., & Foster, P. (2000). Case study method: Key issues, key texts. 

 Thousand Oaks, Calif; London: Sage. 

Gosling, S. D., (2008). Personality in non-humans animals. Social and Individual 

Psychology Compass 2, 985-1001, doi: 10.111 l/j.1751-94.2008.00087. 

Grandin, T. & Johnson, C. (2005). Animals in translation. New York: Scribner.  

Greenspan, S., Shoultz, B., & Weir, M. M. (1981). Social judgment and vocational adjustment of 

mentally retarded adults. Applied Research in Mental Retardation, 2(4), 335-346. 

doi:10.1016/0270-3092(81)928-X. 

Grzadzinski, R., Huerta, M., & Lord, C. (2013). DSM-5 and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs): 

An opportunity for identifying ASD subtypes. Molecular Autism, 4(1), 1-6. doi:10.1186/204

0-2392-4-12 

Guest, G., Bunce, A., & Johnson, L. (2006). How many interviews are enough? An experiment 

with data saturation and variability. Field Methods, 18, 59-82.  

Hammersley, M., & Atkinson, P. (2007). Ethnography: Principles in practice. (3rd ed.). New 

York, New York: Routledge. 



                                                                  136 

 

 

 

Havey, J., Vlasses, F., Vlasses, P., Ludwig-Beymer, P., & Hackbarth, D. (2014). The effect of 

animal-assisted therapy on pain medication use after joint replacement. Anthrozoos, 27(3), 

361-369. doi:10.2752/175303714X13903827487962. 

Hazan, C., & Zeifman, D. (1994). Sex and the psychological tether. In K. Bartholomew & D. 

Perlman (Eds.), Advances in personal relationships: Attachment processes in adulthood 

(Vol. 5, pp. 151–177). London: Jessica Kingsley. 

Heiman, T., & Berger, O. (2008). Parents of children with asperger syndrome or with learning 

disabilities: Family environment and social support. Research in Developmental 

Disabilities, 29(4), 289-300. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2007.05.5. 

Hickey, G., & Kipping, C. (1996). Issues in research. A multi-stage approach to the coding of data 

from open-ended questions. Nurse Researcher, 4, 81-91. 

Home, A. (2002). Challenging hidden oppression: Mothers caring for children with disabilities. 

Critical Social Work, 2(2), 83-103. 

Hosey, G. & Melfi, V. (2014). Human-animal interactions, relationships and bonds: a review and 

analysis of the literature. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 27(1), 117-142. 

Hsieh, H., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative

 Health Research, 15(9), 1277-1288. doi:10.1177/1049732305276687.  

Human-Animal Interaction. (2015). Division 17, Section 13 of the American Psychological 

Association. Retrieved May 9, 2015, from http://www.apa-hai.org/human-animal-

interaction/. 

Jalongo, M. R. (2015). An attachment perspective on the child–canine bond: interdisciplinary 

and international research findings. Early Childhood Education Journal, 43(5), 1-11. 

http://www.apa-hai.org/human-animal-interaction/
http://www.apa-hai.org/human-animal-interaction/


                                                                  137 

 

 

 

Johnson, B. (2015). Young children with autism spectrum disorders - importance of early develop

mental and behavioural interventions. BMH Medical Journal, 2(2), 37-43. 

Johnson, R. (2010). Psychosocial and therapeutic aspects of human-animal interaction. In 

Rabinowitz, & Conti (Eds.) Human Animal Medicine: Clinical approaches to zoonoses, 

toxicants and other shared health risks (pp. 24-36). Retrieved May 7, 2015, from 

http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/10.1016/B978-1-4160-6837-2.005-1. 

Jofré M, L. (2005). Animal- assisted therapy in health care facilities. Revista Chilena De 

Infectología : Órgano Oficial De La Sociedad Chilena De Infectología, 22(3), 257-263. 

Jorgensen, D. L. (1989). Participant observation: A methodology for human studies. Newbury 

Park, Calif: Sage Publications. 

Julius, H. (2013). Attachment to pets: An integrative view of human-animal relationships with 

implications for therapeutic practice. Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe Pub. 

Kaminsky, L., & Dewey, D. (2002). Psychosocial adjustment in siblings of children with 

autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(2), 225-232. doi:10.1111/1469-

7610.015. 

Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous child, 2(3), 217–250. 

Kaplan, P., & Ludwig-Beymer, P. (2004, October). The impact of animal assisted therapy (AAT) 

on the use of pain medications after a surgical procedure in an acute care hospital. Poster 

presented at annual Edward Hospital Nursing Grand Rounds, Naperville, USA.  

Kerr, M. E., & Bowen, M. (1988). Family evaluation: An approach based on Bowen 

theory. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company. 

http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/10.1016/B978-1-4160-6837-2.00005-1


                                                                  138 

 

 

 

Kurdek, L. A. (2008). Pet canines as attachment figures. Journal of Social and Personal 

Relationships, 25(2), 247-266. doi:10.1177/0265407507087958. 

Kurdek, L. A. (2009). Pet canines as attachment figures for adult owners. Journal of Family 

Psychology, 23(4), 439-446. doi:10.1037/a14979. 

Kutsche, P. (1998). Field ethnography: A manual for doing cultural anthropology. Upper Saddle 

River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 

Kwong, M. J. (2008). Not just a canine: An attachment theory perspective on relationships with 

assistance canines. Simon Fraser University: ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.  

Kwong, M. J., & Bartholomew, K. (2011). "not just a canine": An attachment perspective on 

relationships with assistance canines. Attachment & Human Development, 13(5), 421-436. 

doi:10.1080/14616734.2011.584410. 

