T H E MENNONITES OP A L B E R T A THE MENNONITES OP ALBERTA by ? Peter Ft Bargen A thesis submitted i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts i n the Department of History The University of B r i t i s h Columbia A p r i l 1953 Summary THE MENNONITES OP ALBERTA By Peter P. Bargen The only claim that this thesis can make is that i t is an introductory account of the Mennonites in Alberta. It has been attempted to give a brief but clear account of the origins of the various Mennonite denominations and their movement in Canada An general and into Alberta in particular. The common religious found- ation (fundamentals of faith) enjoyed by most Mennonite bodies today can be traced to the common origins in the Anabaptist movement of the l 6 t h century in Europe. Prom SwitaBrland and Holland the Mennonites have spread to a l l parts of the world. There have been four well defined movements of ̂ ermonites into Western Canada ranging in time frm 1 7 8 6 to 1 9 ^ 3 . These movemnts are important not only for their separation in time but also for their divirgence in outlook which resulted from the different cultural background of the various immigrants. Today Mennonite differences, socially, culturally and religiously, make i t clear that no one way ofl Mennonite l i f e exists. In Alberta the majority of Mennonites belong to two denomin- ations : the Mennonite General Conference and the Mennonite Brethern, both of which can trace their Western Canadian origin back to the immigration from Russia 1 9 2 3 - 1 9 3 0 . In addition to these two denomin- ations Alberta contains smaller elements of Old Mennonites, Mennonite Brethern in Christ, Church of God in Christ and Old Colony Mennonites. In Alberta today prosperity and numerical strength have made Coaldale headquarters of Mennonitism in the province. The more l i b e r a l outlook of the General Conference Church and the Mennonite Brethern Church have given these tJo groups economic and cultural dominance in Alberta Mennonite c i r c l e s . The l a n d settlement p o l i c i e s of the Mennonites have always favoured group settlements;; i n Western Canada they found I d e a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r such developments. Although communal beginnings were common the average Mennonite does not take to communism and p r e f e r e d to seek land on h i s own. In h i s search there were o n l y two determining f a c t o r s : n a t u r a l f a c t o r s and the presence of people of h i s own f a i t h . The settlement of the Mennonites on the l a n d was l a r g e l y c o n t r o l l e d by the Canada C o l o n i z a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n under the c o n t r o l of the C.P.R. and the Mennonite Land Settlement Board l a t e r amalgamated w i t h the Canadian Mennonite Board of C o l o n i z a t i o n . A c o n f l i c t soon developed between advocates of settlement c o n t r o l l e d by Mennonite agencies and c o n f l i c t advocates of f r e e settlement of farmers. This ssfefeiEiasHfe r e s u l t e d i n a confuted p o l i c y of l a n d settlement. Mennonite economic development i n A l b e r t a has been r a p i d , e s p e c i a l l y i n the areas dominated by the G-eneral Conference and Mennonite Brethern denominations; economic co-operation among the r i ennonites has been l a r g e l y confined to these two groups. In A l b e r t a the Vertreterversammluhg (Representative Assembly) i s the c o n t r o l l i n g body of most Mennonite enonomic endeavours. Organizations have been set up on sc. l o c a l and p r o v i n c i a l l e v e l s and provide s e r v i c e s such as insurance i n various f i e l d s , domestic and f o r e i g n r e l i e f and producer's co-operatives. A problem that was c o - o p e r a t i v e l y s o l v s d b$it the Russian Mennonites was the Reiseschuld ( t r a v e l l i n g expenses) to the amount of #1,767,398.68, which had been loaned £s£si the C.P.R. to a i d the immigrants of 1923-1930. This debt was j o i n t l y l i q u i d a t e d i n 19i}-6. The general problems of the Mennonites i n r e l a t i o n to the community i n which they l i v e r e s l o v e themselves i n t o the s o c i a l , r e l i g i o u s and e d u c a t i o n a l f i e l d s . The s p e c i f i c problems along these* l i n e s have been a s s i m i l a t i o n , the German language, and pacifism (non-resistance). Most Mennonites, outside of the more conservative elements, w i l l assimilate i n a l l things except r e l i g i o u s l y and s o c i a l l y ; the German language i s only a temporary problem and w i l l disappear i n the near future; non-resistance ,is a funda- mental part of the Mennonite f a i t h and compromise here Is very u n l i k e l y 8 Outside of the l a t e s t immigrants the Mennonites i n general are w e l l on t h e i r way to "canadianization". This fact becomes doubly evident i n the l i g h t of the differences between the older immigrants and the ̂ ennonite "new Canadian". The Mennonites the themselves now are faced with/at problem of assimilating the new-comers. The thesis includes an appendix containing the following information; I , Order-in-Council regarding the Mennonite rights i n Canada 1873. 2„ An excerpt regarding Mennonite settlement i n Canada. 3. A p e t i t i o n of the Mennonite churches regarding m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g and a l t e r n a t i v e services i n case of another war, 1952. I I , An article,"Am I a National S o c i a l i s t ? " — b y B . B . Janz. £. A Map of Alberta showing a l l areas containing Mennonite elements. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Introduction 1 Chapter I. Origins and Doctrines of the Mennonites....1 I I . The Mennonite Settlements i n Alberta 19 I I I . Reiseschuld lj.9 IV. Land Settlement P o l i c i e s 70 V. Economic Aspects 85 VI. S o c i a l , Religious and Educational AspectslOl VII. M i l i t a r y Service and Post War Develop- ments 118 V I I I . Conclusion 137 Appendix A. Order i n Council regarding Mennonite rights i n Canada 1873 • • ±k° B. Regarding Mennonite Settlement i n Canada... .11x2 C. P e t i t i o n of Mennonite Churches regarding M i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g and Alternative Ser- v i c e s , 1952 11+.6 D. A r t i c l e , "Am I a National S o c i a l i s t ? " lij.8 Bibliography 153 1 INTRODUCTION This thesis attempts to present an introductory account of the Mennonites i n Alberta, without attempting an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n or an evaluation of the Mennonite way of l i f e . Major emphasis has been placed on Mennonite migrations, s e t t l e - ments, and common problems a r i s i n g out of the clashes of a l i e n cultures on new s o i l . Rather than deal with one p a r t i c u l a r Mennonite group, an attempt has been made to deal more with general problems which have been the concern of the Mennonite people as a whole, i n the province of Alberta. Attention has been given to the Mennonite economic organizations which have been established and the educational e f f o r t s which have been made to preserve the Mennonite i d e n t i t y In a dominantly strange culture. Although the study i s l a r g e l y confined to the Menno- nites i n Alberta, where necessary, the larger background has been given insofar as i t helps to bring about an understanding of developments i n that province. As has been stated, the aim of t h i s thesis i s not an Interpretation but rather a presentation of f a c t s . The reasons for t h i s approach are twofold: T. The Mennonite s e t t l e - ments i n Alberta are comparatively young, a few being founded i n the early part of t h i s century, the majority having been founded i n the 1920*s, and some as l a t e as the t h i r t i e s and f o r t i e s . I t i s impossible at present to a t t a i n the proper h i s t o r i c a l perspective necessary f o r a just i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 2. The great need i n the f i e l d of Mennonite h i s t o r y i n Alberta i i i s not so much one of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as i t i s of the need to gather a l l the material into a more comprehensive whole. The material and the sources are there, but are scattered through- out Canada and the United States. One purpose, therefore, has been to gather t h i s material and put i t on record. Because , of the l a t e beginnings of the settlements many of the pioneers are s t i l l a l i v e and have, at least i n t h e i r minds, the e a r l i e s t h i s t o r y of the Mennonites i n Alberta. But t h i s knowledge w i l l die with them and now i s the opportune time to make t h i s h i s - tory secure by transferring i t from the perishable minds of men to the semi-permanence of written record. THE MENNONITES OP ALBERTA CHAPTER ONE ORIGINS AND DOCTRINES OF THE MENNONITES The o r i g i n of the denominations classed under the head of Mennonite bodies can be traced to an early period i n the history of the C h r i s t i a n Church. As various changes i n doctrine and church organization came about, i n both the East and the West, a number of communities, unwilling to accept them and preferring the s i m p l i c i t y of the Apostolic Church, remained more or less d i s t i n c t through the middle ages. These communities received various names i n d i f f e r e n t l o c a l i t i e s and i n d i f f e r e n t centuries, but from the time of the f i r s t general council at Nicaea i n the early part of the fourth century to the Conference-of Dordrecht, Holland, In 1632, they represent a general protest against e c c l e s i a s t i c a l rule and a r i g i d l i t u r g y , and an appeal to the simpler organization, worship, and f a i t h of the apostolic age.^" At the time of the Reformation, the members of the scattered communities who l a i d p a r t i c u l a r stress upon the doc- t r i n e of believer's baptism, as opposed to infant baptism, found a leader i n Menno Simons. He i s regarded by Mennonites, however, not so much the founder of the church as a prominent 2 factor i n i t s organization. The name Mennonite dates from 1 Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of S t a t i s t i c s , Religious Denominations: 1906f Washington, Government P r i n - t i n g O f f i c e , Part I I , 1910, p. k.°k* 2 Smith, G. Henry, The Story of the Mennonites, Berne, Indiana, Mennonite Book Concern, 19h5» p. 95f» 2 1550» but would scarcely be recognized i n Holland where the usual name i s "Doopsgezinde", or"Dooper", the Dutch equiva- lent for the English "Baptist". S i m i l a r l y i n parts of Ger- many, Switzerland and A u s t r i a , the German form "Taufgesinnte", or "Taeufer", was used to indicate Baptists. I t was some of the Flemish Mennonites, who, upon i n v i t a t i o n of King Henry V I I I , s e t t l e d i n England and became the pioneers of the great weaving industry of that country. I t was to t h i s group that the Baptists of England were p a r t l y indebted for t h e i r organ- i z a t i o n as a r e l i g i o u s body.3 i t must be understood, however, that the r i s e of the modern Baptists was l a r g e l y independent of the Anabaptist movement on the continent.^- The only con- nection seems to be the one already mentioned above, and also that the two founders of the Baptist Church i n England, John Smyth and Thomas Helwys, had to f l e e England and thus came into contact with the Anabaptists on the continent of Europe. Both of these men wex-e baptized according to • the Anabaptist fashion.^ As was stated, the o r i g i n of the Mennonites goes beyond Menno Simons. The cradle of the Anabaptist movement was i n Zurich, Switzerland. I t was here that Conrad Grebel turned from Roman Catholicism and became an evangelical be- l i e v e r through the ministry of Zwingli.^ In 1525 a break oc- curred between Zwingli and Grebel over the relationship of 3 Department of Commerce and Labor, op. c i t . , p. 1+05. ll "Baptists," i n Encyclopedia Britannica, Chicago, London, Tor- onto, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., Vol. I l l , 195°» P» 87 • 5. Loc. c i t . 6. Wenger, J.C., "The Cradle of the Mennonite Church," Mennonite L i f e , Jan. l%-7, p. 6. the Church and State. The former believed that the Church and State were one while Grebel taught they should be separ- ated. Besides, for Grebel the-Reformation was going f a r too slowly and the new church s t i l l retained too many ceremonies and forms from the Roman Catholic worship to s u i t him; espe- c i a l l y the mass and infant baptism were attacked. Grebel went h i s own way and inaugurated what has come to be c a l l e d "believer's baptism," thus founding what he c a l l e d the "free" church. To Grebel t h i s "free" church meant "a fellowship of voluntary Christians, e n t i r e l y separated as a body from the state and state control."? Persecutions set i n at once but i n s p i t e of imprisonment and death the new church grew. By 1535 t h i s movement consisted of seventy-one congregations throughout Switzerland, and was spreading to the neighboring countries to the north. Most of these congregations were l a t e r r u t h l e s s l y exterminated. At about t h i s time a s i m i l a r movement was taking place i n northern Germany, where a man by the name of Mel- chior Hofmann had been licensed by Luther to preach the new reformation. Because of Hofmann's r a d i c a l views, Luther l a t e r regretted t h i s freedom of the ministry that had been granted to so unstable an enthusiast, who held some f a n a t i c a l notions i n the realm of prophecy. Hofmann f i r s t taught that Christ's second coming would take place i n 1533* and when the event did not take place he allowed a "prophetess" to teach that he, Hofmann, was the E l i j a h of the Old Testament. , The Mel- chior Movement, as i t came to be c a l l e d , spread throughout 7 I b i d . , p. 7- Germany and into Friesland and Holland. Two brothers, Obbe and Dirck P h i l i p s , F r i s i a n Cath- o l i c s from Leeuwarden, had i n the early 1 5 3 0 's a f f i l i a t e d themselves with the Melchiorites. When the coming of Christ did not materialize and the "saints" were persecuted unto the death, the brothers r e a l i z e d that they had heeded a f a l s e prophet. Obbe and Dirck then became the leaders of the Ana- baptists opposing the Melchiorites, appealing to the less f a n a t i c a l followers of the new church. They taught that the purpose of true Christians should be to continue the struggle against s i n and put f o r t h every e f f o r t to b u i l d the Kingdom of God on earth. This branch of the Anabaptist movement be- came known by the name of Obbenites, and i t was t h i s group with which Menno Simons l a t e r a f f i l i a t e d . Menno Simons was born i n lij.96 i n the l i t t l e v i l l a g e of Witmarsum i n Friesland. He was trained f o r the Roman Catholic priesthood and i n l%2li became assistant p r i e s t at Pingjum, a small neighboring v i l l a g e . He was promoted to parish p r i e s t i n Witmarsum i n 1531 , a n PP» 158- 1 6 1 . 11 I b i d . , pp. 1 5 6 - 2 0 0 . 7 t i s t r e v o l t . The second group are the B i b l i c a l Anabaptists, including the Swiss Brethern, the Mennonites, and the Moravian Anabaptists i n which the Hutterites have t h e i r o r i g i n . These three branches of the B i b l i c a l Anabaptists have remained and have absorbed many'elements of the other p a r t i e s . In add- i t i o n there were the Mystical Anabaptists, the Pantheistic Anabaptists and the A n t i - t r i n i t a r i a n Anabaptists, a l l of which have died out with the exception, perhaps, of small groups here and there which s t i l l tend to agree with one or the other party to a l i m i t e d extent. For a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes, how- ever, the Anabaptists of today may be divided into the Swiss Brethern, Mennonites, and Hutterites. I t i s Interesting to note that these three groups were the only ones professing pacifism during times of war, but whether t h i s fact has done anything to help preserve and propogate t h e i r f a i t h i s a mat- ter f b r conjecture. In the following statement of doctrine • attention s h a l l be paid mainly to the teachings of Menno Sim- ons and those persons closely associated with him. , The Mennonites are not a "creedal" church, that i s , no human system of doctrine i s d e f i n i t i v e for the l i f e and a c t i v i t i e s of i t s members. They were and are a Bible-centered group.. The reformers such as Luther and Zwingli permitted what was not s p e c i f i c a l l y forbidden by the scriptures, the Anabaptists believed what was not s p e c i f i c a l l y taught by s c r i p - ture, or by the example of Christ and the Apostles, was an anathema. -Lt- I t should be mentioned that a number of i n d i v i d - uals i n the Mennonite Church have, i n the past, prepared. 12 Waltner, E., "Anabaptist Concept of the Church" Mennonite L i f e , Oct., 1 9 5 0 , P. 8 formal statements of doctrine dealing with the p r a c t i c a l aspects of C h r i s t i a n l i v i n g , Menno Simons was not the least of those who prepared writings for the guidance of h i s follow- ers; but there was a d e f i n i t e lack of theological treatises among the Mennonites, a f a c t that stresses the B i b l i c a l rather than the theological nature of Mennonitism. The writings which do e x i s t , however, w i l l serve as the basis of the f o l - lowing d o c t r i n a l statements.^ The Anabaptist doctrine has always viewed the church i n i t s v e r t i c a l relationship as the body of Christ of which He i s the r e a l and l i v i n g head. P i l g r i m Marpeck, one of the early leaders of the Swiss Anabaptists wrote, "Christus 1 s t das haubt seiner kierchen, die da 1 s t sein l e i b aus seinem f l e i s c h und aus seinen gebainen warhaftig g e b o r e n . M e n n o Simons i n Holland echoed the same doctrine when he said, "For a l l who are i n Christ are new creatures, f l e s h of His f l e s h , bone of His bone and members of His body."^ The Anabaptists always made a precise d i s t i n c t i o n between the 'true' church, by which they meant themselves,: . and the 'church of the a n t i - c h r i s t ' , by which they meant the Roman Catholic Church. There was great disappointment i n t h e i r ranks when Luther and Zwingli f a i l e d to carry the r e f o r - mation f a r enough and adopted, what the Anabaptists thought, were halfway measures, by compromising with p o l i t i c a l exped- 13 The following confessions s h a l l serve as a basis: "The Schleitheim Confession of F a i t h " , adopted by the Swiss Bre- thern Conference, Feb. Ii, 1527; "The Dordrecht Confession of F a i t h , " adopted by the Dutch Mennonite Conference, A p r i l 2 1 , 1 6 3 2 . Both Confessions are reproduced i n Wenger, op. c i t . , pp. 2 0 6 - 2 2 8 . Ill Waltner, op. c i t . , p. A4.O. 15 Loc. c i t . 9 iency rather than carry t h e i r o r i g i n a l e c c l e s i a s t i c a l ideals into actual r e a l i z a t i o n . Thus i t remained for the "Brethern" to become the 'true' body of Christ on earth. Menno Simons l i s t e d the following s i x earmarks by which the "true" church of Christ was to be distinguished, 1. By an unadulterated pure doctrine... 2 . By a s c r i p - t u r a l use of the sacramental signs;.. . . 3 . By obedience to the Word...ii. By unfeigned brotherly love... 5 . By an unreserved confession of God and Christ... 6 . By op- ,/ pression and t r i b u l a t i o n f o r the sake of the Lord's word. The Anabaptists believed i n a v i s i b l e Church of God consist- ing of those "...who have t r u l y repented, and r i g h t l y believed; who are r i g h t l y baptized, united with God i n heaven, and i n - corporated into the communion of the saints on earth.""^ Luther accepted the concept of a Volkskirche or Landeskirche (State Church) because he believed that the church existed wherever the gospel i s preached i n purity and the sacraments are properly administered. To the Anabaptists this concept was most u n b i b l i c a l , f o r the boundaries of the church could not be defined according to sacramental r i t e s or geographical l i n e s . As stated i n the Dordrecht confession of f a i t h , the church was a "church of believers," of those who had personally accepted Christ and who showed the true f r u i t s of repentance. The Church was not a society of the baptized or a "church of the e l e c t , " as Zwingli taught. Menno Simons stated, Those are the true church of Christ who were conver- ted, who are born from above of God, who are of a re- generated mind, and by the operation of the Holy S p i r i t from the hearing of the divine Word have become c h i l d - ren of.God; who obey Him and l i v e unblamably i n His holy commandments and according to His holy w i l l a l l 16 Loc. c i t . r 17 Loc. c i t . „ 10 t h e i r days or a f t e r t h e i r c a l l i n g . 18 In the Anabaptist concept of the church, regeneration, obed- ience, fellowship, brotherhood, were the key.words defining the boundaries of the 'true' church. In the a c t u a l i z a t i o n of t h i s church they believed that there were four necessary steps; the preaching of the Word; regeneration of the heart of the hearer; baptism of the regenerated; fellowship of the believers i n the form of p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the Lord's supper. Because the Anabaptists believed that the Word must be preached before a renewal of s p i r i t u a l l i f e could be poss- i b l e , they became active and vigorous preachers. Spreading the Word was considered the duty of not only the ministry but of a l l the members; every believer had the personal comm- and of God to preach. The Anabaptists were the f i r s t to make the Great Commission (Christ's command to preach the Word to a l l mankind) binding upon a l l church members. The necessity of a regeneration became a f o c a l point i n Anabaptist and Mennonite doctrine. There must be a genuine repentence from s i n and a b i r t h of a genuine f a i t h i n Christ, a process which produces an inward change manifested by out- ward conduct. Nowhere Is the nature of t h i s change elaborated upon by the leaders of the movement, but i t s necessity and results are emphasized by Menno Simons, who stated that with genuine f a i t h must come obedience and true regeneration issues i n a l i f e of p r a c t i c a l holiness making the i n d i v i d u a l a s i n - cere Nachfolger C h r i s t i (follower of C h r i s t ) . F a i t h alone i s 18 Menno Simons, Complete Works, Elkhart Indiana, 18?1, I: l 6 l - l 6 2 , Quoted i n Waltner, op» c i t . , p. 111. 11 not s u f f i c i e n t , there must be manifest-the p r a c t i c a l f r u i t s of f a i t h . In t h i s concept Menno went beyond Luther's slogan of sola f i d a ( f a i t h alone). In regard to baptism the Anabaptists d i f f e r e d mark- edly from the Roman as well as from the Reformed churches. The whole movement received i t s name from the fact that i t s adherents believed i n baptism only after regeneration had taken place. Thus the name Anabaptist was attached to the new movement. Child baptism was rejected as unscriptural for neither Christ nor the Apostles ever practiced i t . The lead- ers stated that i t was the blood of Christ and not the waters of baptism that insured salvation of the i n d i v i d u a l . Baptism became to the Anabaptists an outward sign of the inward change, a pledge of the one baptized to walk i n obedience to the words of C h r i s t , and thus was merely of symbolic significance but had no sacramental value. Since regeneration required a degree of understanding (Vernunft) , infant baptism was looked upon as a deception based upon superstition rather than upon the Word of Cod. Menno Simons wrotej We are not regenerated because we have been baptized ...but we are baptized because we have been regener- ated by . f a i t h and the Word of God (I Pet. 1 : 2 3 ) . Re- generation i s not the r e s u l t of baptism but baptism i s the r e s u l t of regeneration. .19 In the Schleitheim Confession of Faith (1527) the Brethern i n - s i s t e d that baptism be administered only to those "who have learned repentance and amendment of l i f e , and who believe t r u l y that t h e i r sins have been taken away by C h r i s t . . . . " 20 19 Menno Simons, op. c i t . , p. 2l5« Quoted i n Waltner op. c i t . , p. • 20 Wenger, op. c i t . , p. 208. 12 In regard to the Lord's Supper, the Anabaptists be- l i e v e d that i t was symbolic and had no sacramental quality. They rejected both the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstan- t i a t i o n and the Lutheran doctrine of consubstantiation. For Conrad Grebel the Lord's Supper was purely "a symbol of the fellowship of the brethern with one another and with Christ... I t i s also a pledge of brotherly love' and f a i t h f u l s a n c t i f i e d 21 Christian l i v i n g . " I t was the question of "Mass" which had caused the f i r s t s p i r i t u a l struggle i n Menno Simons and even- t u a l l y l e d him out of the Roman Catholic Church. -Menno con- sidered the Lord's Supper as a proclamation of the death of Christ, as a sign of Christian love and peace i n the church, and as a "fellowship of the f l e s h and blood of C h r i s t . " 2 2 The Anabaptists regarded the Lord's Supper as the most solemn act i n which a Christian could p a r t i c i p a t e , f o r i t involved the renewal of the believer's covenant to devote h i s l i f e unreser- vedly to the service of Christ renouncing a l l s e l f i s h and sec- ular interests. 2 -^ Everywhere they went the Anabaptists took great pains to organize churches according to the b i b l i c a l pattern. This objective they accomplished by adhering s t r i c t l y to the doctrines as stated above and by a vigorous emphasis on "non- conformity to the world," by which the Brethern meant that the church must be kept without "spot or wrinkle" i n as f a r as i t was humanly possible. I t was clear to them that the church could never be perfect i n the sense of being e n t i r e l y free of unworthy members, f o r human i n t e l l i g e n c e was capable only i n 21 Waltner, op. c i t . , p. I L I . 22 Loc. c i t . 23 Newman, op. c i t . , p. 158. 13 a l i m i t e d degree to separate the "goats from the sheep." Even Menno Simons admitted the l i m i t a t i o n s of church d i s c i p - l i n e when he said, The Church judges that which i s v i s i b l e . But what- i s inwardly e v i l , but does not appear outwardly to the Church, such God alone w i l l judge and pass sen- tence on them; for He alone, and not the Church, discerns hearts and reins. 2 l i The aim of church p u r i t y has throughout Mennonite h i s t o r y posed some of the most d i f f i c u l t questions f o r t h i s group. To maintain a "pure" church i n the midst of a s i n f u l society implies a separation from the world. In- the S c h l e i t - heim Confession of Paith the early Brethern wrote, A separation s h a l l be made from the e v i l and from the wickedness which the d e v i l planted i n the world; i n t h i s manner, simply that we s h a l l not have f e l - lowship with them (the wicked) and not run with them i n the multitude of t h e i r abominations. 25 To t h i s day the Mennonites declare that- the church i s " i n the world" but not "of the world." This i d e a l of"separation" has posed many d i f f i c u l t problems f o r the Mennonites i n the past and has contributed much to the persecution arid misunderstand- ing which have followed the Mennonite Church since i t s incep- t i o n . To be separate from the world meant that there must also be a separation from the state, f o r the state was of the world. This separation from the state was then carried out i n three ways; they refused to take the oath, they refused to accept or f i l l public o f f i c e or any p o s i t i o n i n the govern- ment, and they refused to bear arms or "take the sword" even 2li Quoted i n Waltner, op. c i t . , p. \\2. 25 Wenger, op. c i t . , p. 209. i f threatened by death. The Schleitheim Confession of Faith states, The sword i s ordained of God outside the perfection of Christ...and i s ordained to be used by the worldly magistrates.... i t i s not appropriate for a Christian to serve as a magistrate because... the government mag- i s t r a c y i s according to the f l e s h , but the Christian's i s according to the S p i r i t ; t h e i r houses and dwelling remain i n t h i s world, but the Christian's are i n heaven; t h e i r c i t i z e n s h i p i s i n t h i s world, but the Christian's c i t i z e n s h i p i s i n heaven; the weapons of t h e i r c o n f l i c t and war are carnal and against the f l e s h only, but the Christian's weapons are s p i r i t u a l , against the f o r t i f i c a t i o n of the d e v i l . 26 In p r a c t i c a l l y a l l the migrations of the Mennonites this p r i n c i p l e of "non-resistance" or "pacifism" has played a leading r o l e . In Mennonite c i r c l e s i n Canada and the United States non-resistance i s under discussion today as never be- fore, and i t has been throughout t h e i r h i s t o r y one of the most obtrusive features of the Mennonite branch of the Anabaptist movement and i t w i l l be expedient to examine t h i s p r i n c i p l e i n a l i t t l e more d e t a i l . ^7 The Mennonites are, to a large degree, b i b l i c a l l i t e r a l i s t s . A number of New Testament verses teach unquali- f i e d love f o r , and non-resistance to, e v i l men, as the divine ethic f o r C h r i s t i a n believers. Such passages as Matthew 5: 38-1^8, Luke 6: 2 7 - 3 6 , John 1 8 : 3 6 , Romans 1 2 : 1 7 - 2 1 , and others require no special i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to the Mennonite but are accepted at face value. In simple acceptance of t h i s as being the fundamental p r i n c i p l e f o r Christian l i v i n g as taught by Christ, the Mennonitesoppose the use of force i n private l i f e and r e j e c t m i l i t a r y service even during times of 26 I b i d . , pp. 2 1 0 - 2 1 1 . 27 Modern developments i n t h i s f i e l d are discussed In Chapter VII. 15 c—1 war as u n b i b l i c a l and "unchrist l i k e . " <^ As early as 1521+, Conrad Grebel wrote, "True, be- l i e v i n g Christians are as sheep i n the midst of wolves.... They use neither the worldly sword nor engage i n war, since among them taking human l i f e has ceased e n t i r e l y , f o r we are no longer under the Old Covenant." F e l i x Manz, a colleague of Grebel, said, "No C h r i s t i a n smites with the sword nor re- 29 . s i s t s e v i l . " Dirck P h i l i p s declared, "The people of the • Lord arm themselves not with carnal weapons...but with the armor of God, with the weapons of righteousness...and with Christian patience, with which to possess t h e i r souls and overcome a l l t h e i r enemies."^ Menno Simons t e s t i f i e d , "The regenerated do not go to war, nor engage i n s t r i f e . They are the children of peace...and know of no war. " 3 1 A r t i c l e XIV of the Dordrecht Confession of F a i t h rejects defense by force. Non-resistance i s one key to Mennonite migrations. In order to l i v e according to t h e i r f a i t h , the Mennonites have sought refuge i n countries enjoying the greatest degree of r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a t i o n . Soon they were scattered throughout Holland, Switzerland and the various German states including Prussia. In 1 7 8 9 , on the i n v i t a t i o n of Catherine I I , many Mennonites from Prussia migrated to Russia where they were promised r e l i g i o u s freedom, t h e i r own schools, and m i l i t a r y exemption forever. "Forever" lasted u n t i l I87O when the Russian Government threatened to withdraw m i l i t a r y exemption and the Mennonites looked around f o r a new home. In the end 2(3 Ibid. , p. 153 29 Loc. c i t . 3 0 I b i d . , p. 151+ 3 1 Loc. c i t . 16 a form of alternative service not under supervision of the m i l i t a r y was granted, but the confidence and the security of the Mennonites had been shaken and a great migration to U.S.A. and Canada set i n . During World War I the Mennonites who had remained i n Russia were allowed alternative service. The Bolshevik Revolution, however, swept the Mennonite s e t t l e - ments with f i r e and sword and following the establishment of the Communist re'gime a new migration to Canada set i n . Since the Second World War a new migration to Canada has been i n = progress and thousands of Mennonites have found new homes here. In a l l of these mass movements the motive to migrate has been r e l i g i o u s freedom sparked by the p r i n c i p l e of non- resistance. In Canada and the United States i s found the bulwark of Mennonite Wehrlosigkeit (pacifism). A l l of the Mennonite groups who have come to Canada or the United States have believed strongly i n pacifism as a s c r i p t u r a l and essential Christian doctrine. Today i t i s i n Canada and the United States where devotion to t h i s p r i n c i p l e i s most c l e a r l y seen. When the Mennonites f l e d from persecu- tion i n Europe they were usually those who strongly believed i n the p r i n c i p l e of non-resistance who f l e d . The ones who stayed were forced to compromise with the c i v i l authorities and usually consented to m i l i t a r y service under pressure of losing t h e i r goods and property. This d i v i s i o n has been go- ing on among the Mennonites for ij.00 years and has been slow and inperceptible, but i t s effects have been world wide. The European Mennonites today have largely given up t h i s p o s i t i o n 17 on war. Through the t r o u b l e d p e r i o d o f the Napoleonic Wars and t h e i r aftermath the Mennonites of H o l l a n d , P r u s s i a and Germany were g r a d u a l l y f o r c e d away from t h e i r n o n - r e s i s t a n t stand and today a - c l e a r d i v i s i o n e x i s t s between the Mennonites of the Old and New worlds. A Mennonite World Conference i s scheduled to take p l a c e i n August, 1952, i n B a s e l , Switzerland, and many informed Mennonite l e a d e r s f e a r t h a t a permanent s p l i t w i l l occur over the d o c t r i n e of n o n - r e s i s t a n c e . - ^ The f o r e g o i n g d o c t r i n e s are the f o u n d a t i o n stones upon which h i s t o r i c a l Mennonitism i s b u i l t . N a t u r a l l y there have been many d i v i s i o n s among the Mennonites i n the l a s t lj.00 y e a r s , most of them o c c u r r i n g because of d i f f e r e n c e s i n forms such as baptism, s t y l e of c l o t h i n g e t c . In A l b e r t a alone there are f o u r main Mennonite denominations; the Old Mennon- i t e s , Mennonite B r e t h e r n i n C h r i s t (now c a l l e d U n i t e d M i s s i o n - ary Church), General Conference Mennonites, and the Mennonite B r e t h e r n Church. In the f a r n o r t h at P o r t V e r m i l i o n , a s e t t l e - ment of Old Colony Mennonites ekes out a meagre e x i s t e n c e . A l l Mennonite groups have s i m i l a r d o c t r i n a l stand- ards and agree that the New Testament d i c t a t e s the r u l e s f o r C h r i s t i a n l i v i n g . They r e j e c t i n f a n t baptism and p r a c t i c e " b e l i e v e r s " baptism; they b e l i e v e t h a t the C h r i s t i a n l i f e i n - v o l v e s a s e p a r a t i o n from the s i n i n the world and a s t r i v i n g a f t e r the simple l i f e . They agree, that the B i b l e p r o h i b i t s 32 For a more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of the p r a c t i c a l h i s t o r y of the d o c t r i n e of n o n - r e s i s t a n c e see Schaefer, P.J., Woher? Wohin? Mennonitenl Die Mennoniten i n Canada, 3 T e l l , Mennonite A g r i c u l t u r a l A d v i s o r y Committee, A l t o n a , Man., pp. ltL7 - l 5 5 . Smith, op. c i t . , pp. 787-819* Wenger, op. c i t . , pp. 152-157. A l s o see chapter VII of t h i s t h e s i s . 18 p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n warfare and i n l i t i g a t i o n , and forbids the use of the oath. The dissentions i n the ranks of Mennonitism arise c h i e f l y i n the varying attitudes towards such newer i n s t i t u t i o n s of Christendom as the Sunday School, toward the adoption of new inventions i n the realms of transportation and communication, and toward newer forms of clothing. These l a t t e r points, of differences may seem t r i v i a l and even amus- ing to some observers, but they play a decisive part i n the unraveling of Mennonite h i s t o r y . CHAPTER TWO MENNONITE SETTLEMENTS IN ALBERTA Mennonite immigrations to Canada f a l l into four d e f i n i t e periods: the movement Into Upper Canada from the United States In 1 7 8 6 , after the American Revolution; the movement i n the 1 8 7 0 's from Russia into Canada and the United States; the coming of the Russian Mennonites, 1923 to 1930; the movement of- displaced persons which occurred a f t e r World War I I and i s s t i l l i n progress ( 1 9 5 2 ) . In this chapter b r i e f attention w i l l be paid to the f i r s t three phases with major emphasis on the t h i r d . The fourth movement w i l l be dealt with i n a l a t e r chapter. A l l of these migrations have given Alberta new settlers^and the purpose here i s to examine b r i e f l y the h i s t o r y of each movement and the settlement i n Alberta of the various Mennonite denominations entering with each group. The f i r s t Mennonites came to North America from Switzerland i n 1683 a n d s e t t l e d i n William Penn's newly found- ed colony, where Germantown became t h e i r centre.^" Here they enjoyed peace and prosperity u n t i l the American Revolution burst upon them and m i l i t a r y service was demanded of them. Disturbed by t h i s c a l l to arms many Mennonites joined the stream of the United Empire L o y a l i s t s who sought refuge i n B r i t i s h North America. The year 1786 marks the f i r s t s e t t l e - 2 ment of Mennonites i n Vineland, i n Lincoln County where they 1 Gibbon, J.M., Canadian Mosaic. The Making of a Northern Nation. McClelland and Stewart Ltd., Toronto, 1 9 3 8 , p. 1 7 1 . 2 I b i d . , p. 1 7 0 . 20 s e t t l e d i n block communities which were l a t e r assimilated but never l o s t the virtues of conservatism which have made the Mennonites "a s t a b i l i s i n g element i n a world of change."-^ Between i800 and 1820 another 2 , 0 0 0 came to Upper Canada. I t was not u n t i l the turn of the 1 9 t h century that the f i r s t of these Swiss Mennonites from'Ontario penetrated West to s t a r t settlements i n Saskatchewan and Alberta. The Alberta colonies of t h i s Mennonite denomination started i n 1 9 0 2 / and 19^7 i n Saskatchewan. These two provinces united i n 19^7 into the Alberta-Saskatchewan Mennonite Conference with E. S. Hallman as "overseer. "^J- This Mennonite group, usually c a l l e d the Old Menno- n i t e s , form the oldest element among the Canadian Mennonites. They are the d i r e c t descendants of the Swiss Brethern who came to the United States when persecution i n Europe was at i t s height. In 1951 t h i s denomination had 6 9 , 5 3 7 members i n 565 congregations, served by 180 bishops and 833 ministers.^ The church i n Canada had a membership of 6 , 3 3 5 with about 5 ° 0 i n Alberta. This branch of Mennonitism i s characterized by "staunch conservatism i n f a i t h and d i s c i p l i n e coupled with a vigorous program of mission, publications, education, and mu- •7 tual a i d . . . 1 " Church d i s c i p l i n e i s r i g i d and the church rules necessitate simple and p l a i n dress, plus a denial of many 3 I b i d . , p. 1 7 6 . k- Letter from E.S. Hallman to P.F. Bargen, dated July 2 1 , 1 9 5 2 . 5 Zook E.D. (ed.) t Mennonite Yearbook and Directory 1 9 5 2 , Menn- onite Publishing House, Scottdale, Pa., 1 9 5 2 , p. 5 l » 6 I b i d . , p. 5 3 . 7 Wenger, op. c i t . , p. 1 1 1 . 8 Minutes and Reports of the Annual Conference of the Alberta- Saskatchewan Conference, 1 9 3 1 , P» ^ 21 modern luxuries and ornaments such as wedding rings and con- ventional wedding gowns.^a The Mennonite Church holds f i r m l y to the doctrine of non-resistance and i s one of the most con- servative denominations on t h i s question. L i f e i s to be-lived simply, void of luxuries and the s e l f i s h indulgences of the wealthy. This s i m p l i c i t y i s carried over to t h e i r churches where the structures are simple and lack any ornamentation of the i n t e r i o r . This group i n Canada has refused to accept Old q TO Age Pensions, Widows .Allowances7 and Family Allowances be- cause these measures involve a r e l a t i o n between the state and church and therefore should be rejected, and the members are urged not to apply for t h i s a i d . ^ This separation of church and state i s carried over into the economic f i e l d and the mem- bers are advised not to p a r t i c i p a t e i n any of the co-operative e f f o r t s i n the community, such as wheat pools,.milk pools, cream pools and "kindred organization," f o r "the a f f i l i a t i o n with organizations of the above character compromises and en- dangers the s p i r i t u a l r e l a t i o n s of our brethern and adds no- 13 thing to s p i r i t u a l fellowship and growth." Although o r i g i n - a l l y speaking German, the Old Mennonites have now adopted the English language which i s used i n a l l church services and In Sunday School. The Old Mennonites are counted as the f i r s t Menno- n i t e s e t t l e r s i n Alberta. In 1889 a certain E l i a s W. Bricker s e t t l e d near High River, Alberta, having come out on the C.P.R.*s 8 a I b i d . , 1914-7. P. 5 . 9 Alberta-Saskatchewan Conference, 1 9 3 2 , p. 2 10 Alberta-Saskatchewan Conference, 1914-5, P» 6 11 Loc. c i t . 12 Alberta-Saskatchewan Conference, 1 9 3 1 , P« k-* 13 Loc. c i t . 22 homeseekers excursion of that year.-^ In 1900 and l a t e r he was followed by other Mennonite s e t t l e r s from Ontario and the United States, so that by 1920 most of the settlements by mem- bers of this denomination had been established i n the province. In the High River area a church was b u i l t i n 1902 and the Mount View Mennonite congregation came into existence. The organizational work was done by S.P. Goffman who had been commissioned by the Ontario Conference to ordain ministers and organize churches i n the West. Today the Mount View 15 Church has eighteen members, with H.R. Boettger as minister. ^ At about the same time,the West Zion Mennonite Church was organized near Carstairs, Alberta. The f i r s t Menno- nite s e t t l e r i n t h i s d i s t r i c t was Andrew Weber of Ontario who came West i n l891j-« The main settlement was established i n 1901 and the church was organized by S.P. Coffman i n the same year. A church was b u i l t i n 1901 but soon became too small and a new structure was erected i n 1929* This congre- gation i s unique among Mennonite; churches i n that approxim- ately h a l f of the membership i s composed of people of B r i t i s h o r i g i n who have accepted the Mennonite f a i t h . The present membership of the church i s seventy-six with Gordon Buschert as p a s t o r . ^ The Mayton Mennonite Church, located seventeen miles east of Olds, Alberta, was also organized by S.P. Coffman. The f i r s t Mennonite s e t t l e r s to t h i s area had come from north- western :. Iowa. This congregation i s now extinct, d i s s o l u t i o n l l j . Mennonite Encyclopedia and Questionnaire^ 15 Zook, E.D., op. c i t . , p, 59« Also Questionnaire. 16 Questionnaire. 23 s t a r t i n g i n 1915 when the minister, John K. Lehman, moved to Oregon. In 1918 p r a c t i c a l l y the entire congregation moved to the T o f i e l d d i s t r i c t and united with the Salem Mennonite con- gregation there. Through inter-marriage they are now thor- 17 oughly amalgamated into t h i s new church. ' The o r i g i n of the T o f i e l d Old Mennonite settlement can be traced to the a c t i v i t i e s of two brothers O.C. and T.A. Blackburn, from Nebraska, U.S.A. They became interested i n the Canadian West and i t s settlement p o s s i b i l i t i e s . Having l i v e d i n the same community with the Amlsh Mennonites of Seward County, Nebraska, they became interested i n s e l l i n g land to them and were instrumental i n d i r e c t i n g the f i r s t group of home-seekers to the T o f i e l d d i s t r i c t . The home-seek- ers excursion took place i n 1907 but i t was not u n t i l 1910 that the f i r s t group of Mennonite s e t t l e r s moved to the To- f i e l d d i s t r i c t . There had been s e t t l e r s i n the d i s t r i c t , p a r t i c u l a r l y Norwegians, for twenty years previous to 1 9 1 0 , and homesteading had occurred on every other section. This l e f t about h a l f the land s t i l l unsettled and the Mennonites found ample opportunity to found prosperous farms. O r i g i n a l l y t h i s group of s e t t l e r s belonged to the Amlsh Mennonite Church, but they joined the Alberta-Saskatchewan Conference i n 1915* Membership increased by newcomers from Ontario and the United States and i n 1918 as the Mayton Congregation moved to T o f i e l d . The f i r s t church was b u i l t i n 1911 and enlarged i n 1915 and 1926. Today the Salem Congregation has a membership of 220 with John B. Stauffer as Bishop. 1 8 17 Questionnaire 18 Questionnaire and Mennonite Encyclopedia. 2k Other d i s t r i c t s s e t t l e d by the Old Mennonites w i l l be dealt with very b r i e f l y . The Clearwater Congregation near Youngston, Alberta, was formed by Ptfennonites from Michigan and Indiana. Due to drought the Mennonites moved away and this congregation i s now e x t i n c t . In the Duchess area, S.B. Ramer was the f i r s t Mennonite s e t t l e r and a congregation was organized i n 1917, the s e t t l e r s coming mainly from Pennsyl- - vania and are often referred to as Pennsylvania Dutch. This congregation at present has a membership of ninety-eight. Near Westward Ho, Alberta, we f i n d the Mount Calvary Congre- gation which was organized i n 19^-5* although Mennonites had been i n the area since 1935* Present membership i s 2 7 . At S t i r l i n g , Alberta, there i s a small congregation of seventeen members, who i n 19^7 broke away from the Hutterian Brethern and joined the Old Mennonite Church. Near Smith, Alberta, a congregation was organized i n 19̂ 4-7 and now has a membership of twenty. A small congregation of seven members i s also located near Acadia Valley. The t o t a l membership of- the Old Mennnnite Church i n Alberta (1952) i s Another Mennonite denomination which belongs to the f i r s t Mennonite movement into the West was the United Mission- ary Church, previously c a l l e d Mennonite Brethern i n Christ. This group arose out of a schism that developed i n the Old Mennonite Church i n 1 8 5 7 , and was led by William Gehman of at Pennsylvania, and Daniel Hoch and Solomon Eby, both of Ontario. This- group broke away from the main body of Mennonitism be- cause they thought the old church was too conservative. In 19 Zook, E.D., op. c i t . , p. Also Questionnaire. 20 Wenger, op. c i t . , p. 103. 25 f a i t h the U n i t e d M i s s i o n a r y Church i s i n l i n e w i t h the h i s - t o r i c Mennonite C o n f e s s i o n s . They emphasize a vigorous pro- gram o f evangelism, an emotional type of c o n v e r s i o n and immer- s i o n as the .mode of baptism. In economic and p o l i t i c a l areas they do not draw such a c o n s e r v a t i v e l i n e between the church and s t a t e as the Old Mennonites. In 1 8 9 3 , Jacob Y. Janz of the Mennonite B r e t h e r n i n C h r i s t came from Ontario and s e l e c t e d Didsbury, f i f t y miles n o r t h of Calgary, as a s u i t a b l e l o c a t i o n f o r a new Mennonite s e t t l e m e n t . In I89I4- a colony was e s t a b l i s h e d con- t a i n i n g t h i r t y - f o u r r e s i d e n t s from Waterloo County, O n t a r i o . T h i s p i o n e e r s e t t l e m e n t has .grown r a p i d l y , others were estab- l i s h e d , and today members of t h i s church may be found at Ac- a d i a V a l l e y , Allingham, Cremona, Bergen, James R i v e r B r i d g e , Olds, Galahad, and Edmonton. In A l b e r t a t h i s denomination i s b e i n g served by twenty-four m i n i s t e r s and has a membership 21 of approximately f i v e hundred. .Another group of Mennonites b e l o n g i n g to the f i r s t era of settlement i n A l b e r t a i s the Church of God i n C h r i s t denomination. The Mennonite Brethern i n C h r i s t had broken w i t h the Old Church because the l a t t e r was c o n s i d e r e d too c o n s e r v a t i v e , the Church of God i n C h r i s t , l e d by John Hold- eman o f Ohio, broke away i n 1857, because i t c o n s i d e r e d the 22 Old Church too l i b e r a l . T h i s i s a Mennonite denomination where s t r i c t d i s c i p l i n e i s p r a c t i c e d , shunning or avoidance i s s t i l l emphasized, and the men are r e q u i r e d to wear beards, 21 Zook, E.D., op. c i t . , p. 118. L i t t l e more i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e about t h i s denomination i n A l b e r t a . The q u e s t i o n - n a i r e s sent out have not been r e t u r n e d . 22 Wenger, op. c i t . . p. 108. This group i s w i d e l y known as Holdemans. 26 " f o r t h i s i s c o n s i d e r e d a p a r t of the moral law of God." 2 ^ As the Russian Mennonites came to Canada many of them j o i n e d t h i s denomination and as a r e s u l t the d i s c i p l i n e was r e l a x e d to the extent t h a t t h i s denomination w i l l a l l o w f e l l o w s h i p w i t h other Mennonite denominations. Yet they s t i l l adhere to the s t r i c t l e t t e r of the c o n f e s s i o n of f a i t h and some char- a c t e r i s t i c d o c t r i n e s are taught, n o t a b l e among them being the r e f u s a l to take i n t e r e s t on money loaned, which i s c a l l e d usury and c o n s i d e r e d w r o n g . ^ There are two congregations of the church i n A l - b e r t a ; at Linden and at Rosedale. The f i r s t s e t t l e r s of t h i s denomination came to Linden i n 1902 from the s t a t e of Oregon and were l e d by Rev. Samuel Boese. In 1903 more came from Manitoba under the l e a d e r s h i p of Rev. P e t e r Baerg. Today there i s a w e l l " e s t a b l i s h e d community at Linden, the church A having a membership of 363 and a Sunday School enrollment of l-J-55 (191+-8). The Rosedale congregation at Crooked Creek, i n Northern A l b e r t a , was o r g a n i z e d i n 1928 and now has a member- ship of n i n e t y - f o u r . ^ These' then are the A l b e r t a Mennonite settlements which owe t h e i r d i r e c t o r i g i n to the Mennonites of Swiss or (Jutch ancestory, and who belong to the f i r s t movement of Menno- n i t e s i n t o Western Canada. The t o t a l number o f church members i n these groups i n A l b e r t a i s approximately 1 2 5 0 , while the t o t a l church membership of a l l Mennonite groups i s approximately 26 3 8 0 0 . Prom t h i s i t i s e v i d e n t that the l a r g e r Mennonite 2I4. Department of Commerce and Labour, op. c i t . , p. lj.19' 25 Mennonite E n c y c l o p e d i a . 26 F i g u r e s compiled by author from v a r i o u s sources: Mennonite E n c y c l o p e d i a ; Zook, E.D., op. c i t . ; Q u e s t i o n n a i r e . 43. J ^ U . 27 element i n Alberta owes i t s o r i g i n to l a t e r immigrations, mainly from Russia. The churches'dealt with here, with the exception of the United Missionary Church, belong to the more conservative Mennonite elements, and consequently t h e i r i n - fluence on the general course of Mennonite h i s t o r y i n Alberta has been less than that of the groups entering l a t e r . The second great Mennonite immigration to Canada came from Russia, beginning i n I87J4., the s e t t l e r s going p a r t l y to the Western United States but l a r g e l y to the Canadian P r a i r i e Provinces. Manitoba was chosen as the main area of settlement. These s e t t l e r s were seeking new homes because the r e l i g i o u s freedom promised forever by Catherine I I of Russia, to entice the s e t t l e r from Prussia, suddenly lapsed under Czar Alexander I I , who thought, that he might make up for l o s t manpower by Russifying the Mennonite farmer. Thus i t was that three years a f t e r the supression of the f i r s t R i e l Rebellion, a large Mennonite settlement arose i n the Red River Valley of Southern Manitoba. This group was direc- ted to Canada by William Hespeler, a Canadian of German or- i g i n from Waterloo County, Ontario. J.M. Gibbon points out the effect of this new imm- 28 i g r a t i o n on the settlement of the West. These s e t t l e r s came well equipped with clothing for the Manitoba winter, but they heeded supplies, implements and t o o l s , which they purchased with gold Russian roubles, "which were a godsend to the Winni- peg merchants, who saw l i t t l e enough cash i n these pioneer days." Ashdown's Hardware Store i s reported to have sold over 27 Sibbon, op. c i t . , ~p~. 182. (For'many years Gibbon was chief p u b l i c i t y agent for the C.P.R.) 28 I b i d . , pp. l83-l§ii. 28 $I|.000 worth of implements to the Mennonites i n one day. In addition, the new s e t t l e r s brought with them the seeds of new grains and vegetables such as f l a x , muskmelons and watermelons. "They are also credited with introducing groves of trees as windbreaks on hitherto treeless p r a i r i e . " The Mennonites had come as strangers to a new land, and had chosen Canada because of the many p r i v i l e g e s offered them by the'government. In 1 8 7 3 a delegation of four men had been sent out to scout the land and make arrangements with the Canadian government. The p r i v i l e g e s granted were very 29 l i b e r a l and consisted of exemption from m i l i t a r y service, the reservation of eight townships of land f o r the exclusive use of the Mennonites; to each s e t t l e r over twenty-one years of age the government promised 1 6 0 acres of homestead land and the Mennonites received the f u l l e s t p r i v i l e g e of exercising t h e i r r e l i g i o u s p r i n c i p l e s without any kind of molestation or r e s t r i c t i o n whatever, and the same p r i v i l e g e was extended to the education of t h e i r children. In addition the govern- ment advanced $ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 to the immigrants to help them get established. Many Mennonites took advantage of t h i s generous offer. In the summer of 1 8 7 7 Lord Dufferin v i s i t e d the Manitoba settlement and welcomed the newcomers. His welcome- read i n part^ I have come here today i n the name of the Queen of England to bid you welcome on Canadian s o i l . You have come to a land where you w i l l f i n d the people with whom you are to associate engaged, Indeed, i n a great struggle, and contending with foes whom i t requires t h e i r best energies to encounter. But 29 See Appendix A. p. IJffi. 29 those foes are not your fellowmen, nor w i l l you be c a l l e d upon i n the struggle to s t a i n your hands with human blood - a task which i s so abhorrent to your r e l i g i o u s feelings. The war to which we' Invite you as r e c r u i t s and comrades i s a war waged against the brute forces of nature; but those forces w i l l welcome our domination, and reward our attack by placing t h e i r treasures at our disposal. I t i s a war of ambition, - for we intend to annex t e r r i t o r y , - but neither blazing v i l l a g e s nor dev- astated f i e l d s w i l l mark our ruthless track; our battalions w i l l march across the i l l i m i t a b l e plains which stretch before us as sunshine steals athwart the ocean; the r o l l i n g p r a i r i e w i l l blossom i n our wake, and corn and peace and plenty w i l l spring where we have trod. 3 0 In t h i s address Lord Dufferin revealed c l e a r l y that he under- stood the Mennonite psychology, f o r -the type of warfare depic- ted therein would t h r i l l the hearts of these new s e t t l e r s . I t was a month l a t e r that Lord Dufferin paid his personal t r i b u t e to the progress of the Mennonite settlement when speaking i n Winnipeg; Although I have witnessed many sights to cause me pleasure during my various progresses through the Dominion, seldom have I beheld any spectacle more pregnant with prophecy, more fraught with promise of a successful future than the Mennonite S e t t l e - ment. (Applause) When I v i s i t e d these i n t e r e s t i n g people, they had only been two years i n the Prov- ince, and yet i n a long ride I took across many miles of p r a i r i e , which but yesterday was absol- utely bare, desolate, and untenanted, the home of the wolf, the badger, and the eagle, I passed v i l - . lage a f t e r v i l l a g e , homestead a f t e r homestead, f u r - nished f o r t h with a l l the conveniences and incidents of European comfort, and a s c i e n t i f i c agriculture, while on either side of the road cornfields already ripe f o r harvest, and pastures populous with herds of c a t t l e stretched away to the horiz.en. (Applause) Even on this Continent - there has nowhere, I im- agine, taken place so marvellous a transformation — (cheers) -- and yet when i n your name, and i n the name of the Queen of England, I bade these people welcome to t h e i r new homes, i t was not the improvement i n t h e i r material fortunes that pre-occupied my thoughts. Glad I was to have the power of applotting them so ample a portion of our teeming s o i l - a s o i l which 3 0 Gibbon, op. c i t . , p. I 8 I 1 . 30 seems to blossom at a touch-- ( c h e e r i n g ) — and which they were c u l t i v a t i n g to such m a n i f e s t advantage -- I f e l t i n f i n i t e l y prouder i n being able to throw over them the aegis of the B r i t i s h C o n s t i t u t i o n - - ( l o u d c h e e r i n g ) — and i n b i d d i n g them f r e e l y share with us our u n r i v a l l e d p o l i t i - c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , our untrammelled p e r s o n a l l i b e r t y . 31 The $ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 which had been advanced to the Menno- n i t e s by the Canadian government was p a i d back i n 1 8 9 2 . In announcing t h i s the M i n i s t e r of the I n t e r i o r s t a t e d , In a l l the h i s t o r y of our country, there i s not to be found a case i n which a Company or i n d i v i d u a l has more f a i t h f u l l y met h i s o b l i g a t i o n to the Gov- ernment than has been the case here. - Not a s i n g l e i n s t a n c e i s known where one of the s e t t l e r s or of the men who had g i v e n s e c u r i t y made any attempt to withdraw from h i s o b l i g a t i o n s . 32 T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of honoring the g i v e n word was a l a r g e f a c t o r i n persuading the C.P.R. to extend about $ 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 worth of c r e d i t to the Mennonite Immigrants 1923 to 193O. ' ' The Mennonites who s e t t l e d i n Manitoba were com - posed of three w e l l d e f i n e d communities. Two of these groups A had l i v e d i n separate s e t t l e m e n t s i n Russia where they had been f a i r l y s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t , namely the P u e r s t e n l a n d and B e r g t h a l c o l o n i e s . The P u e r s t e n l a n d group i s b e t t e r known as A l t k o l - o n i e r or Old Colony Mennonites. The t h i r d group was the K l e i n e Gemeinde, a d i s s i d e n t church group which had sprung up 35 i n the Molotschna Colony i n R u s s i a about 1 8 1 2 . The name of the l a t t e r group, "Small Church," i s \ very a p p r o p r i a t e f o r i t has (1952) o n l y 1 , 9 2 0 members.^ The B e r g t h a l e r group 31 I b i d . . p. 185 32 Loc. c i t . , 33 D i s c u s s e d i n chapter I I I . 3I4. F r a n c i s , E.K., " T r a d i t i o n and Progress Among the Mennonites i n Manitoba," Mennonite Q u a r t e r l y Review, Oct., 1950 > P« 5» 35 Wenger, op. c i t . , p. 128. 3o Zook, op. c i t . , p. 53• 3 1 belong to the o r i g i n a l Mennonite group but today belong ^.y^ l a r g e l y to the General Conference Mennonite Church. The A l t k o l o n i e r represents a l l that i s reactionary among Mennonites today. The members are very s t r i c t i n the exercise of the ban or shunning of expelled members. They have few Sunday schools, no evening or protracted meetings, church conferences, missions, or benevolent i n s t i t u t i o n s . They worship f o r the most part i n private homes and use the German language exclusively i n t h e i r services. They do not associate i n r e l i g i o u s work with other Mennonite bodies, and are d i s t i n c t i v e and p l a i n i n t h e i r costume, using hooks and eyes instead of buttons. They c l i n g to old t r a d i t i o n s , reject progress and f i g h t the modern school. The A l t k o l o n i e r settled mainly i n the West Reserve i n Manitoba. In Manitoba the p r i v i l e g e s granted to the Mennonite s e t t l e r s had been very l i b e r a l , the r e s u l t being that the communities grew, having complete freedom i n the organization of.schools and l o c a l government. The responsible "authorities were more concerned with a t t r a c t i n g e f f i c i e n t s e t t l e r s than with t h e i r c u l t u r a l a s s i m i l a t i o n , or t h e i r s o c i a l or p o l i t i c a l integration."^^ Thus the Mennonites In- these colonies lay down the law according to t h e i r own t r a d i t i o n s rather than to the Canadian p o l i t i c a l and l e g a l system. This period of peaceful development came to an end i n the early 1880's when the P r o v i n c i a l government demanded that the Mennonite reserves be reorganized into m u n i c i p a l i t i e s . This proposal met with l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y except i n the ranks 3 7 Francis, op. c i t . , p. 6 . 32 o f the A l t k o l o n i e r who r e f u s e d to accept the proposed changes, f o r they meant t h a t the l o c a l schools would be c o n t r o l l e d by the government.3 8 As the "world" c l o s e d more t i g h t l y around them the A l t k o l o n i e r looked f o r an escape. They found t h i s escape i n the 1 9 2 0 ' s when many migrated to Mexico and Para- guay, w i t h a number going to Saskatchewan.^ 9 j n 1932 Old Colony Mennonites l e f t Saskatchewan and founded a new colony on the n o r t h bank of the Peace R i v e r i n Northern A l b e r t a . These were soon j o i n e d by newcomers from the Chihuahua p l a t e a u i n Mexico and as l a t e as J u l y 1 2 , 1 9 5 2 , about f o r t y A l t k o l o n i e r from there c r o s s e d the i ^ t h p a r a l l e d a t Coutts, A l b e r t a , on t h e i r t r e c k n o r t h to j o i n t h e i r B r e t h e r n at F o r t V e r m i l i o n . ^ 0 The A l t k o l o n i e r Colony at F o r t V e r m i l i o n , about J4.OO m i l e s n o r t h o f Edmonton, i s completely i s o l a t e d from the r e s t of c i v i l i z a t i o n — an i s o l a t i o n t h a t must be near the A l t k o l o n i e r h e a r t . The o n l y c o n t a c t w i t h the o u t s i d e w o r l d i s the p l a n e , the boat or dogteam. Here i n t h i s w i l d e r n e s s , where they have assumed s q u a t t e r s r i g h t s , the Old Colony Menno- n i t e has found, to a c e r t a i n degree, t h a t i s o l a t i o n from the "world" which he seeks. There are no s c h o o l s , no i n t e r f e r e n c e from a u t h o r i t y , and i n t e r l o p e r s are r a r e . The other Mennonite denominations are concerned about the s p i r i t u a l w e l f a r e of these people and have sent m i n i s t e r s to the area. The m i n i s - t e r s have been r e c e i v e d but not allowed to speak i n p u b l i c ; t h e i r o f f e r s to send up good teachers have been f i r m l y r e f u s e d . 38 The s c h o o l q u e s t i o n i s too complex to be d e a l t w i t h here. Those i n t e r e s t e d see I b i d . , pp. 7-19* 39 Mennonite E n c y c l o p e d i a \\Q The A l b e r t an. J u l y 1 2 , 1 9 5 2 . 33 One v i s i t i n g minister said, "They are c u l t u r a l l y retarded and s p i r i t u a l l y b l i n d , and yet they think they are suffering for Christ's sake." The settlement i s scattered f o r t y miles along the Peace River on either side of Port Vermilion. The church membership of t h i s group at present i s 3 2 0 . ^ " The other two Mennonite denominations that reached Canada i n the 1870's also expanded into Alberta, although only to a very small degree.""*"̂ " The Kleine Gemeinde started a settlement i n the Peace River area i n the year I 9 2 l i . The s e t t l e r s came from the United States and were w e l l supplied with funds, having sold t h e i r holdings p r o f i t a b l y i n that country. Due to disunity and f r i c t i o n among them, coupled- with poor business management, the settlements never prospered and the s e t t l e r s slowly moved away. By.l9ij-0 none of the Kleine Gemeinde s e t t l e r s remained i n Alberta. The f i r s t Bergthaler s e t t l e r s came to Alberta from the West Reserve i n Manitoba i n 1 9 0 1 . They came to the Dids- bury area were they found a number of Mennonite s e t t l e r s who had previously come from Ontario. The open p r a i r i e between Didsbury and Red Deer impressed the s e t t l e r s favorably. More f a m i l i e s came, some from Oregon, some from the East Reserve i n Manitoba, but many also moved away so that the settlement stayed small. The beginnings were made by growing feed grain, and c a t t l e r a i s i n g became a p r o f i t a b l e occupation,^** In 19^3 1+1 Zook, op. c i t . , p. 1 2 2 . \\Z The following information from a pioneer of the Peace River d i s t r i c t , H. Kornelson. I4.3 Schaeffer, op. c i t . , p. 135 kk Vertreterversammlung, 1935• (Pr^tokoll der Vertreterversammlungen derMennonitTschen Siedler von Alberta) 3k the f i r s t church was b u i l t and i n 1912 t h i s group joined the General Conference Mennonite Church. Today t h i s group, through intermarriage and.co-operative association, i s i d e n t i f i e d com- p l e t e l y with the immigrants of 1 9 2 3 - 1 9 3 0 . I t i s evident that the Mennonites of this second immigration to Canada, l e f t t h e i r imprint l a r g e l y on the Province of Manitoba. Even today they are the main Mennonite group there. Alberta, however, even though eventually receiv- ing a few of t h e i r numbers remained outside the orbit of their settlements. The groups that did s e t t l e i n Alberta now l i v e i n i s o l a t i o n , moved away, or have become amalgamated with the immigrants who came l a t e r . The coming of the Russian Mennonites i n the 1 9 2 0 's mafeks a new chapter i n the colonization of Western Canada. When the new immigration started i n 1923 the.newcomers often s e t t l e d i n areas of previous Mennonite settlement but over- flowed more into the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta than the previous movements. These l a s t s e t t l e r s belonged mainly to two church d i v i s i o n s , the Bruedergemeinde (Brethern Church), and the o r i g i n a l group from which the Mennonite Brethern had broken i n i 8 6 0 . These groups entered Canada penniless and In the early years sought employment as labour- ers on farms. Some were fortunate enough to obtain farms either on a rent or sale basis. Because of three-men, David Toews, B.B. Janz, and CP'. Klassen, and t h e i r e f f o r t s on be- h a l f of the immigrants, the Canadian P a c i f i c Railway extended credit to the newcomers which enabled them to enter Canada. 35 Besides showing a philanthropic s p i r i t , the C.P.R. i n aiding these new immigrants, was looking to the future when the pro- ducts of newly opened areas i n the West would provide t r a f f i c for i t s struggling r a i l l i n e s . ^ The West, one of the r i c h e s t a g r i c u l t u r a l areas i n the world, was to be turned into a huge production machine. As S i r Edward Beatty l a t e r put i t , "Our task was to convert.Western Canada into a land of homes. The Russian Mennonites were to help i n t h i s task of opening the West and were encouraged to take up land. The C.P.R. was aware of the Mennonites desire to s e t t l e i n commun- i t i e s and consequently large areas of land were thrown open f o r mass settlement. Since Alberta contained large areas of C.P.R. land which had been granted to the Company as a subsidy f o r building the railway, the o f f i c i a l s of the Company were anxious to obtain s e t t l e r s of the Mennonite calibre f o r these lands. Without s e t t l e r s the land was of no value and the Company saw that only through e f f o r t s and expenditures of i t s own funds and the private funds of i t s organizers, and through organized colonization schemes, could the West be populated and made p r o f i t a b l e . This was the general p o l i c y but the Mennonites played a very large part i n the f u l f i l m e n t of that p o l i c y . ^ The Canadian West opened i t s doors and the Menno- nites thronged i n . As water s e t t l e s i n low areas so the Menno- nites tended to establish themselves i n homogeneous groups on the p r a i r i e s . A s e t t l e r would move to an area and f i n d i t r i c h k 5 C.P.R., I r r i g a t i o n Farming i n Sunny Alberta, 1 9 2 5 , p. 2 . lj.6 Canadian P a c i f i c Staff B u l l e t i n , Feb. 1, 1940, lj-7 Loc. c i t . - For C.P.R. and settlement see chapter IV. 3D and rewarding; r e l a t i v e s and friends were n o t i f i e d and joined the group. Slowly large areas of land f e l l exclusively into the hands of the newcomers. The Mennonite settlement at Coal- dale, today the largest i n the province,^ began when one man, Klaas Enns, and h i s family consented to clean beets f o r a l o c a l farmer. Through the years there have been movements of Mennonite s e t t l e r s to and fro across the plains and f o o t h i l l s of Alberta* The picture seems as r e s t l e s s as the waves of the sea. One year an area would contain a number of settlements, the next year the s e t t l e r s were gone. Many f a m i l i e s moved alone and remained i s o l a t e d from others of t h e i r f a i t h ; they were not as fortunate as Klaas Enns - no new s e t t l e r s followed and they remained alone, either to move away or remain and be absorbed into the dominant culture of the area. Although there are records of such cases, absorption has been rather a rare occurrence. The two Mennonite denominations p a r t i c i p a t i n g , i n the t h i r d Mennonite migration to Canada were the Mennonite Brethern Church, and the o r i g i n a l body from which the Menno- nite Brethern had broken i n i 8 6 0 . The former body originated as a r e v i v a l i s t movement i n the Molotschna Mennonite Colony i n Southern Russia. In the eyes of t h i s dissident group the o r i g i n a l Mennonite body was no longer pure and therefore i t could not approve of the l i f e and conduct of many of the church members. On January 6 , i 8 6 0 , eighteen family heads signed a statement of withdrawal from the parent body. The I4.8 Vertreterversammlung, 1951 > P« 1 2 . 37 man who l i t t h i s new r e l i g i o u s flame was a German evangelical by the name of Edward Wuest. Fundamentally the Mennonite Brethern Church remained a true Mennonite body, but emphasized a more Bible-centred l i f e f o r i t s members. In spite of per- secution from the parent body, the Mennonite Brethern Church prospered and by 1885 membership had r i s e n to 1 8 0 0 . The d i s t i n c t i v e views of t h i s new branch of Menno- nitism were summarized by P.C. Hiebert, a leading minister of the -new church. 1. A d e f i n i t e r e l i g i o u s experience followed by a changed l i f e , as a prerequisite of admission to membership. 2. Baptism by immersion upon confession of f a i t h as the only recognized form. 3 . A negative reaction against a l l tendencies to- ward formalism as i t hindered early church pro- cedure, and toward systematic r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n of children. Ii. Definite opposition to a l l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g and service. 5 . Limiting communion to baptized members i n good standing i n the l o c a l church. •6. Active evangelism characterized by a keen per- sonal interest i n the personal conversion and s a l - vation of one's associates. 7.' A thorough study of a l l the Scriptures, which i s recognized as the Word of God, and an urgent demand that every member l i v e up to what God requires i n the Bible of those who have accepted Christ as t h e i r personal Saviour. * Although the largest number of Mennonite Brethern came to America i n the 1 9 2 0 's, they had, as early as the l 8 7 0's, 51 s e t t l e d i n Kansas, Nebraska, Minnesota, and South Dakota, while only a small number reached Canada and s e t t l e d mainly i n Manitoba. In the 1920's many members of the parent Mennonite k9 Wenger, op. c i t . , p. 119« 50 I b i d . , p. 1 2 0 . 51 Lohrenz, John H., The Mennonite Brethern Church, the Menno- n i t e publishing House, H i l l s b o r o , Kansas, 1 9 5 0 , pp. 6 1 - 7 1 . 38 body In Southern Russia also migrated to Canada. Once i n t h e i r new homeland t h i s group was faced with two alternatives: either to form a .church conference of t h e i r own or to j o i n one of the e x i s t i n g Mennonite conferences i n Canada. Small, numbers joined the Bergthaler church and the Church of God i n Christ (Holdeman), but by f a r the largest percentage a f f i l - iated with the General Conference Mennonite Church of North America.-' This l a t t e r body had originated when two small Mennonite congregations i n Leeds County, Iowa, held a confer- ence to discuss the possible union of a l l the Mennonite bodies i n America. Among those especially interested was John Ober- holzer of Pennsylvania, who had taken an advanced stand i n the matter of aggresive work and missions. Together with sixteen other ministers he was charged with insubordination to the then established Mennonite Church government, and was disowned. As a r e s u l t Oberholzer, i n Oct. l8k7, organized a separate conference i n Eastern Pennsylvania. The new union movement gained strong support and promised to advance along broader and more l i b e r a l l i n e s than the old conference had permitted. In May of i860, these dissident groups organized the General Conference Mennonite Church of America. Membership grew rap- i d l y and the movement spread north into Canada. By 1920 a w e l l organized branch of the church existed i n Canada. In.doctrine the General Conference Church i s , with few exceptions, i n s t r i c t accord with other Mennonite confess- ions, but i t does not interpret the Mennonite •confession of f a i t h as l i t e r a l l y as other Mennonite bodies do. The main 52 Ibid... p. 1 9 2 . 53 Department of Commerce and Labor, op. c i t . . p. kl6. 39 difference between t h i s body and. the Mennonite Brethern Church i s i n the demand of the Brethern for a personal r e l i - gious experience leading to a manifest emotional conversion. They d i f f e r also i n the form of baptism; the General Confer- ence baptize by pouring, the Mennonite Brethern by backward immersion. While the Mennonite Brethern Church joined t h e i r own Brethern Church on a r r i v a l i n Canada, the parent body largely joined the General Conference Mennonite Church. In Alberta today, these two groups form the largest Mennonite element, having a combined church membership of approximately 2 , 2 7 l t . ^ " There are very few Mennonite settlements i n Alberta that consist of only one Mennonite denomination. In most areas there i s a medley of General Conference and Menno- n i t e Brethern with perhaps smaller elements of other denom- inations. This statement applies especially to the s e t t l e - ments started i n the 1 9 2 0 "s. In the early years necessity compelled co-operation on economic as well as r e l i g i o u s l i n e s , and often one church b u i l d i n g served a l l denominations i n the area. I t was not u n t i l prosperity set i n that each denomina- t i o n erected i t s own building and segregated i t s services from that of the others. Today, i n some smaller areas such a La- combe and Chinook, one building s t i l l serves the purposes of a l l . Since the Mennonite Brethern broke away from the parent body i n i 8 6 0 a d e f i n i t e d i v i s i o n has existed between these two branches of Mennonitism. That d i v i s i o n has been carried over to Canada since the Mennonite General Conference Church 51+ & rtretereeraaimiiurigy 1951, p. 12. i n Canada consists l a r g e l y of members of the o r i g i n a l Menno- nite body i n Russia. By the l a t t e r the Brethern are consid- ered rebels while the Brethern i n turn, look upon the General Conference as having l o s t the true fundamentals of C h r i s t i a n i t y and consequently can no longer be regarded as t r u l y Mennonite. In the higher c i r c l e s of Mennonite organization a determined e f f o r t i s being made at co-operation between these two denom- inations. During the war t h i s co-operation was achieved es- p e c i a l l y i n the f i e l d of r e l i e f work and on the question of non-resistance. As i s the case even among nations peace often brings disunity, and t h i s has been discernable among the Menno- nites also. These complex emotions e x i s t among the Mennonites at large and greatly hinder any co-operative movements which try to heal the breach between the two bodies. Thus, as often i s the case, the misunderstandings of the past may lead to further a l i e n a t i o n i n the future. As subsequent chapters w i l l prove, however, a certain degree of co-operation does e x i s t and may well provide the basis f o r future rapprochement. The . Vertreterversammlung has done much to repair the shattered ranks of Mennonite unity i n Alberta. The f i r s t General Conference Mennonite s e t t l e r s moved into Alberta from Manitoba as early as 1 9 0 1 and s e t t l e d 55 near Didsbury. The majority, however, s e t t l e d i n the pro- vince a f t e r World War I, most being of the new immigration 56 from Russia. Today the largest Mennonite Conference church 55 Mennonite Encyclopedia. ' 56 "Questionnaires were sent out to a l l Mennonite Conference Churches i n Alberta, but only one has been returned. Since no written information on these churches, outside of the reports of the Vertreterversammlung, e x i s t , the discussion of these settlements i s of necessity meagre and incomplete. 