LaJoie, K.R. (2003). An evaluation of the effectiveness of using animals in therapy. Louiseville, 

KY: Spalding University.  

Leach, D., & LaRocque, M. (2011). Increasing social reciprocity in young children with autism. 

Intervention in School and Clinic, 46(3), 150–156. doi:10.1177/1053451209349531.  

Levinson, B. M. (1969). Pet-oriented child psychotherapy. Springfield, Ill: Thomas. 

Levinson, B. M. (1984). Human/companion animal therapy. Journal of Contemporary 

Psychotherapy, 14(2), 131-144.  

Luck, L., Jackson, D., & Usher, K. (2006). Case study: A bridge across the paradigms. Nursing 

 Inquiry, 13, 103-109.  

MacKinnon, L. (2014). Service canines for children with autism spectrum disorder: Child and 



                                                                  139 

 

 

 

family experiences. University of Calgary: Calgary, Alberta.  

Macks, R. J., & Reeve, R. E. (2007). The adjustment of non-disabled siblings of children with 

autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(6), 1060-1067. 

doi:10.1007/s10803-6-0249-0. 

Maehr, M. L., & Meyer, H. A. (1997). Understanding motivation and schooling: Where we've been, 

where we are, and where we need to go. Educational Psychology Review, 9(4), 371-409. 

doi:10.1023/A:1024750807365 

Martin, F., & Farnum, J. (2002). Animal-assisted therapy for children with pervasive 

developmental disorders. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 24(6), 657-670. 

doi:10.1177/019394502236639. 

Mason, M. (2010). Sample size and saturation in PhD studies using qualitative interviews. 

Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 11(3). 

McNicholas, J., & Collis, G. (2000). Canines as catalysts for social interactions: Robustness of 

the effect. British Journal of Psychology, 91(1), 61-70.  

Melson, G. F. (1990). Studying children's attachment to their pets: A conceptual and 

methodological review. Anthrozoös, 4(2), 91-99. 

Melson, G.F. (2001). Why the Wild Things Are: Animals in the Lives of Children. Cambridge, 

 MA: Harvard University Press. 

Melson, G. F. (2003). Child development and the human-companion animal bond. American 

Behavioural Scientist, 47(1), 31-39. doi:10.1177/02764203255210. 



                                                                  140 

 

 

 

Melson, G. F., Peet, S., & Sparks, C. (1991). Children's attachment to their pets: Links to socio-

emotional development. Children's Environments Quarterly, 8(2), 55-65.  

Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San 

 Francisco: CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. 

Merriam, S.B. (2001). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San 

 Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. 

Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco, 

CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. 

Millman, S., Adams, C., & Burrows, K. (2008). Factors affecting behaviour and welfare of 

service canines for children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Applied Animal 

Welfare Science, 11(1), 42-62. doi:10.1080/10888700701555550. 

Mills, G. E. (2003). Action research: A Guide for the teacher researcher, 2nd Edition. Upper 

saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall. 

Milne, J., & Oberle, K. (2005). Enhancing rigor in qualitative description: A case study. Journal 

of Wound Ostomy and Continence Nursing, 32(6), 413-420.  

Minuchin, S. (1974). Families and family therapy. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. 

Mulcahy, C., & McLaughlin, D. (2013). Is the tail wagging the canine? A review of the evidence 

for prison animal programs. Australian Psychologist, 48(5), 370-378. doi:10.1111/ap.12021.  

Myers, G. (1997). Children and Animals: Social Development and Our Connections to Other 

Species. Boulder, CO: Westview. 



                                                                  141 

 

 

 

Myers, G. (2007). The significance of children and animals: Social development and our 

connections to other species. West Lafayette, Ind: Purdue University Press. 

Nealy, C., O’Hare, L., Powers, J., & Swick, D. (2012). The impact of autism spectrum disorders 

on the family: A qualitative study of mothers’ perspectives. Journal of Family Social Work, 

15(3), 187-201. doi:10.1080/10522158.2012.675624.  

Nebbe, L. (2001). The elementary school counselor and the HCAB. In P. Salloto (Ed.), Pet 

assisted therapy: A loving intervention and an emerging profession: 

Neely-Barnes, S.L., Hall, H.R., Roberts, R.J., & Graff, J.C. (2011) Parenting a child with an 

autism spectrum disorder: public perceptions and parental conceptualizations. Journal of 

Family Social Work, 14(3): 208–225. 

Nimer, J., & Lundahl, B. (2007). Animal-assisted therapy: A meta-analysis. Berg Publishers. 

doi:10.2752/089279307X224773. 

O’Haire, M. E. M. (2013). Animal-assisted intervention for autism spectrum disorder: a 

systematic literature review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(7), 1606-

1622. doi 10.1007/s10803-012-1707-5. 

O'Haire, M., McKenzie, S., Beck, A., & Slaughter, V. (2013). Social behaviors increase in childre

n with autism in the presence of animals compared to toys. Plos One, 8(2), e57010. doi:10.1

371/journal.pone.0057010 

O'Haire, M., McKenzie, S., McCune, S., & Slaughter, V. (2013). Effects of animal-assisted 

activities with guinea pigs in the primary school classroom. Anthrozoos, 26(3), 445-458. 

doi:10.2752/175303713X13697429463835. 



                                                                  142 

 

 

 

Ousley, O., & Cermak, T. (2014). Autism spectrum disorder: defining dimensions and 

subgroups. Current Developmental Disorders Reports, 1(1), 20-28. 