57 exists at Rosemary, and has a membership of 285* The f i r s t Mennonite s e t t l e r s were brought to t h i s area i n 1929 by the Canada Colonization Association which sponsored the s e t t l e - 58 ment.v The s e t t l e r s were able to buy t h e i r land so. that by 1937 about 8323 acres were Mennonite owned. In 1935 the Can- adian P a c i f i c Railway Company, who owned the land, handed the whole area of 350*000 acres over to the d i s t r i c t , at the same time cancelling the land debt of the farmers.^ This step was taken i n order to escape the high cost of constructing and operating i r r i g a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s , while at the same time trans- f e r i n g these problems to community co-operation. Lying i n the heart of an i r r i g a t i o n d i s t r i c t , Rosemary has prospered and today i s the centre of a populous Mennonite area. The General Conference Church also has large denominations at C o a l d a l e ^ and Didsbury. The l a t t e r s e t t l e - ment was started i n 1 9 0 1 , when a group of about twenty Menno- n i t e .families came from the West Reserve i n Manitoba and sett- l e d there.61 The church continued to grow and i n 1951 had a 62 membership of 19L> The following table shows the location and membership of the various Mennonite Conference churches i n A l b e r t a : ^ 57 Vertreterversammlung, 195l> P* 12 58 This was a subsidiary organization founded by the C.P.R. f o r the s p e c i f i c purpose of s e t t l i n g people on the land. General Manager was T.O.P. Herzer of Winnipeg. This organ- i z a t i o n had then, and s t i l l has, branch o f f i c e s i n the four Western Provinces, and has i n a long range work s e t t l e d the majority of the Mennonite farmers. See Chapter IV of this thesis. 59 Vertreterversammlung, 1935> P« 1 8 . 60 Coaldale s h a l l be dealt with l a t e r . 61 Vertreterversammlung, 1935> P» 13« 62 Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 5 l » P» 1 2 . 63 Loc. c i t . Place No. of Families Members Persons Coaldale 98 25k 387 Vauxhall 21 53 96 Springridge 19 52 96 Rosemary 109 285 . 58k Gem 15 98 Munson 8 21 31 Calgary 16 $k 70 Didsbury 68 19k 361 T o f i e l d 55 l k l 26k Wembley 8 5k New Brigden 2 k 6 Chinook l 7 . 10 Lacombe 11 21 In 1 9 5 1 , the Mennonite Brethern Church i n Alberta had a t o t a l membership of 1 1 6 2 . ^ The f i r s t settlement of this denomination i n Alberta began i n 1926 with the establish- ment of the community at Coaldale. With Coaldale as centre other settlements soon came into existence, and i n 1928 the various churches united into a p r o v i n c i a l organization known as the P r o v i n c i a l Conference of the Mennonite Brethern Church. In 1 9 5 1 , tbe following churches i n Alberta constituted the Conference:^ Coaldale ( 6 1 0 ) , Gem ( l k 2 ) , Grassy Lake ( k 5 ) La Glace ( 6 l ) , Lindbrook ( 3 8 ) , Linden ( 9 D , Namaka (kO), Pincher Creek (26), and Vauxhall (109). A l l of these congregations, outside of Coaldale, are r e l a t i v e l y small and s h a l l be dealt 6k Mennonite Brethern Church, S t a t i s t i c s , 1951^ 65 Loc. c i t . Membership shown i n brackets. k3 66 with only b r i e f l y . The Gem Mennonite Brethern Church was organized i n June, 1929, with a membership of t h i r t y - f i v e , and was accepted into the Mennonite Brethern D i s t r i c t Conference the same year. The Grassy Lake congregation was founded i n 1927 with a membership of seven; the f i r s t s e t t l e r s having come to the area i n 1 9 2 6 . In La Glace, located i n the Peace River area of Northwestern Alberta, a Mennonite Brethern Church was organized i n 1928; the same year a church was organized at Lindbrook. The Linden Mennonite Brethern Church i s located about eight miles north of Acme, Alberta, and was formerly a f f i l i a t e d with the Evangelical Mennonite Brethern Conference, but i n 1914-8 united with the Canadian Conference of the Menno- n i t e Brethern. The church at Namaka, organized i n 1 9 2 7 , also belonged to the Evangelical Mennonite Brethern u n t i l 191+2, when i t became a member of the Mennonite Brethern Church. At Pincher Creek a Mennonite Brethern Church was organized i n 191+6 and remained a f f i l i a t e d with the Coaldale church u n t i l 191+8. In that year i t organized i t s e l f as a separate church and constructed i t s own church building. In 1933 a Mennonite Brethern Church was organized at Vauxhall, and a church was erected i n 1 9 3 6 . In 191+0, as a r e s u l t of arson, both the Mennonite. Brethern and the General Conference Churches at Vauxhall were destroyed by f i r e . In addition to the above mentioned organized Mennonite churches small groups e x i s t at Carstairs, C r o s s f i e l d , Carseland, Strathmore, Duchess, Brooks, Irma, Castor, Provost, Drumheller, Craigmyle, Monitor, Consort, 66 The following information obtained from Questionnaire and Mennonite Encyclopedia. kk Ryley, Countess, Lymburn, and Beaverlodge.^ Coaldale, the centre of Alberta Mennonitism, deserves special attention. At Coaldale we f i n d the greatest concentration of Mennonites i n Alberta. I t i s estimated that Coaldale and i t s environs contain I 3 6 2 Mennonites including Mennonite Bre- 68 them and General Conference Mennonites. Situated i n the centre of 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 acres of good i r r i g a t i o n land Coaldale be- came the f i r s t settlement i n Alberta dominated by the Russian Mennonites. Through private e f f o r t s , and e f f o r t s of the Can- adian P a c i f i c Railway Company, the Mennonites were brought to t h i s area i n 1925 and 1926; today, amidst a cosmopolitan 69 population of twenty r a c i a l groups, 7 they form the dominant element there. When the Mennonites arrived Coaldale already had a twenty-five year history behind i t . The pioneer founder of Coaldale i s considered to be H.A. Suggit who came from I l l i n o i s about l^Olx, and -with the co-operation of a family named Cokeley, organized a com- pany to colonize and s e t t l e a block of some twelve thousand acres of i r r i g a t e d l a n d . ^ Suggit promoted numerous community plans and also b u i l t the f i r s t house at the present s i t e of Coaldale, only to lose h i s investments during the depression. Being i n dire f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s Suggit misappropriated about $ 2 0 0 0 . 0 0 of the School Board funds and served a s i x months j a i l term as a r e s u l t . A l f a l f a and grain were the staple crops around Coaldale u n t i l the sugar beet came and ushered i n a new period. The sugar beet brought d r a s t i c chan- 6 T See map at end of this thesis. 68 Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 5 1 , P» 1 2 . 69 Coaldale Flyer, December 1 2 , 1 9 5 2 , p. 5« 70 I b i d . , p. 1. 71 Material J.B. Janz. ges i n farm practices, and p r a c t i c a l l y overnight extensive farming gave place to intensive c u l t i v a t i o n . The l o c a l f a r - mers, unwilling to make the change and unable to meet the demands of new methods, looked for greener pastures elsewhere and moved away. The change to intensive farming also demanded a much larger population than Coaldale possessed at that time, and the C.P.R.-, who owned most of the land, began to look around f o r new s e t t l e r s . Their choice f e l l upon the Menno-v nites who just then were entering Canada. On t h e i r a r r i v a l the Mennonites were t o l d by T.O.P.- Herzer, an o f f i c i a l of the com- pany, that only on condition that they raise sugar beets could that land be turned over to them. ̂ j_t w a s a wise condition, for the sugar beet has become the staple product of the Coal- dale area and has enabled the Coaldale Mennonites to a t t a i n t h e i r present l e v e l of prosperity. The Mennonite pioneer of Coaldale was Klaas Enns, who came to Canada from Russia with h i s family i n 1 9 2 5 . He was not s a t i s f i e d with conditions i n Manitoba and shortly after h i s a r r i v a l there journeyed on to Alberta. His family acquired a job as beet workers near S t i r l i n g , Alberta, but s t i l l not s a t i s f i e d Mr. Enns began to look around for a place of his own. One of h i s journeys took him to Coaldale, where a Mr. Lathrop, who had been an agent for the C.P.R. f o r many years, offered him h i s large farm f o r sale. In agreement with h i s three brothers and t h e i r f a m i l i e s Mr. Enns accepted the o f f e r and i n the spring of 1926 the f i r s t four Mennonite families moved to C o a l d a l e . T h e nature of the purchase was unheard 72 Material J.B. Janz. 73 Material J.B. Janz. k6 of, for i t involved a sum of $ 5 3» 0 uO» uO without the security of a written contract and without the safeguard of a down pay- ment. , The only condition made upon the buyers was that they raise 150 acres of beets annually and d e l i v e r them under the name of Mr. Lathrop, 'until the farm was paid f o r . The neigh- bors shook t h e i r heads over the s i m p l i c i t y of the newcomers and watched.the outcome with i n t e r e s t . In. due time the farm was paid f o r and ownership was transfered to the Mennonites. The deal proved to be a success. The Coaldale settlement grew rapidly as the Cana- dian. P a c i f i c Railway Company continued to bring i n more Menno- n i t e s e t t l e r s . The majority of Mennonites of Coaldale received t h e i r lands d i r e c t l y from the C.P.R., without any down payment but under the condition that for-every eighty acres of land received they would r a i s e ten acres of sugar beets, the proc- eeds of which were to go to the company f o r the payment of . the farm.'. As a further gesture the company advanced lumber and materials to the setters f o r the construction of necessary 'farm buildings. By the end of 1926 about f o r t y Mennonite fam- i l i e s were i n the a r e a . ^ Ten years l a t e r Coaldale contained 208 f a m i l i e s with lli+ii. persons and the Mennonites owned and worked about 2 0 , 7 0 0 acres o f ' l a n d . ^ Steps to foster the s p i r i t u a l growth of the s e t t l e r s were immediately undertaken i n 1926 when the f i r s t s e t t l e r s arrived. Meetings f i r s t took place In the barn l o f t of the Lathrop farm which had become the centre of Mennonite a c t i v i t y i n the area. A year l a t e r permission was obtained 71+ Material J.B. Janz. 75 Vertreterversammlung, 1935» P» 1 5 ' to hold weekly meetings i n the local- school and i n 1929 ser- vices were started i n the newly b u i l t church. The Mennonite Brethern Church was organized i n the area i n 1 9 2 6 , under the leadership of Klaas Enns, while the General Conference Church did not organize u n t i l 1 9 2 8 . 7 ^ Although the two denominations had held j o i n t meetings u n t i l then, the organization of the l a t t e r church inaugurated a policy of separatism. The present Mennonite General Conference church building was erected i n 1936, while that of the Mennonite Brethern was erected i n 1939* The l a t t e r church has a seating capacity of 1300 and a mem- bership of 6 1 0 . 7 7 Prosperity and numerical dominance have made Coaldale the headquarters of Alberta Mennonitism. Locally Coaldale possesses more Mennonite economic establishments than any other.area. Mennonites there not only own farms but also the two largest general stores, two blacksmith shops, a garage, a hatchery, a feed m i l l , a restaurant, a photographic studio and the towns only printing:shpp. On a co-operative basis the Mennonites of Coaldale support and operate a cheese factory, a Credit Union Society, a doctor and h o s p i t a l society and a l o c a l h o s p i t a l . On a p r o v i n c i a l basis Coaldale i s head- quarters f o r the P r o v i n c i a l R e l i e f Committee, the Mennonite F i r e Insurance Society, and the B u r i a l Fund Society. In add- i t i o n the Mennonite Brethern Church of Alberta sponsors the 7ft Alberta Mennonite High School situated at Coaldale. Coal- dale i s indeed the heart of Alberta Mennonitism. 76 Coaldale Flyer. Dec . 1 2 , 1952, p. 1 0 . ~ : \ 77 Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 5 1 , P« 1 2 . 78 These various i n s t i t u t i o n s are dealt with i n chapter V of t h i s thesis. For the Alberta Mennonite High School see chapter VI. k8 Of the three Mennonite migrations to Canada the l a s t one has had the most profound and l a s t i n g effects upon Alberta. The Mennonites of the f i r s t two movements were of the more conservative Mennonite elements and have now been numerically swamped by the Russian Mennonites who soon assumed active dominance of Mennonite a f f a i r s i n the province. Out- side of very minor exceptions a d i s t i n c t d i v i s i o n has remained between the immigrants of the 1920's and the e a r l i e r Mennonite s e t t l e r s . This d i v i s i o n has been the r e s u l t not only of d i f f - erences i n b e l i e f but also variations i n interests r e s u l t i n g from a l i e n backgrounds. Therefore when one speaks of the Mennonites i n Alberta, just precedence must be given to the Russian Mennonites, the l a t e s t but the most active Mennonite element i n the province. CHAPTER THREE REISESCHULD Reiaeschuld-y—what a c o l o r f u l variety of response t h i s word has c a l l e d f o r t h on the part of the Mennonites! P r i o r to 1 9 M 3 , the word engendered anger i n some, despair i n others, indifference, weariness, and hopelessness i n s t i l l others. I t compassed the f i e l d of human emotions and on i t s return the word was s t i l l there to trouble the dreams of the Mennonite people. Some faced i t with determination and re- solve and due to such people the word since 194-6, has found a smaller place In the Mennonite vocabulary and i s incapable of arousing the f i e r c e emotions associated with i t previously. Today the word i s greeted more often with a f a i n t show of pride and engenders a. sense1 of a job w e l l done. But ithere are s t i l l a number of those who face i t with shame, even after over a quarter of a century has passed since i t was f i r s t coined. The connotations which the one word Reiseschuld has had for the Mennonites i n the past, cannot be f u l l y understood by someone unless they too have l i v e d under i t s grim shadow for over twenty years. Reiseschuld, l i t e r a l l y translated, means " t r a v e l l i n g debt," and refers s p e c i f i c a l l y to the Canadian P a c i f i c Railway debt incurred by the Russian Mennonites i n t h e i r great migra- t i o n to Canada i n the 1 9 2 0 's. The Canadian P a c i f i c had exten- ded to these people a c r e d i t of nearly | 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 , to be repaid as soon as possible. Unfortunately f o r the immigrants 50 they entered Canada when the earning p o s s i b i l i t i e s were de- creasing and the world was on the brink of the greatest econ- omic depression i n i t s hi s t o r y . Reiseschuld was a word that f o r the next twenty years was to hang over the Mennonites l i k e a black cloud; i t was to haunt many dreams and shatter many hopes. But the Mennonites plagued by this great debt which i t seemed impossible to repay, owed t h e i r l i v e s to the credit which this debt represented; there were those who f o r - got this f a c t and l a t e r cast shame upon the name "Mennonite" by t h e i r i n d i f f e r e n t and often h o s t i l e attitude to t h i s "debt of honour." Those who remembered redeemed the Mennonite hon* our by the l i q u i d a t i o n of the debt on November 1 9 , 191L6.^~ P r i o r to the Mennonite immigration movement of the 1 9 2 0 's, the Canadian Government had passed a law forbidding 2 the entrance into Canada of people of the Mennonite f a i t h . Yet the Mennonites i n Russia, who were looking to a new home, chose Canada as a refuge from the Communist terror. This choice was l a r g e l y dictated by the fact that so many of them had friends and r e l a t i v e s i n Canada who had come to the New World i n the second great Mennonite migration of the l870's." But the doors to Canada were closed and p o s s i b i l i t i e s of set- tlement there seemed very remote. The work of paving the way f o r the new movement f e l l to the Canadian Mennonite Board of ' 1 Thiessen, J . J . , "30 Jahre CM. Board", Mennonitische Rund- schau. Wed., March 1 2 , 1 9 5 2 . 2 P r o t o k o l l der Vertreterversammlung der Mennonitischen Sied- l e r Alberta's, 1 9 3 8 , p . iZjT̂ K : . r 1 Wo ted as Vertreter"^ versammlung. 51 Colonization.^ In the year 1 9 2 1 , a f t e r the annual convention of the Canadian Conference of the Mennonite Churches, a delegation was appointed by that body to go to Ottawa to p e t i t i o n the government to revoke the law forbidding the entrance of Menno- nites into Canada. The delegation then formed was t y p i c a l of the executive of the CM.B.C., i n that i t contained mem- bers from the largest Mennonite groups i n Canada,'the General Conference and the Old Mennonites. The f i r s t delegates were H.A. Neufeld representing the Mennonite Brethern, H.H. Ewert and A.A. Friesen representing the General Conference, and S.P. Coffman, representing the Old Mennonites. The l a t t e r was the same man who had so energetically organized Menno- n i t e churches i n Alberta i n the early 1 9 0 0 's. In Ottawa the delegation was given hope that i t s wishes would be considered. In February or March , 1 9 2 2 , the same delegation with three new members, Gerhard Ens, G. Goudie, and David Toews, again went to Ottawa. The new Prime Minister, W.L. Mackenzie King, gave them to understand that the r e s t r i c t i n g law would be l i f t e d as soon as possible. I t was removed on July 2 , 19221^ The CM.B.C. was founded i n Gretna, Manitoba, on May 1 7 , 1 9 2 2 , with the understanding that the main o f f i c e was to be i n Rosthern, Saskatchewan. The f i r s t executive consisted 3 Hereafter referred to by the i n i t i a l s CM.B.C. Unless other- wise stated the following dates and figures are taken from Thiessen, J.J., op. c i t . k This i s one reason why the Mennonite s e t t l e r s i n Canada have, almost exclusively, supported the L i b e r a l Party. Mackenzie King had been raised i n an area inhabited by Mennonites and was a personal f r i e n d of David Toews, f i r s t Chairman of the CM.B.C. 52 of: David Toews Chairman C.J. Andres Secretary-Treasurer H.A. Neufeld—Member A.A. Friesen—Corresponding Secretary Almost immediately a delegation was sent to Montreal to begin talks with the C.P.R. regarding the immigration of Mennonites. The Company was interested, f o r they remembered the sturdy Mennonite pioneers of the 1 8 7 0 's, and were looking for such 5 farmers for t h e i r lands i n the West. The delegation presen- ted the s i t u a t i o n to Colonel J.S. Dennis, Chief Commissioner of the Department of Immigration and Development f o r the Can- adian P a c i f i c Railway, and asked i f i t would be possible to obtain c r e d i t from the Company f o r immigration purposes. Colonel Dennis promised to present the case to S i r Edward Beatty, then President of the C.P.R. Dennis gave the dele- gates to understand that since the Mennonite Immigrants of the 1870's had been so honorable i n regard to the c r e d i t ex- tended to them then, there should be l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y i n making new arrangements f o r c r e d i t . ^ On June 2 0 , 1 9 2 2 , Dennis reported that the C.P.R. was w i l l i n g to bring 3000 Mennonites to Canada on c r e d i t , and on June 2 6 , the f i r s t credit con- t r a c t was signed between the C.P.R' and the CM.B.C., with David Toews signing for the Board. Thus Toews made himself responsible for repaying the loan and on his return home he was severely c r i t i c i z e d for signing away, by a simple stroke of the pen, the future f i n a n c i a l security of the Mennonites. Later Dennis informed Toews that he had received l e t t e r s and 5 See chapters two and four of this thesis. 0 Mennonltische Rundschau, Dec. 2 1 , 1938* 5 3 telegrams from Mennonites protesting against the credit con- t r a c t . One l e t t e r had pointed out that the contract had been drawn up i n such a way that l e g a l l y the C.P.R. could not c o l l e c t the money l a t e r . This observation was true enough and makes the Reiseschuld that much more unique as a long 7 term c r e d i t loan. L i t t l e did the Mennonites i n Canada then r e a l i z e that not only 3 0 0 0 but nearly l k , 0 0 0 Mennonites would enter Canada on t h e i r c r e d i t . David Toews, a teacher at Gretna, Manitoba, had indeed assumed a grave r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , As a r e s u l t he was loved, c r i t i c i z e d , and made fun of. During the 1 9 3 ^ * 3 someone wrote the following sarcastic poem about him: Mein l i e b e r Bruder "Irgendwie" Verzweifelt w i r k l i c h nie. . Er laesst die Dinge ruhig gehen, Ohn' ihnen i n den Weg zu stehen, Und glaubt, die allerschwersten Sachen Werden s i c h irgendwie schon machen... Und sieh 1 wir leben Tag fuer Tag, Was immer uns auch kommen mag; Behalten unsern frohen Mut; Am Ende wird doch a l l e s gut. 8 But the s i t u a t i o n had not been handled as haphazardly as the poem suggested, f o r David Toews considered i t a "work of Faith, of a t r u s t i n God and the honor of the immigrants."^ The new immigration began i n 1 9 2 3 , governed by the 7 Loc. c i t . 8 Janzen J.H., David Toews, Rosthern, D.H. Epp, Publisher, 1 9 3 9 , p. I D . Free t r a n s l a t i o n of the poem: My dear brother "Somehow" Is discouraged nohow. He l e t s thing go Without standing i n t h e i r way you know, And believes that problems of the greatest kind W i l l solve themselves as you w i l l f i n d . And look, we're l i v i n g and we sing, What'er the future has to bring; And our high s p i r i t s keep we s h a l l , For the end w i l l always turn out w e l l . 9 Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 3 5 , p.8 . O r d e r - i n - C o u n e i l , P.C. 1 8 5 , i s s u e d on January 3 1 , 1 9 2 3 . 1 0 T h i s law removed the monetary q u a l i f i c a t i o n of $ 2 5 0 . 0 0 nec- essary f o r immigrants and which had been e s t a b l i s h e d by P.C. 2668 i n 1 9 2 1 . " ^ The only requirement necessary f o r Immigra- t i o n to Canada was the assurance of an a g r i c u l t u r a l occupation upon a r r i v a l . In the case of the Mennonites t h i s occupation 12 was guaranteed by the C.P.R- and the CM.B.C. D i f f i c u l t i e s arose, however, as l a r g e numbers of immigrants were brought forward from i n t e r i o r p o i n t s of the c o n t i n e n t to the p o r t s of embarkation, only to be r e j e c t e d by f a i l u r e to meet the h e a l t h requirements f o r Canada. A . s o l u t i o n to t h i s problem was found i n t h a t the C.P.R. appointed i n s p e c t i o n a l o f f i c e r s designated as " C e r t i f i c a t e I s s u i n g O f f i c e r s " , whose duty i t was to " i n s p e c t the p r o s p e c t i v e immigrants a t i n t e r n a l p o i n t s and to i s s u e c e r t i f i c a t e s which guaranteed placement, c e r t i - f i e d h i s e l i g i b i l i t y from the standpoint of the o c c u p a t i o n a l t e s t , and c a r r i e d a statement from the immigrant t h a t he was proceeding as an a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t and would take up a g r i c u l - 1 3 t u r a l work i n Canada." In Moscow the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the Mennonites, Mr.' B.B. Janz, who had a l s o been chosen by the C.P.R. as a Cer- t i f i c a t e I s s u i n g O f f i c e r , p o i n t e d out t h a t not a l l the Menno- n i t e s sought.to e n t e r Canada on the c r e d i t terms arranged by the CM.B.C.; many Mennonites had money to pay cash. T h i s l a t t e r group was e a g e r l y accepted by the CP.R. as "paying 10 England, ,R., The C e n t r a l European Immigrant i n Canada] Toronto, Macmillan Company of Canada L t d . , 192S), p. 2 1 . 11 Loc. c i t . 12 P e r s o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n from B.B. Janz. 13 England, o'p. c i t . , p. 2 6 . 55 customers. ""^ Thus, two types of Mennonite immigrants enter- ed Canada, those on c r e d i t and those paying t h e i r way. The following chart shows the number entering each year either 1 5 on c r e d i t or cash terms: ^ Year Credit Cash Total 1923 /#2,759 4 — 42,759 192k 3 , 8 9 k • i , i 5 k 5,Ok8 1925 2,171 1 , 6 0 1 3 , 7 7 2 1926 2 , k 7 9 3 A 6 i 5,9kO 1927 3k0 507 8k7 1928 kC-8 103 511 1929 1 , 0 0 9 10 1,019 1930 29k 11 305 Total 1 3 , 3 5 k 6 , 8 k 7 2 0 , 2 0 1 The t o t a l c r e d i t extended to these immigrants by the' C.P.R. was $ 1 , 7 6 7 , 3 9 8 . 6 8, """̂ a sum that the Mennonites soon came to c a l l the Reiseschuld. The duty of the CM.B.C. now was to c o l l e c t this money and repay the C.P.R. i n the shortest possible time. Before the immigrants could be expected to pay, however, they must be s e t t l e d and put into a p o s i t i o n where payment was possible. In 192k the Mennonite Land Settlement Board was founded to aid the s e t t l e r s i n acquiring land. In co-oper- ation with the C.P.R. and the CM.B.C. this body was success- Ik Information from B.B. Janz. 15 Mennonitische Rundschau, Wed., March 1 2 , 1 9 5 2 « 16 Loc. c i t . 56 f u l i n providing land for many Mennonites. In 193>k-> the Land Settlement Board was absorbed by the CM.B.C., the l a t - 1 7 ter taking over the settlement duties of the former. 1 The CM.B.C. was incorporated i n 1925 and H.B. Janz was appointed as "Collector" of the Reiseschuld. Janz held t h i s position u n t i l 1 9 3 0 , when he was succeeded by CP. Klassen, who re- mained on the job u n t i l the debt was l i q u i d a t e d . On A p r i l k, 1 9 k 6 , David Toews resigned as Chairman of the CM.B.C. and was succeeded by J.J. Thiessen who i s s t i l l i n that posi- t i o n . David Toews died on February 2 5 , 1 9 k 7 , a scant four months a f t e r the l i q u i d a t i o n of the debt had again made him a free man. Prom the beginning the CM.B.C. r e a l i z e d that the c o l l e c t i o n of the Reiseschuld would not be an easy task. I t was p r a c t i c a l l y impossible f o r the Board to supervise closely the c o l l e c t i o n work i n a l l areas where the new immigrants had s e t t l e d . In order to f a c i l i t a t e c o l l e c t i o n s and increase the e f f i c i e n c y of the organization, the new immigrants i n each province were requested £0 form a " P r o v i n c i a l Committee" to supervise the work of c o l l e c t i o n . The provinces were then to be divided into d i s t r i c t s each having a Distriktmann (dis- t r i c t representative), who would be responsible f o r the Reise- 19 schuld payments i n his area. Of the 200 d i s t r i c t s formed i n 20 Canada, forty-three were i n Alberta. The P r o v i n c i a l comm- i t t e e s and the Distriktmaenner were responsible £0 the Ver- 17 Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 3 9 , P« 1 8 . 18 I b i d . , p. 1 7 . 19 Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 3 8 , p. 1 1 . 20 Vertreterversammlung, I9k5, P« 30• 5 7 treterversammlung (Representative Meeting), which i n turn was responsible to the CM.B.C. i n Rosthern. In most of the l a r - ger Mennonite settlements, such as Coaldale, an Ortskomitee (Local Committee) was formed to aid the d i s t r i c t represent- ative i n h i s work. In general, the following diagram portrays i n a s i m p l i f i e d way the organization as i t functioned u n t i l 1914-6: CANADIAN MENNONITE BOARD OP COLONIZATION PROVINCIAL VER1 'RETER VER SAMMLUNG PROVINCIAL COMMITTEES LOCAL COMMITTEES f o r larger d i s t r i c t s DISTRIKTMANN To finance t h i s organization a levy of three d o l l a r s was placed on each immigrant over l 6 years of age. This levy had to be repeated i n 193k, and an additional charge of f i f t y cents, i n 1938• Much trouble was encountered i n c o l l e c t i n g t h i s levy i n i t s entirgty. The main function of the organization, u n t i l I9k7, was the elimination of the C.P.R. debt. Closely associated with this purpose was the e f f o r t to help the Mennonite Immi- grants obtain land and s e t t l e i n areas where they would not be i s o l a t e d from others of l i k e ' f a i t h . As the years progress- ed, other functions of an economic and co-operative nature f e l l to i t s l o t , as w e l l as the supervision of r e l i e f work, 58 21 p a r t i c u l a r l y during and a f t e r World War I I . In fact these l a t t e r duties soon became so Important that on one occasion > a representative said, "Gut dass wir noch die Reiseschuld haben, sonst haetten wir keine Provinzielversammlungen mehr und das waere schade; denn nebenbei besprechen wir ja noch manche andere Fragen." 2 2 In l a t e r years the P r o v i n c i a l Ver- treterversammlung became the c e n t r a l i z i n g body and ultimate authority for most Mennonite endeavors i n Alberta. The f i r s t gigantic task, however, was the l i q u i d a - tion of the C.P.R. debt. By 1926 only about 228 credit con- 2 3 tracts had been repaid i n a l l of Canada. J The promissory notes, signed by the immigrants when they entered Canada, were not returned however, because the debt was considered not an i n d i v i d u a l one but the debt of the Mennonite people as a whole. The Board intended to keep the notes u n t i l the entire debt was paid. This step caused much opposition and had to be abandoned,2^" and consequently since 1926, promissory notes were returned when an i n d i v i d u a l paid h i s own share of the Reiseschuld i n f u l l . Payments lagged and the Canadian P a c i f i c expressed concern over the matter. 2 ^ By July, 1936, the debt plus i n - terest s t i l l amounted to $l, k 6 7 , 8 2 3 . 6 0 , of which $232,058.87 was owed by the Mennonites i n Alberta. Injspite of the 21 These functions s h a l l be dealt with i n l a t e r chapters. 22 Vertreterversammlung, 1939, P'» 29 23 Vertreterversammlung, 1936, p. 28 2[\. Loc. c i t . 25 P r o t o k o l l der Versammlung der Mennoniten Gruppe bei Coal- dale, March 5 , 193k. Hereafter referred to as V.M.G. 26 Vertreterversammlung, 1936, p. 26. 59 generous premiums f o r prompt payment, extended to the Menno- n i t e s by the C.P.R., i t took Alberta u n t i l the end of 19k5 to l i q u i d a t e her debt, and she was the f i r s t province to accom- p l i s h t h i s feat. The following table gives a comprehensive picture of payments made and premiums received i n the province 27 of Alberta: Year Premiums Received Debt Paid . Interest Paid Levy (#3.00) Total 1932 * $-ki-980.5k $ $ I k,980.5k 1933 5 , k 0 7 . k 6 5,l+07.k6 1933 5 , k 0 7 . k 6 5,l+07.k6 1.934 12,3k9.83 I2 , 3 k 9 . 8 3 9,923.15 1.934 12,3k9.83 I2 , 3 k 9 . 8 3 9,923.15 1935 1,758.8k 8,771.1k 707.80 kkk. 2 1 I2 , 3 k 9 . 8 3 9,923.15 1936 2 , 9 0 2 . 7 k 10,253.21 679.85 637.08 l l , 5 7 0 . l k 1937 k, 1 3 3 . 6 2 1 2 , 6 6 6 . 8 5 559.50 502.37 13,728.72 J1938 3 , 6 3 6 . 2 3 I 0 , l 8 2 . k 7 1,107.31 703.58 11,993.36 1939 2 , 6 0 5 . 9 5 ] 8 , 0 3 3 . 3 2 70k.00 965.12 9,702.kk I 9 k 0 2 , 1 8 0 . 5 8 5 , 9 1 3 . 8 5 80.85 860.29 6,85k-99 1 9 k l | 13,376.3k 19,356.35 513.50 l , k k 2 . 9 2 21,312.77 I 9 k 2 | 10,712.76 16,337.62 1,7514.-85 1,502.30 19,59k.77 I9k3 kl,0 S 7 . 3 2 , 35,328.23 3,156.10 1,588.86 kO,073.19 19kk 57,670.39 51,5514-09 2,328.17 1,502.60 55,38k. 86 19k5 12,521.60 1 0 , 5 2 9 . 2 k 5I+I.O7 978.3k I 2 , 0 k 8 . 6 5 I9k6 3,392.67 3 , 0 2 0 . 2 k 3,103.^3 1,196.25 7,319.92 Total i 5 5 , 9 k k . o k 21k, 68k. kk I5, 2 3 6 . k 3 1 2 , 3 2 3 . 9 2 2k2,2kk-79 The t o t a l C.P.R. debt paid by the Mennonites i n Alberta: 27 Vertre terver sammlung, Dec, 19k6, p. 39*. Total debt paid — $ 2 2 9 , 9 2 0 . 8 7 Premium Received 1 5 5 , 9 k k . Ok Total debt covered 3 8 5 , 8 6 k . 9 1 The t o t a l C.P.R. debt paid by the Mennonites i n Canada: P r i n c i p a l — $ 1 , 7 6 7 , 3 9 8 . 6 8 Interest 1 8 0 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 Total- l , 9 k 7 , 3 9 8 . 6 8 This figure does not include the more than $ 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 28 granted to the Mennonites as premiums by the C.P.R. Why did i t take so long to repay the debt? T The great majority of the Mennonites at a l l times recognized the moral o b l i g a t i o n to pay, a f a c t that i s c l e a r l y evident when the Mennonite newspapers of the period and the reports and minutes of the various organizations are studied. Yet there was a small but stubborn minority who took either an i n d i f f e r e n t attitude or even a h o s t i l e stand against the debt and sought every possible escape from t h e i r obligations. Even- t u a l l y some did evade payment by an outright refusal to pay, but i t was at the price of having the Mennonite public opinion against them even though the church ban was not used. The greatest d i f f i c u l t y i n connection with the payment of the Reiseschuld was the depression of the 1 9 3 0 's, which h i t Canada soon a f t e r the immigrants arrived. The con- ditions during the great depression are f a m i l i a r and need not be discussed here. Scarcity of jobs, weakness of earning power, low prices of farm products, and drought, played havoc with the plans of the Mennonites as they did with those of 28 Thiessen J.J., op. c i t . 61 other people. During the f i r s t years of the depression the willingness to pay was there, but the p o s s i b i l i t i e s were not. Considering the circumstances i t i s rather amazing that so .much was paid during the time. The t o t a l debt paid by the Mennonites i n Canada from 1931 to 1935 i n c l u s i v e was #199, 3 6 5 . 5 1 , a figure that d e f i n i t e l y speaks of a w i l l to pay,2^ However, i t did take the wartime boom to eliminate the debt e n t i r e l y . As was'.mentioned, there were always those who t r i e d to escape payment by d i s c r e d i t a b l e , i f l e g a l means. One me- thod t r i e d was a declaration of bankruptcy;3® i t was not successful. Others believed that with the death of the head of the family the Reiseschuld could be buried with him.-^ There Is even record of some debtors who t r i e d to return to Germany, although they had promised not to leave Canada u n t i l 32 the debt was p a i d . J The CM.B.C. did everything i n i t s power to hinder any attempt to evade making payments. There were, of course, those who outright refused to pay. The CM.B.C. had to point out that the Reiseschuld was not an insured .debt and that i t was not a debt i n the ordinary sense of the term; i t had not arisen through business transactions which looked to a p r o f i t , rather i t arose through " r e l i e f action" aimed at "saving l i v e s . " ^ The debt was to be considered not only as the debt of an i n d i v i d u a l but also as a debt of the Mennonite society; not only the head of the family was responsible for 29 Vertreterversammlung, 1936, p. 26 30 Ibid., p.~2TjT 31 Ibid., p. 28. 32 Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 3 9 , P' 17. 33 Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 3 6 , p. 2 8 . 62 i t but the entire family must assume the obligation. 3k In Alberta various methods were employed i n order to stimulate payment. In the Vertreterversammlungen of the 1930's a representative of the G.M.B.C. was always•present. On most occasions David Toews, Chairman, and CP. Klassen, Collector, gave reports and attempted to stimulate | enthusiasm. The reports given usually contained more of an emotional app- eal to the "honor of the Mennonites" than actual figures as ~" to the progress made. This was p a r t i c u l a r l y true of David Toews; C P . Klassen, as c o l l e c t o r , kept meetings informed of payments made and the amounts s t i l l owing. Constant stress was l a i d i n the f a c t that the C.P.R. credit had been made possible by the "honorable" dealings of the I87O immigrants with the Canadian government at that time. ^ The C.P.R. debt was a debt of honor that had to be repaid. 36 I f the Menno- nites now f a i l e d to l i v e up to the moral obligations i n regard to the present debt, the p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r helping future Mennonite immigrants would be greatly damaged. Mr. CP. Kla- ssen urged that i f large payments were impossible to make then small payments should be made. This would at least bear witness that the w i l l to pay was there.-" I t was urged that the children of parents owing the C.P.R., should be made f u l l y aware of the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n regard to the Reiseschuld., When the children became of age ( 1 6 ) , , they were required to sign promissory notes making them- 3k Loc. c i t . 3 5 See page 3 0 of t h i s thesis. 36 Report of David Toewsin Vertre terversammlung, 1 9 3 5 , P« 9» 37 Report of CP. Klassen i n Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 3 5 , P« 8» ' 6 3 selves d i r e c t l y responsible f o r the debt. In the case of marriage the husband assumed the debt f o r h i s wife.^ 8 By these means a sense of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the debt was passed on to the children. A - scheme that was I n i t i a t e d i n the early t h i r t i e s was that of insuring the head of the family, that i n case of 3 9 his death money to pay the debt would be available. This scheme seems to have been a f a i l u r e for i t was given up.^ In 1 9 3 2 , 'it was requested by the Mennonite s e t t l e r s at Goal- dale that the C.P.R. be contacted and requested that a l l pay- ments on the debt should be used to reduce the p r i n c i p l e , and that no interest be paid on the i n t e r e s t . T h e CM.B.C. was informed of this wish but there i s no record of action being taken regarding i t . As a l a s t attempt to stimulate payment, i t was decided to publish the names of the f a m i l i e s s t i l l owing as w e l l as the amounts outstanding.^"2 This step may have been successful i n a minor degree but seemed to c a l l f o r t h more anger than payments. In the l a t e summer of 1937, S i r Edward Beatty was v i s i t i n g Western Canada. He had plans to v i s i t Calgary and Lethbridge and expressed the desire to v i s i t a Mennonite s e t t - 38 Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 3 6 , p. 2 8 . The writer r e c a l l s how h i s mother often prevented the purchase of some desired but unnecessary a r t i c l e with the words, "Kinder, nicht ehe die Reiseschuld bezahlt i s t . " (Children, not before the Reise- schuld i s paid). How many youthful hopes were shattered by that wordl 39 Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 3 8 , p. Ik liO Loc. c i t . lj.1 V.M.G., Dec. 2 9 , 1932. k.2 V.M.G. , Jan. 2 7 , I 9 k l . 