Paisley, P. O., & Reeves, P. M. (2001). Qualitative research in counseling. Thousand Oaks, CA: 

Sage. 

Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage 

Publications. 

Potter, W. J., & Levine-Donnerstein, D. (1999). Rethinking validity and reliability in content 

analysis. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 27(3), 258-283. 

doi:10.1080/00909889909365539. 

Rao, P. A., & Beidel, D. C. (2009). The impact of children with high-functioning autism on 

parental stress, sibling adjustment, and family functioning. Behaviour Modification, 33(4), 

437-451. doi:10.1177/0145445509336427. 

Richards, L., & Morse, J. M. (2013). Readme first for a user's guide to qualitative methods. 

Thousand Oaks. Calif: Sage. 

Rinaldi, J. (2013). Reflexivity in research: Disability between the lines. Disability Studies 

Quarterly 33 (2).  

Rockett, B., & Carr, S. (2014). Animals and attachment theory. Society & Animals, 22(4), 415-

433. doi:10.1163/15685306-12341322. 

Rosenberg, J. P., & Yates, P. M. (2007). Schematic representation of case study research 

 designs. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 60(4), 447-452.  

Sams, M., Fortney, E., & Willenbring, S. (2006). Occupational therapy incorporating animals for 



                                                                  143 

 

 

 

children with autism: A pilot investigation. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 

60(3), 268-274. doi:10.5014/ajot.60.3.268. 

Sandelowski, M. (2011). Casing the research case study. Research in Nursing and Health, 34, 

153-159.  

Searles, H.F. (1960). The nonhuman environment in normal development and in schizophrenia. 

New York: International Universities Press. 

Seligman, M., & Darling, R. B. (2007). Ordinary families, special children: A systems approach 

to childhood disability. New York: Guilford Press. 

Serpell, J. (1996). In the company of animals: A study of human-animal relationships. 

Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. 

Shaffer, S. (2015). Bilingual latino high school boys' reading motivation: Seven case studies 

examining factors that influence motivation to read. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses 

Global. Retrieved, February 19th, 2016 from 

http://ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/1710812476?acc

ountid=14656. 

Silva, K., Correia, R., Lima, M., Magalhães, A., & de Sousa, L. (2011). Can canines prime 

autistic children for therapy? Evidence from a single case study. Journal of Alternative and 

Complementary Medicine, 17(7), 655-659. doi:10.1089/acm.2010.0436. 

Simpson, J. A., & Rholes, W. S. (2000). Caregiving, attachment theory, and the connection 

theoretical orientation. Psychological Inquiry, 11(2), 114-117. 

Sivberg, B. (2002). Coping strategies and parental attitudes, a comparison of parents with children 



                                                                  144 

 

 

 

with autistic spectrum disorders and parents with non-autistic children. International 

Journal of Circumpolar Health, 61 Suppl 2, 36-50. 

Smith, A. (2009). The empathy imbalance hypothesis of autism: A theoretical approach to 

cognitive and emotional empathy in autistic development. Psychological Record, 59(3), 

489-510. 

Smith, A. (2006). Cognitive empathy and emotional empathy in human behavior and 

evolution. Psychological Record, 56(1), 3-21. 

Solomon, O. (2010). What a canine can do: Children with autism and therapy canines in social 

interaction. Ethos, 38(1), 143-166. doi:10.1111/j.1548-1352.2009.01085. 

Sofronoff, K., & Farbotko, M. (2002). The effectiveness of parent management training to 

increase self-efficacy in parents of children with Asperger syndrome. Autism, 6(3), 271-286. 

doi:10.1177/1362361302635. 

Spradley, J. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview. New York, New York: Holt, Rinehart, and 

Winston. 

Stake, R. E. (1995).  The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 

Stake, R. E. (2005). Qualitative case studies. In Denzin, K. & Lincoln, S. The sage handbook of 

qualitative research. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. pgs. 443-466. 

Stevens, L. T. (1990). Attachment to pets among eighth graders. Anthrozoös, 3(3), 177-183. 

Straede, C., & Gates, G. (1993). Psychological health in population of australian cat owners. 

Anthrozoos, 6(1), 30-42. 



                                                                  145 

 

 

 

Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. M. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and 

procedures for developing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. 

Tate, S. D. (2015). Parents' lived experiences of youth-to-parent violence: A qualitative inquiry 

using the bowen family systems theory. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.  

Tracy, S. J. (2010). Qualitative quality: Eight “Big-tent” criteria for excellent qualitative 

research. Qualitative Inquiry, 16(10), 837-851.  

Turner, W.G. (2007). The experiences of offenders in a prison canine program. Federal 

 Probation, 71(1), 38-43. Retrieved February 26, 2015, from 

 http://www.uscourts.gov/adminoff.html. 

Viau, R., Arsenault-Lapierre, G., Fecteau, S., Champagne, N., Walker, C., & Lupien, S. (2010). 

Effect of service canines on salivary cortisol secretion in autistic 

children.  Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35(8), 1187-1193. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.02.4 

Vismara, L., & Rogers, S. (2010). Behavioural treatments in autism spectrum disorder: What do 

we know? Palo Alto: Annual Reviews, 6, 447-468. 

doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.121208.131151. 

Weitlauf, A. S., Vehorn, A. C., Taylor, J. L., & Warren, Z. E. (2014; 2012). Relationship 

satisfaction, parenting stress, and depression in mothers of children with autism. Autism, 

18(2), 194-198. doi:10.1177/1362361312458039. 