6k lement i n Alberta. The Mennonite leaders eagerly seized the opportunity and i t was decided to have S i r Edward,come to Coaldale, the largest Mennonite settlement i n Alberta. The time was very opportune for such a v i s i t . Because of the gen- e r a l discouragement occassioned by the depression and the apathy of many Mennonites regarding the Reiseschuld, t h i s v i s i t was u t i l i z e d to refresh the memory of the Mennonite people of t h e i r great escape from Russia. The leaders also looked to the future and saw c l e a r l y that the time might come again when the goodwill of the C.P.R. would be a necessary Ingred- ient of future Mennonite migrations.""^ Again, the Mennonites wanted to show that even i f they had been slow to pay, they were thankful for the great help which had been extended to them by the C.P.R. I t was a move i n which diplomacy and thankfulness had an equal share, and to the frayed f i n a n c i a l bonds between the C.P.R. and the Mennonites were now to be added the bonds of sentiment. The s e t t l e r s i n Coaldale a l l remember " S i r Edward Beatty Day" with genuine warmth and thankfulness. I t i s one day which w i l l go down i n the h i s t o r y of the Mennonites of Alberta as a high-water mark of t h e i r r e l a t i o n s with the great company. Colonel J.S. Dennis, who had been i n r e t i r e - ment since 1930 i n V i c t o r i a , B.C., was also i n v i t e d , and with him came a number of C.vE.R. o f f i c i a l s including W.M. N e i l , Vice president of the C.P.R. Present also were T.O.P. Herzer, Chairman of-the Canada Colonization Association, Senator Buchanan of Alberta, and-Mr. Elton, the Mayor of Lethbrldge. k 3 Personal information from B.B. Janz. 65 On September 1 9 , 1 9 3 7 , these noteables entered the Mennonite Brethern church at Coaldale, to experience something new. In the speeches which followed, the whole story of the Mennonite escape from Russia was reviewed, f i r s t by Rev. B.B. Janz and th en by Rev. David Toews. The C.P.R. was por- trayed as the saviour of the 2 0 , 2 0 1 Mennonites who had entered Canada i n the 1 9 2 0 ' s . Then came the most impressive part of the ceremony. Ten Russian born Mennonite g i r l s , aged nine to twelve, a l l dressed i n white, came to the f r o n t i n pairs to where S i r Edward and Colonel Dennis sat, and each placed a bouquet of flowers at t h e i r feet. In doing so one said, "You saved our l i v e s , " the other, "We thank you." This was repea- ted by each p a i r of g i r l s . The Mennonitlsche Rundschau, l a t e r reported, "President Beatty was deeply moved and tears f i l l e d the eyes of Colonel Dennis. " ^ In the address of welcome-Rev. B.B. Janz said, F a i t h f u l prayers of thousands of our people i n Russia have knocked at the gate of our Heavenly Father, who transferred these knocks to the o f f i c e of S i r Edward Beatty and Colonel Dennis, who i n turn allowed t h e i r o f f i c e s to become a house of God, where the resolution to save so many l i v e s was passed and carried out, an act of Christian charity unequalled i n the history of today. k 5 Following the presentation of the bouquets by the g i r l s , an ..illuminated address was presented to S i r Edward Beatty. I t read; I t w i l l be recorded i n the pages of history and engraved on 2 0 , 0 0 0 l i v i n g , g r a t e f u l hearts that the association with the Canadian P a c i f i c Railway was an essential and indispensible l i n k i n the kk Mennonitlsche Rundschau, Dec. 1 2 , 1 9 3 8 ' ii-5 Gibbon, op. c i t . , p. 1 8 9 . ko Photographic copy of address obtained from J.B. Janz. 66 chain of circumstances by which our people were saved from s p i r i t u a l and moral r u i n . Under the guidance of Divine Providence, a door of escape was opened for our people by the Canadian P a c i f i c Railway, and subsequently by the- Government and people of Canada. In this land of adoption we have found peace, security, d a i l y bread and a Home. A l l t h i s was accomplished on a basis of good f a i t h . We on our part s h a l l always endeavour to do a l l i n our power to j u s t i f y the confidence placed i n us, and we hope that the Canadian Paci- f i c Railway and the Government and people of Can- ada w i l l never have reason to withdraw t h e i r con- fidence. Our people, men of f a i t h and conscience, w i l l guarantee t h i s . Your personal decision favourable to t h i s move- ment, esteemed S i r Edward Beatty, was a determining factor i n the deliverance of our people. Neither the present nor the future generations of our people w i l l ever forget. God be with you. The Mennonite s e t t l e r s at Coaldale, Alberta. September 1 9 t h , 1 9 3 7 . A s i m i l a r address was presented to Colonel Dennis.^- 7 More than 20,000 people who were rescued from a s p i r i t u a l and moral disaster remember grate- f u l l y , that 15 years ago there sat i n the coun- c i l s of the Canadian P a c i f i c Railway a man who had the v i s i o n and the f a i t h to save a whole people - t o t a l strangers to him - who were f i n - a n c i a l l y crushed and ruined. This noble confidence and the act of trans- porting them to Canada, was under the Providence of God, the cause of t h e i r deliverance.. While ravages continue overseas, we here enjoy l i b e r t y , peace, security, subsistance and a home. Your great confidence i n us, noble Colonel Dennis, as w e l l as that of the Canadian P a c i f i c Railway, the government and the people of Canada, w i l l not be dishonored by us. Our people, strong i n f a i t h and faithfulness w i l l vouch for that. Your confidence i n us stands out as one of the most glorious pages of our h i s t o r y . Never s h a l l we forget. God be with you. The Mennonite s e t t l e r s at Coaldale, Alberta. September 1 9 t h , 1937. Following the presentation of these addresses S i r k7 Photographic copy of address obtained from J.B. Janz. Edward and Colonel Dennis were asked to speak. S i r Edward - said that the manner i n which the Mennonites of Western Canada were repaying t h e i r obligations was ample j u s t i f i c a t i o n for what the C.P.R. had done. He expressed the hope that the Mennonite communities might continue long to enjoy the homes they were carving out f o r themselves.""^ Colonel Dennis said, "May I say i n a l l s i n c e r i t y that I appreciate the sentiments expressed i n this memorial. I have been associated with the ® movement of Mennonite people into Western Canada ever since my boyhood. The f i r s t colonies were brought to Canada because of a loan of a m i l l i o n d o l l a r s made by the Dominion Government. Every cent of that loan was r e p a i d . " ^ He went on to say that the fact that the loan had been repaid had much to do with h i s being able to persuade S i r Edward to advance some $ 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 to help bring the Mennonite refugees to Canada ten years pre- viously. The ceremony ended with the singing of God Save the King. The Beatty celebration was a diplomatic triumph for the Mennonites i n Alberta. By t h i s i s not meant that the s e t t l e r s were insincere i n the expression of t h e i r thankful- ness. The large majority had never forgotten the debt they owed to the C.P.R., and the sentiments expressed were sincere. The celebration s t i r r e d the sluggish consciences of the people, and many, who u n t i l now had been i n d i f f e r e n t , r e c a l l e d the suffering and the misery of the past and the resolve to l i v e up to t h e i r obligations was born again. This i s c l e a r l y seen by the fact that i n 1937 the Mennonites of Alberta paid a h8 Canadian P a c i f i c Staff B u l l e t i n , Oct. 1, 1 9 3 7 . lj.9 Loc. c i t . Dennis seems to have made an error. The sum was $ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 68 t o t a l sum of $ 1 3 , 2 2 6 . 3 5 , the highest figure paid i n any one year before 1 9 k l . ^ 0 n "the death of Colonel Dennis on Novem- ber 2 6 , 1 9 3 8 , and of S i r Edward Beatty on March 2 3 , I9J4.3, deep g r i e f and genuine sympathy were expressed by the Menno- n i t e s . Of Colonel Dennis, Rev. David Toews wrote, "Sie haben einen guten Mann begraben. Uns aber war er mehr. Sentiment alone was not enough and the P r o v i n c i a l Committee had to make renewed e f f o r t s to c o l l e c t the remaining money. The end of the depression made a marked change i n the paying a b i l i t i e s of the Mennonites. "This change i s c l e a r l y evident i n the payments made to the C.P.R. after 1 9 k l . In 1 9 3 7 , C.P. Klassen made arrangements with the C.P.R. that i f any one of the 200 d i s t r i c t s paid t h e i r . e n t i r e debt, a premium of $0% or more of the interest would.be gran- ted to that area.5^- This was a new stimulus and the d i s t r i c t s i n Alberta, under the leadership of the P r o v i n c i a l Committee, began to organize i n an e f f o r t to eliminate t h e i r entire debt i n three y e a r s . i t was again stressed that a l l Mennonites were debtors, and that as long as one d o l l a r debt remained the Mennonites of Canada were bound by a moral obligation. The debt was incurred by the Mennonite society and must be paid by them.^ The Vertreterversammlung decided that pressure be brought to bear on debtors to pay i n f u l l . Some would s t i l l not pay, but the remaining money was to be collected from the Mennonite society at the rate of $ k 5 . 0 0 per family and thus the debt was to be liquidated. 50 See table page 59 -of t h i s thesis. 51 Mennonitlsche Rundschau, Dec. 2 1 , 1938 52 Vertreterversammlung, 1937, p. 31 53 Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 3 8 , p. Ik 5k Vertreterversammlung, 1937, pp. 7-8 http://would.be 69 Although t h i s plan was not completed i n three years, the province of Alberta was the f i r s t to cast off the burden of the Reiseschuld. Slowly, by d i s t r i c t s , the debt disappeared. , 55 Gem, Rosemary, Duchess, and others, accomplished this i n 1 9 k 3 . In 19i|i|., Lindbrook, T o f i e l d , Wembley and La Glace were suc- cessful i n t h e i r e f f o r t s . ^ b On February 9 , 19k5> at the Ver- tre terver sammlung held at Rosemary, the chairman of the Pro- v i n c i a l Committee, Mr. A.A. Toews, announced the l i q u i d a t i o n of the Alberta Reiseschuld i n the following elated words,^ ... .Wir wissen e'igentlich garnicht was uns und euch geworden i s t , nachdem endlich die grosse Schulden- l a s s t abgewaelzt i s t . Es geht uns so wie i n Psalm 126 geschrieben steht: dann werden wir sein wie die ' Traeumenden. I s t es w i r k l i c h k e i t , Oder i s t es nur ein schoener Traum? Das, was uns vor etlichen Jahr- en ganz unmoeglich schien, i s t j e t z t zur Tatsache ge^ worden: die Provinz Alberta hat als solehe keine Reiseschuld mehr der C.P.R. gegenueber und auch die Notenschuld i s t abgetan. Ja, wir koennen mit Recht ausrufen: Der Herr hat grosses an uns getan, des sind wir f r o e h l i c h . Ihm i n erster L i n i e a l l e Ehre. Outside of a few sums overlooked previously, the Mennonites of Alberta were free of the persistent heavy C.P.R. load. Of l a t e the word Reiseschuld has again attained a respectable place i n the Mennonite vocabulary. 55 Vertre terver sammlung, 194k» P» llj- 56 Loc. c i t . 57 Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 k 5 , P« 2 2 . CHAPTER POUR LAND SETTLEMENT POLICIES Throughout t h e i r entire h i s t o r y the Mennonites have tended to s e t t l e i n groups, and whenever migration and resettlement have been necessary, as i t often was, the Menno- n i t e leaders endeavoured to obtain land i n "blocks" which would insure group settlement. The motives behind group settlement are simple. The Mennonites have always s t r i v e n at "separation" from the world and t h i s i n turn meant the Gemeinschaft ( f e l l - owship) of the believers. Group settlements, therefore, have been motivated as much by the desire to have the fellowship of those of l i k e b e l i e f , as they have been to remain apart from the " s i n f u l " world. On the part of the Mennonite.s there has always been the j u s t i f i e d fear that unless they s e t t l e d i n homogeneous groups, i t would be impossible to avoid assimila- t i o n , with, and absorption i n t o , the main stream of the coun- try's culture. For four-hundred years t h i s has been a domin- ating p r i n c i p l e of Mennonite group settlement, and i n Canada the pattern has been l a r g e l y the t r a d i t i o n a l one. Although economic factors do play a minor part i n stimulating the Menno- n i t e s to adhere to t h e i r own kind, they are only of very minor importance. In Canada the Mennonites have been l a r g e l y absor- bed i n an economic sense, but s o c i a l l y and r e l i g i o u s l y they remain an ethnic group. Pear of losing t h e i r f a i t h i n the stream of modern complex culture and b e l i e f s has been, and remains, the dominant incentive to Mennonite group settlement. In Canada the desire to s e t t l e i n "closed" commurii- 71 t i e s met with exceptional success. As has already been seen, the Mennonite immigrants of the 1870's had blocks of land re- served f o r t h e i r special use. Even today, i n the East and West reserves i n Manitoba, the Mennonite element i s completely dominant. Although such large areas were never again set aside f o r the settlement of any p a r t i c u l a r ethnic group, the C.P.R. and the large landowners i n Canada were greatly interested i n s e t t l i n g t h e i r large tracts of land with groups of people. The work of settlement which was attempted by the CM.B.C. was accelerated by the private interests of the railway company and large landowners. The pre-war and wartime booms were things of the past, and the large landowners i n the Canadian West were "eager to reduce or s e l l e n t i r e l y , t h e i r large hold- ings. There were only two alternatives: either to cut up the large land areas and s e l l to individuals or to s e l l entire holdings to groups of f a m i l i e s . The l a t t e r method was preferr- ed as being simpler and cheaper f o r the vendor and more promi- sing of success f o r the fundless Mennonite s e t t l e r s . Since the C.P.R. was concerned to make the Mennonite colonization i n the West a success, they also favored t h i s method. The Menno- nites had no objection; f o r them I t was an answer to prayer. The desire of the Mennonites to l i v e i n groups has often l e d uninformed observers to accuse them of tendencies toward communism. Nothing could be more erroneous. The average Mennonite Is an i n d i v i d u a l with the best of them, and communism has no appeal for him whatever. Co-operation with persons of his own f a i t h has always been near to the Mennonite 72 h e a r t — b u t communism never has. Rarely i s property owned communally among the Mennonites, and then only where conditions make i t necessary to use the communal form i n order to make the beginnings somewhat easier. The Mennonite i s an i n d i v i d u a l with an i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c desire f o r complete personal freedom within the l i m i t s of h i s own group. e The majority of the newcomers of the 1 9 2 0 's, settled on C.P.R. lands, or lands found f o r them by the C.P.R. and i t s a f f i l i a t e d organizations. James B. Hedges, i n his book Build- ing the Canadian West, has c l e a r l y and a u t h o r i t a t i v e l y t o l d the story of the colonization of the Canadian West through the e f f o r t s of the Canadian P a c i f i c Railway Company.""" The Company, i n close co-operation with the Canadian Mennonite Board"of Colonization, put f o r t h every e f f o r t to make the Mennonite colonization scheme a success. The Company also maintained the Canada Colonization Association as a "medium f o r the settlement of private land," and i n order to achieve a greater harmony and unity i n the work of s e t t l i n g the Mennonites, the Mennonite Land Settlement Board was organized, which, although containing A Mennonite member, was dominated and directed by Colonel Dennis of the C.P.R. The Mennonites as a society, at a l l times lacked a w e l l defined settlement p o l i c y , a f a c t that was to work i n a deterimental way on the plans .and hopes of the Canadian Mennonite Board of Colonization. The element of planning which did e x i s t was a d i r e c t r e s u l t of the organ- 1 Hedges, J.B.. Building the Canadian West, The Land and Col- onization P o l i c i e s of the Canadian P a c i f i c Railway, New York, The Macmillan Co., 1 9 3 9 , PP. 37Q-377. 2 I b i d . , p. 370 73 i z a t i o n under the d i r e c t i o n of the C.P.R' i t s e l f . 3 I t i s evident that the C.P.R. has been the most important factor In the settlement of the lands i n the Canadian West. A f t e r the completion of the railway, the company had 2 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 acres of crown lands to dispose of and consequently desired to create i n the West a r i c h and productive farming community which would furnish t r a f f i c f o r the company's strugg- l i n g r a i l l i n e s . To aid i n t h i s venture and to meet the de- mands of colonization, the Department of Colonization was f o r - med i n 1916 with Colonel J.S. Dennis at i t s head. In 1930 t h i s name was changed to Department of Immigration and Coloni- zation.^" to receive for constructing the railway, the company was'vbb- l i g e d to accept areas which were not " f a i r l y f i t f o r s e t t l e - ment."^ As f a r as the lands i n Alberta were concerned, the C.P.R. declined to accept the area along the main l i n e between Moose Jaw and the mountains because the land was too dry and therefore u n f i t f o r settlement. By 1903 not a l l land had been selected and the government issued an order that the balance of the land grant must be selected before the end of that year, the deficiency at that time being 3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 acres. 0 The poss- i b i l i t i e s of i r r i g a t i o n i n the dry b e l t i n Alberta had been investigated under the d i r e c t i o n of J.S. Dennis, then the In- 3 See Appendix B p. II Colley, J., "Company Colonization A c t i v i t i e s Aid Settlement of the Dominion", Canadian P a c i f i c Staff B u l l e t i n , March 1, - 19I4.0, p. 6 . 5 Porter, S.G., "The Canadian P a c i f i c Land Grants and t h e i r Administration", Canadian P a c i f i c Staff B u l l e t i n , Feb., 1, In selecting the land subsidy which the C.P.R. was 7k spector of Surveys f o r the Dominion Government. The i n v e s t i - gation showed that p o t e n t i a l f e r t i l e lands were tributary to the St. Mary's and Bow r i v e r s east of Calgary. The C.P.R. accepted t h i s block of land and decided to b u i l d i r r i g a t i o n 7 works to serve i t . The entire i r r i g a t i o n block was subsequently d i v i - ded into three sections known as Eastern, Central, and W e S t - lS e m sections. Although 'the central section i s only now being f i t t e d out with i r r i g a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s the Eastern and Western sections were soon completed. The Western section comprises 1 , 0 0 2 , 3 . 0 k . actes with 2 1 8 , 9 8 0 under i r r i g a t i o n . ^ The cost of the I r r i g a t i o n construction i n these two sections amounted to | 1 8 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 . In 1 9 1 2 , the C.P.R. purchased the Alberta Railway and I r r i g a t i o n Company system, which l i e s d i r e c t l y south of the main C.P.R. i r r i g a t i o n b l o c k . 1 0 This area was f i r s t developed by the Alber/ta Railway and I r r i g a t i o n Company and i s the old- est i r r i g a t i o n area of any size i n Canada. I t was opened f o r operation i n 1 9 0 0 . Thus two types of farming land were opened to the Mennonites when they came west i n the 1 9 2 0 ' s - - i r r i g a t e d land and dry land. Being unfamiliar with i r r i g a t i o n the pioneer Mennonites preferred the dry land, but i t was inevitable that some would come into contact with i r r i g a t e d land. In 192k the s e t t l e r s bought land at Didsbury and T o f i e l d , both situated i n 7 Loc. c i t . See map page 7 6 . 8 I r r i g a t i o n Farming i n Sunny Alberta, 1 9 2 5 , P. 2 . 9 Porter, op. c i t . , p. 10 See map page 7 6 . 11 I r r i g a t i o n Farming i n Sunny Alberta, p. 3« 7 5 dry areas, while the i r r i g a t i o n area around Lethbridge was at f i r s t neglected. Slowly the Mennonites also' penetrated the i r r i g a t i o n blocks, not as farmers at f i r s t , but as laborers i n the sugar beet f i e l d s . Soon farms were bought and regular Mennonite homes established. The superiority of the i r r i g a t i o n land over dry land was proven i n the next decade when drought brought the dry land s e t t l e r s to the verge of starvation while the s e t t l e r s .in the i r r i g a t e d areas prospered. Since the ear- l y t h i r t i e s the movement of Mennonites to i r r i g a t e d land has been persistent and today the larger portion of them are s i t u - ated on i r r i g i b l e land. Most of the settlements i n the dry areas have remained small while the reverse has been the case i n the i r r i g a t i o n blocks. In the dry land the chief areas of Mennonite settlement are Didsbury and T o f i e l d . Smaller sett- lements are found east of the Calgary-Edmonton l i n e and i n the Peace River area. In the I r r i g a t i o n areas the Main Mennonite settlements are Coaldale, Rosemary, Gem, Vauxhall, Brooks and Duchess. Group settlements were established i n Alberta as well as i n the other western provinces. Large tracts of land, owned by wheat farmers or c a t t l e ranchers, were rented or sold to groups of Mennonite f a m i l i e s , who then worked the land on a communal basis, at l e a s t for the f i r s t few years. This scheme met with a f a i r amount of success but also had i t s d i f f - i c u l t i e s , the main ones being the i n d i v i d u a l i t y and the indep- endence of the s e t t l e r s . One such group settlement was made i n the Carseland-Namaka-Strathmore d i s t r i c t where, i n 1 9 2 5 , 77 the Russian Mennonites took over a large t r a c t of land from the George Lane Company Ltd., Calgary. The land was to be paid f o r with one h a l f the crop produced i n a period of ten years. The work i n the early years was of necessity done communally, and the machinery bought and the buildings erected i n the same manner. As among a l l good i n d i v i d u a l i s t s differences of opinion soon brought f r i c t i o n . When one farmer wanted to leave work f o r a day and go to Calgary, the reply was, "Wann ena no Calgary f o e t , dann w e l l wi a u l l a foere." ( I f one goes to Calgary, then we a l l go).. As soon as possible the land was divided among the f a m i l i e s and gradually i n d i v i d u a l farms arose u n t i l today the communal system here has e n t i r e l y d i s - appeared. Although many f a m i l i e s from here have moved away, mainly to B r i t i s h Columbia, t h i s area s t i l l contains a pros- perous Mennonite settlement. A s i m i l a r story can be t o l d of the Wembley d i s t r i c t . The Russian Mennonites arrived i n Swalwell i n 1 9 2 5 , where they spent the winter under the care of the e a r l i e r Mennonite s e t t - l e r s . Land scouts were sent out and had no d i f f i c u l t y i n making arrangements to purchase a ranch of twenty-two quarters, with 1000 acres under c u l t i v a t i o n , from the Adair Ranch Comp- any. The deal was made for $ 1 8 . 0 0 per acre with machinery, to be paid by h a l f the crop i n f i f t e e n years at li% interest f o r the f i r s t two years and 6% f o r the remaining time. The t o t a l purchase price was $ 6 3 , 3 5 0 . 0 0 . Contrary to Mennonite practice t h i s purchase was made soley by the group concerned 12 Questionnaire. 78 without assistance or d i r e c t i o n by the Mennonite Land S e t t l e - ment Board. The l a t t e r organization immediately informed 1 3 other immigrants not to purchase land independently. J The f i r s t two years the land was worked communally but i n 1927 i t was parcelled out to the i n d i v i d u a l f a m i l i e s . Today very few scattered Mennonite families s t i l l l i v e i n the area. In the Didsbury area another group of eleven fam- i l i e s comprising seventy-four i n d i v i d u a l s , s e t t l e d on the Burns Ranch. As i n other places, the work was started on a communal* basis and l a t e r divided into small farms. These cases show c l e a r l y that a community of goods i s not desired by the Mennonites, although they w i l l "tolerate" such conditions i f necessity dictates. The settlements at Irma, Crowfoot, Rosemary, Countess and many others were f i r s t s e t t l e d by groups, many of whom practiced communal ownership i n the f i r s t years. This was done to insure progress while supplying the means of . attaining independence. The large tracts could be bought at cheaper prices than the then e x i s t i n g small farms. In Alberta today there i s not one case of communal ownership of land among the Mennonites.1^" The settlement of the Mennonites -on the land was 15 one. of the main functions of the Mennonite P r o v i n c i a l Committee. Under the supervision of the Vertreterversammlung (Representa- t i v e Meeting of the Mennonites i n Alberta), i t watched over the 13 Vertreterversammlung, 193b, p. 11. Ik Community of goods i s practiced by the Hutterites, but they are not Mennonites. 15 The other functions was the c o l l e c t i o n of the Reiseschuld. See chapter three of this thesis. 79 r e l i g i o u s , s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l development of the infant s e t t - lements. This control, however, was very l i m i t e d , consisting mainly of reports and recommendations to the areas and the Committee had no force but persuasion to see that i t s recomm- endations were carried out. I t s suggestions - consisted mainly of encouragement to e s t a b l i s h Religious and German schools on Saturday, and the establishment of a German l i b r a r y . When a settlement found i t s e l f i n d i f f i c u l t economic s t r a i t s , a rec- ommendation •for f i n a n c i a l help was usually brought at the next Vertreterversammlung. Large group settlements were recommen- ded and Mennonites who were l i v i n g alone i n i s o l a t e d areas were 1 b constantly urged to r e s e t t l e i n Mennonite centres. During the-years 1925 to 1932 Mr. Jacob Gerbrandt was the Alberta representative on the Mennonite Land Settlement Board. Through h i s o f f i c e i n Lethbridge he was kept informed of the settlement p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n the province. E f f o r t s were made to s e t t l e the Mennonites on land as soon as possible and landless families were encouraged, and often aided, to rent or 17 buy farms. Coaldale has always had the largest number of landless Mennonite families of any area i n Alberta, the reason probably being that those wishing to take up farming i n the province"chose Coaldale as a stopover u n t i l land was found. In addition, the i r r i g a t i o n area, and the large acreage sown' to sugar beets, provided these f a m i l i e s with s u f f i c i e n t work while they waited. In 1932 there were f i f t y - o n e landless fara- 16 Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 3 5 , P« 11, and 1938, p. J. 17 V.M.G., Oct. 2 3 , 192.9. 80 X8 i l i e s i n Coaldale alone. T r a d i t i o n a l l y the Mennonites belong to the land and the large number of families without farms caused great concern. There were reasons, however, why the number was so large. Since most of the s e t t l e r s had come from Russia with- out funds, the lack of money was the greatest cause of f a i l u r e 19 to purchase farms. The depression offered l i t t l e . o p p o r t u n i t y to better t h e i r finances. Many of the areas available f o r settlement i n the 1930's could not be accepted by the Menno- n i t e s because of the large amount of cash necessary f o r pur- chase. In 1 9 3 ° the P r o v i n c i a l Committee reported that good i r r i g a t i o n land north east of Coaldale, was available for $ k 5 . 0 0 to $$0.00 per acre. A cash payment of 20% was required and because of this the land could not be purchased f o r Menno- 20 n i t e purposes. In Rev. B.B. Janz reported that, land was availabe near the Athabasca River, ninety miles north of Ed- monton. The terms were favorable, being $ 1 0 . 0 0 down payment and fkO.OO when the t i t l e was received. But this area was homestead land and to the Mennonites who were acquainted with the well equipped farms i n Southern Alberta, the thought of clearing bush and breaking land was not very attractive. ^ 1 . The pioneer s p i r i t seemed to be lacking and escape was sought from the rigors of pioneer l i f e . At about t h i s time a s e t t l e - ment was started at Irma, but a f t e r long years of drought and 18V.M.G.. Dec. 2 9 , 1 9 3 2 . 19 Vertreterversammlung, 1937, P« 1 2 . 20 V.M.G., Nov. 8, 1930- 21 V.M.G.. March 1 9 , 1 9 3 k . 81 h a i l , very few Mennonite f a m i l i e s remain i n the area. Good open land required much cash, i n f e r i o r homestead land was not desired, and the number of landless f a m i l i e s grew. The lack of unity among the Mennonites themselves, regarding the best settlement p o l i c y , was i n i t s e l f a detrimen- t a l factor i n the Mennonite land settlement p o l i c y . There was a clear d i v i s i o n of thought regarding group settlement. The CM.B.C. and the p r o v i n c i a l organizations emphasized the nec- essity o f co-operative e f f o r t s i n which land was found and settled by the Mennonite society as a whole; others thought that the search for land was the concern of the i n d i v i d u a l only. Although t h i s difference caused d i f f i c u l t i e s , and the group scheme often suffered because of lack of i n t e r e s t on the part of the s e t t l e r s , the co-operative method has enjoyed the greatest popularity and success. The i n d i v i d u a l i s t s received a great boost i n t h e i r views when i n 1937, David Toews, chair- man of the CM.B.C., discouraged over the many f a i l u r e s of t h i s branch of the Boards a c t i v i t i e s , stated-that perhaps i t was. better that people f i n d land independently of Mennonite 22 organizations. The settlements which found t h e i r beginnings i n the co-operative method have been mostly successful, although a few f a i l u r e s can be noted. The Mennonite settlement at Blue Ridge was founded i n 193l|.-1935, and consisted o r i g i n a l l y of s i x families com- p r i s i n g t h i r t y i n d i v i d u a l s . The settlement, situated on the south bank of the Athabasca r i v e r north-west of Edmonton, con-. s i s t e d of homestead land and o r i g i n a l pioneer conditions exis- 22 Vertreterveraammlung, 1937, p. 82 ted. Constant appeals f o r help were made to the Vertreterver- sammlung, with special emphasis being put upon the necessity of more s e t t l e r s i f the success of the settlement was to be assured. New s e t t l e r s did not materialize and i n 1 9 3 7 the 23 area was closed to further homesteading by the government. ̂ The resident Mennonite s e t t l e r s were l e f t i s o l a t e d and by 191+2 only two families remained. Today there are no Mennonite s e t t l e r s i n the area. The story of Blue Ridge i s not t y p i c a l but i t portrays developments i n certain other areas as w e l l . In Irma, Castor, Crowfoot, Beaverlodge, Provost, Munson, New Brigden, Monitor, Pawson Creek (B.C.), Gundy (B.C.) and Pouce Coup small Mennonite settlements grew up i n the t h i r t i e s , but to- day they have either died out e n t i r e l y or contain only a few Mennonite. f a m i l i e s . Most of the s e t t l e r s i n these areas soon became discouraged because of the severe conditions or because t h e i r crops either dryed, froze or were h a i l e d out, and most moved to the southern part of the province, or to B r i t i s h Columbia. During World War I I , a l l active, attempts at opening new Mennonite settlements ceased because of the unfavorable attitude of the general public to Mennonite land expansion. The Mennonites considered the s i t u a t i o n serious enough without aggravating i t by excessive land acquisitions. In 191+1* how- ever, a new settlement was started just north of Gem, and was named New Gem. This project was carried through because arr- angements had been started p r i o r to the war, 2^ but were comple- 23 I b i d . , p . 1 1 . " 21+ Vertre terver sammlung, 191+1, P'» 1 9 ' 83 ted. only i n lQl+l when fourteen Mennonite f a m i l i e s settled there on- bought land, Inspite of the help extended to the new s e t t l e r s by the Eastern I r r i g a t i o n D i s t r i c t and the Mennonite society i n general, the settlement f a i l e d to grow and the farms were l o s t through lack of payment. Today the settlement here does not e x i s t . Since World War I I only one large settlement pro- ject has been undertaken by the Mennonites of Alberta, I t i s not yet completed. The Canada Land and I r r i g a t i o n Company had, since the war, been preparing a block of land for i r r i - gation i n the Central I r r i g a t i o n D i s t r i c t of the old C.P.R. 26 block. In 1 9 k 9 , they informed the Mennonite P r o v i n c i a l Committee that the land would be ready f o r settlement within two years.^ 7 The Committee immediately gathered l i s t s of app- l i c a n t s who desired to take up land In the area. By August, 1 9 5 1 , there were 3^5 Mennonite applicants l i s t e d . The pro- ject had not been completed i n the time announced and the area had not been opened to date. The l a t e s t information regarding this area was received on August 1 1 , 1 9 5 2 , when H.C.P. Cres- w e l l , 2 ^ Head of the Department of Immigration and Colonization for the C.P.B., stated that the area would not be ready u n t i l 195i+-, and then, p r i o r i t y would be given to veterans of World War I I and dryed out farmers from Saskatchewan. When the de- mands of these two groups had been met general applications from Alberta would be accepted. 25 Loc; c i t . 26 See map page 7 6 . 27 P r o t o k o l l des Mennoniten Provinzieles Hilfskomitee, Sept. 2 1 , 1 9 k l , Hereafter noted as M.P.H. 28 M.P.H., Aug. 1 5 , 1 9 5 1 . 29 On a v i s i t to Rev. B.B. Janz on that date. 8k Mention should be made of the Mennonite A g r i c u l - t u r a l Society established i n 1 9 3 9 i n Alberta f o r the purpose of supplying funds, on a loan basis, to those Mennonites wish- ing to buy land but lacking the f i n a n c i a l means to do so. The Society as a whole was a f a i l u r e because i t lacked the c o n f i - dence of the general Mennonite public. The Society was l a t e r liquidated and a Credit Union was formed on a sound f i n a n c i a l basis. The l a t t e r organization had extended large sums to Mennonites and s t i l l exists as one of the successful Mennonite endeavours.3^ Perhaps i f the Mennonites had not attempted to organize a body to supervise the settlement of Mennonites on land, the f a i l u r e of t h e i r planned land settlement would not be so obvious. I t Is true that these people did tend to s e t t l e i n groups, but this was not the r e s u l t of a conscious policy on the part of the Mennonites, but rather the consequence of a natural adhesion of the Mennonite f o r h i s own people, and the f r u i t s of the e f f o r t s of the C.P.R. and the Canada Colon- i z a t i o n Association. The Mennonites on t h e i r own lacked the unity necessary for success i n t h i s f i e l d , and the few s e t t l e - ments such as Blue Ridge, which were established as a r e s u l t of a defined and supported p o l i c y , often proved a f a i l u r e . No small ingredient i n t h i s f a i l u r e i s the essential i n d i v i d u a l i t y of the average Mennonite who i s w i l l i n g to bear the consequences of h i s own misjudgement but cannot forget i f his I l l f o r t u n e i s due -to someone else! 3 0 These organizations are dealt with more f u l l y i n chapter V. CHAPTER FIVE ECONOMIC ASPECTS Economic co-operation among the Mennonites has i t s o r i g i n i n two factors which arise out of the nature of the Mennonite r e l i g i o n . Co-operation Is looked upon as an aid i n keeping the Mennonite people close adherents to t h e i r group i n a s o c i a l and s p i r i t u a l sense. To the Mennonite re- l i g i o u s t i e s economic ones have been added. Among the Menno- nites co-operation l a r g e l y takes the nature of " r e l i e f " , i n that many economic services are offered by organizations which do not look to a p r o f i t but are concerned with extending these services at as low a cost as possible. This l a t t e r fact makes i t possible f o r the Mennonites i n Alberta to receive Health Insurance, F i r e Insurance, and related services f o r a much lower price than would be possible by ordinary insurance companies. Such organizations as the Co-operative Cheese Factory and the Credit Union are established f o r the same purposes. The men serving on the executives and i n the Comm- i t t e e s of these organizations do so with only small f i n a n c i a l remuneration, and often none at a l l . Only t r a v e l expenses and operating expenses of the members are paid f o r . In studying the economic phases of Mennonite l i f e i n Alberta a few evident facts have to be taken into con- sideration. The f i r s t i s that the Mennonites are an a g r i c u l - t u r a l people and, not including the l a t e s t immigrants, about Q$f0 l i v e on farms. 1 This i s as i t always has been and as the 1 Questionnaire. 