Welsh, K. C. (2009). The use of canines to impact joint attention in children with autism 

spectrum disorders. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. Retrieved, February 26th, 

2016 from 

http://www.uscourts.gov/adminoff.html


                                                                  146 

 

 

 

http://ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/305068995?a

ccountid=14656. 

Westgarth, C., Boddy, L., Stratton, G., German, A., Gaskell, R., Coyne, K., Dawson, S. (2013). 

Pet ownership, canine types and attachment to pets in 9-10 year old children in liverpool, 

UK. Bmc Veterinary Research, 9(1), 102-102. doi:10.1186/1746-6148-9-102. 

Wolcott, H. F., & SAGE Research Methods Online. (2009). Writing up qualitative research (3rd 

ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE. 

Yin, Robert K. (2003a). Case study research, design and methods (3rd ed., vol. 5). Thousand 

Oaks: Sage Publishers.  

Zilcha-Mano, S., Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. (2012). Pets as safe havens and secure bases: The 

moderating role of pet attachment orientations. Journal of Research in Personality, 46(5), 

571-580. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2012.06.5 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



                                                                  147 

 

 

 

Appendices 

Appendix A – Consent Form 

 

 

Consent Form for Primary Caregiver(s) 

 

Research Project Title: Bonding in Children with ASD: Findings within and Across Case 

Studies 

Study Team: 

Principal Investigator:   Dr. John Tyler Binfet, Ph.D.  

    Assistant Professor 

    Faculty of Education 

    University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus 

Co-Investigator:  Kathryn Struik, BScHK 

M.A. Student in the Faculty of Education 

University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus 

 

 

 

 

Purpose of the Study: 

This study is being conducted by Kathryn Struik (researcher) under the supervision of Dr. John 

Tyler Binfet, as part of the requirement for the Masters of Arts program in the Department of 

Education at the University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus. The purpose of this study is 

to learn about the relationship between your child with autism and the companion canine. The final 



                                                                  148 

 

 

 

master’s thesis document will be available as a public document through the University of British 

Columbia and on the internet through cIRcle. Results will be prepared into a thesis document, 

reports, scientific papers, and presentations.  If you or your child feel uncomfortable participating 

in this study you can stop participating at any time. Your participation in this study is voluntary. 

You or your child may decide not to participate or you may withdraw from the study at any 

time and it will not impact you or your child in any way.  If you withdraw from the study, you 

may elect to withdraw any or all of the information you have provided.  

Study Procedures: 

If you agree to participate in this study, you and the researcher will schedule a time and date for a 

pre-visit.  The purpose of the pre-visit is for the researcher to introduce herself to you, your child 

with ASD, your family, and your companion canine.  In addition, the researcher will collect and 

authorize the consent forms.  You will then be asked to complete a short questionnaire that asks 

demographic questions. It is anticipated that the pre-visit will take 30-60 minutes.  Once the 

consent form is explained and the demographic information is collected, you and the researcher 

will schedule a time and date that is representative of a typical experience for you, your child with 

ASD, and your canine companion, to conduct the interview and collect observational data.  For 

the study, you will be asked to participate in a 60 minute audio-taped interview focusing on the 

relationship between your child with autism and the companion canine. The interview will be 

audio-recorded for accuracy purposes only and the recording will be destroyed upon completion 

of the study. However, if you prefer to not have your interview audio-recorded, the researcher will 

take notes throughout the interview process. You can refuse to answer any questions that you do 

not feel comfortable answering.  In addition to the interview, the researcher will collect 

observational data of child-canine interactions. Observational data will be representative of a 



                                                                  149 

 

 

 

typical experience shared between your child with autism and the companion canine. It is 

anticipated that it will take approximately 30 minutes to collect sufficient observational data.  

Risks: 

This study includes no risks greater than what one would experience in their daily life. We do not 

think there is anything in this study that could harm you or be bad for you. Please let one of the 

study staff know if you have any concerns. Some of the research questions may seem sensitive or 

personal. While we do not anticipate that any questions will upset you, if they do, you can take a 

break, withdraw from the study, or not answer any questions you do not want to. 

Potential Benefits: 
 

You may not receive any direct benefits for participating in this study, however, the information 

you provide will assist in providing insights into what influences the bonding process between a 

child with ASD and the companion canine. This holds the potential to advance not only an 

understanding of autism but also inform researchers about the nuanced interactions taking place 

within family contexts that facilitate child-canine bonding. This information can help direct further 

research and inform parents seeking to support their children through the addition of a companion 

canine. 

Remuneration: 

As a token of appreciation for participating in the study, each participating family will receive $30. 

Confidentiality: 

Any information provided by you to the researchers will be kept strictly confidential. The identity 

of participants will be protected using pseudonyms.  Anything linking your name to the research 

materials will be stored in locked filing cabinet accessible only to my supervisor and myself. The 

data will be stored at UBC for five years following publication and will then be destroyed.  

 



                                                                  150 

 

 

 

For More Information: 

If you require any additional information about this study or have any questions, please feel free 

to contact either:  

Kathryn Struik, Principal Investigator 

Phone: 250-300-4288 

email: kathrynstruik@gmail.com 

    OR 

Dr. John Tyler Binfet, Supervisor 

Phone:  

email: johntyler.binfet@ubc.ca  

Contact for Concerns: 

If you have any concerns or complaints about your rights as a research participant and/or your 

experiences while participating in this study, contact the Research Participant Complaint Line in 

the UBC Office of Research Services at 1-877-822-8598 or the UBC Okanagan Research Services 

Office at 250- 807-8832. It is also possible to contact the Research Participant Complaint Line by 

email (RSIL@ors.ubc.ca  

 

Consent: 

 I have read and understand this consent form. 

 I have received a copy of this consent form. 

 I consent / I do not consent to my child’s participation in this study (circle one).  

 I consent to the audio recording of this interview / I do not consent to the audio recording 

of this interview and would prefer the researcher to take notes instead (circle one). 

mailto:kathrynstruik@gmail.com
mailto:johntyler.binfet@ubc.ca


                                                                  151 

 

 

 

 I consent to the visual recording of this study (e.g., observations). 

 I consent to all other methods of data collection (e.g., paper-and-pencil, questionnaires, 

and interviews).  

 I consent to participate in this study.  

 

Signature______________________________ Today’s Date________________________ 

 

 

Printed Name_______________________________ 

 

 

Researcher’s Signature_____________________ Date____________________ 

 

Request for follow-up information: 

I would like to receive a copy of the brief report of findings and results from the study. 

 

Yes________ 

 

No_________ 

 

Please send the report to: 

 

 Name:_____________________________________ 



                                                                  152 

 

 

 

 

 Mailing Address:__________________________________ 

   ____________________________________ 

   ____________________________________ 

   ____________________________________ 

 

 

Postal Code:__________________ 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



                                                                  153 

 

 

 

Appendix B– Consent Form 

 

 

Consent Form for Participants Involved in Naturalistic Observation 

 

Research Project Title: Bonding in Children with ASD: Findings within and Across Case 

Studies 

Study Team: 

Principal Investigator:   Dr. John Tyler Binfet, Ph.D.  

    Assistant Professor 

    Faculty of Education 

    University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus 

Co-Investigator:  Kathryn Struik, BScHK 

M.A. Student in the Faculty of Education 

University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus 

 

 

 

 

Purpose of Naturalistic Observations: 

This study is being conducted by Kathryn Struik (researcher) under the supervision of Dr. John 

Tyler Binfet, as part of the requirement for the Masters of Arts program in the Department of 

Education at the University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus. The purpose of the 

naturalistic observations are to observe the interactions shared between the child with ASD and 

the companion canine. The final master’s thesis document will be available as a public document 



                                                                  154 

 

 

 

through the University of British Columbia and on the internet through cIRcle. Results will be 

prepared into a thesis document, reports, scientific papers, and presentations.  If you feel 

uncomfortable participating in this study you can stop participating at any time. Your 

participation in this study is voluntary. You may decide not to participate or you may 

withdraw from the study at any time and it will not impact you in any way.  If you withdraw 

from the study, you may elect to withdraw any or all of the information you have provided.  

Naturalistic Observation Procedures: 

Observational research is defined as research which does not involve direct interaction or contact 

with participants outside of their typical, daily routine and activities. Observational data will be 

representative of a typical experience shared between a child with autism and their companion 

canine. If you wish take part in these observations, written consent by you or your parent/guardian 

(if under the age of 19) is required.  The researcher will take hand-written notes of observational 

data, however, you will not be identified by name. It is anticipated that it will take approximately 

30 minutes to collect sufficient observational data.  

Risks: 

This study includes no risks greater than what one would experience in their daily life. We do not 

think there is anything in this study that could harm you or be bad for you. Please let one of the 

study staff know if you have any concerns. While we do not anticipate that the observational 

research will upset you in any way, if it does, you can take a break or withdraw from the study at 

any time.  

Potential Benefits: 
 

You may not receive any direct benefits for participating in this study, however, the information 

you may provide will assist in providing insights into what influences the bonding process between 

a child with ASD and the companion canine. This holds the potential to advance not only an 



                                                                  155 

 

 

 

understanding of autism but also inform researchers about the nuanced interactions taking place 

within family contexts that facilitate child-canine bonding. This information can help direct further 

research and inform parents seeking to support their children through the addition of a companion 

canine. 

Remuneration: 

As a token of appreciation for participating in the study, each participating family will receive $30. 

Confidentiality: 

Any information provided by you to the researchers will be kept strictly confidential. The identity 

of participants will be protected using pseudonyms.  Anything linking your name to the research 

materials will be stored in locked filing cabinet accessible only to my supervisor and myself. The 

data will be stored at UBC for five years following publication and will then be destroyed.  

For More Information: 

If you require any additional information about this study or have any questions, please feel free 

to contact either:  

Kathryn Struik, Principal Investigator 

Phone: 250-300-4288 

email: kathrynstruik@gmail.com 

    OR 

Dr. John Tyler Binfet, Supervisor 

Phone:  

email: johntyler.binfet@ubc.ca  

Contact for Concerns: 

If you have any concerns or complaints about your rights as a research participant and/or your 

mailto:kathrynstruik@gmail.com
mailto:johntyler.binfet@ubc.ca


                                                                  156 

 

 

 

experiences while participating in this study, contact the Research Participant Complaint Line in 

the UBC Office of Research Services at 1-877-822-8598 or the UBC Okanagan Research Services 

Office at 250- 807-8832. It is also possible to contact the Research Participant Complaint Line by 

email (RSIL@ors.ubc.ca  

 

Consent: 

 I have read and understand this consent form. 

 I have received a copy of this consent form. 

 I consent to the visual recording of this study (e.g., observations). 

 I consent to participate in this study.  

 

Signature______________________________ Today’s Date________________________ 

 

 

Printed Name_______________________________ 

 

Researcher’s Signature_____________________ Date____________________ 

 

Consent for Children Under 19: 

 I understand that the study has been explained to me and my child. 

 I understand that I may refuse to have my child participate without any consequences. 

 I understand that I and my child will receive a signed copy of this consent form.  