86 Mennonite leaders desire i t . The second f a c t i s that In matt- ers of economic organization there i s a clear r i f t between the Mennonite s e t t l e r s who came i n the f i r s t movement to the West and the ones who came i n the immigration of the 1 9 2 0 's. In s p i r i t u a l matters there i s sympathy and co-operation but on n o n - s p i r i t u a l l i n e s the two groups remain d i s t i n c t . The e a r l i e r group has few a c t i v i t i e s that are not controlled by the church. The attitude of the Old Mennonites to pools and 2 co-operatives has already been indicated. I t has remained to the l a t e r immigrants to b u i l d economic organizations to serve t h e i r society, and i t w i l l be to the l a t e r immigrants that emphasis s h a l l be given throughout t h i s chapter. The reasons f o r t h i s d i v i s i o n i n the economic f i e l d are not too clear but c e r t a i n observations can be made. The general attitude of the Old Mennonites to economic co-op- eratives has already been mentioned and i s , perhaps, the best answer to t h i s question. There are other factors involved, however. Most of the organizations which have been founded among the Mennonites as a whole are d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y responsible to the Vertreterversammlung, many having t h e i r o r i g i n i n t h i s body. The Vertreterversammlung came to l i f e i n 1928 and was concerned with two main problems: Reiseschuld and Settlement. Both of these problems had no i n t e r e s t to the Old Mennonites because they were not concerned i n those matters. Consequently the Vertreterversammlungen were not attended by the Old Mennonites nor by the United Missionary Church or the Church of God i n Christ, and no part was taken i n t h i s 2 See page Jfrfof this thesis. 87 organization. During World War I I and immediately following i t the Old Mennonites did attend the meetings; but then the common problems of m i l i t a r y service and r e l i e f work temporarily gave a l l Mennonite groups the shadow of a common ground upon which to meet. To some extent, therefore, the basis of non- co-operation between these two groups l i e s i n the lack of common problems. One has to look a b i t deeper, however, i f the true nature of t h i s economic r i f t between the various Menno- n i t e denominations i s to be understood. The Old Mennonites have been i n America since 1683 and have always been a min- o r i t y group i n a society that was progressive and enjoyed economic leadership. Prom the early years they have taken advantage of the l o c a l businesses and industries and did not f i n d i t necessary to co-operate as a group i n order to have economic services extended to them. The individualism of the American f r o n t i e r also played i t s part i n the l i f e of the Mennonites. The group from Russia has had a d i f f e r e n t history. In that country the Mennonites enjoyed a much higher standard of l i v i n g and culture than t h e i r Russian neighbors. The Russian peasants, for centuries suppressed by despotic r u l e r s , had l o s t a l l i n d i v i d u a l i n i t i a t i v e and were content to l i v e t h e i r l i f e of dependency upon the aristocracy. In order to have the necessary economic f a c i l i t i e s to ensure progress the Mennonites had to b u i l d them on t h e i r own. The wide powers of self-government granted to the Mennonites i n Russia enabled them to supply t h e i r own needs. Within seventy years a f t e r 88 t h e i r founding i n southern Russia the Mennonite settlements were blooming with f l o u r milllfl, f a c t o r i e s of various kinds, and other economic establishments. In order to a t t a i n this economic leadership i t was necessary that economic co-operation become a r e a l i t y . This s p i r i t of co-operation among themselves has not been l o s t by these people and has been carried over into Canada. In Alberta t h i s co-operative movement got underway about the year 1 9 2 7 , when the Mennonite s e t t l e r s around Coal- dale began holding regular meetings o f , a l l Mennonite immigrants, regardless of denomination, f o r the purpose of mutual aid and the solution of common problems.3 i n 1928 t h i s movement was expanded to a p r o v i n c i a l scale and the Vertreterversammlung came into existence to act as the "Assembly" of Mennonite ec- onomic and r e l i e f e f f o r t s i n the province. The f r u i t s of this movement can now be seen i n the a c t i v i t i e s of the various economic and s o c i a l organizations which have t h e i r o r i g i n i n t h i s co-operative e f f o r t . Oneof the e a r l i e s t organizations to be formed by the Mennonite group at Coaldale was the Doktor Verein (Doc- tor Society) i n 1926 when a contract was entered into with Dr. W.S. Galbraith of Lethbridge, who agreed to render a l l professional services to the members of the society and t h e i r f a m i l i e s f o r a monthly fee of $1.0©per family.^" The purpose of the society was to extend medical services to the Menno- nites at a price payable by the average s e t t l e r . 5 ^he society 3 V.M'.G.. Nov. 1, 1 9 2 7 . k V.M.G., Dec. 2 2 , 1928 5 "Statutes of the Society" given i n V.M.G.. Jan. 9 , 19^2. 89 started with twenty-five members but membership grew rapidly and today 2k0 f a m i l i e s are l i s t e d as members. In 1932 a con- t r a c t was secured -with the Gait Hospital i n Lethbridge and h o s p i t a l services were extended at a much lower rate than pre- viously. This contract expired and a new one was made with 7 the St. Michaels Hospital i n Lethbridge. The need f o r a l o c a l Mennonite doctor was keenly f e l t because many of the s e t t l e r s could not speak English s u f f i c i e n t l y to make themselves under- stood. In 1933 Dr» D.L. Epp, a Mennonite, declared himself 8 w i l l i n g to serve the community on a contract basis. A Menno- n i t e graduate nurse, Miss Helen Martens, next suggested that Coaldale was prosperous enough to be able to support.a Menno- n i t e Hospital. The r e s u l t was the formation i n 193k of the Coaldale Mennonite Hospital Society, and the founding of a Q three bed h o s p i t a l i n a vacant building. The Society has grown, has acquired a twelve bed h o s p i t a l b u i l d i n g and i s ser- ved at present by a doctor of Japanese extraction, Dr. Okamura. The membership i n the society i s r e s t r i c t e d to Mennonite fam- . , , 1 0 l l i e s . Closely akin to the Doctor and Hospital societies i s the Beerdigung3kass"e (Burial Fund) which was established i n 1928 f o r the purpose of providing f i n a n c i a l aid for the b u r i a l of the deceased.1^" In 1952 the r e g i s t r a t i o n fee was f i f t y cents per family and a levy of $ 2 . 0 0 for every ten deaths b V.M.G., A p r i l 5 , 1 9 3 2 . 7 Loc. c i t . 8 y?M.G.. Oct. 1, 1 9 3 3 . 9 V.M.G., Sept. 2 k , 1 9 3 1 M 10 V.M.G., Nov. 1 8 , 1935- VJLG., Jan. 9 , 1 9 k 2 . 11 Statutes of the Mennonite B u r i a l Fund Society. 90 making a demand on the treasury. The sums paid out i n case of a death are $ 9 0 . 0 0 f o r adults and $ 5 0 . 0 0 f o r children. 12 under ten years of age. In 1951 t h i s organization had a t o t a l membership of k21 f a m i l i e s and seemed f i n a n c i a l l y sound1^ The Mennonite F i r e Insurance Society has a unique history of i t s own. In 1 9 2 7 , the Mennonite s e t t l e r s of Alberta decided to j o i n the Canadian Mennonite Mutual F i r e Insurance Company, which had i t s headquarter i n Plum Coullee, Manitoba!^" This organization was not a commercial business looking f o r a p r o f i t , but had been undertaken for the purpose of providing a r e l i e f program i n the insurance f i e l d . In the next few years four d i s t r i c t s were organized i n Alberta and a l l Menno- nites were urged to j o i n the company. The company was not registered or incorporated. In I 9 k 2 the company was registered i n Manitoba by the p r o v i n c i a l government and one of the requirements f o r t h i s step was that i t s a c t i v i t i e s be confined to the provin- c i a l boundaries. A short time l a t e r Saskatchewan took a sim- i l a r step and Alberta found i t s e l f l e f t a l o n e . , T h e only s o l - ution was to organize on a p r o v i n c i a l basis and this was done by the formation of the Alberta Mennonite F i r e Insurance So- c i e t y . 1 0 The province retained the previous four d i s t r i c t s , Coaldale, Rosemary, Didsbury, and Peace River, each with a 17 representative on the executive of the Society. ' 12 Loc. c i t . 13 Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 5 1 , P» II4- lk V.M.G., Dec. 3 0 . 1 9 2 7 . 15 P r o t o k o l l des Brandaeltesten, Aug. 1 0 , 19I4.3. 16 Vertreterversammlung, Nov. 191+3, pp. 2 2 - 2 3 . 17 Loc. c i t . 91 The question, of incorporation was immediately discussed and statutes were drawn up and submitted to the pro- v i n c i a l government. Government o f f i c i a l s , however, advised against incorporation because t h i s step would necessitate the society to meet certain conditions as w e l l as face higher costs of operation. The Mennonites were assured that as long as 'the society stayed within the boundaries of " r e l i e f " and showed no p r o f i t no obstacles would be put i n i t s way by the government. Although Incorporation was waived on the receipt of t h i s information, the Mennonites f e l t that the government might not always be as "well wishing" as i t was then, and many favoured incorporation while the p o s s i b i l i t i e s for such a step were s t i l l there. In December of 1 9 5 1 , there were 789 Mennonite f a m i l i e s registered as members with insured property worth $ 3 , 6 7 6 , 8 9 1 . 0 0 . Money i n the treasury at that time amoun- 19 ted to $ 3 6 , 9 5 i w 7 0 . The society extended insurance not only f o r f i r e but also for storm damage to crops and buildings. To date the society has functioned very successfully and has ex- tended a very necessary service to the Mennonites at rates that are below the regular insurance costs, the premium at present (1952) being $ . 3 0 per $ 1 0 0 . 0 0 . The l a s t authority i n matters of the society i s the Vertreterversammlung. In 19k6 the P r o v i n c i a l Mennonite R e l i e f Organization 21 of Alberta was organized for the purpose of uniting a l l 18 Vertreterversammlung, Dec. I9kk, P« 9 19 Vertre terver sammlung, 1 9 5 1 , P« -11 • 20 Vertre terver sammlung, 191\.7, p. Ik* 21 Following information from the Statute of the P r o v i n c i a l Mennonite R e l i e f Organization of Alberta. 92 Mennonite denominations i n the province into a cohesive and active society f o r carrying on various r e l i e f a c t i v i t i e s at home and abroad. This organization has remained subordinate to the Canadian Mennonite Board of Colonization i n that i t has confined i t s a c t i v i t i e s more or less to a p r o v i n c i a l scale. I t s a c t i v i t i e s include, support of Mennonite sick and Insane; support In case of death i n a family; support i n case of f i r e or storm destruction; regulation of the settlement questions and search f o r new areas of settlement, and many other a c t i v - i t i e s not c l e a r l y defined i n the Statute. A l l Mennonites, who are members of a denomination supporting the organization, are automatically members of t h i s body. This organization, as many others, i s under the f i n a l supervision of the Vertreter- versammlung. Mennonite economic co-operation was also practiced on a local- scale. The Coaldale Mennonite Credit Union had i t s o r i g i n i n the Coaldaler W i r t s c h a f t l i c h e r Verein (Coaldale- Agri- c u l t u r a l Society). The l a t t e r society had been formed i n 1938 f o r the purpose of giving f i n a n c i a l aid to the needy i n the community especially those who wanted -to buy land but did op. not have the funds to do so. After this society, was formed great e f f o r t s were made to e n l i s t new members but by -I9k2 the society had acquired a c a p i t a l of only a l i t t l e over $ 3 0 0 . 0 0 and had made only ten loans t o t a l l i n g less than $ k 0 0 . 0 0 to seven persons. The society proved a t o t a l f a i l u r e and was 22 P r o t o k o l l des Coaldaler W i r t s c h a f t l i c h e r Verein, July $, 19W. : 93 l i q u i d a t e d i n 191+2. J In i t s place a new organization arose, the Coaldale Mennonite Security and Credit Union, which with- out much e f f o r t or many membership drives, i n three years had a membership of 1 3 0 , and i n the l a s t year (1951) i t made loans to 158 individuals to the value of $ 2 8 , 6 7 1 . 6 9 . 2 ^ This change i n fortune and public support can be explained by the f a c t that from i t s inception the Credit Union has been under the control and supervision of the government. I t operates i n accordance with government regulations and the books are regularly inspected by o f f i c i a l auditors. Loans are made according to government regulations. The A g r i c u l t u r a l Society, on the other hand had been b u i l t on the trust.and honesty of the s e t t l e r s and there was no governmental super- v i s i o n . The A g r i c u l t u r a l Society, therefore, lacked the se- c u r i t y which was necessary before the people would invest money i n i t . The Credit Union today has a c a p i t a l of $ 6 8 , 1 6 0 . 8 6 with a membership of 2 l 6 . 2 ^ Among the few f i n a n c i a l f a i l u r e s experienced by the Mennonites was the Coaldale Cannery which was b u i l t i n 1 9 3 9 . The reasons for this f a i l u r e are d i f f i c u l t to deter- mine because no records are available and information has to be gathered verbally from various individuals who were share- holders i n the enterprise. I t i s a story which most Mennonites wish to forget and v e r y . l i t t l e information i s v o l u n t a r i l y given. Certain generalizations regarding the unsuccessful venture can be made from the information gathered. 23 P r o t o k o l l der Coaldale Mennonite Security and Credit Union, March 18, 191+2. 2k I b i d . . May 2 3 , 1 9 5 2 . 25 I b i d . , Feb. k, 1 9 5 2 . 9k The cannery faced keen competition from the Brodar Canneries i n Taber and Lethbridge. In how f a r this i s a v a l i d reason f o r f a i l u r e and i n how f a r i t i s merely an ex- cuse i s d i f f i c u l t to determine. Other enterprises, with as much of more l o c a l competition, have prospered and i t i s i n - conceivable that t h i s competition had very much to do with the collapse, except i n so f a r as I t added the " l a s t straw" to an already weak and struggling business. More to the point seems to be the a l l around poor management of the cannery from i t s founding to i t s collapse. The cannery was b u i l t as a co-operative e f f o r t and shares were sold at $20.00 each. Arrangements were made by which i n - dividuals might obtain shares by helping i n the construction of the. b u i l d i n g . This was an easy way to obtain shares and many took advantage of i t f o r i t meant that i t required no cash to become a shareholder. The end r e s u l t , however,, was that the cannery was erected but the money on hand f e l l f a r short of the c a p i t a l necessary to cover the amount of the shares given out. This weak f i n a n c i a l basis, seems to be the main reason f o r the eventual collapse. Then again the machinery bought to equip the building was second-hand and very old and i t required double the labour necessary to operate a more modern cannery. The building was also erected on an extremely low s i t e and the drainage system had to be constructed at a f a r greater cost than would have been necessary had a higher s i t e been chosen. Taken a l l together these factors were enough to insure finan- 9 5 c i a l f a i l u r e , and three years from i t s founding the cannery closed i t s doors and was given over to the executive of the Cheese Factory to dispose of with as l i t t l e f i n a n c i a l loss as possible. Although i t had operated for three years the strugg- l i n g enterprise never r e a l l y paid for i t s e l f . The cannery was used during 1 9 1 4 - 7 and 191 + 8 to can l o c a l meat f o r the European r e l i e f program. A co-operative cheese factory appears to f i n d great support among the Mennonites i n Alberta. Since 1930 no less than- four cheese factories, have been b u i l t by the Menno- nites of t h i s province,"and some young settlements, such as 26 Vauxhall, have not l o s t the dream of building one. The Men- nonite* iraaiigrants of the 1920's had become acquainted with creameries and cheese f a c t o r i e s i n Russia where i n S i b e r i a , Orenburg and Samara they had t h e i r own establishments of t h i s 27 kind. 1 These enterprises were very successful i n Russia and when the Mennonites came to Canada t h i s type of co-operative again found favor. - The f i r s t Mennonite cheese factory i n Alberta was b u i l t i n the early 1930's by the Mennonites around Swalwell. Due to the scattered nature of the settlement and the d i f f i c u l - t i e s of transportation (many s t i l l used oxen), the factory 28 f a i l e d because not enough milk was delivered. By 193° more Mennonites had moved to the area and the transportation f a c i l - i t i e s had improved, and a new factory was b u i l t i n that year. This factory i s s t i l l operating and seems f i n a n c i a l l y sound.- At Didsbury and Rosemary cheese f a c t o r i e s were established i n 26 Vertreterversammlung, 19U1\.> P« 23. 27 Vertreterversammlung, 1938* p . 21. 28 Vertreterversammlung, 1935, p . 20. 96 1939, but remained i n operation only a few years. At Bidsbury disunity among the shareholders and outside competition forced the factory into bankruptcy. At Rosemary not enough support- and ers could be found/the struggle came to an end when the fac- tory burned to the ground. I t was never r e b u i l t . At a, meeting on July 2 6 , 1937, of the Mennonite groups around Coaldale, i t was decided to canvas the d i s t r i c t and s o l i c i t support f o r the building of a cheese f a c t o r y . ^ In August of the same year a committee of f i v e was voted to organize the work.3° The committee v i s i t e d the cheese factory at Swalwell i n order to obtain information and draw up building plans. In November of 1 9 3 7 ,'the committee reported that the factory i n Coaldale had been completed except f o r the machinery which had not yet arrived.^"1" A l l who delivered milk to the factory were to become shareholders on the following basis: those with one cow to pay a fee of twenty-five cents; those with two cows must buy a quarter share at $ 5 . 0 0 ; those with three of four cows must buy h a l f a share at $ 1 0 . 0 0 ; those with s i x cows one share f o r $ 2 0 . 0 0 . ^ The t o t a l cash cost of the building and machinery was $k , 0 0 0 . 0 0 . - ^ The factory soon be- came too small and a new building was erected i n 1 9 3 9 , and the old one was converted into an egg-grading station and a locker plant._ The p r o f i t from the factory i n the f i r s t year was $ 6 3 0 . 9 0 , 3 l + while i n 1951 i t had a t o t a l income of $ 1 0 9 , 5 l 6 . 0 0 , 29 V.M.G., July, 26, 1937- 30 V.M.G.. Aug. 1 6 , 1 9 3 7 . 31 Loc. c i t . 32 Vertreterversammlung, 1938, P« 2 2 . 33 Loc. c i t . 3k Income tax f i l e of Cheese Factory f o r 1 9 3 9 . 97 35 l e s s expenses, and showed a clear p r o f i t of $1 2 , 2 1 k . k 3 . Since 1937 other functions have been taken over by the cheese factory co-operative; I t now operates an egg-grading s t a t i o n , a poultry feed r e t a i l store, a locker plant and a lumber yard. These aspects of the business i n 1951 brought a p r o f i t of f l , 1 7 5 » 7 8 . The cheese factory at Coaldale has also been outstanding i n that i t has taken f i r s t p r i z e f o r i t s cheese at the Canadian P a c i f i c Exhibition i n Vancouver i n I 9 k 0 , and at the Edmonton and Calgary Exhibitions i n 1 9 i A ; i t took t h i r d prize at the B r i t i s h Empire Exhibition i n 1 9 k 0 , and i n 1951 received eighth, ninth, tenth and eleventh prizes at the Royal-Winter P a i r i n Toronto. Today the factory has much supp- ort and under i t s manager, J.J. Klassen, appears to be one of the more successful economic ventures of the Alberta Mennonites. In addition to the a c t i v i t i e s involving economic co-operation the Mennonites of Alberta organized f o r d i r e c t re- l i e f a c t i v i t i e s which were extended to a l l people regardless of f a i t h . During and a f t e r World War I I the two continents of Europe and South America were the spheres of Mennonite r e l i e f programs. These r e l i e f a c t i v i t i e s were organized on a provin- c i a l basis and were under the control of the Vertreterversamm- lung. The f i r s t meeting of the Vertreterversammlung was held i n 1 9 2 9 , ahd since that time has supervised most Mennonite a c t i v i t i e s within the province. Since t h i s body was too large to function e f f i c i e n t l y as an executive, a P r o v i n c i a l Committee 35 Trading P r o f i t and Loss Statement of the Cheese Factory, • Dec. 3 1 , 1 9 5 1 . 36 Loc; c i t . • 98 was elected to be the executive of the Mennonite r e l i e f e f f o r t s . As has been previously noted, the two main problems dealt with by t h i s committee u n t i l 19^6 were the Reiseschuld and the Menno- nite settlement problem. In I 9 k 6 i t was f e l t that a new chapter i n the history of the Mennonites i n Alberta was beginning. The Reise- schuld had -just been paid and the Vertre terver sammlung turned from that problem to the one of r e l i e f f o r Europe and other needy countries. I t was decided to create a Mennonitisches Provinzieles Hilfskomitee (Mennonite P r o v i n c i a l R e l i e f Commi- ttee), which was to replace the old P r o v i n c i a l Committee and •37 take over the supervision of the r e l i e f program. The comm- i t t e e was to be open to representatives of a l l Mennonite de- nominations i n Alberta who desired to co-operate i n this work. In each congregation a Local Relief Committee was to be organ- ized to control the a c t i v i t i e s within the d i s t r i c t . The old P r o v i n c i a l Committee was dissolved and i t s a c t i v i t i e s and funds taken over by the new organization. The.'first chairman of this new committee was J.J. Klassen, of Coaldale. He i s s t i l l ser- ving i n that capacity. The duty of the M.P.R.C. was to o f f e r help on two general l i n e s : to help preserve l i f e and clothe the naked, 39 and to aid i n the new Mennonite immigration to Canada. Num- erous other minor but important duties, such as support of the i l l and poverty stricken Mennonites within the province, en- couragement of Mennonite endeavours along c u l t u r a l and s p i r i t - ual l i n e s , and the supervision of the co-operative Mennonite 37 Vertreterversammlung, 19U-6, p. 1 1 . 38 Loc. c i t . 39 See chapter VII. 99 enterprises which operated on a p r o v i n c i a l basis, were taken over by the committee. The foreign r e l i e f program, however, was one of i t s main concerns. Following World War I I , the economic chaos i n Europe resulted i n starvation and suffering f o r the people there. The Mennonites declared themselves w i l l i n g to aid i n a r e l i e f program to a l l e v i a t e this suffering as much as possible. In Alberta the M.P.R.C. i n 1914-7 immediately went to work on a project of meat canning as a f i r s t step i n the r e l i e f e f f o r t . The cannery at Coaldale was s t i l l standing i d l e and a l l the Mennonite d i s t r i c t s i n Alberts were urged to send meat to Coal- dale, or i f that was not possible, to send money to be used to cover the cost of canning.'"'"0 A l l labour i n connection with this project was to be voluntary. Work started on January 6 , 1914-7, and by March 1 1 , a carload of canned meat, containing over $0,000 cans, was sent to Europe v i a New York."̂ """" This carload represented 136 head of c a t t l e and ten sheep k i l l e d and canned at a cost of $k, 7 7 1 « 9 3 ^ " 2 In addition to t h i s meat 500 blankets and t h i r t y pairs of shoes were-sent to Europe. The Alberta Mennonite r e l i e f e f f o r t i n 19k7 t o t a l l e d $ k 7 , k 7 0 . 0 0 , including the value of the meat canned. The r e l i e f e f f o r t was continued and i n I9k8 meat was again canned, t h i s time using 155 head of c a t t l e and two sheep t o t a l l i n g 7 2 , k 2 8 l b s . which gave 5 1 , 9 3 b cans of meat worth $38,086.kO. Blankets were bought and collected and also k 0 Reports of the M.P.R.C., Dec. 6 , 1 9 k 6 . Hereafter M.P.R.C. k l M.P.R.C., March 1 1 , 1 9 k 7 . lj.2 Vertre terver sammlung, Dec. I 9 k 7 , p. 7. k 3 Loc. c i t . 100 sent to Europe. C l o t h e s and a g r i c u l t u r a l t o o l s (hoes, spades, e t c . ) were c o l l e c t e d and sent to Paraguay.^" In 19k9 meat c o u l d not be canned because the cannery had been dismantled, and as an a l t e r n a t i v e a c a r l o a d of f l o u r was sent to Europe. In 1950 and 1951 the r e l i e f program of the A l b e r t a Mennonites c o n s i s t e d of sending r o l l e d oats, canned beans, soap, c l o t h e s , b l a n k e t s , and o t h e r n e c e s s a r y items to Europe and South America. By the end of 1951 the Mennonites i n A l b e r t a had donated or spent a sum of $ l 8 6 , k 6 6 . 1 0 on f o r e i g n r e l i e f w o r k . ^ I t must be remembered t h a t t h i s r e l i e f a c t i v i t y i n c l u d e d the e f f o r t s of a l l Mennonite denominations i n A l b e r t a . The Old Mennonite congregations, who u n t i l now had remained -aloof from the main stream of Mennonite endeavours, j o i n e d i n the work and d i d h e l p to make i t a success. B a s i c a l l y , how- ever, the r e l i e f e f f o r t was the work of the Mennonite General Conference Church and the Mennonite Brethern; they i n i t i a t e d i t , d i r e c t e d i t and f i n a n c e d i t , w i t h only v o l u n t a r y h e l p from other Mennonite denominations. During the war the Mennonites had p r o c l a i m e d t h a t they r e f u s e d to take l i f e but were prepared to save l i f e . In the post-war p e r i o d they had the o p p o r t u n i t y to prove that these were not empty words. The r e l i e f program continues today, but has d i m i n i s h e d s i n c e Europe has been on i t s way to economic r e c o v e r y . kk Vertreterversammlung, Dec. 1 9 k 8 , p. 3« ij-5 F i g u r e compiled by the w r i t e r from the annual r e p o r t s of the S e c r e t a r y - T r e a s u r e r of the M.P.R.C. CHAPTER SIX SOCIAL. RELIGIOUS, AMD EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS The Mennonites have always been a group that has stood apart from the general culture i n which they found them^ selves. In Russia t h i s separation was not d i f f i c u l t to a t t a i n due to the many p r i v i l e g e s enjoyed by the Mennonites. I t was made easier by the fact that the Mennonite culture there was higher than that of t h e i r Russian neighbors, and there was l i t t l e desire to acquire the s o c i a l customs of the Russian peasant. ^The greatest legacy of Russia to the Mennonite way of l i f e seems to have been the world renown soup Borscht, which today can s t i l l be found i n the best Mennonite homes.^ In Can- ada this separation has been preserved with greater d i f f i c u l t y , for the "world" here offers many things which the Mennonites, especially the young people desire. . Consequently the efforts to remain a group apart must be so much more determined and energetic i f success i s to be assured. The motive behind the Mennonite separation from the "world" are simple but fundamental. Contrary to modern philosophic thought, the Mennonites have always believed i n absolute good and absolute e v i l . Between these two extremes exist the amoral elements which may be used either for good or e v i l . The'one absolute truth dominating t h e i r f a i t h i s that man i s born a sinner and cannot achieve salvation except through "heart1' f a i t h i n the only Son of God, Jesus Christ, who shed h i s blood on Calvary f o r the salvation of mankind. This work of salvation must be accepted by each i n d i v i d u a l by 102 f a i t h , and he must then become a follower of Christ. The Mennonites do not believe that only they are r i g h t , but any church i s wrong i f i t denies the above absolute truth and makes salvation a matter of good works or i n d i v i d u a l endeavor. Humanism, with i t s high sounding p r i n c i p l e s , i s good i n i t s e l f but w i l l not "save" mankind, and i n modern times.serves to confuse the r e a l truth of the salvation offered through Jesus Christ. Therefore separation from t h i s "world s p i r i t " i s an absolute necessity i f the "true" f a i t h i s to be preserved, and the preservation of t h e i r f a i t h i s the fundamental cause of a l l s o c i a l , r e l i g i o u s , and educational a c t i v i t i e s among the Mennonites. There i s a fear that i f the modern world with i t s humanism, evolution, and sanction of a l l r e l i g i o n s i s allowed to poison the minds of t h e i r children, without an antidote being administered, the e x t i n c t i o n of Mennonitism would be a matter of only a short time. In the b a t t l e between absolute good and absolute e v i l there can be no compromise; fundament- a l l y there i s a r i g h t and a wrong with numerous amoral factors which can be used i n either way depending upon t h e i r applica- t i o n to the Word of God. In t h i s philosophy of l i f e l i e s the key to the Mennonite f a i t h with i t s resultant s p i r i t of separ- atism. The s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s of the Mennonites are not numerous and those which e x i s t are l a r g e l y controlled by the church. A Jugendverein (Young Peoples Society) e x i s t s i n every denomination i n Alberta, except f o r the Old Colony Menno- 103 n i t e s a t P o r t V e r m i l i o n . The purpose of the Jugendverein i s to p r o v i d e s p i r i t u a l refreshment which i s accomplished by means of r e l i g i o u s programms brought on an average of once every two or three weeks, depending upon the denomination. The c h o i r supplements the work of the Young Peoples S o c i e t y and p r a c t i c e s are h e l d every week. About o%% of the Mennonite churches i n A l b e r t a have c h o i r s . 1 Such a c t i v i t i e s as m u s i c a l programs, annual church p i c n i c s , and i n some d i s t r i c t s orches- t r a s o f f e r s o c i a l o u t l e t s f o r the Mennonite youth. Of course there are o f t e n g a t h e r i n g s of groups at p r i v a t e homes where s p o r t s and games are enjoyed, and t h i s o f f e r s the best appor- t u n i t y f o r young people to get acquainted. As a whole the s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s among Mennonites have been n e g l e c t e d , mainly because so few s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s are s a n c t i o n e d by the church. T h i s l a t t e r statement i s a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n which, per- haps, does not h o l d true f o r a l l Mennonite denominations i n Canada. The g r e a t l o c a l autonomy of the churches g i v e s room f o r g r e a t divergence i n the s o c i a l f i e l d . The church has always been the c e n t r e of Mennonite l i f e . In A l b e r t a , the f i r s t o r g a n i z a t i o n to a r i s e i n each settlement was a church. I f a b u i l d i n g c o u l d not be e r e c t e d immediately, meetings were h e l d i n p r i v a t e homes, or more o f - ten i n the l o c a l s c h o o l b u i l d i n g . Of the s i x t y odd areas i n A l b e r t a where the Mennonites l i v e , o r have l i v e d , church meet- ings were held' from the f i r s t week of the founding of the settlement. As soon as p o s s i b l e a b u i l d i n g was e r e c t e d and weekly s e r v i c e s were h e l d . C l o s e l y a l l i e d w i t h the church i s , 1 Que s t i o n n a i r e . 10k of course, the Sunday School f o r the c h i l d r e n and o f t e n f o r the a d u l t s a l s o . Since i t i s the Sunday School which acquaints the c h i l d r e n w i t h the B i b l e and with the p a r t i c u l a r d o c t r i n e s of the Mennonite Church, i t has always r e c e i v e d g r e a t emphasis, and i s o r g a n i z e d at the same time as the church. In Canada today i t i s not the s o c i a l or the p u r e l y r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s of the Mennonites which draws the a t t e n t i o n of the p u b l i c eye. Many o t h e r denominations such as P r e s b y t e r i a n , B a p t i s t , and M i s s i o n a r y A l l i a n c e , have s i m i l a r fundamental b e l i e f s along r e l i g i o u s l i n e s . Rather i t i s the matter of e d u c a t i o n and m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e which draws the a t t - e n t i o n of the p u b l i c , because i n these f i e l d s the Mennonites seek s p e c i a l p r i v i l e g e s under the law. The matter of m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e s h a l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r . Outside of the very c o n s e r v a t i v e Mennonite elem- ents ( A l t k o l o n i e r ) , the Mennonites have always been e n t h u s i a s - t i c advocates of e d u c a t i o n . Contrary to p u b l i c o p i n i o n that the Mennonites sought escape from knowledge, thay have r a t h e r t r i e d to use i t as a means to educate t h e i r young people i n harmony w i t h t h e i r f a i t h . To them knowledge i s amoral, and the o b j e c t i o n i s not to knowledge i t s e l f but to i t s a p p l i c a - t i o n to d a i l y l i v i n g and-to t h e i r f a i t h . In Canada there i s no i l l i t e r a c y among the Mennonites and the younger g e n e r a t i o n u s u a l l y i s acquainted w i t h two languages, E n g l i s h and German, i n a d d i t i o n to what i s c a l l e d Low German, the language used i n the m a j o r i t y o f the Mennonite homes apart from the Old Mennonites. I n s R u s s i a s c h o o l s were b u i l t i n Mennonite s e t t l e - 1 0 5 ments even before education became compulsory there. In t h e i r time i n Russia the Mennonites supported kOO public 'schools, 13 high schools, k high schools for g i r l s , 2 normal schools, one school f o r the deaf and dumb and one college. In a l l of these i n s t i t u t i o n s the regular curriculum set by 2 the government was taught. In.Canada and the United States, however, the same freedom of school administration has not been granted, rather the schools are supported by the govern- ment and free compulsory education i s extended to a l l inhabi- tants. Yet i n spite of t h i s the Mennonites have established t h e i r "private" schools i n order to control, to a certain de- gree, the education of t h e i r young people. In 19k3 ifchere were 15 Mennonite colleges and high schools i n the United States.-^ In Canada today seven high schools are operating as private Mennonite i n s t i t u t i o n s , i n addition to two Mennonite colleges i n Winnipeg. Of these I n s t i t u t i o n s one i s i n Ontario, four i n Manitoba, one i n Saskatchewan, one i n Alberta, and two i n B r i t i s h Columbia. The Bible Schools play an important part i n Mennonite education. The purpose of these schools i s to give the young people a sound foundation i n the Bible and to pro- pogate the Mennonite f a i t h . The Bible schools operate during a f i v e month period (November to end of March), and are supported by the various congregations who establish them. In 19k3 the number of Bible schools i n Canada and the United 2 Lethbridge.Herald. March 1 5 , 1 9 3 0 . 3 Warkentin A., and Gingerich M., Who's Who Among the Menno- n i t e s , Newton Kansas, Bethel College Press, 19q-3> pp. 333r 33T|T" io6 States numbered twenty-nine. In Alberta today s i x are oper- ating with an enrollment of approximately 1 3 0 students. The largest Bible schools are at Coaldale, Didsbury and Gem. I t would not be an exaggeration to say that of a l l the Mennonite young people i n .Alberta about 80$ can be expected to attend a Bible school for one or more years. The desire f o r private schools arises d i r e c t l y out of the fact that modern education teaches many things con- trary to the fundamentals of the Mennonite f a i t h . Private schools employing Mennonite teachers are to insure that Science and Scripture are kept i n harmony and not i n c o n f l i c t . For example, the children are acquainted with the theory of evol- ution but i f this theory presents a c o n f l i c t with the Scrip- tures, they are t o l d i t i s the theory that i s wrong and not the Bible. I t i s therefore, a matter not of the material taught but of the manner i n which i t i s taught and how i t i s interpreted. Some writers have stated^ that the "attempt to r e t a i n the German language," i s one of the basic motives f o r the establishment of Mennonite private schools. This factor may play a small part but when one considers that German i s taught regularly i n the "German Schools" on Saturdays or after regular day school, and the fact that the nature of the instruc- t i o n i n the private school i s overwhelmingly English with only a few r e l i g i o u s subjects taught i n German, one cannot accept such a thepry. The schools are not established to r e t a i n the German language but to r e t a i n the Mennonite f a i t h and the k I b i d . , pp. 3 3 k - 3 3 6 . % Reimer, D.P., The Mennonites of B r i t i s h Columbia, Thesis, U.B.C, 1 9 k 6 , p. 62. 107 German language i s a by-product.^ Not only Mennonites have private schools i n CanadaJ tn Alberta alone there are 6 3 7 private schools and only one i s Mennonite. As early as 1935 the s e t t l e r s around Coaldale sought information regarding the founding and operation of t h e i r own school. In January, 1936* Rev. B.B. Janz and Mr. J.B. Janz were sent.to Edmonton to investigate the rights en- Q joyed i n educational matters by minority groups. An audience with the Prime Minister, Aberhart, s a t i s f i e d them that they had the r i g h t to b u i l d t h e i r own school i f they so desired, but they had to support i t themselves and were not exempt from the l o c a l school tax which went to the support of the l o c a l public school. To receive recognition, however, the school must be supervised and the curriculum prescribed by the Prov- es i n c i a l Department of Education. 7 Because the depression made extra f i n a n c i a l burdens impossible the plan was dropped u n t i l a more opportune time. The coming of the war i n 1939 post- poned the plans i n d e f i n i t e l y . The question arose again on the annual P r o v i n c i a l Conference of the Mennonite Brethern Church held at Namaka, on November 17 and 1 8 , 19kk» A committee of s i x was voted to 10 gather information and report to the next conference. In November, 19k5> the committee reported that government permi- ssion had been received f o r the founding of a school and a 6 The language problem i s more f u l l y discussed on pages ho-//y 7 O f f i c i a l l i s t of private schools obtained from the Department of Education. 8 V.M.G., Jan. 1 1 , 1936- 9 V.M.G., Feb. 1 3 , 1 9 3 6 . 10 P r o t o k o l l der P r o v i n z i e l l e n Hahressitzung der Mennoniten Bruedergemeinde von Alberta] 19kk» P~ 9^ 108 piece of land was being held i n reserve by the Coaldale sett- l e r s as a l o c a t i o n f o r the school. A group of Mennonites (Ready Made Corner) had donated a building which had already been moved near to the desired location."*"^ The s i t e was to be a 70 acre farm one h a l f mile north of Coaldale, of which s i x acres were to be reserved f o r the school and the rest rented or sold to meet expenses. The conference passed two resolu- tions on t h i s o c c a s i o n : 1. The school was not to be a "church" school i n that the required finances be supplied by that body, but that a society be formed within the Mennonite Brethern Conference and membership be voluntary. 2 . Shares i n the school to be available at $$0.00 each. On March 8, 1^1x6, the Mennonite Educational Society of Alberta was organized and steps were taken to open the school 12 i n the f a l l of that year. In September the school opened with k l students and two teachers, Mr. Henry Thiessen, p r i n c i - p a l , and Mr. Jacob Regehr. Grades nine to twelve were taught. In 1 9 k 9 , two new classrooms were added and at present (1952) the construction of two more classrooms i s i n progress. In 1951 the grades seven and eight were added thus making the school a Junior-Senior High School with an enrollment of 90 students, employing four teachers. In the l a s t year the t u i - tion fees f o r the various grades were as follows: Grades VII and.VIII — $ 6 5 . 0 0 Grade I X — 1 7 0 . 0 0 Grade X $ 7 5 . 0 0 11 I b i d . , p. k 5 . 12 P r o t o k o l l des Komitees der Mennonitischen Hochschule, March a, 191+6. 109 Grade XI $ 80.00 Grade XII $ 85.00 These fees are too low to cover the cost of operating the school and the deficiency i s made good by private donations, c o l l e c t i o n s and money gathered when the school presents a program at the various churches. In the course of the l a s t s i x years three teacherages have been constructed, the l a s t being completed i n 1950. A l l construction work on and at the school i s done by voluntary labour. The t o t a l value of school 1 3 property i n 1952 stood at $ 28, 6 6 9 . 2 1 , not including the new classroom additions valued at roughly $ 6,000.00 without labour. The curriculum of the Alberta Mennonite High School i s that prescribed by the p r o v i n c i a l Department of Education, and the school i s under the supervision of the d i v i s i o n a l High School Inspector. In addition to the regular curriculum r e l i - gious subjects such as Bible Story i n the lower grades and Christian Ethics i n the higher, are taught; t h i s i s only nat- u r a l since the lack of r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n i n the public schools was a major factor f o r the establishment of this i n - s t i t u t i o n . The aim i n r e l i g i o n i s not so much one of indoc- t r i n a t i o n as one of providing "God and Bible centred" knowledge and information to the children. As a required foreign lang- uage German i s taught. German also receives emphasis i n that I t i s taught i n the lower grades where a foreign language i s not required. 13 Protokoll der Jahresversammlung des Mennonitischen Bildungs- verein, A p r i l 9 . 1952, p. 1 2 . 110 The i n s t r u c t i o n l.H the German language takes p l a c e mainly i n the Saturday Schools o r g a n i z e d by the v a r i o u s Menno- n i t e churches. From the month of October to the end of March, the Mennonite c h i l d r e n are gathered i n the l o c a l s c h o o l s or B i b l e schools and i n s t r u c t i o n i s g i v e n i n German and r e l i g i o n , w i t h the g r e a t e s t emphasis on the l a t t e r . Only i f the s e t t l e - ment i s too s m a l l or the s e t t l e r s s c a t t e r e d w i t h poor means of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , i s t h i s branch of e d u c a t i o n n e g l e c t e d . The Vertreterversammlung has c o n s t a n t l y urged a l l churches, i f at a l l p o s s i b l e , to open Saturday schools i n t h e i r areas. In A l b e r t a there are f o u r t e e n Mennonite areas which make a d e t e r - mined e f f o r t to teach German and r e l i g i o n , e i t h e r on Saturdays or d u r i n g a few weeks i n the summer months.1^- Where g e n e r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i n t h i s r e s p e c t i s not p o s s i b l e many parents make e f f o r t s i n the home to educate t h e i r c h i l d r e n i n these two • f i e l d s . In 1935 the s e t t l e r s i n C o a l d a l e had s i x Saturday schools i n o p e r a t i o n w i t h s i x teachers- and 12k s t u d e n t s . 1 ^ In 1950 these s c h o o l s were c o n s o l i d a t e d and a t p r e s e n t f u n c t i o n as one school w i t h seven teachers and an enrollment of 185» German schools are not supported by the e a r l y Mennonite s e t t - l e r s (Old Mennonites) s i n c e t h i s denomination has long used the E n g l i s h language i n i t s s e r v i c e s and Sunday s c h o o l s . The Russian Mennonites are making a determined e f f o r t to r e t a i n the German language i n o r d e r to a v o i d a r i f t between young and o l d . The German l i b r a r y i s c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the l k Q u e s t i o n n a i r e . 15 Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 3 5 , P« 23- I l l German school. The Vertreterversammlung has urged each s e t t - lement to acquire German books which could be made available to the children. The areas boasting Saturday schools almost a l l have l i b r a r i e s of this nature. I t i s a general observation, however, that though the books are there, the vast majority of children would f a r rather read English. The danger i s there that the more pressure i s put on to read German the more antipathy w i l l develop towards the language. The e f f o r t s are being made but the German language must eventually be given up. At present the language serves to bridge the gap between the older generation who do not master English and the younger generation interested mainly i n the English language. The German language has posed some of the most d i f f i c u l t problems f o r the Mennonites, e s p e c i a l l y during a time of war. The war-year newspapers of Alberta are f i l l e d with accusations against the Mennonites charging them with d i s - l o y a l t y and treason, mainly because of t h e i r language and the l 6 e f f o r t s to r e t a i n i t . Various organizations made e f f o r t s to root out the German language among the Mennonites. They were unsuccessful because the government seemed a l i t t l e more t o l e r - ant than many of the c i t i z e n s . The Lethbridge C i t y Council i n 1914.0 passed a resolution which, i f endorsed by the education authorities, would deny i n s t r u c t i o n i n other than the English or French language to be given i n any r e l i g i o u s community 17 schools. The endorsement was not forthcoming. In Coaldale the l o c a l Women's I n s t i t u t e "resolved to co-operate with the 16 Lethbridge Herald, Nov. 2, 191+0. 17 Loc. c i t . 112 l o c a l board of t r a d e i n the p r o t e s t to be sent to the proper a u t h o r i t i e s a g a i n s t B i b l e s c h o o l and Saturday school b e i n g taught i n German a t the l o c a l Mennonite church d u r i n g the i ft d u r a t i o n of the war." Under constant p u b l i c pressure the Mennonites d i d c l o s e the Saturday schools and the German l i b - r a r y f o r the d u r a t i o n , but i n 19k6 they were once more opened. The b u l k of the f e e l i n g of the g e n e r a l p u b l i c again- s t the German language was caused by emotion r a t h e r than by reason. Yet the Mennonites, f a i l i n g to understand the h a t r e d the g e n e r a l p u b l i c had f o r anything German, s t u b b o r n l y r e f u s e d to y i e l d to the p r e s s u r e . The concessions made by the c l o s i n g of the German s c h o o l and l i b r a r y d i d soothe the aroused f e e l - ings somewhat, but emotions s t i l l r a n h i g h . The p u b l i c resen- ted the sound of German i n p u b l i c p l a c e s . "Why should our 19 ears be offended by the sound of a non B r i t i s h language...", was the o p i n i o n of many. Many Mennonites very u n t a c t f u l l y r e f u s e d to l i s t e n to these warnings and continued to speak German i n p u b l i c p l a c e s . I f one c o n s i d e r s the b i t t e r n e s s and the d i f f i c u l - t i e s caused f o r the Mennonites by the German language, why i s there such a r e a l attempt a t i t s p r e s e r v a t i o n ? The answer from a Mennonite p o i n t of view i s g i v e n by Rev. B.B. Janz i n the L e t h b r i d g e H e r a l d of J u l y 6 , 191J-0. He p o i n t s out t h a t the German language i s not a fundamental p a r t of the Mennonite f a i t h as many have b e l i e v e d . The h i s t o r y of the Mennonites shows t h a t they have changed t h e i r language s e v e r a l times. 18 L e t h b r i d g e H e r a l d , J u l y 5 , 19U-0. 19 L e t h b r i d g e H e r a l d , J u l y 5, 1 9 k 0 ' 113 O r i g i n a l l y they spoke Dutch or Swiss, but i n P r u s s i a , under constant p r e s s u r e they adopted the German language. This change at t h a t time o c c a s s i o n e d as much d i f f i c u l t y as the t r a n s i t i o n from German to E n g l i s h does now. In R u s s i a , due to the p r i v i l e g e s enjoyed t h e r e , the R u s s i f i c a t i o n of the Mennonites d i d not take p l a c e . In Canada the Mennonites are again f a c e d w i t h the problem of adopting a new language. The s o l u t i o n of t h i s d i f f i c u l t y i s c l e a r l y demonstrated by the h i s t o r y of the Mennonites who i n the 18th century migrated to the U n i t e d S t a t e s ; the m a j o r i t y i n America have l o s t t h e i r former language and adopted the tongue of t h e i r new homeland. The same p r o c e s s of the i n d i c a t e d change among the Mennonites i n the U n i t e d States i s a l s o c l e a r l y seen i n i t s beginnings among the younger g e n e r a t i o n of the l a t e s t immigrants to Canada. Rev. Janz f u r t h e r p o i n t e d out t h a t f i f t y per cent of the Mennonite people were unable to f o l l o w an E n g l i s h s e r - mon w i t h i t s B i b l i c a l terminology. Even though many of them had l e a r n e d through the years to express themselves i n E n g l i s h i n the realm of everyday a f f a i r s , i t remained f o r them an a l - t o g e t h e r more d i f f i c u l t t h i n g to l e a r n the E n g l i s h language f o r r e l i g i o u s purposes. In a d d i t i o n , the m i n i s t e r s were mostly men who had come over from R u s s i a and i t was i m p o s s i b l e f o r them to use the E n g l i s h language i n B i b l i c a l d i s c o u r s e . The change from one language to another should not and c o u l d not be expected i n one g e n e r a t i o n . "This makes i t e v i d e n t t h a t the r e l i g i o u s body, the Mennonite Church, c o n s i d e r s i t impera- t i v e to teach t h e i r c h i l d r e n the l i t e r a r y book language of Ger- I l k man, i n o r d e r to prevent the catastrophe of a d i v i s i o n w i t h i n „20 the church between the young and o l d . " Mr. Janz goes on to say, Our Dominion government i s very wise i n not a p p l y i n g any f o r c e i n t h i s matter because the change of language f o r the immigrant takes care of i t s e l f h i s t o r i c a l l y , i n the course of time The Mennonites i n t h e i r e f f o r t s to main- t a i n a Saturday s c h o o l of t h e i r own f o r the c h i l d r e n do nc^t pursue any other aim but an exclusive 1*' r e l i g i o u s purpose... They are to enable the c h i l d to read the same B i b l e which i t s ( s i c ) mother reads, that i t ( s i c ) may s i n g the same song which mother s i n g s , and understand the worship i n which the f a m i l y p a r t i c i p a t e s . 21 The German language t h e r e f o r e , i s to serve as a l i n k between young and o l d , u n t i l the E n g l i s h language can serve the pur- poses of a l l . Thus the g e n e r a l p u b l i c and the Mennonites both have arguments f o r t h e i r stand and j u s t i f i c a t i o n s seem to be found on both s i d e s of the q u e s t i o n . What i s needed, perhaps, i s a l i t t l e more understanding on the p a r t of the E n g l i s h speaking p u b l i c , who have never been i n the p o s i t i o n of a min- o r i t y group, and a l i t t l e more e f f o r t to l e a r n E n g l i s h on the p a r t of the Mennonites who do n o t master i t . But the g e n e r a l course of h i s t o r y i n t h i s matter i s c l e a r ; the Mennonites have a l r e a d y changed t h e i r language once and they can be expected to do i t again. There i s the f e a r i n the h e a r t s of some Menno- n i t e s that they w i l l a l s o l o s e t h e i r f a i t h when the German language i s g i v e n up; t h i s i s not the view of the g e n e r a l Mennonite p u b l i c . 20 Loc. c i t . 21 Loc. c i t . 115 The Mennonites have t r i e d to maintain t h e i r group i n d i v i d u a l i t y i n the midst of a culture strange to them. Their s o c i a l , r e l i g i o u s , and educational endeavors have been moti- vated by the desire to maintain t h e i r r e l i g i o u s separation. This struggle has often led them into c o n f l i c t with t h e i r non- •Mennonite neighbors i n areas of a c t i v i t y which seem unimportant to the l a t t e r but constitute a v i t a l l i n k i n Mennonite r e l i - gious development. The question i s often asked, "To what extent have the Mennonites been assimilated?" This question i s rather d i f f i c u l t to answer and depends upon the f i e l d of a c t i v i t y which i s considered. Economically the Mennonites have been assimilated, s o c i a l l y and educationally they maintain a reserve, p p r e l i g i o u s l y they make no compromise. Some observers t h i n k ^ that when the German language has disappeared from among them assimilation w i l l have been completed. This i s a f a l l a c y ; i t may make assimilation somewhat easier and more rapid, but the Mennonites of the United States have proven that the foundation of Mennonitism i s not a language but a b e l i e f , i t i s a p h i l o - sophy of l i f e . As long as this philosophy remains unassimil- ated the Mennonites also remain so. The core of Mennonitism i s s t i l l f i r m , even though i n recent years there has been evident a "breaking away" from the Mennonite f a i t h . This was especially true during the war years when accompanying s o c i a l and economic upheavals also reached into the Mennonite way of l i f e . I t i s indeed doubtful i f complete assimilation of these people would be desireable. 22 Wordsworth, J.S., Strangers Within Our Gates, Frederick Clarke Stephenson, Toronto, l^Oo, P« 1 9 1 » 116 T h e i r b e l i e f s and c o n s e r v a t i v e p o l i t i c a l l e a n i n g s have a p l a c e i n the modern world; t h e i r i n d u s t r y and t h r i f t c o u l d serve as a noble example to many o t h e r s . The m a j o r i t y of the young people remain w i t h the f a i t h of t h e i r f a t h e r s and are assuming r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n a l l walks of C a n a d i a n , l i f e as t e a c h e r s , engineers, u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s , Doctors, a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s and many o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n s . In A l b e r t a alone (1950-1951) there were 198 Mennonite h i g h s c h o o l students of which 108 were i n p u b l i c h i g h schools and 90 i n Mennonite p r i v a t e s c h o o l s ; there were t h i r t y - s e v e n U n i v e r s i t y students, and t h i r t y - t w o nurses or nurses i n t r a i n i n g . ^ The m a j o r i t y of Mennonite youth, however, s t a y on the farm. W r i t i n g i n the Family H e r a l d and Weekly S t a r of June 2 2 n d , 1 9 3 8 , Mariaia Green E l l i s s a i d , I t i s estimated that 96$ of the Mennonite sons have stayed on the farm, and that has not j u s t happened. I t has been by d e f i n i t e i n t e n t and t r a i n i n g . The o t h e r f o u r per cent, are the e x c e p t i o n s . You w i l l f i n d a Mennonite doctor i n Golden, B r i t i s h Columbia, an e x t e n s i o n worker i n Bran- don, an i n t e r p r e t e r i n Winnipeg, a U n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r i n B r i t i s h Columbia and another a t Oxford. The l a t t e r went over i n the f i r s t p l a c e as a Rhodes S c h o l a r from Manitoba, and remained to become head of the department of Romance languages. But Mennonite boys and g i r l s are by t r a d i t i o n and t r a i n i n g 'of the s o i l ' , and the problem which w o r r i e s the Mennonite f a t h e r s today i s what i s g o i n g to happen when the s u r p l u s i s f o r - ced away from the community. Undoubtedly i t w i l l weaken the church, but i t w i l l a l s o hasten t h e i r a b s o r p t i o n i n t o Canadian l i f e . 2k During and f o l l o w i n g World War I I t h i s l i s t of p r o f e s s i o n a l 23 Q u e s t i o n n a i r e and Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 5 l » PP* 1 2 - 1 3 . 2k Quoted i n Gibbon, op. c i t . , p. 1 8 6 . 117 Mennonite men and women has increased greatly, because the "surplus" has already been forced away from the community, e s p e c i a l l y i n Ontario and British.Columbia. In Alberta agri culture i s s t i l l the dominant aim of the young people. In another ten years the picture here w i l l also have changed. CHAPTER VII MILITARY SERVICE AND POST WAR DEVELOPMENTS " i f they were only as good Citizens as they are good Christians." (Calgary Herald, June 2£, 1914-2) The Mennonite stand to m i l i t a r y service i n the past has, been b r i e f l y mentioned i n chapter one. They were, and i n Canada and the United States, s t i l l are p a c i f i s t s who de- c lare, "We should not provoke or do violence to any men - even, when necessary, to f l e e for the Lord's sake from one country to another, and take p a t i e n t l y the s p o i l i n g of our goods, but to do violence to no man.""'" This attitude has been affirmed and reaffirmed i n the past and has been extended also into the f i e l d of government where o f f i c e holding i s considered "unspir- i t u a l , " because the "world can be controlled only by the sword and the weapons of our warfare are not carnal." What then i s the Mennonite r e l a t i o n to the state? The answer, as given by the majority of p a c i f i s t Mennonites the world over i s as f o l - lows: - We accept the teaching of Scripture that the gov- ernments of the world are i n s t i t u t e d of God for the purpose of keeping law and order i n ( s i c ) the earth among men. To do t h i s the state enacts laws, judges between parties i n contention (I Cor. 6 : l 6 ) , threatens and punishes criminals and i f necessary bears the sword i n order to cufcb crime (Rom. 13:14.). According to the same Scripture the state i s also given f o r the purpose of p r a i s i n g the well doer and protection of the good. I Pet. 2:k. Since the Bible i s our rule of conduct, we want to take the C h r i s t i a n attitude toward the state. The following we believe to be the s c r i p t u r a l re- l a t i o n s h i p : 1. Honor the King. I Pet. 2:17 1 Gibbon, op. c i t . , p. 170 2 Alberta-Saskatchewan Conference Reports, 193A* P» 3 119 2 . Pray f o r the r u l e r s , t h a t we may l e a d a q u i e t and peaceable l i f e i n a l l g o d l i n e s s and hon- e s t y . I Tim. 2 : 1 - 3 . 3 . To obey the laws of the l a n d , w i t h t h i s o n l y e x c e p t i o n t h a t when the s t a t e asks something of us t h a t i s c o n t r a r y to the t e a c h i n g of the B i b l e , we ought to obey God r a t h e r than man. Acts 5 : 2 9 . k. In no case to r e s i s t the government (Acts 1 3 : 2 ) , nor speak e v i l of r u l e r s ( T i t . 3 : 2 ) , nor take p a r t i n s e d i t i o n s (Gal. 5 : 2 0 ) . 5» To g l a d l y pay tax, customs, and revenues that may be r e q u i r e d of us. Rom. 1 3 : 6 ; Matt. 1 7 : 2 7 . 3 T h i s g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e of the Mennonites to the s t a t e has been a p o i n t of vigorous d i s c u s s i o n a t the Mennonite World Confer- ence i n B a s e l , S w i t z e r l a n d , which was h e l d i n August, 1 9 5 2 . ^ The Mennonites of the world r e a f f i r m e d t h e i r fundamental ob- j e c t i o n to the use of arms, but l e f t u n r e s o l v e d the d i f f e r e n c e s which have grown among the European and American Mennonites s i n c e the 1 7 t h century. A compromise was reached i n a unani- mously adopted message: As c i t i z e n s o f our c o u n t r i e s , we d e s i r e to be sub- j e c t to our governments, to pray f o r them and to seek the w e l f a r e of the n a t i o n , under the c o n d i t i o n t h a t where the requirements of human laws are con- t r a r y to the word of God, we must obey God r a t h e r than man. Our r u l e of l i f e must always be the word o f God. 5 T h i s r e s o l u t i o n g i v e s ample room f o r i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , but the p r i n c i p l e i s c l e a r - n o n - r e s i s t a n c e i s s t i l l a deep- seated p a r t of the Mennonite f a i t h . During times of war the h o s t i l e f e e l i n g a g a i n s t the Mennonites i n c r e a s e s because of these p a c i f i s t p r i n c i p l e s . Yet the a t t i t u d e of the Mennonites has always been that one should "obey God r a t h e r than man" i n such circumstances, even 3 I b i d . , 1 9 3 5 , P» 3» U n d e r l i n i n g i s mine. k L e t h b r i d g e H e r a l d , Aug. l 6 , 1 9 5 2 . 5 Loc. c i t . U n d e r l i n i n g i s mine. 120 i f i t means the l o s s of "wbrdly" goods and p o s s e s s i o n s . Dur- i n g the Reformation the Mennonites r e s i s t e d any attempts to make them perform m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e and as a r e s u l t they were f o r c e d to f l e e or s u f f e r p e r s e c u t i o n — t h e y f l e d to P r u s s i a . Here again, i n time, they found i t necessary to defend t h e i r p a c i f i s t p r i n c i p l e s and although a l t e r n a t i v e s e r v i c e s were f o r a time allowed many accepted the i n v i t a t i o n of Catherine I I of R u s s i a and migrated to the lower Dneiper area. In I87O an a c t of the Russian government (Ukas) withdrew r e c o g n i t i o n of the Mennonite p r i n c i p l e s and the g r e a t i n f l u x of the 1 8 7 0 's i n t o Canada and the U n i t e d S t a t e s took p l a c e . The Mennonites remaining i n R u s s i a escaped w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e s e r v i c e s or with m e d i c a l s e r v i c e i n the Russian army. A f t e r the Communist rev- o l u t i o n had withdrawn a l l p r i v i l e g e s enjoyed by the Mennonites the g r e a t m i g r a t i o n of the 1 9 2 0 's began. The a l t e r n a t i v e s e r - v i c e men i n R u s s i a were supported and s u p p l i e d by the v a r i o u s Mennonite churches, and at the h e i g h t of World War I, there were 1 2 , 0 0 0 Mennonites i n the v a r i o u s s e r v i c e s , c o s t i n g the churches $ 1, 5 0 0 ' , 0 0 0 a n n u a l l y . 0 In North America the experience of the Mennonite p a c i f i s t s has been v a r i e d . During the American R e v o l u t i o n the Mennonites i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s were f o r c e d to bear arms o r j o i n the stream of U n i t e d Empire L o y a l i s t s to B r i t i s h North America. In the War of 1 8 1 2 , the Mennonites i n Canada were exempt from m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e but had to f u r n i s h t h e i r horses 7 and oxen and serve as teamsters. During the American C i v i l 6 V e r e i n i g t e n Mennoniten Gemeinden i n O n t a r i o , Jahrbuch, I95lt p. 1 8 . H e r e a f t e r noted as.V.M.G.0., Jahrbuch. 7 Gibbon, op. c i t . , p. 177* 121 War the United States allowed m i l i t a r y exemption i n return for 8 a money payment c a l l e d commutation fee. World War I again raised the question of m i l i t a r y service. Non-combatant service i n the army was allowed by the Canadian government, but there was no guarantee that the draf- tee would not be shifted around and placed i n a combatant po- s i t i o n . The s i t u a t i o n grew serious and the Mennonites of Can- ada, on Jan. 8 , 1917, handed an address to the Government of Canada, asking I t to remember the promised p r i v i l e g e s to the ,q Mennonites; The government stated that i t s promises had not been f o r g o t t e n . 1 0 Through the C i v i l i a n Board of Inquiry;, a l l the conscientious objectors were screened and the insincere cases eliminated from the p a c i f i s t ranks. The others were given work on farms. The whole a f f a i r , however, frightened the more conservative elements and caused another Mennonite migration i n the 1920" s when the A l t k o l o n i e r treked to M e x i c o H World War I I caught the Canadian Mennonites un- prepared for the emergency. P r i o r to the war no e f f o r t s had been made to arrange f o r alternative services i n case war came. This lack of foresight was not caused so much by indifference as by the differences of opinion among the various Mennonite denominations regarding the type of service to be done. The very conservative elements (Altkolonier) absolutely refused any type of service during wartime; the Old Mennonites were w i l l i n g to do work under c i v i l i a n supervision ? but rejected a l l 8 V.M.G.O., Jahrbuch, 1951, P. 18 9 Text of address i n Schaeffer, op. c i t . , pp. Ik8-I5l. 10 I b i d ; , p. 151. 11 Some of these have returned to Canada and s e t t l e d at Port Vermilion- i n northern Alberta. 122 non-combatant s e r v i c e , even under s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n the Medical Corps; the General Conference .and the Mennonite Bre- t h e r n were w i l l i n g to do f o r e s t r y and farm work but were a l s o i n c l i n e d to accept non-combatant s e r v i c e i n the M e d i c a l Corps. When the war broke out the Mennonites were i n c a p a b l e of p r e - s e n t i n g a u n i t e d f r o n t on t h i s q u e s t i o n . Under p r e s s u r e of war, however, compromises were soon reached and the government granted a l t e r n a t i v e s e r v i c e s . In t h i s r e s p e c t there was no d i s t i n c t i o n made .between Menno- n i t e s and other groups Who p r o f e s s e d p a c i f i s t p r i n c i p l e s . A l - t e r n a t i v e s e r v i c e was g r a n t e d on the b a s i s of the M i l i t i a Law passed i n 1927, which s t a t e d i n p a r t , The f o l l o w i n g persons only s h a l l be exempt.from l i a b i l i t y to serve i n the m i l i t i a . . . . P e r s o n s , who from the d o c t r i n e s of t h e i r r e l i g i o n , are averse to b e a r i n g arms or r e n d e r i n g p e r s o n a l m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , under such c o n d i t i o n s as are p r e s c r i b e d . 12 A l t e r n a t i v e s e r v i c e camps arose f i r s t i n Ontario, near Montreal R i v e r , and then i n Manitoba, Saskatchewan, A l b e r t a and B r i t i s h Columbia. The m a j o r i t y of' camps were i n B r i t i s h Columbia, where a t the h e i g h t of the war n i n e t e e n camps were occupied 13 by approximately 7k0 men. The d u t i e s of the men were mainly f i r e f i g h t i n g , f e l l i n g scorched t r e e s and p l a n t i n g new ones. I t i s estimated t h a t k 5 0 , 0 0 0 t r e e s were p l a n t e d by men .in these camps.^ These c o n s c i e n t i o u s o b j e c t o r s r e c e i v e d o n l y f i f t y cents per day and had to supply t h e i r own c l o t h i n g and support t h e i r own f a m i l i e s . The government undertook the support of 12 S c h a e f f e r , op. c i t . , p. 153-. - 13 V.M.G.0., Jahrbuch, 1 9 5 1 , p. 19« l k Loc. c i t . 123 the camps. In 19^3 these men were g i v e n the choice of work on the farm at $ 2 5 . 0 0 per month, w i t h the r e s t of the s a l a r y being p a i d d i r e c t l y to the Red Cross, or to remain i n camp. Most of the men accepted the new s e r v i c e and a l l f o r e s t r y camps except seven were closed. 1 '"' During the l a s t years of the war c o n s c i e n t i o u s o b j e c t o r s were a l s o allowed to serve i n h o s p i t a l s throughout Canada. The ones who chose t h i s s e r v i c e were us- u a l l y sent to the v a r i o u s mental h o s p i t a l s as o r d e r l i e s . The d e l e g a t i o n which was sent to Ottawa to a r - range f o r a l t e r n a t i v e s e r v i c e c o n s i s t e d o f Mennonites of a l l denominations; a d i f f e r e n c e of o p i n i o n was soon e v i d e n t . The members of the Old Mennonites r e j e c t e d any s e r v i c e which was c o n t r o l l e d by the m i l i t a r y , even i f t h i s s e r v i c e i n v o l v e d o n l y care of the s i c k and wounded. They argued that i f a man took such s e r v i c e s he became an i n t e g r a l p a r t of a " f i g h t i n g f o r c e " arid a cog i n the wheel of a f i g h t i n g machine. The suggestion was made by Rev. B.B. Janz t h a t s e r v i c e i n the M e d i c a l Corps, under s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s , would expose Mennonite young men to the same p h y s i c a l dangers as the o r d i n a r y s o l d i e r , and y e t r e q u i r e of them only to perform a c t s of mercy and h e a l i n g . Because t h i s s t i l l i n v o l v e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n " p a r t " of the army which was under m i l i t a r y s u p e r v i s i o n , this' p l a n was r e - j e c t e d by the d e l e g a t i o n . The main o b s t a c l e s . t o t h i s p l a n seemed to be that b a s i c t r a i n i n g , even i n t h i s noncombatant u n i t , r e q u i r e d arms t r a i n i n g and there"was no guarantee that the men would not be t r a n s f e r e d to an a c t i v e combatant u n i t . The p l a n was t h e r e f o r e , r e j e c t e d i n i t s e n t i r i t y . Of the e i g h t 15 Loc. c i t . 12k delegates only one, B.B. Janz, seemed to favour the p l a n . In September 1 9 k 3 , an Order-in-Council allowed the s e r v i c e s of the conscientious objectors i n the Medical and Dental Corps. S p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s s t a t e d that even b a s i c t r a i n - ing was to be done without arms and the men could not be t r a n s - f e r e d to another u n i t without t h e i r consent. When t h i s became known the p a c i f i s t s of a l l r e l i g i o u s complexions joined t h i s branch of the s e r v i c e . I t i s not d e f i n i t e l y known how many j o i n e d but the f i r s t of t h i s group r e c e i v e d b a s i c t r a i n i n g i n Peterboro, Ontario, i n December of 19k3 and January of 1 9 k k . In t h i s f i r s t group there were f o r t y - t h r e e men representing the Mennonite, P e n t e c o s t a l , Seventh-Day-Adventist and Plymouth l 6 Brethern churches; of these men twenty-five were Mennonites. As f a r as i s known, t h i s was the l a r g e s t number to be t r a i n e d as a group. The men who j o i n e d l a t e r went through t r a i n i n g as i n d i v i d u a l s and not as a p a r t of a l a r g e " r e s t r i c t e d " group. The p r i v i l e g e s enjoyed by these men on discharge were the same as those of the r e g u l a r serviceman. In t r a c i n g the o r i g i n of t h i s Order-in-Council 17 no w r i t t e n i n f o r m a t i o n or sources are a v a i l a b l e . Rev. B.B. Janz r e l a t e s that a f t e r the Mennonite d e l e g a t i o n had arranged f o r a l t e r n a t i v e s e r v i c e , he p e r s o n a l l y got i n touch w i t h Major General L a f l e c h e , M i n i s t e r of War, and proposed a scheme which would make i t p o s s i b l e f o r Mennonite young men to serve i n the Medical Corps. A paper was drawn up s t a t i n g the c o n d i t i o n s under which such s e r v i c e s could be made p o s s i b l e . These con- d i t i o n s i n c l u d e d no t r a i n i n g w i t h arms, n o n t r a n s f e r a b i l i t y 16 Personal experience of w r i t e r . 17 The f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n Is obtained from Rev. B.B. Janz. 125 to o t h e r u n i t s , and s e r v i c e i n groups w i t h arrangements f o r s p i r i t u a l s u p e r v i s i o n by the Mennonite Church. General La- f l e c h e was e n t h u s i a s t i c and promised to do a l l i n h i s power to a i d i n such a -program. He promised B.B. Janz to keep him informed as to developments. A y e a r l a t e r Janz was informed t h a t the Department of Defense had r e j e c t e d any p l a n by which c o n s c i e n t i o u s o b j e c t o r s c o u l d serve i n the army except under r e g u l a r c o n d i t i o n s . The i s s u e seemed dead. Then came the O r d e r - i n - C o u n c i l of September, 1 9 k 3 , i n which p a r t of the con- d i t i o n s asked f o r by Mr. Janz were granted, e v i d e n t l y a-:result of the audience w i t h Major General L a f l e c h e . I t i s c l e a r that the " r e s t r i c t e d " s e r v i c e i n the Royal Canadian Army M e d i c a l Corps and the Royal Canadian Army Dental Corps, o r i g i n a t e d o u t s i d e of the u n i t e d a c t i o n • 6"f ̂ the Mennonite churches and t h e r e f o r e d i d not enjoy church endorsement. Today the p u b l i c seems much more f a v o r a b l e to such a p l a n and i t can be expected t h a t i n case of another war t h i s s e r v i c e s h a l l r e c e i v e major emphasis. In A l b e r t a the s i t u a t i o n of the Mennonites r e g a r d - i n g m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e was the same as of those i n other p r o - l8 v i n c e s . The p i c t u r e i n A l b e r t a was the f o l l o w i n g : In the armed s e r v i c e s . • 77 In the r e s t r i c t e d M e d i c a l Corps s e r v i c e 8 In the C O . camps and farms 173 In H o s p i t a l s 0 In p r i s o n because of p a c i f i s m 2 Other s e r v i c e s 8 18 TSjuestionnaire & V e r t r e t e r v e r sammlung, 19kh> 19k5> 19^6. 126 I n c a s e s w h e r e t h e y o u n g men I j o . l n e d t h e r e g u l a r m i l i t a r y s e r - v i c e s s p e c i a l a c t i o n w a s t a k e n r e g a r d i n g t h e m o n t h e i r r e t u r n . T h e G e n e r a l C o n f e r e n c e a n d t h e M e n n o n i t e B r e t h e r n C h u r c h e s d i d n o t t a k e a u n i f o r m a c t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e m . I n some l o c a l i t i e s t h e m e n l o s t t h e i r c h u r c h m e m b e r s h i p w h i l e I n o t h e r s n o a c t i o n w a s t a k e n . T h e m e m b e r s o f t h e O l d M e n n o n i t e d e n o m i n a t i o n who 19 j o i n e d t h e s e r v i c e s a u t o m a t i c a l l y f o r f e i t e d c h u r c h m e m b e r s h i p . I n a l l b u t t h e l a t t e r c h u r c h , t h e m a t t e r o f m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n m a d e a m a t t e r o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e . S i n c e W o r l d W a r I I t h e M e n n o n i t e s i n C a n a d a a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a v e m a d e d e t e r m i n e d e f f o r t s t o e n s u r e t h a t a u n i t e d s t a n d s h a l l b e m a d e r e g a r d i n g m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e i n c a s e o f a n o t h e r w a r . T o t h i s e n d v a r i o u s " P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e s " h a v e b e e n h e l d t h r o u g h o u t b o t h c o u n t r i e s , w h e r e t h e q u e s t i o n o f n o n - r e s i s t a n c e a n d m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e h a v e t a k e n t h e s p o t l i g h t . I n A l b e r t a s u c h c o n f e r e n c e s h a v e b e e n h e l d a t C o a l d a l e i n 1951* a n d a t D i d s b u r y i n J u n e , 1 9 5 2 . I n F e b r u a r y , 1951 a n i n e man d e l e g a t i o n w a s s e n t t o O t t a w a t o i n t e r v i e w t h e n e w P r i m e M i n - i s t e r , S t . L a u r e n t , i n r e g a r d t o t h i s q u e s t i o n . T h e P r i m e M i n - i s t e r p r o m i s e d t h a t n o a c t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t w o u l d b e t a k e n i n t h i s r e g a r d w i t h o u t p r i o r c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h 20 t h e g r o u p o r g r o u p s c o n c e r n e d . T h i s g a v e t h e M e n n o n i t e s a s s u r a n c e t h a t i n t h e f u t u r e t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f C a n a d a w o u l d l e n d a s y m p a t h e t i c e a r t o t h e i r w i s h e s r e g a r d i n g m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . T h e M e n n o n i t e s h a v e b e e n a c c u s e d o f h y p o c r i s y i n 19 Q u e s t i o n n a i r e 20 S e e A p p e n d i x C . p . 127 the matter of m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . The q u e s t i o n has been asked, "In how f a r are the Mennonites s i n c e r e when they c l a i m m i l i - t a r y exemption?" In some cases the charge of h y p o c r i s y may be w e l l founded, f o r some have used the p r i v i l e g e s of c o n s c i e n - t i o u s o b j e c t i o n to escape m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e not because of per- s o n a l c o n v i c t i o n s but r a t h e r because of p r e s s u r e from the home, f e a r of combatant duty, p r o s p e c t s of f i n a n c i a l g a i n , or o t h e r " u l t e r i o r " motives. The number of such cases i s s m a l l , how- ever, f o r the p r i n c i p l e s of p a c i f i s m has been i n d o c t r i n a t e d i n t o the Mennonite c h i l d from h i s e a r l y years. The Mennonite stand i s a s i n c e r e one, and the motives of the men who have been a c t i v e i n o b t a i n i n g the a l t e r n a t i v e s e r v i c e s cannot be questioned. The p o p u l a r stand of the Mennonites i n regard to the m i l i t a r y q u e s t i o n was expressed i n 191+0 by Rev. B.B. Janz of C o a l d a l e , A l b e r t a , when he s a i d , I may w e l l say t h a t our r e s t r i c t i o n i n the matter of war does not mean f o r us to s i t at home and do n o t h i n g . No; where our f e l l o w - c i t i z e n s are r e q u i r e d to go out, then a l s o our young men can go out to serve t h e i r coun- t r y , but without b l o o d . Whether the govern- ment should p l a c e them i n any c i v i l s e r v i c e f o r the u p b u i l d i n g of the country, or Red Cross work to the ( s i c ) care f o r the s i c k and woun- ded, or even p a t i e n t s w i t h most contagious d i s e a s e s . Whatever the s e r v i c e may be, though i t r e q u i r e s s a c r i f i c e , s i c k n e s s , s u f f e r i n g or even death, we have no r i g h t to s h r i n k back before anything. Only one request: "Don't r e q u i r e of us to k i l l or work f o r d e s t r u c t i o n -- and p l a c e a l l s e r v i c e , a l s o the most danger- ous under a c i v i l command"... Under no c o n d i t i o n f e a r or cowardice or comfort or anything e l s e should be p e r m i t t e d to keep our young man back, o n l y the p o i n t of c o n s c i e n t i o u s o b j e c t i o n as i n d i c a t e d above i s to r e c e i v e due c o n s i d e r a t i o n . 21 21 L e t h b r i d g e H e r a l d , J u l y 6 , 191+0. 128 This statement i s clear and speaks of a s i n c e r i t y that cannot be questioned. During World War I I the matter of Mennonite l o y a l t y to Canada was a topic of frequent discussion, especially i n d i s t r i c t s where Mennonites l i v e d . In t h i s regard the Mennonite himself was rather confused at times. He knew that he was no Nazi, but at the same time he had a deep -.regard f o r Germany as a country. I t was Germany that had given shelter to the thou- snads of refugees from communist Russia and had clothed and fed them free of charge f o r many months while they had waited for embarkation to Canada. I t took the Mennonites a while to adjust to the fact that the Nazis had taken power and the very government which had extended aid to them had been eliminated, . I t took only a few stories of Nazi a t r o c i t i e s to set the Menno- nites r i g h t , and outside of a few f a n a t i c s , the Mennonites a l l re jected ..Nazism as unchristian and t e r r i b l e . As a rule the Mennonites do not mix i n p o l i t i c s and even sympathy f o r Germany never carried within i t the seeds of danger for Canada. The t i e 22 with Germany i s sentimental and not p o l i t i c a l . In the post-war period the Mennonites have attempted to readjust themselves to the dislocations caused by the war. Some young men once more took up land while others entered the schools and u n i v e r s i t i e s of Canada and the United States to seek occupations- i n other f i e l d s . The older generation again seemed more content now that the war was over and t h e i r young men home. The word came from Europe that many Mennonites among them friends and r e l a t i v e s of Mennonites i n Canada, sought 22 See Appendix D f o r the O f f i c i a l Mennonite view of National Socialism. 129 entrance i n t o Canada. Immediately the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l machin- ery of the North American Mennonites was geared i n an e f f o r t to h e l p open Canada's doors to these u n f o r t u n a t e s . Thus a f o u r t h g r e a t movement of Mennonites i n t o Canada got underway. Most new comers o r i g i n a l l y came from R u s s i a , having escaped from there w i t h the German f o r c e s i n t h e i r r e t r e a t from the east i n 1 9 k k . These Mennonites have come to Canada as d i s p l a c e d persons. In the l a s t y e a r of im- m i g r a t i o n Mennonites from the Danzig area and some German nat- i o n a l s have been i n c l u d e d i n t h i s movement which s t a r t e d i n 1 9 k 7 . 2 ^ The new immigration to Canada has been made•possible by the a i d and the e f f o r t s of the Canadian Mennonites. By March, 1 9 5 2 , n e a r l y 8 , 0 0 0 Mennonites from Europe, Paraguay, B r a z i l , Uruguay and China have entered t h i s country. T h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n i n Canada has been as follows:2""*" P r i n c e Edward I s l a n d 2 New Brunswick 2 Quebec 7 O n t a r i o ' 1193 Manitoba 2500 Saskatchewan 1115 Alberta-- -IOI4.9 B r i t i s h Columbia 1791 T o t a l 7839 These Mennonite refugees have entered Canada under f o u r c a t - e g o r i e s . ^ 23 Mennonitische Rundschau, March 1 2 , 1 9 5 2 . 2k- I b i d . , March 1 9 , 1 9 5 2 . 25 Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 5 l , P» l b . 130 The f i r s t group to r e c e i v e entrance p e r m i s s i o n were near r e l a t i v e s of Mennonites i n Canada. The a p p l i c a n t i n Canada f i l l e d out an a p p l i c a t i o n s t a t i n g h i s circumstances and the degree of r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the immigrant, and made h i m s e l f r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the t r a v e l l i n g expenses of the refugee. He a l s o guaranteed t h a t when the immigrant was i n Canada he would not become a p u b l i c charge. By the end of 1 9 k 6 , about 1200 a p p l i c a t i o n s had been accepted by the CM.B.C. f o r the b r i n g i n g over o f near r e l a t i v e s , and by 1950 about k , 7 8 l of 27 these refugees had e n t e r e d Canada. ' On October 2 2 , 191+8, the P r e s i d e n t of the CM.B.C., J . J . Thi e s s e n , and a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the Mennonite C e n t r a l Committee, W.I. Snyder, handed a p e t i t i o n to the Canadian government a s k i n g f o r p e r m i s s i o n to b r i n g to Canada about 2000 Mennonite d i s p l a c e d persons who had no r e l a t i v e s or f r i e n d s i n Canada. 2 0 " Although promised an answer w i t h i n two weeks i t was g i v e n only i n January, 191+9- I t appeared t h a t o t h e r r e - l i g i o u s groups such as Lutherans, B a p t i s t s and Roman C a t h o l i c s 30 had made s i m i l a r requests at about the same time.^ The f o l - lowing i s p a r t of a l e t t e r dated January 9 , 1 9 1 4 - 9 , by Mr. A.L. J o l l i f f e , D i r e c t o r of Immigration, a l l o w i n g the movement but s e t t i n g d e f i n i t e c o n d i t i o n s : I am p l e a s e d to advise t h a t approval has been given f o r the admission to Canada of up to 1000 such work- ers together w i t h t h e i r dependents. I t i s under- stood that these d i s p l a c e d persons are under the man- date of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Refugee O r g a n i z a t i o n , but 20 Vertreterversammlung, 191+6» p. 10 27 Minutes of the Meeting of the, CM.B.C.. August, 1 9 1+9. 28 A Mennonite R e l i e f o r g a n i z a t i o n i n the U n i t e d States super- v i s i n g the Mennonite immigration from Europe to South America. 29 Reptffrt of the CM.B.C., Feb. 2, 1 9 1+9. 30 Loc. c i t . 131 are not persons e l i g i b l e f o r entry i n t o Canada under the c l o s e r e l a t i v e c l a s s e s , but w i l l have to be s e l e c t e d on an o c c u p a t i o n a l b a s i s f o r emp- loyment on farms. I t i s d e s i r e d that the s e l e c t i o n s of f a m i l y groups be g i v e n p r i o r i t y and that every encour- agement w i l l be given to the movement of f a m i l y groups to Canada. The Canadian Mennonite Board of C o l o n i z a t i o n w i l l be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r f i n d i n g employment and s u i t a b l e housing f o r these d i s p l a c e d persons. A p p l i c a t i o n s f o r the employment of f a m i l i e s or i n d i v i d u a l s on the farms w i l l be completed on the forms s u p p l i e d by the Department of Labour, by the i n d i v i d u a l farmer a p p l i c a n t a p p l y i n g f o r the f a m i l y or i n d i v i d u a l farm l a b o u r e r f o r employ- ment on the farms. The a p p l i c a n t w i l l be r e q u i r e d to g i v e the u s u a l assurance of a minimum of twelve months employment at going wages and adequate housing accomodation, Each a p p l i c a n t w i l l be en- dorsed by the Canadian Mennonite Board of C o l o n i - z a t i o n as h a v i n g s a t i s f i e d i t s e l f t h a t employment i s a v a i l a b l e , t h a t the a p p l i c a n t i s a s a t i s f a c t o r y employer, and t h a t s u i t a b l e housing accomodation i s a v a i l a b l e . The completed a p p l i c a t i o n s as so endorsed' w i l l be sent i n to the Dominion-Provin- c i a l Committee f o r the p r o v i n c e where the a p p l i - cant farmer r e s i d e s . Arrangements w i l l be made, i f d e s i r e d , and where p r a c t i c a b l e , to enable a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of your o r g a n i z a t i o n to be p r e s e n t at meetings of the D o m i n i o n - P r o v i n c i a l Committee at which the a p p l i c a t i o n s are c o n s i d e r e d . The D o m i n i o n - P r o v i n c i a l Committee w i l l undertake the necessary i n v e s t i g a t i o n to s a t i s f y i t s e l f t h a t the a p p l i c a t i o n s are i n order. The s e l e c t i o n of the above persons w i l l be made i n the u s u a l manner overseas by the Canadian Gov- ernment S e l e c t i o n Teams. I f the overseas r e p r e - s e n t a t i v e s of your o r g a n i z a t i o n are i n a p o s i t i o n to a s s i s t the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Refugee O r g a n i z a t i o n i n l o c a t i n g and p r e s e n t i n g these Mennonite d i s - p l a c e d persons to the S e l e c t i o n teams, t h i s w i l l be of d e f i n i t e a s s i s t a n c e . A l l persons s e l e c t e d f o r employment w i l l be r e - q u i r e d to complete an undertaking to take employ- ment f o r a p e r i o d of at l e a s t twelve months follow- i n g t h e i r a r r i v a l i n Canada. The u n d e r t a k i n g w i l l be i n accordance w i t h the u s u a l undertaking r e - q u i r e d from other d i s p l a c e d persons s e l e c t e d on an o c c u p a t i o n a l b a s i s . The I.R.O. w i l l be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the payment of the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o s t s to Canada. The Can- adian Mennonite Board of C o l o n i z a t i o n and the Mennonite C e n t r a l Committee w i l l be r e s p o n s i b l e 132 f o r paying the costs of transportation from the port of entry to the -place of employment i n Can- ada. The l a t t e r costs may be paid on a recover- able basis. I t i s understood that arrangements covering t h i s movement can be cancelled on s i x t y days' notice. 31 Thus the way f o r these new immigrants was opened and on March 5 , 191+9, at a general meeting of a l l Mennonite churches with representatives of Lutheran, Baptist, and Catholic groups as well as representatives of the Dominion and P r o v i n c i a l gover- nments, the l a s t minute arrangements were made. I t was stres- sed that p r i o r i t y was given to farm workdrs and domestics and 32 the applicant should be a farmer i n actual need of farm help. By August of 191+9, about 1 3 6 persons i n this category had en- tered Canada.33 Today t h i s movement has been completed. The t h i r d category consisted of immigrants coming to Canada through the e f f o r t s and sponsorship of the Canadian Department of 'Laboufc. This group included workers f o r the various industries i n Canada. By the end of 1 9 5 1 about 1+65 Mennonites had entered Canada under t h i s arrangement. ^ The C.M.B.G. did not encourage Mennonites to seek entrance i n t h i s category, because on a r r i v a l the refugees were scattered a l l across Canada and i t was p r a c t i c a l l y impossible f o r the church to remain i n contact with them. The Board made e f f o r t s to get permission to place this group near large Mennonite settlements where s p i r i t u a l supervision would be possible. They met with success only i n Southern Alberta where the Immigrants were given work i n the large sugar-beet f i e l d s of that region. 3 1 Report of CM.B.C., Jan. 2 8 , 191+9. 3 2 Letter of J.J. Thiessen to members of the CM.B.C. and the P r o v i n c i a l Committees, March 1 7 , 191+9. 3 3 Bericht der CM.B.C. , Aug. 1 7 , 191+9- 3l+ Vertreterversammlung, 1 9 5 1 , P* l o . 133 Some of the Mennonites i n Europe were German nat- ionals and this group posed a p a r t i c u l a r problem. They re- ceived no rights under the International Refugee Organization arrangements and t h e i r entrance into Canada was barred u n t i l 1950* This group included hot only Mennonites but Lutherans, Baptists and Roman Catholics as w e l l . In order to unify t h e i r e f f o r t s on behalf of this group the above mentioned r e l i g i o u s denominations founded the Canadian Christian Council f o r Re- Settlement of Refugees (C.C.C.R.R.) i n 191+7, with Dr. T.O.P. Herzer (Lutheran) as President. On February 2 , 1950 a C.C. C.R.R. delegation headed by Herzer interviewed the Minister of Immigration, the Hon. Walter E. H a r r i s , with reference to the further extension of regulations f o r the admission to Canada of refugees of German ethnic o r i g i n and possibly of German n a t i o n a l s . 3 ^ B y Orddr-in-Council P.C. 1606 of March 28, 1950, the refugees of German ethnic o r i g i n were allowed to immigrate to Canada. In September of the same year an Order-in-Council , P.C. I+36I+, allowed a l l German nationals interested i n immigra- 37 tion to apply f o r entrance into Canada. This group could not enter on c r e d i t but had to come on a cash basis. Of the 1 0 , 0 0 0 Germans brought over by the C.C.C.R.R. since 191+7 about 268 were Mennonites.3^ The financing of the Mennonite immigrants was under- taken by the CM.B.C. In each province the P r o v i n c i a l Commi- ttees provided a fund on which applicants might draw to finance the Immigration of t h e i r near r e l a t i v e s and friends. By Dec- 35 M.P.H., Aug. 8 , 191+7 36 Minutes of the Meeting of the CM.B.C., Feb. 7, 1950. 37 Vertreterversammlung,, 1 9 5 1 , P» 17 38 Loc. c i t . 131; ember, 1 9 5 1 , the t o t a l amount of c r e d i t extended by the C.M.B. 39 C. was $ 1 3 1 , 2 2 1 .Ik, of which $9i+,l+95.73 had again been repaid. O r i g i n a l l y the C.M.B.C. and the P r o v i n c i a l Committees had been against the creation of a new Reiseschuld f o r they s t i l l remembered the d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered i n the l i q u i d a t i o n of the old one. I f a p o l i c y of "no dredit" was to be carried out, however, i t meant that thousands of refugees would have to remain i n Europe. The s i t u a t i o n seemed to warrant i t and credit was once more extended. Even the C.P.R. offered the Mennonites a c r e d i t of $ 1 8 0 , 0 0 0 f o r immigration purposes, i f the-Mennonites would come to Canada on the Company's ships. The c r e d i t was to be repaid within two years at 3$ i n t e r e s t . By March, 1 9 5 2 , about $ 7 7 , 0 0 0 of t h i s credit had been used. k 0 In December, 191+6, the Mennonites of Alberta crea- ted the "Immigration Fund", from which money was to be used to help the new immigrants come to Canada. Although the fund then contained only $791+.l+8, there was s t i l l over $ 1 , 0 0 0 i n the- Reiseschuld fund; this was transfered to the new treasury, The fund was to be f i l l e d by personal loans, g i f t s , c o l l e c t i o n s and any other means which could be carried out with reasonable success. From the fund, loans f o r two or three years could be made at a rate of 3% i n t e r e s t . Vigorous e f f o r t s were made by the Committee to f i l l the treasury and the support of a l l Mennonite denominations was s o l i c i t e d . By A p r i l , 1952 a t o t a l 1+2 of ninety-seven loans had been made amounting to $ k 6 , 0 8 6 . 9 2 . 39 Loc. c i t . 1+0 Mennonitlsche Rundschau, March 1 9 , 1 9 5 2 . 1+1 M.P.H., Feb. 5, 1 9 k 7 . 1+2 M.P.H., A p r i l 2 3 , 1 9 5 2 . . - 135 Most of the loans were rapidly repaid and the fund i s consid- ered a success i n every sense of the term. Since the immigra- t i o n movement has almost come to a stop the fund i s to be u t i l i z e d i n other ways not yet defined. The Mennonite P r o v i n c i a l R e l i e f Committee undertook not only to supply money for immigration but accepted the re- s p o n s i b i l i t y of finding jobs- and land for the immigrants as well.. The attempts, to keep the immigrants near Mennonite settlements was, of course, one of i t s major concerns. Contact was maintained with immigrants who had work outside of Menno- n i t e c i r c l e s and i f v i s i t s were not possible then letterswere written to them. The churches i n a l l areas were urged to con- tact a l l Mennonite newcomers and draw them into the Mennonite 1+3 s p i r i t u a l o r b i t . The Committee regre^ed the rapid urbanization of "fc" the new immigrants. Warnings were sent out time and time again urging the "New Canadians" to l i v e up to the terms of t h e i r contracts by remaining on the farms f o r at least twelve kh months. Due to the high price of land and the s c a r c i t y of good land, no large settlement scheme could be undertaken. Applicants were accepted f o r the land i n the newly opened i r r - i g a t i o n area near Vauxhall. The high s a l a r i e s i n towns and c i t i e s have been an added incentive to seek employment outside of agriculture. Due to this new immigration the Mennonites them- selves faced the problems of assimilating and absorbing the 1+3 M.P.H., Aug. 1 0 , 191+8. 1+1+ Loc. c i t . 136 newcomers. This i s proving to be a d i f f i c u l t task/for the new immigrants are s t i l l Europeans and i t i s i n the contrast between these two groups that one can see the extent to which the old immigrants have become "Canadianized." Twenty f i v e years under a Communist regime has given many of the newcomers s t a r t l i n g economic and s o c i a l ideas. The r e s u l t often i s misunderstanding and i n most Mennonite centres today a clear l i n e of demarcation can be discerned between the old and the new. These varying ideologies w i l l again demand a period of time before assimilation of the two groups w i l l be completed. As i t i s , the convulsions of s o c i a l and economic d i s l o c a t i o n and adjustment must be endured. CHAPTER EIGHT CONCLUSION In the eyes of the Canadian people, the Mennonites have always presented a problem In assimilation. The obser- vant reader i s constantly under a bombardment of words which ask, or even demand, the assimilation of a l l minority groups i n Canada. I t must be admitted that a degree of assimilation i s necessary f o r the good of the country; complete assimilation would be a catastrophe of no mean proportions. Each minority group, no matter of what physical extraction or geographic o r i g i n , has some contribution to make to the general culture; each group enriches, and enlarges the l i f e of the nation. I t would be an irreplrable loss i f the many ethnic groups i n Can- ada should loose t h e i r r a c i a l genius and p e c u l i a r i t i e s , even f o r the sake of creating a common Canadian i n d i v i d u a l . The richness and beauty of a nation's culture does not depend upon s i m i l a r i t y but upon the d i v e r s i t y and variety which only diver- gent groups and races can give i t . A l l great cultures have arisen because of the contribution made to them by other cultures. The Mennonites i n Canada have t h e i r contributions to make to the general Canadian culture. In Alberta this con- t r i b u t i o n has, u n t i l the present, been on a g r i c u l t u r a l l i n e s . Although the Mennonite society i n Alberta to the present has been predominantly a g r i c u l t u r a l , the young people today are being forced from the land into other occupational f i e l d s 138 There i s now a t r e n d to the c i t y which promises to develop i n t o an o b s t i n a t e problem f o r the Mennonite l e a d e r s . I f t h i s t r e n d i s n e g a t i v e i n one sense, i t i s p o s i t i v e i n another, f o r i t w i l l open v a s t areas i n which Mennonite genius may f i n d ample room f o r development. The a s s i m i l a t i o n of the Mennonites has not y e t taken p l a c e . To become a s s i m i l a t e d the Mennonite must not o n l y change h i s dress and language, but h i s p h i l o s o p h y of l i f e . This change i s not l i k e l y to occur i n a f r e e s o c i e t y where a m i n o r i t y group i s at l i b e r t y to l o o k a f t e r i t s own s p i r i t u a l and e d u c a t i o n a l needs. As soon as the s o c i e t y i s no l o n g e r f r e e i n t h i s r e s p e c t , the Mennonites w i l l once more migrate to a country o f f e r i n g b e t t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s . Of course there w i l l always be a c e r t a i n crumbling at the edges of Mennonite s o c i e t y , but the centre remains f i r m and w i l l attempt to change the world r a t h e r than l e t the world change i t . As l o n g as Mennonitism remains s i n c e r e , honest and i n d u s t r i o u s , i t w i l l never, i n any way, t h r e a t e n the w e l f a r e of the country i n which i t e x i s t s . The c o n s e r v a t i v e Mennonite elements have a d e f i n i t e c o n t r i b u t i o n to make to p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y i n an u s s t a b l e world. May Canada never r e g r e t the open doors w i t h which i t welcomed them. 1 3 9 1 4 0 APPENDIX "A"1 The Mennonite Agreement o f 1873 The f o l l o w i n g Is a copy i n f u l l of the O r d e r - i n - C o u n c i l o f l o 7 3 , g i v i n g the Mennonites c e r t a i n r i g h t s i n Canada, Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , Immigration Branch, Ottawa, 2 3 r d J u l y , 1 8 7 3 . Gentlemen,- I have the honour, under i n s t r u c t i o n of the Hon. the Min- i s t e r of A g r i c u l t u r e , to s t a t e to you, i n r e p l y to your l e t t e r of t h i s days date, the f o l l o w i n g f a c t s r e l a t i n g to advantage o f f e r e d to s e t t l e r s , and to the immunities a f f o r d e d to Menno- n i t e s , which are e s t a b l i s h e d by the S t a t u t e Law of Canada, and by o r d e r o f H i s E x c e l l e n c e , Governor-General i n C o u n c i l , f o r the i n f o r m a t i o n of German Mennonites, having i n t e n t i o n to em- i g r a t e to Canada, v i a Hamburg: 1. An e n t i r e exemption from M i l i t a r y S e r v i c e i s , by law and O r d e r - i n - C o u n c i l , granted to the denomination of C h r i s t i a n s c a l l e d "Mennonites . 2 . An O r d e r - i n - C o u n c i l was passed on the 3 r d of March l a s t , to r e s e r v e e i g h t Townships i n the P r o v i n c e of Manitoba, f o r f r e e grants on the c o n d i t i o n of settlement as p r o v i d e d i n the Dominion Lands A c t , t h a t i s to say: "Any person who i s the head of a f a m i l y , or has a t t a i n e d the age of twenty-one y e a r s , s h a l l be e n t i t l e d to be entered f o r one q u a r t e r - s e c t i o n or a l e s s q u a n t i t y of u n a p p r o p r i a t e d Dominion Lands f o r the purpose of s e c u r i n g a homestead r i g h t i n r e s p e c t t h e r e o f . " 3» The s a i d r e s e r v e of e i g h t Townships i s f o r the e x c l u s i v e use of the Mennonites, and the s a i d f r e e g r a n t s of one q u a r t e r - s e c t i o n to c o n s i s t of l 6 0 acres each, as d e f i n e d by the A c t . 1+. Should the Mennonite Settlement extend beyond the e i g h t Townships s e t a s i d e by the O r d e r - i n - C o u n c i l of March 3 r d , l a s t , o t h e r Townships wi±l be, i n the same way, r e s e r v e d to meet the f u l l requirements of Mennonite immigration. 5. I f , next S p r i n g , the Mennonite s e t t l e r s , on r e c e i v i n g the e i g h t Townships s e t a s i d e f o r use, should p r e f e r to exchange them f o r any o t h e r e i g h t , unoccupied Townships, such exchange w i l l be allowed. 6 . In a d d i t i o n to the f r e e grant of a q u a r t e r - s e c t i o n of l 6 0 acres to every person over twenty-one years of age, on the con- d i t i o n o f s e t t l e m e n t , the r i g h t to purchase the remaining three- q u a r t e r s of the s e c t i o n a t $ 1 . 0 0 per acre, which i s the l a r g - est q u a n t i t y of l a n d the Government w i l l g r a n t a Patent f o r one person. 7 . The s e t t l e r w i l l r e c e i v e a Patent f o r f r e e grant a f t e r three y e a r s ' r e s i d e n c e i n accordance w i t h the-terms of the Dominion.Lands A c t . 1 Anderson, J.T.M., THE EDUCATION OF THE NEW-CANADIAN, J.M.- Dent & Sons, L t d . , London and Toronto, 1 9 1 8 , pp. 2Lj.7-2L+9• lk.1 8 . i n the event of the death of the s e t t l e r , the lawful h e i r can claim the Patent f o r the free grant, upon proof that set- tlement duties for three years have been preformed. 9 . Prom the moment of occupation, the s e t t l e r acquires a homestead r i g h t i n the land. 1 0 . The f u l l e s t p r i v i l e g e of exercising t h e i r r e l i g i o u s p r i n c i p l e s i s by law-afforded to the Mennonites, without any kind of molestation or r e s t r i c t i o n whatever, and the same p r i - vilege extends to the education of t h e i r children i n schools. 1 1 . The p r i v i l e g e of affirming, instead of making a f f i d a v i t s , i s afforded by law. 1 2 . The Government of Canada undertakes to f u r n i s h passenger warrants from Hamburg to Port Garry, f o r Mennonite families of good character, f o r the sum of $ 3 0 . 0 0 per adult person; under eight years, h a l f p r i c e , or $ 1 $ . 0 0 , and f o r infants under one year, $ 3 . 0 0 . 1 3 . The Minister s p e c i a l l y authorized me to state that t h i s arrangement as to p r i c e s h a l l not be changed f o r the seasons of I87I4. and I 8 7 6 . 1I+. I am further to state that i f i t i s changed, thereafter, the price s h a l l not, up to the year 1 8 8 2 , exceed $Ij.0.00 per adult, and children i n proportion, subject to the approval of Parliament. 1 5 . The immigrants s h a l l be provided with provisions on the portion of the journey between Liverpool and Collingwood', but during other portions of the journey they are to f i n d t h e i r own provisions. I have the honour to be, Gentlemen, Your obedient servant, P.M. LOWE, Secretary of Department of Agriculture. Messrs. DAVID KLASSEN JACOB PETERS HEINRICH WIEBE CORNELIUS TOEWS Delegates from Southern Russia. Ik2 APPENDIX "B"x R e g a r d i n g Mennonite S e t t l e m e n t i n Canada , The agency i n w e s t e r n Canada w h i c h was to see the Mennon- i t e immigrant t h r o u g h the w i n t e r and a i d them i n f i n d i n g t h e i r p l a c e i n the economic l i f e o f the Dominion was the Canadian Mennonite Board o f C o l o n i z a t i o n . W h i l e t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n was e n t i r e l y c a p a b l e o f p r o v i d i n g temporary c a r e f o r the newcomers, i t s p o t e n t i a l i t i e s f o r s e t t l i n g them on the l a n d were d i s t i n c t - l y l i m i t e d by the s l e n d e r means o f the Mennonite communities i n the West. A l t h o u g h a t h r i f t y and i n d u s t r i o u s f a r m i n g f o l k , these p e o p l e l a c k e d the l a r g e r e s o u r c e s , the p r e s t i g e , and the machinery n e c e s s a r y f o r the s u c c e s s f u l c o l o n i z a t i o n o f the new a r r i v a l s i n the p r a i r i e p r o v i n c e s . What was r e a l l y needed was the u n i o n o f the Mennonite B o a r d o f C o l o n i z a t i o n w i t h some agency o f the Canadian P a c i f i c , the company w h i c h had made p o s s i b l e the coming o f the i m m i g r a n t s i n t o Canada. The r a i l w a y was m a i n t a i n i n g the Canada C o l o n i z a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n as a medium f o r the s e t t l e m e n t o f p r i v a t e l y owned l a n d . I n r e c o g n i t i o n of Canadian P a c i f i c a s s i s t a n c e , the b o a r d was d e s i r o u s , as f a r as p o s s i b l e , o f p l a c i n g them on l a n d s i n Canadian P a c i f i c t e r r i - t o r y . T h i s s i t u a t i o n i n d i c a t e d the importance o f a w o r k i n g arrangement between the Mennonite o r g a n i z a t i o n and the Canada C o l o n i z a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n . D u r i n g the w i n t e r and s p r i n g o f 192k the Canadian Menno- n i t e Board o f C o l o n i z a t i o n , i n c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h the C o l o n i z a - t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , b u s i e d i t s e l f w i t h the s e t t l e m e n t on the l a n d o f the Mennonites b r o u g h t f o r w a r d d u r i n g the p r e c e d i n g y e a r . The i m p o r t a n c e o f l o c a t i n g them p r o m p t l y was apparent. Consent o f the Dominion a u t h o r i t i e s to a f u r t h e r movement o f Mennonites would n a t u r a l l y be c o n t i n g e n t upon the s a t i s f a c t o r y d i s p o s i t i o n of the f i r s t comers. Y e t midsummer found many o f them u n p l a c e d . The l a c k o f p r o g e s s seemed to r e s u l t from an i n s u f f i c i e n t l i a i s o n between the two o r g a n i z a t i o n s . To b r i n g them i n t o c l o s e r harmony and more a c t i v e c o - o p e r a t i o n , a Mennonite Land S e t t l e m e n t Board was formed, w i t h t h r e e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s from the Canadian Mennonite Board o f C o l o n i z a t i o n , t h r e e ' f r o m the Canada C o l o n i z a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , and t h r e e f r o m the Mennonite newcomers. (Dennis t o Rev. D a v i d Toews, J u l y 1 9 , 192k, P i l e No. 2 1 8 , S e c t i o n 6,M.) These s t e p s , o f c o u r s e , were taken upon the i n i t i a t i v e o f Dennis i n b e h a l f o f the Canadian P a c i f i c . The company, t h r o u g h i t s Department o f C o l o n i z a t i o n and Development, had assumed the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the movement o f the Mennonites to Canada and f o r t h e i r placement on the l a n d . I n e f f e c t i n g t h i s c l o s e c o - o p e r a t i o n between the Mennonite o r g a n i z a t i o n and the Cana- d i a n C o l o n i z a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , Dennis sought to s e c u r e f o r the company a degree o f c o n t r o l and o v e r s i g h t commensurate w i t h the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i t had assumed. The Canadian P a c i f i c would be the g u i d i n g s p i r i t i n a p a r t n e r s h i p w h i c h e x i s t e d f o r the mu- 1 Hedges, J.B., B u i l d i n g the Canadian West, The Land and C o l o n - i z a t i o n P o l i c i e s o f the Canadian P a c i f i c R a i l w a y , New York, The M a c m i l l a n Co., 1 9 3 9 , pp. 3 7 0 - 3 7 7 . 11*3 t u a l benefit of the railway and the Mennonite people. But while keeping his hand on the t h r o t t l e , Dennis was careful to make his control as unobtrusive as possible. To t h i s end, one of the three representatives of the Canada Colonization Asso- c i a t i o n on the Land Settlement Board was himself a Mennonite. Under the new arrangement, substantial progress was made during the l a t t e r part of 1921). i n the settlement of Mennonite f a m i l i e s . The primary functions of the Land Settlement Board were to f i n d owners of improved- land who were disposed to s e l l t h e i r holdings, to bring such owners together with the Menno- n i t e immigrants, to see that contracts f o r the sale of such lands were f a i r to a l l concerned, and to provide after-care and supervision f o r the new s e t t l e r s . The day was gone when the settler.was placed on the land,and promptly forgotten, while he shifted for himself as best he could. The aim and purpose of immigration promotion now was to b u i l d the s e t t l e r into the economic l i f e of the country. Every precaution must be taken, therefore, to guard against f a i l u r e of the newcomer; care must be taken to prevent the immigrant from becoming a public charge. With a strong public Opinion which was at best merely tolerant of Continental immigration, Mennonite coloni- zation must be a success. Since the Mennonites were meagerly provided with funds, and since they were being s e t t l e d on lands which sold at a sub- s t a n t i a l p r i c e , p a r t i c u l a r care was necessary i n evolving a p r a c t i c a l plan by which they could acquire t i t l e to land. There were i n western Canada many large farms, s u r v i v a l of the.bon- anza days when wheat farms of great proportions were a common sight. With the passing of the prosperous conditions which had prevailed i n agriculture during the pre-war and war periods, many of these farms had l o s t t h e i r attractiveness to t h e i r owners. The depressed prices of farm products a f t e r 1 9 2 1 made these men receptive to proposals that they dispose of t h e i r holdings. But the meare willingness of them to s e l l offered no solution of the problem. There remained the question of the buyer; and i n the face of the p r e v a i l i n g farm s i t u a t i o n there was no demand f o r the large farms. The obvious solution was either to divide these large holdings into small units for sale to i n d i v i d u a l families or to s e l l them i n t a c t to groups of f a m i l i e s who would operate them on a community basis. By virtue of t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l devotion to the community form of settlement, the Mennonite immigrants whom the Canadian P a c i f i c was bringing to Canada were c l e a r l y indicated as the ones who would make a success of group settlement on large farms. But while the Mennonites were good human material, they were so l a r g e l y without means as to preclude the p o s s i b i l - i t y of t h e i r purchasing the land i n the ordinary way. In working out special arrangements f o r purchase by the Mennonites there was needed some responsible organization commanding the confidence of bothi; the vendor and the buyers. As the chief sponsor of the Mennonite immigration, and as the agency which had made i t possible for them to come forward, the Canadian P a c i f i c was the l o g i c a l intermediary: and i n i t s Canada Col- onization Association i t had an instrument at hand for such work. Mot only c o u l d the l a t t e r co-operate w i t h the Mennonite Land Settlement Board i n l o c a t i n g the lands a v a i l a b l e f o r pur- chase, but, what was more important, through i t s agents i t c o u l d guarantee a j u s t a p p r a i s a l of the l a n d and d e v i s e con- t r a c t s f o r s a l e which would safeguard the i n t e r e s t s of a l l p a r t i e s concerned. The p a r t i c u l a r form of c o n t r a c t evolved to meet t h i s s i t - u a t i o n was one c a l l i n g f o r purchase on a crop-payment b a s i s . Where groups of Mennonite f a m i l i e s were s e t t l e d on the l a r g e farms, a d d i t i o n a l b u i l d i n g s and equipment must be p r o v i d e d by the vendors and added to the p r i c e of the l a n d . The t o t a l c o s t was then to be l i q u i d a t e d by the annual d e l i v e r y to the vendor of one-half of a l l crops and l i v e s t o c k produced on the l a n d . In t h i s way every i n c e n t i v e was g i v e n to s e t t l e r s to achieve maximum p r o d u c t i o n as a means of e f f e c t i n g the most r a p i d payment f o r the l a n d . Once a community of Mennonites had been s e t t l e d on a l a r g e farm the i n s p e c t o r s of the Menno- n i t e Land Settlement Board and of the Canada C o l o n i z a t i o n Asso- c i a t i o n p r o v i d e d s u p e r v i s i o n and a f t e r - c a r e i n order to reduce the p o s s i b i l i t y of f a i l u r e to a minimum. In t h i s way the Canadian P a c i f i c e f f e c t e d not merely a s o l u t i o n of the problem of e s t a b l i s h i n g the Mennonites on the land, w i t h reasonable assurance of t h e i r success, but i t a l s o inaugurated something i n the nature of a r e v o l u t i o n i n l a n d h o l d i n g i n p o r t i o n s of the Canadian West. E x t e n s i v e c u l t i v a - t i o n , a marked f e a t u r e of the e a r l y development throughout the wheat b e l t on the American and Canadian p r a i r i e s , was to be r e p l a c e d i n a measure by a more i n t e n s i v e c u l t i v a t i o n by the hands.of a t h r i f t y and i n d u s t r i o u s people long accustomed to unremitting-, t o l l . And i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e meant balanced farming i n which d i v e r s i f i e d p r o d u c t i o n would supplant the e x c l u s i v e g r a i n p r o d u c t i o n which had attended the o p e r a t i o n of the l a r g e farms. The new system was a r e c o g n i t o n , too, of the f a c t that the Mennonites were more l i k e l y to succeed through community e f f o r t than when each f a m i l y was l e f t to work out i t s own s a l v a t i o n . . . . As a r e s u l t of the adoption o f t h i s p l a n f o r Mennonite s e t t l e m e n t , the Canadian P a c i f i c was soon able to show g r a t i - f y i n g r e s u l t s from i t s e f f o r t s , which warranted i t i n seeking a u t h o r i z a t i o n from Dominion a u t h o r i t i e s f o r a f u r t h e r movement of these people from R u s s i a . The encouraging p r o s p e c t s f o r Mennonite success on the l a n d i n the West had the e f f e c t , too, of p r e d i s p o s i n g P r e s i d e n t Beatty of the Canadian P a c i f i c toward a continued movement of the Mennonites on a c r e d i t b a s i s , care being taken at a l l times, however, to guard a g a i n s t the grant- i n g of e x c e s s i v e c r e d i t s to the Canadian Mennonite Board of C o l o n i z a t i o n at any g i v e n time. Through the decade of the twen- t i e s the immigrationof the Mennonites and the work of the Can- ada C o l o n i z a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n went hand i n hand. The Canadian P a c i f i c continued to move Mennonites on both a cash and c r e d i t b a s i s . . . . T o March, 1 9 2 7 , the Canadian C o l o n i z a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n had s e t t l e d on p r i v a t e l y owned l a n d a t o t a l of 1,138 Mennonite f a m i l i e s , not to mention some4 203 f a m i l i e s of other n a t i o n a l i - t i e s . (Herzer to M a c a l i s t e r , March 1 1 , 1927, P i l e No. 29*4-, 11& S e c t i o n 1 1 , M.). By the c l o s e of the 1928 season i t had p l a c e d more than 3-,000 Mennonite f a m i l i e s , r e p r e s e n t i n g over 1 6 , 0 0 0 s o u l s . (Report of the Canada C o l o n i z a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n f o r 1 9 2 8 ) . The area of l a n d thus c o l o n i z e d was i n excess of 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 a c r e s , w i t h a c o n t r a c t p r i c e of almost # 3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 . Through experience the Canada C o l o n i z a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n g r a d u a l l y evolved c e r t a i n d e f i n i t e p r i n c i p l e s governing i t s procedure with r e s p e c t to t h i s type of l a n d s e t t l e m e n t . I t r e f u s e d to accept f o r a s s i s t e d settlement any f a m i l i e s which c o u l d not be p e r s o n a l l y i n t e r v i e w e d and i n s p e c t e d by the p r o s - p e c t i v e vendors. In order to i n t e r e s t the s e l l e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y f i n a n c i a l c o r p o r a t i o n s , assurance must be g i v e n t h a t some o r - g a n i z a t i o n would p r o v i d e o v e r s i g h t and d i r e c t i o n of the immi- grants p u r c h a s i n g the l a n d . For the performance of t h i s f u n c - t i o n among the Mennonite s e t t l e m e n t s there were, of course, the Canadian Mennonite Board of C o l o n i z a t i o n and the Mennonite Land Settlement Board, both of which f u n c t i o n e d i n c l o s e har- mony w i t h the Canada C o l o n i z a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n . . . . The primary concern of the Canadian P a c i f i c i n t h i s work was, of course, the i n c r e a s e d settlement of the country t r i b - u t a r y to i t s own l i n e s i n the West. On o c c a s i o n , however, the lands thus s e t t l e d were t r i b u t a r y to both the Canadian P a c i f i c and the Canadian N a t i o n a l Railways.' As a p r o t e c t i o n to i t s i n t e r e s t s i n such cases, the company, through the Canada C o l - o n i z a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , i n s i s t e d that there be i n s e r t e d i n the c o n t r a c t a c l a u s e r e q u i r i n g the p a r t i e s p u r c h a s i n g the l a n d to d e l i v e r t h e i r crops to Canadian P a c i f i c s t a t i o n s . U n t i l 1927 the a c t i v i t i e s of the Canada C o l o n i z a t i o n Asso- c i a t i o n were c o n f i n e d almost w h o l l y to the three p r a i r i e pro- v i n c e s . In the e a r l i e r years Manitoba had been the scene of g r e a t e s t a c t i v i t y , but i n 1928 b o t h Saskatchewan and A l b e r t a were f a r ahead of Manitoba i n number of f a m i l i e s as w e l l as a r e a of l a n d s e t t l e d . By the time most of the farms i n Mani- toba had been colonized:! on a community b a s i s , and now the same process was being extended to the other p r o v i n c e s . . . . The r e l - a t i v e importance of Mennonites, as compared w i t h o t h e r n a t i o n - a l i t i e s , i n the settlement work of the Canada C o l o n i z a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d by the f i g u r e s f o r the y e a r 1928. Of a t o t a l of 667 f a m i l i e s , r e p r e s e n t i n g 3 , 6 6 8 souls estab- l i s h e d on the l a n d i n t h a t year, 393 were Mennonites. German f a m i l i e s numbered 1 7 8 , of whom 135 bad been s e t t l e d through the a i d of the Lutheran Immigration Board, while, the remaining J4.3 f a m i l i e s were C a t h o l i c s i n whose. s e t t l e m e n t the V.D.C.K. had p l a y e d an important p a r t . Of 13 o t h e r n a t i o n a l i t i e s i n - c l u d e d i n the year's t o t a l , k7 B r i t i s h f a m i l i e s were the l a r - g e s t group. v I k 6 APPENDIX "C" Text of the Mennonite p e t i t i o n to the Canadian Govern- ment, regarding the prospects of alternative service i n case of a future war. The audience with the Prime Minister occurred on February 22, 1951, at k o'clock i n the afternoon. Ottawa, den 22 Febr., 1951. Rt. Hon. Louis St. Laurent, Prime Minister of Canada. Honourable S i r : The H i s t o r i c Peace Churches of Canada, namely: Mennonites, Brethern i n Christ (Tunker) / Society of Friends (Quaker), and the Church of the Brethern have enjoyed residence i n t h i s Do- minion f o r over one hundred and f i f t y years. We sincerely appreciate our country, the tolerant attitude of her Govern- ment, and her strong e f f o r t s to promote peace among a l l nations. We especially wish to pay respectful t r i b u t e to the l a t e Prime Minister of Canada, the Rt. Hon. W.L. MacKenzie King. At the same time we wish to take t h i s opportunity to assure you, our present Prime Minister, of our prayers that the blessing of God may rest upon you and the Government of Canada. H i s t o r i c a l l y , as Peace Churches whose number exceeds f i f t y thousand members, we have a B i b l i c a l background and deep-rooted, sacred conviction against p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n war i n any form. We are indeed grateful to our Government f o r granting to us freedom of conscience and r e l i g i o u s l i b e r t y which enables us to worship Almighty God according to our understanding of His Word. We have enjoyed t h i s p r i v i l e g e ever since our church f a t h - ers came to t h i s country i n 1790. Since that time l e g i s l a t i o n i n Canada has consistently respected the peace convictions of a l l our groups including those which have come during the i n - tervening years. During World War I the Government granted to a l l our draf- ted young men postponement from m i l i t a r y service. Again, i n World War I I exemptions were provided for conscientious objec- tors by allowing them to serve i n projects of national impor- tance under c i v i l i a n supervision. We as Peace Churches, believe that war i s out of harmony with the teaching of the Gospel and the S p i r i t of our Lord Jesus Christ; consequently we are restrained" from engaging i n war or violence of any kind. We are not asking f o r safety that avoids danger and sac- r i f i c e but we cannot have any part i n the taking of human l i f e . We are w i l l i n g to serve our country and fellowmen i n r e l i e f 1 Mennonite Brethern Church of Canada, Yearbook of the Forty- f i r s t Canadian Conference, The Columbia Press, Yarrow, B.C., 1951, PP. kl-kk. 114-7 work at home or abroad or to engage i n work of national impor- tance such as service i n hospitals, mental i n s t i t u t i o n s , i n dustry or agriculture under c i v i l i a n administration. In the unfortunate event of national emergency which i n the view of the Canadian Government demands the mobilization of manpower, i t would be appreciated i f an opportunity could be given f o r consultation with Government o f f i c i a l s as to ways i n which we might serve i n accord with our peace testimony. We trust our r e l i g i o u s convictions w i l l continue to be understood i n the future as they have been i n the past. We hope our Government w i l l continue to respect the conscience of minority groups and i n d i v i d u a l s . May the blessing of God be upon the Parliament of Canada and may He grant you, our Honourable Prime Minister, wisdom i n the discharging of your many duties as chief executive of our Dominion. Respectfully submitted, Fred Haslam, C.J. Rempel, 10 Union Str. J.G. Rempel, B.B. Janz, Coaldale, A l t a . J.B. Mart i n Rosthern, Sask. David Schulz, Altona, Manitoba. Elven Shantz. David Reimer, Giroux, Man. E.J. Swalm, Duntrun, Ont. 1̂ 8 APPENDIX "D" "Am I a N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t " , by B.B. Janz,as i t appeared i n the L e t h b r i d g e H e r a l d , June, 19J-J-0. T h i s a r t i c l e was w r i t t e n by B.B. Janz, C o a l d a l e , A l b e r t a i n December 1 9 3 8 and p u b l i s h e d i n January 1 9 3 9 - i n f o u r Menno- n i t e weekly newspapers i n the German language i n Canada and U.S.A. - At t h a t time there was no immediate danger of• war w i t h Germany, and i t i s obvious that the purpose was not to p r o t e c t h i s own s k i n , but to thoroughly warn h i s people a g a i n s t the s u b v e r s i v e propaganda. The expressed views are g e n e r a l l y the a t t i t u d e o f the Mennonites i n Canada. Many of the church- l e a d e r s have expressed t h e i r a p p r e c i a t i o n , but the German Con- s u l i n Winnipeg wrote him an angry l e t t e r demanding to revoke h i s d e c l a r a t i o n p u b l i c l y i n the p r e s s , and some agents of the propaganda from overseas threatened the time would come to s e t t l e w i t h him. They t r i e d to make i t hard to take a f i r m stand of a l l e g i a n c e to the B r i t i s h throne and t h i s home coun- t r y and to g i v e d e f i n i t e d e c l a r a t i o n s . But the author f e l t no remorse h a v i n g done so. The 2 1 , 0 0 0 Immigrants w i l l have to use t h e i r mother tongue f o r the time being, as the o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n does not master any other language, i n which to enjoy the church s e r v i c e . But t h i s w i l l change i n the course of time, as h i s t o r y i n O n t a r i o has proven. - We are deeply g r a t e f u l to the Government and the country, that they understand us i n t h i s r e s p e c t . And we s i n - c e r e l y hope there w i l l be no d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n and t h a t we may enjoy the same p r i v i l e g e unmolested as the other 5 0 or so languages i n Canada do. And i t i s to be remembered, t h a t a couple of c e n t u r i e s ago the f o r e f a t h e r s of most of these people spoke the Dutch language and f u r t h e r , t h a t these people are born and r a i s e d i n R u s s i a f o r a century and a h a l f as c i t i z e n s of t h a t country and they themselves have never been i n Germany. AM I A NATIONAL SOCIALIST ? - GOD FORBID I Am I (here i n Canada) a Conservative? - God f o r b i d l - Am I (here i n Canada) a L i b e r a l ? - God f o r b i d l - - Am I (here i n Canada) a S o c i a l C r e d i t e r ? - God f o r b i d i - Am I (here i n Can- ada) a N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t ? - God f o r b i d l And y e t i n a l l s e r i o u s n e s s i t seems I am expected by the people overseas to answer the l a s t w i t h 'yes' or 'of course", to confess myself a member of a f o r e i g n s p e c i f i c p o l i t i c a l p a r t y ; while over there no one, even i n h i s dreams, would t h i n k of c a l l i n g h i m s e l f a Canadian L i b e r a l , s i n c e the L i b e r a l s are i n power here today, t h e i r p o l i c i e s seeming the most popular a t the p r e s e n t . For anyone over there to deny h i s adherence to the N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t p a r t y and to confess adherence to a Canadian p a r t y would be c o n s i d e r e d nonsense or t r e a s o n by a l l . In Germany the people are N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t s , and they expect t h a t I, a Canadian C i t i z e n , who does not belong to any l k 9 p o l i t i c a l p a r t y , w i l l , i n s p i t e of that, confess myself e i t h e r s e c r e t l y of openly a N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t a c c o r d i n g to the a r t - i c l e which appeared i n the "B o t e" No. kQ, 1938• Whoever speaks German here i n Canada ( i n the U.S.A., B r a z i l , Paraguay) i s to confess h i m s e l f a member of the N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t p a r t y . That i s t r e a s o n . There may be German c i t i z e n s here ( t h a t i s people who are not Canadian c i t i z e n s ) whose c a l l i n g has t e m p o r a r i l y brought them here from Germany and who are d e f i n i t e l y e x p e c t i n g to .return to Germany, who may c l i n g to the p o l i t i c a l f a i t h of t h e i r f a t h e r l a n d without b e i n g accused of t r e a s o n f o r t h a t reason. They may. But as soon as i t should come to a new c o n f l i c t between peoples, ,the Canadian Government w i l l know how to a c t , and the German Government w i l l a c t i n the same way with Canadian c i t i z e n s oyer there: c o n c e n t r a t i o n camps e t c . When t h e r e f o r e f o r e i g n e r s as guests of t h i s country confess themselves adherents to the p r i n c i p l e s of t h e i r f a t h e r l a n d , that i s , they f a v o u r these p r i n c i p l e s f o r t h e i r f a t h e r l a n d and f o r themselves, .others may shrug t h e i r shoulders, but they have t h a t p r i v i l e g e . But t h a t does not mean t h a t these p r i n - c i p l e s must without q u e s t i o n be i n t r o d u c e d here, or that these people should t r y to win c o n v e r t s . They may a f t e r a l l be s i n - c e r e l y fond of t h e i r f a t h e r l a n d without b e l o n g i n g to i t s p o l - i t i c a l p a r t y . And a l l of us can on o c c a s i o n d e s c r i b e communism t r u t h f u l l y , without b e l o n g i n g to this or that p o l i t i c a l p a r t y . We may speak as human beings from i n n e r c o n v i c t i o n without membership i n a p a r t y or without p a r t y d i s c i p l i n e . But to-day N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m as been p r e s e n t e d to us here i n Canada, i s , i n f a c t , almost f o r c e d upon us, so the q u e s t i o n i s : w e a n d N a t i o n S o c i a l i s m . Now, a l l of us have come h&re from R u s s i a . No country i n the world wished to g i v e us a home. Canada opened her doors wide f o r us: to admit 2 1 , 0 0 0 the doors had to be opened wide. A c r e d i t of two m i l l i o n d o l l a r s i s an i n d i c a t i o n how wide the doors were opened. The homeless have found a home. Those who were hungry a t one time are now e a t i n g good bread, some are l i v i n g i n p l e n t y . I t i s true that i n the b e g i n n i n g , i.e.. i n the f i r s t ten y e a r s , we had to work hard and f i g h t a g a i n s t d e s t i t u t i o n , f o r we had n o t h i n g . Our American b r e t h e r n devoted some $25>0,000 to p r o v i d e us w i t h c l o t h i n g , they devoted a s i m i l a r sum to the s i c k and other s u f f e r e r s , and another l i k e sum to h e l p us a c q u i r e land.. We have become c i t i z e n s . During these y e a r s some 7k churches have been e r e c t e d . We have i n f a c t found food and s h e l t e r , peace and r e s t i n t h i s country, complete freedom and the p r a c t i c e of our f a i t h . We are a l l adherents of the Mennonite f a i t h founded on the B i b l e . U n t i l now these people have, h i s t o r i c a l l y speaking, been without p o l i t i c s ; i n simple language, f o r those who cannot understand, l e t us aay: these Mennonites ( i n c l u d i n g the a f o r e - s a i d 2 1 , 0 0 0 ) have i n former times never adhered to any p o l i t i - c a l p a r t y , not i n Russia.nor here i n Canada. And our n a t i v e b r o t h e r s here have not done so. F o r that reason the Canadian Government c o n s i d e r e d i t s e l f s u f f i c i e n t l y w e l l acquainted w i t h the Mennonites. An O r d e r - i n - C o u n c i l , i n 1 9 2 1 , made i t imposs- 150 i b l e f o r Mennonites to come to Canada. .Premier W.L. Mackenzie King was requested by representatives of native born Mennonites to set aside t h i s Order-in-Council. He was w i l l i n g to do so, cost what i t may. He himself had been a schoolmate of Menno- n i t e boys i n Kitchener, Ont., had learned to :know and value the Mennonites personally, They were people who l i v e d according to t h e i r confession of f a i t h , a blessing to t h e i r community and good c i t i z e n s of the State; o r i g i n a l l y most of them were Ger- mans, but with the passing of time a l l had become English speaking. A new Order-in-Council removed the d i f f i c u l t y , and the door was opened once more. Now we are here. Our brethern i n Russia are s t i l l suffer- ing. We here i n Canada, when the question of memberhsip In a p o l i t i c a l party i s raised, can quietly say: "God f o r b i d ! " And even i f i t concerns the party of the head of our Government. No one i s concerned about that, and we are i n no p o l i t i c a l danger on that account, as would be the case |if we pursued a s i m i l a r p o l i c y over there, i . e . i n Russia (or i n Germany). And now consider these points: 1/ You have experienced a l l these things ;and have taken advantage of them. That puts you under some o b l i g a t i o n , or does i t not? 2/ Becoming a c i t i z e n of this fatherland 'also has a mean- ing; did you not become a c i t i z e n ? I t means that you are sat- i s f i e d with t h i s land as your fatherland and this excludes any p o s s i b i l i t y of preferring any other country. That means ano- ther obligation. Or do you think that i t i s quite i n order to become a c i t i z e n , to take r e l i e f from a kind Government, and to cry or write "Heil H i t l e r " , as i s supposed to have happened i n . . . 3/ The r e l i g i o u s basis of the Mennonites teaches us to be submissive to e x i s t i n g authorities, (adherence to this or that p o l i t i c a l f a i t h i s not included i n t h i s statement), but not to play p o l i t i c s . k/ Now, you are asked to i d e n t i f y yourself with a foreign p o l i t i c a l party which i s absolute, i . e . , which permits no other p o l i t i c a l party to e x i s t , and i n consequence destroys a l l other parties as soon as i t (the absolute; party) comes into power. Adherence to the p r i n c i p l e of National Socialism i s at the same time the negation of a l l p o l i t i c a l or other parties or societies over here. 5/ Hitherto we as a congregation have been h i s t o r i c a l l y without p o l i t i c s and now to enter p o l i t i c s , p a r t i c u l a r l y to accept adherence to a party which i s i n contrast to that of our chosen fatherland at any rate, would be ah h i s t o r i c a l mis- take, and h i s t o r i c a l catastrophe. That i s breach of f a i t h against the state and against our own confession. 6 / She Mennonites i n Canada and the United States have helped us to come to t h i s country on account of t h e i r f a i t h i n us and on account of t h e i r kindness toward the Mennonites from Russia, t h e i r suffering brothers and s i s t e r s , and the many many innocent children. They have borne with us and helped us again and again. Should the unheard of thing now happen that these newcomers should go an.entirely d i f f e r e n t 151 way, to become i n v o l v e d p o l i t i c a l l y , and that p a r t i c u l a r l y with a f o r e i g n p o l i t i c a l i d e a l seasoned w i t h m i l i t a r i s m (be- cause i t s propaganda l a y s emphasis on defence)? In t h a t case not o n l y the newcomers are f i n i s h e d here, but the heavy and deep shadow of g u i l t , of f a i t h l e s n e s s , of u n r e l i a b i l i t y , would s e t t l e on a l l the Mennonites i n Canada and the U n i t e d S t a t e s , at l e a s t upon those who speak German. Then t h e i r kindness w i l l b r i n g much sorrow. I t w i l l s t r i k e the German speaking congre- g a t i o n w i t h p a r t i c u l a r f o r c e . At the p r e s e n t time we are i n s t r u c t i n g our c h i l d r e n i n Sabbath schools and even i n some p u b l i c schools i n German (the upper grades and before and a f t e r s c h o o l hours f o r i n s t a n c e ) . In the case of p o l i t i c s or treason you may expect t h a t , as s'oon as a c r i s i s o c c u r s , a n a t u r a l con- sequence w i l l be t h a t s t r i c t measures w i l l be taken not only a g a i n s t our language, but even a g a i n s t our people. These mea- sures w i l l be taken by the Government, while the p u b l i c w i l l l e t us f e e l t h e i r d i s p l e a s u r e i n o t h e r ways. And not without cause then i n case of f o r e i g n p o l i t i c s . We have a l r e a d y seen how i n c e r t a i n cases the i l l w i l l of E n g l i s h speaking c i t i z e n s has been aroused by the i l l c o n s i d e r e d a c t i o n s of n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s t i c a l l y minded persons. During the days of the Munich c r i s i s i t was a l r e a d y e v i d e n t t h a t some persons were o b j e c t s of s u s p i c i o n . However, h i t h e r t o the E n g l i s h speaking c i t i z e n s have had no r e a l cause to be alarmed. The Mennonite Churches, i n c l u s i v e of the newcomers have throughout remained f a i t h f u l to t h e i r r e l i g i o n and to the S t a t e . For that reason the Mennonites have not h e s i t a t e d to become c i t i z e n s a f t e r the p r o b a t i o n a r y p e r i o d of f i v e y e a r s . The above mentioned suggestions i n the "B o t e" d i d not come' from here, they came from o u t s i d e . I t was the f i r s t attempt at propaganda. But when we examine the numerous a r t - i c l e s which have appeared i n our papers and which came from our s i d e , we see that i t i s not the f i r s t not even the t e n t h attempt to draw us i n t o the stream of i d e o l o g i c a l viewpoints which e x i s t on the o t h e r s i d e of the Rhine. A l l t h i s e x t r a v a - gant emphasis on language, which i n c l u d e s a c e r t a i n contempt f o r o t h e r languages, t h i s emphasis on German blood, Ary.anism, defence, German books, book-clubs, stamp c o l l e c t i o n s , e t c . , have only one o b j e c t : to t i e us g e o g r a p h i c a l l y to Germany. The Mennonites do not a s s o c i a t e themselves to any extent w i t h the c e l e b r a t i o n of German N a t i o n a l Bund - days, otherwise such p r a c t i c e would have to be condemned. So we w i l l l e t i t pass. - I t i s w e l l known t h a t I p e r s o n a l l y have done my share i n working f o r the p r e s e r v a t i o n of the German language f o r church purposes, but that does not mean that I have i n c l u d e d i n the German language adherence to German p o l i t i c s . We have, f i g u r a t i v e l y speaking, signed a marriage c o n t r a c t w i t h the Canadian Government: we were d e s t i t u t e , homeless, ragged as to c l o t h i n g but not as to c h a r a c t e r and mind. We have j o i n e d o u r s e l v e s f o r b e t t e r or worse w i t h t h i s State; we b e l i e v e d a t t h a t time, and we s t i l l b e l i e v e , that i t was Gods w i l l to b r i n g us here; we would g l a d l y have a l l our b r e t h e r n here from Paraguay and B r a z i l as w e l l . We l i v e , i f not i n the 152 r i c h e s t and the most b e a u t i f u l part of the world, at least i n the most peaceful. This i s the answer to our struggles, our prayers and entreaties while i n Russia before the doors both here and over there were opened. We are s a t i s f i e d , and more - we are happy, s t i l l more - we are sincerely g r a t e f u l . I f now i n our p o l i t i c a l attitude we were to prefer some other State as our partner i n marriage, that would mean adultery, i n our case treason to the State. To the best of my knowledge, our reputation as Mennonites has never been tarnished,and we have never been g u i l t y of unfaithfulness to the State. I t must not happen now. I f the aforementioned propaganda were to be succ- e s s f u l , i t would be the cause of endless misery and c o n f l i c t i n the hearts of i n d i v i d u a l persons and i n whole f a m i l i e s . The physical i m p o s s i b i l i t y on t h i s side of the ocean according to the p o l i t i c a l dogma which prevails overseas leads to awk- ward s i t u a t i o n s . I f t h i s attitude were to spread i t would be a calamity f o r a l l our people. Be warned, my people, and put an end to t h i s propaganda.from over yonder. I t i s not to be understood from what I have said that I consider everything over here to be good and everything found i n Germany to be e v i l . Not at a l l . On the other hand the opposite i s not the case either. Our allegiance to our chosen fatherland i s not affected by the conditions under which we l i v e . The fact that there i s much good over there has never been questioned. A l l those achievments i n Germany i n the f i e l d of C h r i s t i a n F a i t h , and C h r i s t i a n L i f e , i n the f i e l d of culture and science, of good l i t e r a t u r e , i n A r t , i n Medicine, i n tech- n i c a l Education have earned the respect of everyone, and par- t i c u l a r l y of ourselves. We are glad of a l l those things, and we should make as much of them our own as possible. But any- thing that concerns p o l i t i c a l attitude and p o l i t i c a l f a i t h i s not our business. We need not forget that Germany's f i r m stand against comm- unism was also the means of saving the whole of Europe from communism and t h i s should have our p a r t i c u l a r approbation, since we ourselves suffered so t e r r i b l y i n Russia from t h i s movement. And we must not forget that adherence to communistic p r i n c i p l e s i n Canada and the United States i s to be c r i m i n a l l y negligent. From our experience we know what a t e r r i b l e , bloody, harvest t h i s awful seed w i l l bring f o r t h , unless God works a special miracle. In the Bible we read of people who were weighed i n the balance and found wanting. They perishedl - We as Mennonites, and the Newcomers p a r t i c u l a r l y are i n the Balance with r e f e r - ence to three points: 1 / Whether we s h a l l pay our f i n a n c i a l debts, i . e . , i f we are honest i n business; 2/ Whether we adhere to our confession of f a i t h as nonre- s i s t a n t s ; 3 / Whether we s h a l l be drawn into p o l i t i c a l action, p a r t i - c u l a r l y i n connection with a foreign movement, or whe- ther we s h a l l remain f a i t h f u l to our Government. Through F a i t h we s h a l l conquer. B.B.Janz. Coaldale, Alberta. 153 BIBLIOGRAPHY In w r i t i n g a thesis of t h i s nature much information has to be gathered verbally from those persons who have helped to make the history therein presented. That has also been the case here. Much valuable information has been obtained by means of a questionnaire sent out to the leaders of the var- ious churches of a l l Mennonite denominations i n Alberta. Such information has been acknowledged throughout the thesis as Questionnaire. I have drawn most heavily upon the information thus obtained and upon that presented i n the various minutes and reports put at my disposal by individuals interested i n the work. 151+ BIBLIOGRAPHY PRIMARY SOURCES Minutes and Reports 1. Protokolle der Versammlungen der Mennoniten Gruppe bei Coaldale, f o r the years Nov. 1. 1927 to Feb. k. 1952. A very valuable source f o r the Coaldale d i s t r i c t i n p a r t i c u l a r and f o r the province i n general. Deals author- i t a t i v e l y with many of the economic;and r e l i e f organiza- tions at present functioning under the supervision of the Russian Mennonites. 2. Protokolle des Provinzielen Mennoniten Hilfskomitees. for the years 1 9 k l to 1952. 3 ' Minutes and Reports of the Annual Conferences of the A l - berta-Saskatchewan Conference, f o r the years 1927 and 1930 to 1 9 5 1 . !+•• Protokolle der Jahressitzungen der Mennoniten Bruederge- meinde von Alberta,, f o r the years 1 9 2 9 . 1 9 k l , and 19kk to 5 . Protokolle und Berichte der Vertreter-Versammlungen der Mennonitischen Gemeinden von Alberta, for the years 1935 to 1 9 5 1 . This i s one of the most valuable sources since i t deals with a l l aspects of Mennonite endeavors i n the province of Alberta. These reports are the backbone of t h i s thesis. 6 . Protokolle der Jahresversammlungen des Mennonitischen Bildungsverein, for the years 19kb to 1 9 5 2 . 7. Protokolle des Mennonitischen Hochschulkomitees, f o r the years March 8 , 19k6 to March 15, 1 9 5 2 . 8 . Protokolle der ,Coaldaler Kaserei, f o r the years Aug. l 6 , 1937 to Feb. 13;, 1 9 5 2 . 9 . Protokolle Buch des Brandaeltesten der Coaldaler D i s t r i k t s , f o r the year Dec. 3 0 , 1927 to Dec. 1 2 , 1 9 5 1 . 1 0 . Protokolle des Wirtschaftlichen Vereins, f o r the years March 18, 1938 to 1 9 k 2 . 1 1 . Protokolle der Coaldaler Mennonite Security £ Credit Union, March 191+2 to 1 9 5 2 . 1 2 . Report of the M.C.C. Peace Section Study Conference, held at Winona Lake, Indiana on November 9 to 1 2 , 1950* These reports contain a good statement of the Mennonite non-resistant philosophy. 12a. Reports of the Canadian Mennonite Board of Colonization, under the following dates: Feb. 2, 1949; Jan. 28, 1949; March 17, 1949J Aug. 17, 1949; Feb. 7, 1950. 155 13• C o a l d a l e Mennoniten Brueder Gemeinde, Gedenk undDanfeier, C o a l d a l e , A l b e r t a , May 2 7 , 1 9 5 1 . Reports of the 25 a n n i v e r s a r y c e l e b r a t i o n of the C o a l - dale Mennonite B r e t h e r n Church. V a l u a b l e f o r i n f o r m a t i o n on the C o a l d a l e s e t t l e m e n t . Newspapers 1. The L e t h b r i d g e H e r a l d , L e t h b r i d g e , A l b e r t a . 2. The A l b e r t a n , Calgary, A l b e r t a . 3 . Die Mennonitische Rundschau, C h r i s t i a n P r e s s , Winnipeg, k. The.Coaldale F l y e r , C o a l d a l e , A l b e r t a . Yearbooks 1. General Conference Mennonites, Mennonitisches Jahrbuch, Mennonite P u b l i c a t i o n O f f i c e , Newton, Kansas, 1951 and 1 9 5 2 . 2. General Conference Mennonites, Jahrbuch der V e r e i n i g t e n Mennoniten Gemeinden i n Ontario, Niagara P r e s s , V i r g i l , O n t a r i o . 1951. o 3 . Mennonite Brethern Church of North America, Yearbook, Mennonite B r e t h e r n P u b l i s h i n g House, H i l l s b o r o , Kansas, 1 9 5 1 . k. Mennonite Brethern Church of North America,. Yearbook of the F o r t y - f i r s t Canadian Conference^ 1951* The Columbia P r e s s , Yarrow, B.C., 1 9 5 1 . 5 . Mennonite Yearbook, Mennonite P u b l i s h i n g House, S c o t t d a l e , Pa., 1 9 5 2 . C l i p p i n g s and P e r s o n a l Reports Much v a l u a b l e m a t e r i a l was put at my d i s p o s a l by Mr. J.B. Janz, C o a l d a l e , who has been g a t h e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n of the Mennonites i n g e n e r a l and of the Coaldale area i n p a r t i - c u l a r s i n c e 1 9 2 7 . There are numerous r e p o r t s of v a r i o u s p i o n e e r s who f i r s t opened up t h i s area. The m a t e r i a l has been acknowledged i n the t h e s i s as M a t e r i a l -- J.B. Janz. SECONDARY SOURCES Magazines and Pamphlets 1. Mennonite L i f e , B e t h e l C o l l e g e , North Newton, Kansas, U.S.A. 1 5 6 The following a r t i c l e s have been especially h e l p f u l : Enns, D.P., "Mennonite Education i n Russia", July, 1 9 5 1 , p. 2 8 . Francis, E.K., "Mennonite Contributions to Canada's Middle West", A p r i l , 191+9, p. 2 1 . Kaufman, E.G., "The General Conference of the Mennonite Church of North America", July 191+7, p. 3 7 . Krahn C, "Mennonites the World Over", January, 191+6, p. 2 9 . Rempel, J.G., "Mennonites on the A i r i n Western Canada", July, 1 9 5 2 , p. 1 2 5 . Schellenberg, D.J. "A Moses of Our Day—David Toews", July, 1 9 5 0 , p. 6 . Suderman D., "The Returning C i v i l i a n Public Service Man", January, 191+6, p. 5» Thiessen J . J . , "Present Mennonite Immigration to Canada", July 1 9 4 9 , p. 3 3 . Waltner E., "The Anabaptist Concept of the Church", October, 1 9 5 0 , p. 1+0. Wenger, J.C., "The Cradle of the Mennonite Church", Jan- uary, 191+7, p. 6 . 2 . Canadian P a c i f i c Staff B u l l e t i n , the following a r t i c l e s : Colley, J., "Company Colonization A c t i v i t i e s Aid S e t t l e - ment of Dominion", Feb. 1 , 191+0. Porter, S.G., "The Canadian P a c i f i c Railway Land Grants and t h e i r Administration", Feb. 1 , 191+0 and May 5 , 191+0. 3 . C.P.R., I r r i g a t i o n Farming i n Sunny Alberta, 1 9 2 5 . • 1+. Coaldale Commercial Club, Coaldale, The Gem of the West, 5 i . Horsch J-., Symposium on War, Mennonite Publishing House, Scottdale, Pa., 1 9 2 7 . 6 . Horsch J., War and the Christian Conscience, Mennonite Publishing House, Scottdale, Pa. 7 . Krahn C., Menno Simons' Lebenswerk, Wetenschappelijke Boekhandel, J. G l e i j s t e i n , Amsterdam, 1 9 3 7 . 157 8 . Mennonite B r e t h e r n Church of North America, Handbook on Peace, 1 9 3 9 . 9 . Mennonite B r e t h e r n Church of North America, Fundamentals of F a i t h i n Question and Answer Form, I 9 k 3 » E n c y c l o p e d i a s 1. E n c y c l o p e d i a B r i t a n n i c a , E n c y c l o p e d i a B r i t a n n i c a Inc., Chicago, London, Toronto, 195^' The f o l l o w i n g a r t i c l e s have been used. " A n a b a p t i s t s * " B a p t i s t s " "Menno Simons" "Mennonites" 2. T a y l o r C.R., (ed.) The American E n c y c l o p e d i a , Books Inc., New York, 1 9 k 7 . "Anabaptists'* " B a p t i s t s " "Menno Simons" "Mennonites" 3. Warkentin A., G i n g e r i c h M., Who's Who Among the Mennonites, Newton, Kansas, 19k3* k« Mennonite E n c y c l o p e d i a . T h i s e n c y c l o p e d i a has not been p u b l i s h e d y e t (1952) but the m a t e r i a l on the Mennonites of A l b e r t a was put at my d i s p o s a l by the Managing E d i t o r , M e l v i n G i n g e r i c h . The m a t e r i a l has been i n v a l u a b l e . T h e s i s Reimer, David P h i l i p , The Mennonites of B r i t i s h Columbia, submitted i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of requirements foi? the degree of Bachelor of A r t s to the Department of H i s t o r y of the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, A p r i l 1 8 , 1 9 k 6 . A u s e f u l essay but tends to d e a l a l i t t l e too much w i t h the Mennonites as a r e l i g i o u s group and n e g l e c t s the developments i n B r i t i s h Columbia. Not too sound a t r e a t - ment. P e r i o d i c a l s F r a n c i s , E.K., " T r a d i t i o n and Progress Among the Mennonites i n Manitoba", Mennonite Q u a r t e r l y Review, October, 1 9 5 ° . (Mennonite H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , Goshen C o l l e g e , Goshen, Indiana) A s c h o l a r l y a r t i c l e on the f i r s t Russian Mennonite group i n Manitoba. Deals p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h the s c h o o l problem. Very u s e f u l . 158 Books 1. Anderson J.T.M., The E d u c a t i o n of the New-Canadian, Lon- don and Toronto, J.M. Dent & Sons, L t d . , 1918. Deals w i t h the g e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n a l problems posed by the Canadians of n o n - B r i t i s h e x t r a c t i o n . P a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e s made to the Mennonites, pp. 6 5 - 7 9 . 2 . Dyck, P e t e r P., Orenburg am U r a l , Columbia Press, Yarrow, B.C., 1951 Deals i n g e n e r a l w i t h the Mennonite Settlements i n R u s s i a w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e s to Education and I n d u s t r i e s . V a l u a b l e f o r a g e n e r a l background. 3 . P r i e s e n John,J., An O u t l i n e o f Mennonite H i s t o r y , H e r a l d P u b l i s h i n g Co.,' Newton, Kansas, 1 9 k k . A v a l u a b l e b o o k l e t d e a l i n g w i t h the m i g r a t i o n s of the Mennonites the world over, and the reasons f o r them. k. England Robert, The C e n t r a l European Immigrant i n Canada, Macmillan Company of Canada L t d . , Toronto, 1 9 2 9 . A study of the a s s i m i l a t i o n i n Canada of the Con- t i n e n t a l immigrants. P a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e i s made to the Mennonites on pages 50 to SU-' 5 . Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of S t a t i s t i c s , R e l i g i o u s Denominations: 1 9 0 6 , Washington, Govern- ment P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , P a r t I I , ! 9 1 0 . A b r i e f but u s e f u l survey of the o r i g i n of the v a r i o u s r e l i g i o u s bodies i n America and t h e i r p r e s e n t (1906) s t a t u s . Gives a sound treatment of Mennonite o r i g i n s . 6 . Gibbon John Murray, Canadian Mosaic, The Making of a Northern N a t i o n , M c C l e l l a n d and Stewart L t d , , Toronto, 1 9 3 8 . A v a l u a b l e s t o r y of the v a r i o u s immigrant n a t i o n - a l i t i e s which make up the Canadian people. The c o n t r i b u t i o n of each group are d e a l t w i t h i n a s c h o l a r l y f a s h i o n . An e x c e l l e n t p i c t u r e of the Mennonites i s g i v e n i n chapter VII, "Germany and Canada". Very v a l u a b l e . 7. Hedges James B., B u i l d i n g the Canadian West, The Land and C o l o n i z a t i o n P o l i c i e s of the Canadian P a c i f i c R a i l - way, The Macmillan Co., New York, 1939* An e x c e l l e n t survey of the C o l o n i z a t i o n and S e t t l e - ment p o l i c i e s of the Canadian P a c i f i c Railway. An i n v a l u a b l e source f o r the Mennonite immigration of the 1920's. 159 8. H i l d e b r a n d J . J . , H i l d e b r a n d ' s Z e i t t a f e l , J . Regehr, North Kildonan, Man., 191+5. A c h r o n o l o g i c a l summary of the H i s t o r y of the Mennonites. Is of l i m i t e d value.. 9. Lucas Henry S., The Renaissance and the Reformation, Harper and B r o t h e r s , New York and London, 193h-. V a l u a b l e f o r the account of the r i s e of Anabaptism, .chapter XXXIX. 1 0 . Neckar, He.ilborn A., Die Mennoniten-Gemeinden i n Russland waehrend der Kriegs-und R e v o l u t i o n s Jahre, 1911+ b i s 1 9 2 0 . Aus dem H o l l a e n d i s c h e n uebersetzt.und ergaenzt, Kommissions V e r l a g der Mennonitischen P l u e c h t l i n g s f u e r s o r g e , 1 9 2 1 . Is of. l i m i t e d value o n l y . 11. Newman, A l b e r t H., A Manual of Church H i s t o r y , The Americai B a p t i s t P u b l i c a t i o n S o c i e t y , Chicago, Kansas C i t y , Los Angeles, S e a t t l e , V o l . I I , 191+1+. A g e n e r a l h i s t o r y of the A n a b a p t i s t movement i s i n c l u d e d . Of l i m i t e d v a l u e . 1 2 . Schaefer, P a u l J . , Woher? Wohin? Mennoniten, 3 . T e i l . Die Mennoniten i n Canada, Mennonite A g r i c u l t u r e A d v i s o r y Committee, A l t o n a , Man., 191+0. A b r i e f but v a l u a b l e survey of the Mennonites i n Canada. The Mennonites i n A l b e r t a are very b r i e f l y d e a l t w i t h . U s e f u l . 1 3 . Smith, Henry C., The S t o r y of the Mennonites, Mennonite Book Concern, Berne, Indiana, 191+5* An a u t h o r i t a t i v e work on the Mennonites by a Mennonite s c h o l a r . Very v a l u a b l e f o r a g e n e r a l background to t h i s t h e s i s . 11+. Smith, Henry C. , The Coming of the Russian Mennonites, An Episode i n , t h e s e t t l i n g of the L a s t F r o n t i e r , 1871+-1881+, Mennonite Book Concern, Berne, Indiana, TO A comprehensive study of the f i r s t m i g r a t i o n of Russian Mennonites to the American and the Can- adian West. V a l u a b l e . 1 5 . Wedel, C.H., A b r i s s der Geschichte der Mennoniten, '--I B e t h e l C o l l e g e , Newton, Kansas, 1 9 ° 1 + . The s t o r y of the Mennonites i n S w i t z e r l a n d , P r u s s i a , and i n North.America. Of very l i m i t e d v a l u e . 1 6 . Wenger, John. C., Glimpses of Mennonite H i s t o r y and D o c t r i n e , H e r a l d Press, S c o t t d a l e , Pa., 191+7. A very v a l u a b l e source of i n f o r m a t i o n f o r the v a r i o u s denominations among the Mennonites. The i 6 o e x p r e s s i o n of d o c t r i n e i s g e n e r a l l y sound. 17. Wiebe, Gerhard, Ursachen und Geschichte der Auswanderung der Mennoniten aus Russland nach America, Druck- e r e i des Nordwesten, Winnipeg, 1898. Deals w i t h the Mennonite immigration to Canada i n the l870's. V a l u a b l e . 18. Lohrenz, John H., The Mennonite B r e t h e r n Church, The Mennonite Brethern P u b l i s h i n g House, H i l l s b o r o , Kansas, 1 9 5 0 . The most r e c e n t H i s t o r y of the Mennonite Brethern Church. A g e n e r a l survey of the v a r i o u s a c t i v i t - i e s c a r r i e d on by t h i s Mennonite denomination. Of l i m i t e d value f o r t h i s t h e s i s . 1 9 . Hallman E.S., The Hallman-Clemens Genealogy w i t h a Fam- i l y 1 s Reminiscence, The Record P r i n t i n g Company, Hesston, Kansas. CNo date given) U s e f u l f o r the h i s t o r y of the early-Mennonite ( o l d ) Church i n the p r o v i n c e s of Saskatchewan and A l b e r t a . A L B E R T A Areas marked all contain Mennonite Elements