 I understand that my child’s identity will be kept confidential.  



                                                                  157 

 

 

 

I hereby consent to have my child, ______________________________ participate in the 

naturalistic observations of this study. 

 

Signature of Parent or Guardian ______________________________  

 

Printed Name______________________________  

 

Today’s Date________________________ 

 

Researcher’s Signature_____________________ Date____________________ 

 

 

 

Request for follow-up information: 

I would like to receive a copy of the brief report of findings and results from the study. 

 

Yes________ 

 

No_________ 

 

Please send the report to: 

 

 Name:_____________________________________ 



                                                                  158 

 

 

 

 

 Mailing Address:__________________________________ 

   ____________________________________ 

   ____________________________________ 

   ____________________________________ 

 

 

Postal Code:__________________ 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



                                                                  159 

 

 

 

Appendix C– Verbal Assent Form 

 

 

Verbal Assent Form for Children with ASD 

 

Research Project Title: Bonding in Children with ASD: Findings within and Across Case 

Studies. 

Study Team: 

Principal Investigator:   Dr. John Tyler Binfet, Ph.D.  

    Assistant Professor 

    Faculty of Education 

    University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus 

Co-Investigator:  Kathryn Struik, BScHK 

M.A. Student in the Faculty of Education 

University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus 

 

Why am I here?: 

I am here to learn about the relationship between children with autism and their canine. You are 

invited to be in this study because we want to see how children with autism who live with a family 

canine bond with their canine.  

 

What will happen?: 

I will just be here to hang out with you and your canine.  

Your identity will be kept a secret.   



                                                                  160 

 

 

 

You will not be asked any questions but you can feel free to ask me any questions or tell me 

anything about your canine.  

You can ask now.  You can ask later. You can ask me or you can ask your parents.  

Sometimes having people around can be stressful. If you want to be alone, take a break, or stop 

hanging out with me, it is OK.  

If you change your mind about the study you can quit at any time.  

You should tell me or your parents if you feel bad. If you do not want to be in the study you just 

have to tell me or your parents, no one will be mad at you.  

 

How You Can Help!: 

By studying how children with autism bond with their canine we may find out what causes this 

bond to develop.   

Assent: 
I want to take part in this study. I know I can change my mind at any time.  

 

_________________________ Verbal assent given   Yes        

     Print name of child 

[The following statement and signature is required]:   

 

I confirm that I have explained the study to the participant to the extent compatible with the 

participants understanding, and that the participant has agreed to be in the study. 

___________________  _______________  ____________ 

Printed name of    Signature of   Date 

Person obtaining assent  Person obtaining assent 

 



                                                                  161 

 

 

 

Appendix D– Verbal Assent Form 

 

 

Verbal Assent Form for Children Involved in Naturalistic Observation 

 

Research Project Title: Bonding in Children with ASD: Findings within and Across Case 

Studies. 

Study Team: 

Principal Investigator:   Dr. John Tyler Binfet, Ph.D.  

    Assistant Professor 

    Faculty of Education 

    University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus 

Co-Investigator:  Kathryn Struik, BScHK 

M.A. Student in the Faculty of Education 

University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus 

 

Why am I here?: 

I am here to learn about the relationship between children with autism and their canine. We want 

to see how children with autism who live with a family canine bond with their canine. You can 

also be included in this study!   

What will happen?: 

I will just be here to hang out and watch how a child with autism interacts with a canine.  

If you are a going to be there while I hang out, I need your permission to be a part of the study!  

Your identity will be kept a secret.   



                                                                  162 

 

 

 

You will not be asked any questions but you can feel free to ask me any questions. 

You can ask now.  You can ask later. You can ask me or you can ask your parents.  

If you change your mind about the study you can quit at any time.  

You should tell me or your parents if you feel bad. If you do not want to be in the study you just 

have to tell me or your parents, no one will be mad at you.  

How You Can Help!: 

By being a part of this study you may help us find out what causes a bond to develop between a 

child with autism and a companion canine.   

Assent: 
I want to take part in this study. I know I can change my mind at any time.  

 

_________________________ Verbal assent given   Yes        

     Print name of child 

[The following statement and signature is required]:   

 

I confirm that I have explained the study to the participant to the extent compatible with the 

participants understanding, and that the participant has agreed to be in the study. 

 

 

___________________  _______________  ____________ 

Printed name of    Signature of   Date 

Person obtaining assent  Person obtaining assent 

 

 

 

 

 



                                                                  163 

 

 

 

Appendix E – Primary Caregiver of Child with ASD: Demographic Survey 

 

The questions in this demographic survey are about you, your family, your child with ASD and 

your companion canine. 

 

PARTICIPANT SURVEY                 Researcher’s Initials_________________ 

Instructions: 

 Please answer ALL of the questions listed below. 

 For questions followed by a solid line, please write your answer on the solid line. 

 If you have any questions or comments about this survey, don’t hesitate to let us know. 

 

 

 

Section A: About You and Your Family 

 

 

1. Please choose a pseudonym: 
o Mother 
o Father 
o Other______________ 

 

2. What year were you born?_______________ 
 

 

3. Sex 
o Male 
o Female 

 

4. How many children do you have?_______________ 
 

5. Are you: 
o Married 
o Partnered 
o Widowed 
o Divorced 
o Separated 
o Never married 
 

6. What is the highest level of education that you have completed? 



                                                                  164 

 

 

 

o Less than High School 
o Completed High School 
o College or Technical Degree/Certificate 
o Undergraduate Degree 
o Masters’ Degree 
o Doctoral Degree 
o Other________________ 

 

 

7. What is your current occupation?__________________ 
 

8. How would you describe yourself? 
o White/Caucasian  
o Black 
o Korean 
o Aboriginal/First Nation 
o Filipino  
o Chinese 
o Japanese 
o South Asian 
o Arab/West Asian 
o Latin American 
o Other____________________ 

 

 

 

9. What language do you speak most often at the home you are living in? 
o English 
o Other_______________ 

 

10. Do you speak other languages at home on a regular basis? 
o Yes__________ 
o No 

 

 

Section B: About Your Child with ASD 

 

 

1. Child’s age?_______________ 
 

 

2. Child’s Sex 
o Male 
o Female 



                                                                  165 

 

 

 

 

3. How would you describe your child’s ethnicity? 
o White/Caucasian  
o Black 
o Korean 
o Aboriginal/First Nation 
o Filipino  
o Chinese 
o Japanese 
o South Asian 
o Arab/West Asian 
o Latin American 
o Other____________________ 

 

 

4. Child’s ASD diagnosis (e.g., low functioning, high functioning, etc.): 
____________________ 

 

 

5.  Does your child take any medications related to their ASD diagnosis?  

o Yes 

o No 

 

 

6. If your child does take any medications related to their ASD diagnosis please list. 
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________ 

 

 

7. How old was your child with ASD when you got your canine(s)? 
____________________ 

 

8. How attached is your child with ASD to your canine? 

o Not very attached 

o Attached 

o Very attached 

 

 

 

Section B: About Your Companion canine 

 

 

1. Where did you get your canine (e.g., breeder, local animal shelter, online advertising 
site)? ____________________ 



                                                                  166 

 

 

 

 

 

2. What breed of canine do you have? ____________________ 
 

 

3. What is the age of your canine? ____________________ 
 

 

4. How long have you owned your canine? ____________________ 
 

 

 

THANK YOU FOR TAKING THE TIME TO COMPLETE THIS SURVEY! 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



                                                                  167 

 

 

 

Appendix F – Parent Interview Guide 

 

Overarching research questions guiding the study. 

1. How does the child interact with the canine? 

2. What is the quality of the relationship between the child and canine? 

3. Is there evidence that the attachment components of safe haven, secure base, proximity 

seeking, and separation anxiety are evident features of the child-canine relationship? If 

so, to what extent are these four features of attachment evident? 

4. What strategies, if any, did parents implement to facilitate a child-canine bond? 

Open by reminding them of the aim of the study.  

First of all, thank you again for your enthusiasm to participate in this study. As outlined in the 

consent form, this study is aimed at understanding how children with autism bond with their 

companion canine. I am curious to find out what factors might have influenced this bond as well 

as what, if any, strategies were used to help nurture a strong canine-child bond. Your input is critical 

to help us better understand human-animal bonding in children with autism as well as understand 

how to facilitate a strong canine-child bond and inform parents seeking to support their children 

through the addition of a companion canine. We will now have about a 1 hour discussion about the 

relationship shared between your child and the companion canine. And just a quick reminder: these 

interviews are being audio-recorded and will be transcribed later. Before we begin the interview, I 

just want to reiterate that any information provided by you will be kept strictly confidential. 

Information I put in my report that could identify you will not be published or shared beyond the 

research team unless we have your permission. Your participation in this study is voluntary. 

You may decide not to participate or you may withdraw from the study at any time and it 



                                                                  168 

 

 

 

will not impact you in any way. If you withdraw from the study, you may elect to withdraw any 

or all of the information you have provided.  

 

This study has been reviewed and cleared by UBC Okanagan’s Research Ethics Board. 

 

Now, before we begin, do you have any questions or would you like any additional details? And I 

have to ask one last time: Do you agree to participate in this study knowing that you can withdraw 

at any point with no consequences to you?  

 

Canine related questions: 

Ask the participants to reflect on their experiences when they first bought the canine and 

describe what features/characteristics influenced their decision to buy that particular canine.  

1. When did you get (name of canine)?  

2. Looking back to when you first brought (name of canine) home, could you tell me what 

drew you to getting (name of canine) versus any of the other canines you perhaps looked 

at? 

 What did you and your family like the most about (name of canine)? 

3. What is the most striking characteristic of your canine? 

4. How would you describe your canine’s temperament?  

 Could you tell me a little more about your canine? What comes to your mind 

first?  

 



                                                                  169 

 

 

 

      Parent related questions: 

Ask them to reflect on what motivated them to get a canine. 

5. We know that getting a canine is often a big decision for any family to make. What or 

who influenced your decision to get a canine? Let the conversation unfold noticing what 

is talked about. When there is a pause use the following prompts to further direction: 

 Whose idea was it to get (name of canine)?  

 What motivated you to get a canine? 

 What, if any, previous knowledge regarding the potential benefits of owning a 

companion canine for a child with autism did you have? 

 Was your child involved in the canine-buying process? If so, in which ways?  

Ask them to think about what ways they may have tried to encourage a bond between their child 

with autism and the companion canine.  

6. How did you try and facilitate a bond between your child and (name of canine)? 

 What strategies, if any, did you implement?  

 

Child related questions: 

Ask them to think about and reflect on, their child’s relationship with the companion canine.  

7. During a typical day, could you describe how your child interacts with the canine? 

 When did your child first interact with (name of canine)?  

8. Could you describe how your child is involved with the care of (name of canine)?  

9. Could you describe the quality of the relationship between your child and the canine? 

 

Attachment related questions: 



                                                                  170 

 

 

 

Explain to the participants that you are now going to ask questions which are guided by 

attachment theory, to gather insights regarding their child’s attachment to the companion 

canine. 

10. Who does your child seek comfort from when upset? Safe Haven  

 How comforting is the canine for your child when he/she is upset? 

11. How has the canine influenced your child’s willingness to engage in situations that might 

otherwise be stressful for her/him? Secure Base 

 To what extent does (name of canine) calm your child during potential stressful 

situations and/or changes in routine?  

12. How does your child cope when he/she is away from the canine? Separation Anxiety  

 What is it like for your child to be away from (name of canine) 

13. During a typical day, who does your child spend the most time with? Proximity 

Maintenance  

 How much time does your child like to spend with (name of canine)? 

 

Conclude interview: 

14.  Is there anything important to tell me about your child’s bond with (name of canine) that 

was not discussed during this conversation? 

 Do you have any questions or comments about the interview? 

 

 

 



                                                                  171 

 

 

 

Appendix G – Letter of Initial Contact  

 
 

Currently recruiting: Human-Animal Bonding in Children with ASD 
 
What is the study about?  
 

We are interested in studying how children with autism bond with their companion canine.  

Families who have a child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and a companion canine will 

participate. The purpose of this research is to identify what factors might influence children on 

the spectrum’s ability to bond with their companion canine. This study is part of research being 

conducted for a master’s thesis by Kathryn Struik. Kathryn Struik is directing the study under the 

supervision of Dr. John Tyler Binfet, director of UBC’s Building Academic Retention through 

K9’s (B.A.R.K.) canine therapy program and Professor at the University of British Columbia’s 

Okanagan campus.  

 

Why should I take part?  

 

Autism is the most common neurological disorder affecting children. Companion canines have 

the potential to represent an effective tool to diminish the withdrawal of children with ASD by 

targeting the core symptoms of the disorder (e.g., impairments in verbal and nonverbal 

communication, social interactions and restricted patterns of behaviour). Despite enthusiasm for 

integrating companion canines into the care plan for children with ASD, little is known about 

how children with ASD form attachment bonds with their companion canine. For example, we 

lack an understanding of what might influence a child with ASD to bond with his/her companion 

canine and what, if any, strategies are used by families to ensure this bond is established and 

nurtured. This leads to questions about what might contribute to or detract from the bonding 

process and how families impacted by autism help ensure a strong canine-child bond.  In order to 

successfully integrate a companion canine into a home environment, an understanding of the 

many personal and external factors influencing this interactive relationship is essential.  

 

Your participation will help us better understand bonding in children with autism. The findings 

of this study will provide insights into what influences the bonding process between children 

with ASD and their companion canine. In addition, this study holds promise to inform 

researchers about the interactions taking place within family contexts that facilitate a strong 

child-canine bond as well as inform parents seeking to support their children through the addition 

of a companion canine.  

 

Who can participate?  

 

 Families with a child aged 5-14 years with autism and their companion canine 
 
*Family canines will be restricted to companion pets with no formal therapeutic or service 

training. (standard obedience training is permitted).  



                                                                  172 

 

 

 

 

 

 

What will we do?  

 

 A brief questionnaire will be administered in order to obtain demographic information 
about yourself, about your child’s ASD diagnosis and previous experience with animals, 

and about your companion canine. 

 A 1 hour interview focusing on the relationship shared between your child with ASD and 
the companion canine will be conducted. 

 15-30 minutes of observation of child-canine interactions will be noted.  

 In appreciation for your time, you will receive $30  

 

Where will it be conducted? 

 

 This study will be conducted in your home and scheduled at your convenience. 

 

Who can I contact?  

For more information, please contact Kathryn Struik at 250-300-4288, or email at 

ubccaninestudy@gmail.com 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

mailto:ubcdogstudy@gmail.com


                                                                  173 

 

 

 

What is involved? 

Who?  

Families with a child aged 5-14 years with autism and their companion canine.  

* Family canines will be restricted to companion pets with no formal therapeutic or service training.  (standard obedience training is 

permitted) 

What? 

 A 1 hour interview 

 30 minutes of observation of child to canine interactions 

 In appreciation for you time, you will receive $30 

Where? 

In your home and scheduled at your convenience.  

Want to know more? If you have any questions or if you would like to consider your family for participation in the 
study please contact us at: ubccaninestudy@gmail.com or Dr. John-Tyler Binfet johntyler.binfet@ubc.ca.   

DEADLINE TO ENROLL IN STUDY:  November 15 

 

 

CHILD AUTISM RESEARCH 

STUDY   
1. 

2.Do you have a child with autism or know a family 

who has a child with autism and a companion 

canine?  
3. 

4.About the study 

We want to learn about bonding between a child with 

autism and his/her companion canine and identify 

factors that influence the quality of the bond.  

5. 

 

 HELP US BETTER UNDERSTAND BONDING IN CHILDREN 

WITH AUTISM 

 
 

 

Appendix H – Recruitment Flyer 
 
 

 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

mailto:ubcdogstudy@gmail.com
mailto:johntyler.binfet@ubc.ca


                                                                  174 

 

 

 

Appendix I – Observational Data Map 
 

 

Map of the Setting-Observational data 

 

Code:  

 

Date: 

 

Location: 

 

Duration: 

 

Physical setting: 

 

 

 

 

Attendees: 

 

Child-canine activities/interactions: 

 

 

 

Child-canine physical nearness: 

 

 

Emotional disposition of child: 

 

 

Comfort level of child: 

 

 

Child openness: 

 

 

Canine behaviour: 

 

 

 

Other notable features/comments: