key: cord-023529-zrnczve3
authors: Craighead, Geoff
title: Security and Fire Life Safety Threats
date: 2013-02-15
journal: High-Rise Security and Fire Life Safety
DOI: 10.1016/b978-1-85617-555-5.00003-1
sha: 
doc_id: 23529
cord_uid: zrnczve3

nan

l Vandalism. "Such willful or malicious acts intended to damage or destroy property." 21 Included among these acts is the use of graffiti, whereby often a sharp instrument (such as a key or a pocket knife) is used to scratch initials or symbols; whereby the graffiti is written using color markers, crayons, lipstick, pencils, correction fluid, or spray paint; or whereby the graffiti is etched into glass using acid (all such instances being commonly known as "tagging"). In buildings, graffiti can be found in restrooms and toilets, on walls of elevator lobbies and on walls and doors of elevator cars (particularly those of service or freight elevators), on walls adjacent to public telephones, and on exterior glass windows. Vandalism may also involve tampering with equipment (for example, standpipes on upper floors to cause flooding inside a building).

Although it may not be technically "willful" damage, the use of bicycles, scooters, skateboards, roller skates, and similar devices can lead to the destruction of property in building exterior areas and parking structures. "Skateboarders regularly wear down concrete surfaces, scuff up painted exteriors, and damage planters, handrails, [park benches,] and fountains." 22 Also, inadvertently, bicyclists, skateboarders, and roller skaters may collide with other people or seriously injure themselves. 23 In addition, there may be the disruption of building utilities such as water; electrical power; natural gas; sewer; heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (hVAC); telecommunication; security; and life safety systems. This interference may involve a cyberattack, whereby unauthorized access is gained to networks that control these systems. Such an attack is becoming increasingly possible as many building systems are placed on networks, and the ability of persons to attack such networks is becoming progressively more sophisticated.

Some security threats may involve terrorism. "Terrorism is considered an unlawful act of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives." 24 A person is guilty of a terroristic threat "if he [or she] threatens to commit any crime of violence with purpose to terrorize another or to cause evacuation of a building, place of assembly, or facility of public transportation, or otherwise to cause serious public inconvenience, or in reckless disregard of the risk of causing such terror or inconvenience." 25 Cyberterrorism is

[T]he convergence of terrorism and cyberspace. It is generally understood to mean unlawful attacks and threats of attack against computers, networks, and the information stored therein when done to intimidate or coerce a government or its people to further political or social objectives. Moreover, to qualify as cyberterrorism, an attack should result in violence against persons or property, or at least cause enough harm to generate fear. Attacks that lead to death April 18, 2002, Milan, Italy-At 5:50 p.m ., a small aircraft piloted by an elderly businessman crashed into the 25th floor of 30-story Pirelli Tower, the tallest building in Milan, killing a cleaning woman, a government lawyer and the pilot. At least 60 people were injured. The pilot reported mechanical trouble shortly before impact. 31 The cause of the accident has not been finally determined, although suicide of the pilot has been widely suggested.

October 11, 2006, New York-Mid-afternoon , a small single-engine plane, with new york yankees pitcher Cory Lidle and his flight instructor, Tyler Stanger, aboard crashed into the 30th and 31st floors of a 40-story apartment building. Both occupants were killed in the crash, and flaming debris, including parts of the aircraft, rained down on sidewalks. 32 In each incident, the structural damage to the building was localized to the point of impact of the plane.

On the morning of September 11, 2001, within a 42-minute time frame, four commercial airliners fully loaded with fuel for transcontinental flights departed from Boston, newark, and Washington, DC, airports. Within minutes of takeoff, four-to five-man teams on board hijacked these planes. Two of these aircraft, each with a fuel-carrying capacity of 23,980 U.S. gallons (90,770 liters) of aviation fuel and a maximum takeoff weight of 395,000 pounds (179,170 kg), 33 rammed into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in new york City ( . "It is estimated that, at the time of impact, each aircraft had approximately 10,000 gallons of unused fuel on board (compiled from government sources)." 34 The resulting fire soon led to the total collapse of both these 110-story buildings. One other plane smashed into the Pentagon in Washington, DC. The fourth, reportedly bound for the White house, crashed in an open field in Pennsylvania after several of its passengers fought against the hijackers. "The events in new york City (nyC) on September 11, 2001, were among the worst building disasters and loss of life from any single building event in the United States." 35 Shockwaves from these acts reverberated throughout the United States and the world. Within 22 minutes of the second plane hitting the World Trade Center, all U.S. domestic flights were grounded. Within hours, owners and managers of major U.S. high-rises, including the Sears Tower in Chicago, advised occupants to leave their buildings. The Los Angeles Times reported that even in Europe, authorities evacuated high-rise buildings as a safety measure. 36 U.S. markets closed and foreign stock markets plummeted. U.S. President george W. Bush declared the attacks in new york and Washington "acts of war." In October 2001, a U.S.-led coalition began bombing Afghanistan, the country harboring the Al Qaeda terrorist organization and its infamous leader, Osama bin Ladin, r who had been identified as the instigator of the 32 ESPn.com news services. Lidle dies after plane crashes into nyC high-rise. http://sports.espn.go.com/ mlb/news/story?id2621860; October 12, 2006. Osama bin Laden, with some spelling variations, is the name used in English to refer to Usamah bin Muhammad bin `Awad bin Ladin (Arabic: ) (Wikipedia. October 14, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden; October 19, 2008) . attacks. The terrorist-supporting Taliban regime was ousted from power and a new government established.

The events 37 that occurred in a fateful 1 hour, 41 minutes, and 55 seconds, were as follows: 8:46:30 a.m.-American Airlines Flight 11, a Boeing 767 airliner, with 76 passengers and 11 crew on board a scheduled flight from Boston to Los Angeles, crashed into the north face of the north tower (WTC 1) of the World Trade Center. The north tower was struck r between the 93rd and 99th floors. "Evidence suggests that all three rr of the building's stairwells became impassable from the 92nd floor up. hundreds of civilians were killed instantly by the impact. hundreds more remained alive but trapped." 38 9:02:59 a.m. -United Airlines Flight 175, a Boeing 767 airliner, with 51 passengers and nine crew on board, also on a scheduled flight from Boston to Los Angeles, crashed into the south face of the south tower (WTC 2) of the World Trade Center and struck between the 77th and 85th floors. "The plane banked as it hit the building, leaving portions of the building undamaged on impact floors. As a consequence-and in contrast to the situation in the north Tower-one of the stairwells (A) [of the three] initially remained passable from at least the 91st floor down, and likely from top to bottom." 39 Figure 3-3 depicts the approximate flight paths of the two aircraft. "Each plane banked steeply as it was flown into the building, causing damage across multiple floors. According to government sources, the speed of impact into the north tower was estimated to be 410 knots, or 470 miles per hour (mph) [756 kilometers per hour], and the speed of impact into the south tower was estimated to be 510 knots, or 590 mph [950 kilometers per hour]. As the two aircraft impacted the buildings, fireballs erupted. 39 ibid., p. 293. 37 Information about the events, including exact times (Eastern Daylight Time) of the impact of the planes, was obtained from the national Institute of Standards and Technology Final Report on the Collapse of the World Trade Center Towers (nIST nCSTAR 1, 2005) . Some information was also obtained from The 9/11 Commission Report, 2004. r Columbia University scientists using a seismograph determined that the plane that hit the north tower "registered magnitude-0.9 on the seismograph, equal to a small earthquake" ("For many on September 11, survival was no accident" [USA Today. December 20, 2001:3] , authored by Dennis Cauchon with contributors Barbara hansen, Anthony DeBarros, and Paul Overberg. Article reprinted in the nFPA "Emergency Response Planning Workshop Participant Workbook, Appendix 1V" conducted in San Francisco by Mark Schofield and Douglas P. Forsman [March 6, 2002:4] ). rr "The World Trade Center had an excellent stair system, much better than required by building codesboth when it was built 30 years ago and now. Each tower had three stairwells. new york City building codes require two. Stairways A and C, on opposite sides of the building's core, were 44 inches wide. In the center, Stairway B was 56 inches wide. The bigger the stairway, the faster an evacuation can proceed. In 44-inch stairways, a person must turn sideways to let another pass-for example, a rescuer heading up. In a 56-inch stairway, two people can pass comfortably" ("For many on September 11, survival was no accident" [USA Today. December 20, 2001:4] , authored by Dennis Cauchon with contributors Barbara hansen, Anthony DeBarros, and Paul Overberg. Article reprinted in the nFPA "Emergency Response Planning Workshop Participant Workbook, Appendix 1V" conducted in San Francisco by Mark Schofield and Douglas P. Forsman [March 6, 2002:4] ). 38 The 9/11 Commission Report, Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, investigation of "facts and circumstances relating to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001" by the national Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States (also known as the 9/11 Commission) (W. W. norton & Company: new york & London. www.9-11commission.gov/report/index. htm; July 2004:285).

The term fireball is used to describe deflagration, or ignition, of a fuel vapor cloud." 40 "Part of this fuel immediately burned off in the large fireballs that erupted at the impact floors. Remaining fuel flowed across the floors and down elevator and utility shafts, igniting intense fires throughout upper portions of the buildings. As these 1-4. fires spread, they further weakened the steel-framed structures, eventually leading to total collapse." 41 shows the areas where aircraft debris landed outside of the towers. 9 :58:59 a.m.-56 minutes after it was hit, the top floors of the south tower collapsed, causing the entire building to fall down. 10:28:25 a.m.-1 hour and 42 minutes (or 1 hour, 41 minutes, and 55 seconds to be precise) after it was struck, the north tower collapsed.

According to the Federal Emergency Management Association report, FEMA 403: The World Trade Center Building Performance Study: Data Collection, Preliminary Observations, and Recommendations, the following then occurred:

As the towers collapsed, massive debris clouds consisting of crushed and broken building components fell onto and blew into surrounding structures, causing extensive collateral damage and, in some cases, igniting fires and causing additional collapses. 42 Most of the fires went unattended as efforts were devoted to rescuing those trapped in the collapsed towers. 43 The 22-story Marriott World Trade Center Hotel (WTC 3) was hit by a substantial amount of debris during both tower collapses. Portions of WTC 3 were severely damaged by debris from each tower collapse, but progressive collapse r of the building did not occur. However, little of WTC 3 remained standing after the collapse of WTC 1. WTC 4, 5, and 6 had floor contents and furnishings burn completely and suffered significant partial collapses 41 ibid., p. 1. 42 ibid. 43 ibid., pp. 1-8. r According to the national Institute of Standards and Technology (nIST) Best Practices for Reducing the Potential for Progressive Collapse in Buildings, "The term 'progressive collapse' has been used to describe the spread of an initial local failure in a manner analogous to a chain reaction that leads to partial or total collapse of a building. The underlying characteristic of progressive collapse is that the final state of failure is disproportionately greater than the failure that initiated the collapse. ASCE Standard 7-05 defines progressive collapse as 'the spread of an initial local failure from element to element resulting, eventually, in the collapse of an entire structure or a disproportionately large part of it' (ASCE 2005) .… Based on the above description, it is proposed that the professional community adopt the following definition, which is based largely on ASCE 7-05: progressive collapse-the spread of local damage, from an initiating event, from element to element resulting, eventually, in the collapse of an entire structure or a disproportionately large part of it; also known as disproportionate collapse" (NISTIR 7396 Best Practices for Reducing the Potential for Progressive Collapse in Buildings. Washington, DC: national Institute of Standards and Technology, U.S. Department of Commerce; February 2007:1).

"The concept of progressive collapse can be illustrated by the famous 1968 collapse of the Ronan Point apartment building. The structure was a 22-story precast concrete-bearing wall building. A gas explosion in a corner kitchen on the 18th floor blew out the exterior wall panel and failure of the corner bay of the building propagated upward to the roof and downward almost to the ground level. Thus, although the entire building did not collapse, the extent of failure was disproportionate to the initial damage" (NISTIR 7396 Best Practices for Reducing the Potential for Progressive Collapse in Buildings; February 2007:1) .

Also, the collapse of WTC 7 on September 11, 2001, has been defined as progressive collapse by the national Institute of Standards and Technology (nIST) investigation of the collapse of World Trade Center Building 7 (nIST nCSTAR 1A Federal Building and Fire Safety Investigation of the World Trade Center Disaster. Final Report on the Collapse of World Trade Center Building 7. Executive Report. Washington, DC: national Institute of Standards and Technology; August 2008:xxxii). from debris impacts and from fire damage to their structural frames. WTC 7, a 47-story building that was part of the WTC complex, burned unattended for 7 hours before collapsing at 5:20 P.M. 44 In total, 10 major buildings experienced partial or total collapse and approximately 30 million square feet of commercial office space was removed from service, of which 12 million belonged to the WTC Complex. 45 

Since September 11, there was much discussion r about the design and performance of high-rise buildings. Two major studies rr have been designed to evaluate 45 ibid., p. 1. r For example, the question has been asked as to whether tall buildings should continue to be built in the future and whether they should be designed to resist all hazards, including explosions (the issue of designing buildings to resist explosions was also raised after the 1993 World Trade Center and the 1995 Oklahoma City bombings). Also, there have been suggestions to change future high-rise building design to include lower heights, more stairwells, lower occupancies, upgraded refuge areas, and safe elevators that could be used during emergencies such as fire (Fahy R, Proulx g. A Comparison of the 1993 and 2001 Evacuations of the World Trade Center. Presentation to the NFPA World Safety Congress & Exhibition. Minneapolis, Mn: May 21, 2002) . Even the threat from the air led to a policy change in Chicago-approved by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)-expanding "the 'no-fly zone' over the city to an area significantly larger than that mandated by the FAA immediately after September 11. This expansion was temporary, and the area has since been reduced" (Archibald R, Medby JJ, Rosen B, Schachter J. Security and Safety in Los Angeles high-Rise Buildings After 9/11. RAND Documented Briefing. Santa Monica, CA; April 2002:53) . rr In addition, soon after September 11, the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban habitat and the national Science Foundation announced the following studies:

(1) The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban habitat (CTBUh) formed a task force to explore options "to further increase the level of safety in tall buildings including the establishment of guidelines to better educate its report, called the World Trade Center Building Performance Study: Data Collection, Preliminary Observations and Recommendations, "fulfilling its goal 'to determine probable failure mechanisms and to identify areas of future investigation that could lead to practical measures for improving the damage resistance of buildings against such unforeseen events. '" 47 Observations and Findings The following observations and findings are from the World Trade Center Building Performance Study: 48 The structural damage sustained by each of the two buildings [WTC 1 and WTC 2] as a result of the terrorist attacks was massive. The fact that the structures were able to sustain this level of damage and remain standing for an extended period of time is remarkable and is the reason that most building occupants were able to evacuate safely. Events of this type, resulting in such substantial damage, are generally not considered in building design, and the ability of these structures to successfully withstand such damage is noteworthy.

Preliminary analyses of the damaged structures, together with the fact the structures remained standing for an extended period of time, suggest that, absent other severe loading events such as a windstorm or earthquake, the buildings could have remained standing in their damaged states until subjected to some significant additional load. However, the structures were subjected to a second, simultaneous severe loading event in the form of the fires caused by the aircraft impacts.

The large quantity of jet fuel carried by each aircraft ignited upon impact into each building. A significant portion of this fuel was consumed immediately in the ensuing fireballs. The remaining fuel is believed either to have flowed down through the buildings or to have burned off within a few minutes of the aircraft impact. The heat produced by this burning jet fuel does not by itself appear to have been sufficient to initiate the structural collapses. However, as the burning jet fuel spread across several floors of the buildings, it ignited much of the buildings' contents, causing simultaneous fires across several floors of both buildings. The heat output from these fires is estimated to have been comparable to the power produced by a large commercial power generating station. Over a period of many minutes, this heat induced additional stresses into the damaged structural frames while simultaneously softening and weakening these frames. This additional loading and the resulting damage were sufficient to induce the collapse of both structures.

The ability of the two towers to withstand aircraft impacts without immediate collapse was a direct function of their design and construction characteristics, as was the vulnerability of the two towers to collapse a 47 2-4. result of the combined effects of the impacts and ensuing fires. Many buildings with other design and construction characteristics would have been more vulnerable to collapse in these events than the two towers, and few may have been less vulnerable. It was not the purpose of this study to assess the codeconformance of the building design and construction, or to judge the adequacy of these features. However, during the course of this study, the structural and fire protection features of the buildings were examined. The study did not reveal any specific structural features that would be regarded as substandard, and, in fact, many structural and fire protection features of the design and construction were found to be superior to the minimum code requirements.

Several building design features have been identified as key to the buildings' ability to remain standing as long as they did and to allow the evacuation of most building occupants. These included the following: robustness and redundancy of the steel framing system adequate egress stairways that were well marked and lighted conscientious implementation of emergency exiting training programs for building tenants

Similarly, several design features have been identified that may have played a role in allowing the buildings to collapse in the manner that they did and in the inability of victims at and above the impact floors to safely exit. These features should not be regarded either as design deficiencies or as features that should be prohibited in future building codes. Rather, these are features that should be subjected to more detailed evaluation, in order to understand their contribution to the performance of these buildings and how they may perform in other buildings. These include the following:

the type of steel floor truss system present in these buildings and their structural robustness and redundancy when compared to other structural systems use of impact-resistant enclosures around egress paths resistance of passive fire protection to blasts and impacts in buildings designed to provide resistance to such hazards grouping emergency egress stairways in the central building core, as opposed to dispersing them throughout the structure…. WTC 5, WTC 7, 90 West Street, the Bankers Trust building, the Verizon building, and World Financial Center 3 were impacted by large debris from the collapsing towers and suffered structural damage, but arrested collapse to localized areas. The performance of these buildings demonstrates the inherent ability of redundant steel-framed structures to withstand extensive damage from earthquakes, blasts, and other extreme events without progressive collapse.

The ensuing years will reveal the total impact of this disaster on society and the world of skyscrapers. Some changes will be determined by the findings of the World Trade Center Building Performance Study and later studies. The following comments are from the World Trade Center Building Performance Study: 49 During the course of this study, the question of whether building codes should be changed in some way to make future buildings more resistant to such attacks was frequently explored. Depending on the size of the aircraft, it may not be technically feasible to develop design provisions that would enable all structures to be designed and constructed to resist the effects of impacts by rapidly moving aircraft, and the ensuing fires, without collapse. In addition, the cost of constructing such structures might be so large as to make this type of design intent practically infeasible. Although the attacks on the World Trade Center are a reason to question design philosophies, the BPS Team believes there are insufficient data to determine whether there is a reasonable threat of attacks on specific buildings to recommend inclusion of such requirements in building codes. Some believe the likelihood of such attacks on any specific building is deemed sufficiently low to not be considered at all. However, individual building developers may wish to consider design provisions for improving redundancy and robustness for such unforeseen events, particularly for structures that, by nature of their design or occupancy, may be especially susceptible to such incidents. Although some conceptual changes to the building codes that could make buildings more resistant to fire or impact damage or more conducive to occupant egress were identified in the course of this study, the BPS Team felt that extensive technical, policy, and economic study of these concepts should be performed before any specific code change recommendations are developed. This report specifically recommends such additional studies. Future building code revisions may be considered after the technical details of the collapses and other building responses to damage are better understood.

The debris from the collapses of the WTC towers also initiated fires in surrounding buildings, including WTC 4, 5, 6, and 7; 90 West Street; and 130 Cedar Street. Many of the buildings suffered severe fire damage but remained standing. However, two steel-framed structures experienced fire-induced collapse. WTC 7 collapsed completely after burning unchecked for approximately 7 hours, and a partial collapse occurred in an interior section of WTC 5. Studies of WTC 7 indicate that the collapse began in the lower stories, either through failure of major load transfer members located above an electrical substation structure or in columns in the stories above the transfer structure. The collapse of WTC 7 caused damage to the Verizon building and 30 West Broadway. The partial collapse of WTC 5 was not initiated by debris and is possibly a result of fire-induced connection failures. The collapse of these structures is particularly significant in that, prior to these events, no protected steel-frame structure, the most common form of large commercial construction in the United States, had ever experienced a fire-induced collapse. Thus, these events may highlight new building vulnerabilities, not previously believed to exist. possible considerations for improved egress in damaged structures, the public understanding of typical building design capacities, issues related to the study process and future activities, and issues for communities to consider when they are developing emergency response plans that include engineering response….

[Regarding one of these aspects,] building evacuation, the following topics were not explicitly examined during this study, but are recognized as important aspects of designing buildings for impact and fire events. Recommendations for further study are to:

Perform an analysis of occupant behavior during evacuation of the buildings at WTC to improve the design of fire alarm and egress systems r in highrise buildings. Perform an analysis of the design basis of evacuation systems in high-rise buildings to assess the adequacy of the current design practice, which relies on phased evacuation. Evaluate the use of elevators rr as part of the means of egress for mobilityimpaired people as well as the general building population for the evacuation of high-rise buildings. In addition, the use of elevators for access by emergency personnel rrr needs to be evaluated….

[Regarding another of these aspects,] education of stakeholders (e.g., owners, operators, tenants, authorities, designers) , [they] should be further educated about building codes, the minimum design loads typically addressed for building design, and the extreme events that are not addressed by building codes. Should stakeholders desire to address events not included in the building codes, they should understand the process of developing and implementing strategies to mitigate damage from extreme events. r For example, to facilitate counterflow by occupants moving downward and emergency responders (such as firefighters) moving upward, NFPA Life Safety Code requires that each stairwell that must accommodate a total cumulative occupant load of fewer than 2,000 persons have a stair width of 44 inches (1.12 meters), and those that must accommodate more than or equal to 2,000 persons have a stair width of 56 inches (1.42 meters) (Cote R, harrington g. NFPA 101 Life Safety Code Handbook. Quincy, MA: national Fire Protection Association; 2006:158, 159) . rr For some years this issue has been a major concern of fire protection individuals. Commenting on this subject, Charles Jennings, MS, MRP, John Jay College, stated that "The latest and most advanced thought is now devoted to developing pressurization requirements for elevator shafts and lobbies. The objective of these current efforts is to make elevators a useful component of the building evacuation system during a fire" (Jennings C. high-rise office building evacuation planning: human factors versus 'Cutting edge' technologies. [J Appl Fire Sci. 1994-95; 4(4):289-302, Baywood Publishing Co., Inc.; 1995:291] ). Since 9/11 there has been much discussion as to the feasibility of using elevators to evacuate occupants under emergency conditions. See Chapter 6 for additional information.

rrr "Because of tragic 9/11 stories of doomed firefighters overburdened with gear and out of radio contact, Chicago and other cities are reviewing emergency communications and requiring or recommending that skyscrapers install lockers or closets with hoses, axes and oxygen tanks on upper floors so firefighters don't have to carry them" ("high-rises remain vulnerable after 9/11." O'Driscoll P. The investigators examined the design of the buildings, the behavior of the people, and the evacuation process in detail to ascertain the factors that figured prominently in the time needed for evacuation. In analyzing these factors, NIST recognized that there were inherent uncertainties in constructing a valid portrayal of human behavior on that day. These included limitations in the recollections of the people, the need to derive findings from a statistical sampling r of the building population, the lack of information from the decedents on the factors that prevented their escape, and the limited knowledge of the damage to the interior of the towers. 52

The Port Authority estimated that the population of the WTC complex on September 11, 2001, was 58,000 people, including those r "To document the egress from the two towers as completely as possible, nIST:  Contracted with the national Fire Protection Association and the national Research Council of Canada to index a collection of over 700 previously published interviews with WTC survivors.  Listened to and analyzed 9-1-1 emergency phone calls made during the morning of September 11.  Analyzed transcripts of emergency communication among building personnel and emergency responders.  Examined complaints filed with the Occupational Safety and health Administration by surviving occupants and families of victims regarding emergency preparedness and evacuation system performance.

In addition nIST, in conjunction with nuStats, Partners, LLP as a nIST contractor, conducted an extensive set of interviews with survivors of the disaster and family members of occupants of the buildings. First, telephone interviews were conducted with 803 survivors, randomly selected from the list of approximately 100,000 people who had badges to enter the towers on that morning. The results enabled a scientific projection of the population and distribution of occupants in WTC 1 and WTC 2, as well as exploration of factors that affected evacuation. Second, 225 face-to-face interviews, averaging 2 hours each, gathered detailed, first-hand accounts and observations of the activities and events inside the buildings on the morning of September 11. These people included occupants near the floors of impact, witnesses to fireballs, mobility-impaired occupants, floor wardens, building personnel with emergency response responsibilities, family members who spoke to an occupant after 8:46 a.m., and occupants from regions of the building not addressed by other groups. Third, six complementary focus groups, a total of 28 people, were convened" (nIST nCSTAR 1: Of the estimated 17,400 people in the towers, 2749 people perished and thousands were injured. An undetermined number of people died entrapped in building elevators rr (there were 99 elevators in each tower). Table 3 -1 provides the likely locations of WTC decedents. Of the deceased, six were security managers, 13 were private security officers who worked at the WTC complex, and one was a security officer at a nearby building (their names are provided in the Dedication [p. v.] of this book).

In WTC 1, 1355 rrr of the fatalities were people trapped on or above the 92nd floor (due to the fact that all three of the building stairwells were severely damaged and could not be used as a means of escape). "Of the roughly 7,545 building occupants who started that morning below the 92nd floor, all but 107 escaped the building. Those left r "On any given workday, up to 50,000 office workers occupied the towers, and 40,000 people passed through the complex" (The 9/11Commission Report; 2004:278) .

The lower than usual population on September 11 was attributed to the fact that some people were voting in new york City's mayoral primary election; some were taking their children for the first day of school; due to Asia's financial recession, many Asian investment firms had released employees or closed offices in the WTC; the 107th floor south tower observation deck was not scheduled to open until 9:30 a.m.; most retail stores under the complex were not yet open; and being 8:46 a.m., a lot of workers were yet to arrive ("For many on September 11, survival was no accident" [USA Today. December 20, 2001:5] , authored by Dennis Cauchon with contributors Barbara hansen, Anthony DeBarros, and Paul Overberg. Article reprinted in the nFPA "Emergency Response Planning Workshop Participant Workbook, Appendix 1V" conducted in San Francisco by Mark Schofield and Douglas P. Forsman [March 6, 2002:4] ).

"nIST estimated that if the towers had been fully occupied with 20,000 occupants each, it would have taken just over 3 hours to evacuate the buildings and about 14,000 people might have perished because the stairwell capacity would not have been sufficient to evacuate that many people in the available time" (nIST nCSTAR 1; 2005:xxxix rr "Eighty-three [elevator] mechanics from ACE Elevator of Palisades Park, n.J., left the buildings when the second jet hit. Dozens of people were trapped inside elevators at the time, according to the Port Authority. An elevator mechanic from another company rushed to the buildings from down the street and died trying to rescue people" ("For many on September 11, survival was no accident" [USA Today. December 20, 2001:3] , authored by Dennis Cauchon with contributors Barbara hansen, Anthony DeBarros, and Paul Overberg. Article reprinted in the nFPA "Emergency Response Planning Workshop Participant Workbook, Appendix 1V" conducted in San Francisco by Mark Schofield and Douglas P. Forsman [March 6, 2002:4] ).

rrr These people "soon realized that they were unable to go downward to get away from the smoke and heat that [was] building up around them.… Some of the people went toward the roof. however, there was no hope behind were trapped by debris, awaiting assistance, helping others, or were just too late in starting their egress. For the most part, the evacuation was steady and orderly." 56 Where possible, NIST used eyewitness accounts to place individuals. Where no specific accounts existed, NIST used employer and floor information to place individuals. 2 These individuals were typically security guards and fire safety staff who were observed performing activities below the floors of impact after the aircrafts struck. 3 These 24 individuals were largely performing maintenance, janitorial, delivery, safety, or security functions. 4 Emergency responders were defined to be people who arrived at the site from another location. In WTC 2, 619 of the fatalities were people trapped on or above the 77th floor due to the fact that of the three building stairwells only "one stairway r remained open above the crash, but few used it to escape. Stairway A, one of the three, was unobstructed from top to bottom…. Others went up these stairs in search of a helicopter rescue that wasn't possible because of heavy smoke on the rooftop." 57rr "Of the roughly 6,000 people who started the morning below the 77th floor, all but 11 evacuated the building, indicating sufficiently efficient movement within the three stairwells in the time available." 58 Therefore, in both towers, a total of 118 occupants below the floors of impact perished. "Among the 118 decedents below the aircraft impact floors, investigators identified seven who were mobility impaired, rrr but were unable to determine the mobility capability of the remaining 111." 59 "Approximately 87 percent of the estimated 17,400 occupants of the towers, and 99 percent of those located below the impact floors, evacuated successfully." 60 r "An elevator machine room on the 81st floor, where the jet's nose hit, helped protect one stairway in the south tower. … The elevator equipment room covered more than half the width of the 81st floor. Its size forced the tower's designers to route Stairway A around the machines. The detour moved Stairway A from the center of the building … (on most floors, the stairways were about 30 feet [9.1 meters] apart in the core) … toward the northwest corner-away from the path the hijacked jet would take" (Cauchon D, Moore MT. Machinery saved people in WTC: Row of elevator hoists sheltered stairwell when jet hit tower. USA Today. May 17, 2002:1-3 There were a number of evacuees with disabilities that included two blind men with guide dogs, two deaf people and several wheelchair users. 63 All indications are that the occupants who were able to evacuate did so in an orderly and competent manner. The World Trade Center had a comprehensive, wellexecuted fire life safety program and emergency plan that helped emergency staff and occupants to react appropriately to the catastrophic events that unfolded.

Of One clear message that applies to all high-rise buildings, whether they are evaluated to be at risk to a terrorist event or not, is that all occupants should be well trained in evacuation procedures.

Their Offices? After the first plane hit the north tower, for surviving occupants in the south tower, "Building announcements were cited by many as a constraint to their evacuation, principally due to the 9:00 a.m. announcement instructing occupants to return to their work spaces. "As a result of the announcement, many civilians remained on their floors. Others reversed their evacuation and went back up." 67r "Similar advice was given in person by security officials in both the ground floor lobby [of the south tower]-where a group of 20 that had descended by the elevators was personally instructed to go back upstairs-and in the upper sky lobby, where many waited for express elevators to take them down. Security officials who gave this advice were not part of the fire safety staff." 68 "nineteen of them returned upstairs, where 18 died; the 20th was told by her supervisor, who was in the group, to leave rather than return upstairs. The supervisor also survived." 69 "Several South Tower occupants called the Port Authority police desk in 5 WTC. Some were advised to standby for further instructions; others were strongly advised to leave." 70 "It is not known whether the order by the FDny to evacuate the South Tower was received by the deputy fire safety director making announcements there. however, at approximately 9:02-less than a minute before the building was hit-an instruction 66 ibid., p. 37. 67 The 9/11 Commission Report, Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, investigation of "facts and circumstances relating to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001" by the national Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States (also known as the 9/11 Commission) (W. W. norton & Company: new york & London. www.9-11commission.gov/report/index .htm; July 2004:289). r A note (no. 46) in The 9/11 Commission Report to this reference was "When a notable event occurred, it was standard procedure for the on-duty deputy fire safety director to make an 'advisory' announcement to tenants who were affected by or might be aware of the incident, in order to acknowledge the incident and to direct tenants to stand by for further instruction. The purpose of advisory announcements, as opposed to 'emergency' announcements (such as to evacuate), was to reduce panic" (The 9/11 Commission Report, Chapter 9, note 46, citing various civilian and FDny interviews, and Port Authority of new york and new Jersey interviews and statements, 2004, p. 544). 68 The 9 over the South Tower's public-address system advised civilians, generally, that they could begin an orderly evacuation if conditions warranted. Like the earlier advice to remain in place, it did not correspond to any prewritten emergency instruction." 71 It must be realized that at the time the first plane hit the north tower, no one explicitly knew that this was a terrorist act or that another aircraft was only 16 minutes and 29 seconds away from slamming into the south tower. After the first collision there were large amounts of material falling from the crash site to the ground outside of the north and south towers as well as a number of occupants who had started jumping from upper floors. The first priority of the WTC emergency personnel would have been to address the life safety of occupants in the north tower. Based on the information known at the time, it would not have been considered prudent to evacuate occupants from the south tower, since this may have involved placing those persons in danger from falling objects. It was only after the second plane hit that an indication of the diabolical nature of the disaster was revealed. The tragic consequences of the September 11, 2001, attacks were directly attributable to the fact that terrorists flew large jet-fuel laden commercial airliners into the WTC towers. Buildings for use by the general population are not designed to withstand attacks of such severity; building regulations do not require building designs to consider aircraft impact. In our cities, there has been no experience with a disaster of such magnitude, nor has there been any in which the total collapse of a high-rise building occurred so rapidly and with little warning.

While there were unique aspects to the design of the WTC towers and the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, NIST has compiled a list of recommendations to improve the safety of tall buildings, occupants, and emergency responders based on its investigation of the procedures and practices that were used for the WTC towers; these procedures and practices are commonly used in the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of buildings under normal conditions. Public officials and building owners will need to determine appropriate performance requirements for those tall buildings, and selected other buildings, that are at higher risk due to their iconic status, critical function, or design.

The eight major groups of recommendations are listed as follows in an order that does not reflect any priority: Performance-based design "applies a procedure to predict and estimate damage or behavior anticipated of a structure's design to design events, compared against preselected objectives. The design is revised until the predictive methodology indicates that acceptable performance can be obtained" (Manley BE. Fundamentals of structurally safe building design. In: Fire Protection Handbook. 20th ed. Quincy, MA: national Fire Protection Association; 2008:1-47).

The prescriptive design approach "includes extensive detailed criteria for the design of systems that have been developed over many years of experience" (Cholin JM. Fire Protection Handbook. 20th ed. Woodworking facilities and processes. Quincy, MA: national Fire Protection Association; 2008:9-15).

The recommendations call for action by specific entities regarding standards, codes, and regulations, their adoption and enforcement, professional practices, education, and training; and research and development. Only when each of the entities carries out its role will the implementation of a recommendation be effective.

The recommendations do not prescribe specific systems, materials, or technologies. Instead, NIST encourages competition among alternatives that can meet performance requirements. The recommendations also do not prescribe specific threshold levels; NIST believes that this responsibility properly falls within the purview of the public policy setting process, in which the standards and codes development process plays a key role.

NIST believes the recommendations are realistic and achievable within a reasonable period of time. Only a few of the recommendations call for new requirements in standards and codes. Most of the recommendations deal with improving an existing standard or code requirement, establishing a standard for an existing practice without one, establishing the technical basis for an existing requirement, making a current requirement risk-consistent, adopting or enforcing a current requirement, or establishing a performance-based alternative to a current prescriptive requirement.

NIST strongly urges that immediate and serious consideration be given to these recommendations by the building and fire safety communities in order to achieve appropriate improvements in the way buildings are designed, constructed, maintained, and used in evacuation and emergency response procedures-with the goal of making buildings, occupants, and first responders safer in future emergencies.

NIST also strongly urges building owners and public officials to (1) evaluate the safety implications of these recommendations to their existing inventory of buildings and (2) take the steps necessary to mitigate any unwarranted risks without waiting for changes to occur in codes, standards, and practices.

NIST further urges state and local agencies to rigorously enforce building codes and standards since such enforcement is critical to ensure the expected level of safety. Unless they are complied with, the best codes and standards cannot protect occupants, emergency responders, or buildings. The building code experts represent a broad spectrum of specific organizations (e.g., NFPA, ICC, ASCE, BOMA, and U.S. Accessibility Board) and areas of expertise (e.g., architecture, engineering, risk assessment, law enforcement, social science/egress, [security,] and insurance) that can address all of the recommendations. This core expertise will be augmented with the participation of other experts representing organizations and technical areas required to address one or more specific recommendations.

The timeline for this effort is governed by the established development cycle for the model codes.

The NIST WTC recommendations impact about 37 specific national standards, codes, and practice guidelines or regulations. In carrying out this r For example, nFPA International formed a high-Rise Building Safety Advisory Committee (hRB-SAC) to initially review the nIST recommendations and forward each recommendation to the appropriate nFPA technical committee for consideration for its code establishment cycle. rr These acronyms are explained in the Acronym section at the back of this book.

work, NIST recognizes that not all of the recommendations will have an impact on model building codes. Many will impact standards that are referenced in model codes. Others will impact stand alone standards used in practice but not referenced in model codes. A few will impact practices, including education and training, that don't have any impact on codes and standards. 73r A list of the recommendations and their implementation status can be viewed online at the nIST website. 74

Bombs and bomb threats are very real possibilities in today's world, and in some countries, a frequent occurrence. They may be acts of terrorism used by a person or a group of persons attempting to control others through coercive intimidation or by those who want The changes, adopted at ICC's hearings held September 15-21, 2008, in Minneapolis, Minnesota, will be incorporated into the 2009 edition of the I-Codes (specifically the International Building Code, or IBC, and the International Fire Code, or IFC), a state-of-the-art model code used as the basis for building and fire regulations promulgated and enforced by U.S. state and local jurisdictions. Those jurisdictions have the option of incorporating some or all of the code's provisions but generally adopt most provisions.

The new codes address areas such as increasing structural resistance to building collapse from fire and other incidents; requiring a third exit stairway for tall buildings; increasing the width of all stairways by 50 percent in new high-rises; strengthening criteria for the bonding, proper installation, and inspection of sprayed fire-resistive materials (commonly known as 'fireproofing'); improving the reliability of active fire protection systems (such as automatic sprinklers); requiring a new class of robust elevators for access by emergency responders in lieu of an additional stairway; making exit path markings more prevalent and more visible; and ensuring effective coverage throughout a building for emergency responder radio communications.

(new International Building Code address fire safety and evacuation issues for tall structures. ScienceDaily. October 3, . www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008 December 26, 2008) .

Also, in response to nIST's request for "timely, expedited recommendations," the nFPA 101, Life Safety Committee, has responded by "introducing several changes to the 2009 edition of the Life Safety Code related to high-rise safety and evacuation…[in addition to] the 2003 and 2006 editions of nFPA 101 [which] also addressed several provisions before the release of the nIST study" ("2009 code changes" by Alisa Wolf [NFPA Journal. May/June 2008;80]). One particular change relates to elevator use in emergencies, "A new adoptable annex, Annex B, offers criteria for keeping smoke from reaching elevator lobby smoke detectors and water from reaching the hoistway to extend the safe use of an elevator early in a fire. If smoke can be kept away from the detectors, high-rise building occupants may be able to continue to use elevators, as long as communications systems are also provided to let them know, in real time, the operating status of the elevators. These guidelines would also require an exit stair enclosure adjacent to the elevator lobby to provide egress for occupants waiting in the lobby once the elevator has been called out of service" (" to promote their views by claiming direct responsibility or causing other targeted groups to be blamed for an incident. Terrorism may also include kidnappings, taking hostages, and other criminal acts such as bombings (although the September 11, 2001, destruction of the new york World Trade Center involved hijacked aircraft that were in effect turned into bombs, the incident was treated in the previous section "Aircraft Collisions").

Bombs involve either explosives or incendiary devices. Webster's College Dictionary defines the former as "devices designed to explode or expand with force and noise through rapid chemical change or decomposition"; the latter are "devices used or adapted for setting property on fire" and can be activated by mechanical, electrical, or chemical means. Explosives may also be delivered in the form of a missile, such as a shoulder-launched, rocket-propelled grenade (RPg), or a mortar.

Conventional explosives may also be encased in radioactive waste material. Known as radiological or "dirty bombs," if detonated these devices disperse radioactive material over an area determined by the size of the explosion, the kind and amount of material, weather conditions, and the types of facilities in the vicinity. 75 After the detonation of a dirty bomb in a major urban area, as the level of radioactivity increased it could "spark panic, r overburdening the health-care system and perhaps forcing abandonment of many square blocks for decades." 76 "Bombs can be constructed to look like almost anything and can be placed or delivered in any number of ways. rr The probability of finding a bomb that looks like a stereotypical bomb is almost nonexistent. The only common denominator that exists among bombs is that they are designed to explode." 77 Most bombs are improvised (hence the terms an improvised explosive device, rrr an IED, and a vehicle-borne IED or a VBIED rrrr ).

Walk-in suicide bombers with explosives attached to their bodies or contained in a suitcase are extremely difficult to detect and can strike anywhere at any time. In the United States, the highly publicized "Unabomber" incidents involved mail bombs. This serial bomber was so named by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) because the targets of these letter and package bombs sent since 1978 had previously been academics and executives at universities and airlines. In April 1996, after 16 bomb attacks, with three dead and 23 injured, the Unabomber, Ted Kaczynyski, was arrested, convicted, and later sentenced to life imprisonment without the possibility of parole.

77 Bomb Threats and Physical Security Planning. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, ATF P 7550. 2; 1987. rrr An IED is a "device placed or fabricated in an improvised manner incorporating destructive, lethal, noxious, pyrotechnic, or incendiary chemicals and designed to destroy, incapacitate, harass, or distract. It may incorporate military stores, but is normally devised from nonmilitary components" (Definition from DOD, nATO as stated on Answers.com website. 2008. www.answers.com/topic/improvised-explosive-device; September 20, 2008). rrrr A VBIED is a "military term for a car bomb or truck bomb. These are typically employed by suicide bombers and can carry a relatively large payload. They can also be detonated from a remote location. VBIEDs can create additional shrapnel through the destruction of the vehicle itself, as well as using vehicle fuel as an incendiary weapon" (Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ied; September 20, 2008). reason for the concern, as the Israeli government has learned, is that no amount of preparedness can stop such bombers-not swarms of police patrols, stepped-up border enforcement or increased intelligence-gathering missions. In most cases, one person armed with less than a handful of plastic explosives can walk into a public gathering, flick a detonation switch and kill dozens of people." 78

Bombs delivered by a vehicle (a car, a van, or a truck) are a grave reality. "A car bomb is an effective weapon because it is a[n] easy way to transport a large amount of explosives and flammable material to the site where the explosion should take place. A car bomb also produces a large amount of shrapnel, or flying debris, that causes secondary damage to bystanders and buildings." 79

Car bombs and detonators function in a diverse manner of ways, and there are numerous variables in the operation and placement of the bomb within the vehicle. Earlier and less advanced car bombs were often wired to the car's ignition system, but this practice is now considered more laborious and less effective than other more recent methods, as it required a greater amount of work for a system that could often be quite easily defused. While it is more common nowadays for car bombs to be fixed magnetically to the underside of the car, the underneath of passenger/driver's seat, or inside of the mudguard, detonators triggered by the opening of the vehicle door or by pressure applied to the brakes or accelerating pedals are also used. 80 Bombs may also be detonated when a victim approaches the vehicle, when the vehicle is in motion, or when the vehicle passes by another vehicle that contains the explosives. "In recent years, car bombs have become widely used by suicide bombers who seek to ram the car into a building and simultaneously detonate it." 81 The destructive power of such a bomb depends on factors such as the type and amount of explosives, the location of the bomb in relation to a building, and the structural strength of the facility to withstand the explosion. r Table 3 r To obtain sources of information about vehicle bomb explosion hazards and evacuation distances, one can approach a structural engineer, a blast design consultant or expert, or the appropriate agencies.

rr Dates and some details of incidents involving Al Qaeda versus United States and Allies, 1995-2003, were obtained from "The Chicago. Project on Suicide Terrorism," Robert Pape, Professor of Political Science, the University of Chicago. http://jtac.uchicago.edu/conferences/05/resources/pape_formatted%20for%20DTRA. pdf. Others were obtained from various agencies and news sources, many of which are identified in the ensuing summaries of the incidents. At times, reports of casualties were conflicting. Therefore, the number of persons killed and injured could not always be definitively determined.

is addressed in the previous section). Although not all incidents involve high-rise buildings, they underline the seriousness of the threat that Western civilization faces today.

The highly publicized 1993 international terrorist bombing of the new york World Trade Center Twin Towers, at the time the world's second tallest buildings and a symbol 82 of urea nitrate fertilizer, located in a parked van, detonated and tore a "five-story subgrade crater that measured 24 to 36 meters (80 to 120 feet) across on some levels" 83 in the subterranean parking garage of the 110-story new york World Trade Center (WTC) located in lower Manhattan ( Figure 3 -6).

Of the estimated 100,000-plus occupants and visitors of this seven-high-rise building complex, the explosion left six dead and 1,042 injured (most suffered from smoke inhalation). It severely damaged many of the complex's fire protection systems. For example, the fire alarm communication system for the Twin Towers of the Trade Center was incapacitated, and there was an interruption of primary and emergency power systems.

The bomb also resulted in a fire that rapidly disbursed thick, dark clouds of smoke to upper levels of the Twin Towers through horizontal openings-stairwell doors propped open while occupants were waiting to enter stairwells-and vertical openingsstairwells and elevator shafts. During this emergency, thousands of building occupants walked down darkened and smoke-filled stairwells to evacuate the building without the assistance of emergency lighting or of advisory emergency instructions delivered over the public address (PA) system. (generators supplying emergency power to these systems started up, but after 12 minutes they overheated and shut down because of damage from the explosion.) "Many persons were needlessly exposed to smoke inhalation and stress in premature evacuation from a structure in which upper floors were safer and more hospitable than the escape routes." 84 According to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF), a vehicle identification number from the van, which had been rented but reported stolen the day prior to the explosion, was uncovered after the explosion. The ensuing investigation ultimately led to the identification and indictment of seven suspects, four of whom were convicted on conspiracy, assault, and various explosives charges. The evidence linked the defendants to the purchase of chemicals and hydrogen tanks used to manufacture the bomb, to the rental of the shed to warehouse the chemicals and later the bomb, and to the rental of the van that contained the bomb. Each of the four Muslim extremists directly responsible for this incident was sentenced to life in prison.

Considerable information relating to this bombing was obtained from the ATF and the nFPA. After the incident, two ATF national Response Teams assisted the new york City Police Department and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in their inquiry. A thorough Fire Investigation Report on the World Trade Center Explosion and Fire can be obtained from the nFPA. 85 According to The World Trade Center Bombing: Report and Analysis, "It is estimated that approximately 50,000 people were evacuated from the WTC complex, including nearly 25,000 from each of the two towers. Fire alarm dispatchers received more than 1,000 phone calls, most reporting victims trapped on the upper floors of the towers. Search and evacuation of the towers were completed some 11 hours after the incident began." 86 According to an evacuation study conducted by the nFPA and the nRCC (national Research Council of Canada) with funding provided by the national Institute of Standards and Technology (nIST), the evacuation of occupants from the Twin Towers ranged from minutes to hours, and less than 10 percent of the evacuees had previously participated in evacuation drills. 87

The 1993 WTC bombing vividly demonstrated that sometimes a building emergency may be of such magnitude that security personnel are unprepared to handle both the emergency itself and the heightened security demands created by the incident. r After the explosion, WTC security staff were involved in caring for the injured, assisting firefighters (at that time, the several hundred of which constituted the greatest single response to a fire in new york City Fire Department's history) and other emergency services in occupant evacuation, and helping other agencies-the Port Authority Police and the new york Transit Police among others-to control access to the complex. Because of the enormity of the incident, the thousands of people affected, and the disastrous effects the explosion had on the towers' fire life safety systems, building security personnel were 85 As can also be the case with serious fires (particularly if multiple ones simultaneously occur), explosions, workplace violence, civil disturbances, and some natural disasters. inundated with demands for their services and were strained to the breaking point. Of course, the 2001 incident placed an almost indescribable burden on all involved, including those who lost their lives while helping others.

In 2008, a state appeals court unanimously upheld a jury's verdict that the Port Authority (PA) of new york and new Jersey, which owned the WTC complex, because it was 68 percent liable for the bombing and the terrorists 32 percent liable, was liable for 100 percent of the recoverable damages caused by the 1993 bombing. 88 The ruling found "that the agency had not properly protected its underground public parking garage.… The appeals court noted the Port Authority did not argue that the bombing was unforeseeable, since the bombing method was not only foreseen but was brought to PA executives' attention by the agency's own internal study group. The group's report said the trade center was vulnerable to terrorist attack through its parking garage. It detailed 'with exact prescience' how that vulnerability could be exploited, the appeals court said." 89 "In 1984, Peter goldmark, then the Port Authority's executive director, recognizing the trade center's 'iconic' stature, asked Scotland yard to assess the security of the complex and reported back to his colleagues that British officials were 'appalled' that there was public parking underneath the towers. In July 1985, an outside engineering consultant, Charles Schnabolk, issued a report saying that it was not only possible but 'probable' that there would be an attempt to bomb the trade center, and that it was 'highly vulnerable through the parking lot.'" 90

According to Doug Karpiloff, the late security and life safety director for the World Trade Center, "Prior to the bombing, the WTC was an open building during the day, but closed at night. After the bombing, the Center was relegated to a closed facility, in which public parking was completely eliminated." 91 As reported by Security, 92 security upgrades against the risk of vehicle bombs included the following measures: After the 1993 WTC bombing, some high-rise office buildings installed CCTV systems at the entrance and exit points of under-building or subterranean parking garages. These cameras facilitated recording closeup images of the driver and license plate of every vehicle entering and the license plate of all vehicles exiting these areas. If there were an incident, this would help to identify vehicles that may have been involved.

The Bishopsgate bombing occurred on 24 April 1993, when the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) detonated a truck bomb in London's financial district in Bishopsgate, city of London, England. One person was killed in the explosion and 44 injured, causing £350 million in damage. As a result of the bombing, the ring of steel r was introduced to protect the city, and many firms introduced disaster recovery plans in case of further attacks. 95

The ring of steel is the popular name for the security and surveillance cordon surrounding the City of London, installed to deter the IRA and other threats" ('Ring of steel' widened. BBC News Online, 2003-12-08. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_London's_ring_of_steel Retrieved on 2008-04-10). "Roads entering the City are narrowed and have small chicanes to force drivers to slow down and be recorded by CCTV cameras. These roads typically have a concrete median with a sentry box where police can stand guard and monitor traffic" ('Ring of steel' widened. BBC News Online, 2003-12-08. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ City_of_London's_ring_of_steel Retrieved on 2008-04-10). A chicane is "a sequence of tight serpentine curves (usually an S-shape curve …) in a roadway, used in motor racing and on city streets to slow cars. On modern raceways, chicanes are usually located after long straightaways, making them a prime location for overtaking" (Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/chicane; May 17, 2008). 95 April 19, 1995, Oklahoma City-At 9:02 a.m., when parents were dropping off their youngsters at the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Office Building's day-care center, a homemade bomb containing an "estimated 2,177 kg (4,800 lb) of ammonium nitrate [fertilizer] and fuel oil (AnFO)" 96 placed in a large rented truck parked in a no-parking, no-standing zone circular driveway outside the building detonated and blew away the facade and nearly half of this nine-story reinforced concrete frame building located in downtown Oklahoma City (Figure 3-7) . windows were shattered, numerous nearby buildings suffered structural damage, and vehicles were damaged throughout the downtown business section.

Of the estimated 500-plus occupants and visitors of this structure, the explosion left 167 dead, including 19 children in the demolished day-care center. In addition, there were four fatalities at an adjacent building, one outside and one in a parked vehicle, while a nurse running to the scene was killed by a falling piece of concrete. 782 people were injured. The building was demolished as a result of the incident. 97 Immediately following the explosion, the General Services Administration (GSA) placed over 1300 federal buildings throughout the United States on a security alert with building exterior patrols, inspection of packages, briefcases and vehicles, and heightened surveillance for persons and objects, including vehicles, which were suspicious or looked out of place. Parking was restricted around some buildings and some erected concrete barriers in front of the structures to protect against this type of threat. 98 Timothy McVeigh was later executed for this incident, up until September 11, 2001, the worst terrorist attack in U.S. history.

Before this incident, there were no government-wide standards for security at federal facilities in the United States. After it, a study titled Vulnerability Assessment of Federal Facilities was conducted by the Standards Committee consisting of security specialists and representatives of the U.S. Department of Justice, including the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and of the U.S. Secret Service, general Services Administration (gSA), State Department, Social Security Administration, and Department of Defense. This committee developed "a set of [52] minimum security standards that can be applied to federal facilities. The standards cover the subjects of perimeter, entry, and interior security, and security planning" 99 and embodied "new parking restrictions within buildings and in adjacent areas, use of X-rays and metal detectors at entrances for visitors and packages, erection of physical barriers, deployment of roving patrols outside the buildings, closed-circuit television monitoring, installation of shatterproof glass on lower floors, better alarm systems, locating new buildings farther from streets, grouping agencies with similar security needs, and tougher standards for visitor and employee identification." 100 "The Standards Committee divided federal holdings into five security levels to determine which security standards are appropriate for which security levels. These categories are based on such factors as size, number of employees, use, and required access to the public. Site Security Design Guide, r which "establishes the principles, explores the various elements, and lays out the process that security professionals, designers, and project and facility managers should follow in designing site security at any federal project, be it large or small, at an existing facility or one not yet built. Although this incident did not reportedly involve explosives, it is mentioned here as it bears some similarties to the 2008 Taj Mahal Palace and Tower hotel and Oberoi hotel incidents in Mumbai, India (see later description of these incidents), which also targeted Westerners.

citizenship of the bombers and the lack of strong ties between them and an international terrorist group illustrate the potential threat of "homegrown" terrorists as perpetrators of future attacks. 118

"On 21 July 2005, four attempted bomb attacks disrupted part of London's public transport system two weeks after the 7 July 2005 London bombings. The explosions occurred around midday at Shepherd's Bush, Warren Street and Oval stations on London Underground, and on a bus in Shoreditch. A fifth bomber dumped his device without attempting to set it off." 119 Four men were found guilty for the attacks. "The failed bombers targeted three Tube trains and a bus-as happened on 7/7-but the devices ["only the detonators exploded" 120 ] failed to explode. "It is thought the second car was found parked illegally in the West End by traffic wardens in the early hours of this morning. It was then towed to the pound-located in the car park-but left outside in the public area when staff reported that it smelt of fuel". 127 "The cars and their devices were recovered intact for forensic examination and both were found to contain petrol cans, gas canisters and a quantity of nails, with a mobile phone-based trigger." 128 June 30, 2007, Glasgow International Airport "A Jeep Cherokee trailing a cascade of flames rammed into glasgow airport on Saturday, shattering glass doors just yards from passengers at the check-in counters. Police said they believed the attack was linked to two car bombs found in London the day before." 129 Both of the car's occupants were arrested. "Police identified the two men as Bilal Abdullah, a British-born, Muslim doctor of Iraqi descent working at the Royal Alexandra hospital, and Kafeel Ahmed, also known as Khalid Ahmed, the driver, who was treated for severe burns at the same hospital." 130 Ahmed later died.

"A jury found the doctor, Bilal Abdulla, a passenger in the Jeep Cherokee, guilty of two charges of conspiracy to commit murder and conspiracy to cause explosions in three bungled car bombing attempts in glasgow and London over 24 hours…. The day before that attack, Dr. Abdulla and Mr. Ahmed drove to London's West End theater district in two Mercedes-Benz sedans, primed with bombs similarly constructed from gasoline canisters and propane cylinders, along with 2,000 nails for shrapnel. outside a nightclub and beside a busy bus stop. The two attackers waited nearby with mobile phones linked to other phones wired to the bombs used as triggers. But evidence at the trial showed that the two vehicles had failed to explode despite repeated signals from the mobile phones because of faulty assembly of the so-called fuel air bombs involved." 131

September 20, 2008, at approximately 8:00 p.m., a dump truck containing an estimated 1,300 pounds (600 kilograms) of military-grade explosives rammed a metal barrier and came to a halt about 60 feet (18 meters) from the Marriott hotel, which is surrounded by government buildings and is located in Pakistan's capital. Detonated by the driver, the resulting explosion killed 53 people, injured more than 250 people, severely damaged the hotel, and left a crater 60 feet (18 meters) wide and 24 feet (7.3 meters) deep in front of the main building. 132 " "The government released surveillance camera footage showing the attack. A suicide bomber at the wheel of a dump truck opened fire at Marriott security guards who refused to let him into the parking lot. he then detonated himself and started a small fire. The guards spent four minutes trying to extinguish the blaze when another, much bigger explosion went off." 133 "The massive blast ripped through the Marriott hotel's walls, blew out ceilings, scorched trees, reduced nearby cars to charred husks of twisted metal and shattered windows hundreds of yards away. Flames began shooting out of the windows of many of the hotel's 290 rooms." 134 The explosion was during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan and so the hotel's restaurants would have contained many Muslims breaking their daily fast.

"no group immediately claimed responsibility for the blast, though suspicion fell on al-Qaeda and the Pakistani Taliban. Analysts said the attack served as a warning from Islamic militants to Pakistan's new civilian leadership to stop cooperating with the U.S.-led war on terror." 135

On november 26, 2008, "hooded gunmen, firing automatic weapons and throwing hand grenades, attacked at least two luxury hotels, the city's largest train station, a Jewish center, a movie theater, even a hospital…. Even by the standards of terrorism in India, which has suffered a rising number of attacks this year, the assaults were particularly brazen in scale, coordination and execution. "The death toll from the series of coordinated attacks was at 101 [later estimated at 171], including at least six foreigners, by Thursday afternoon authorities said. The Italian Foreign Ministry confirmed one of its citizens had been killed. The nationalities of the others was still being checked. Another 314 people were wounded in the attacks, including seven British and two Australian citizens. In addition, at least nine gunmen were killed in fighting with police. Also among the dead was hemant Karkare, the chief of the Mumbai police's anti-terror squad, and as many as 11 police officers." 137 "Ashok Pawar, a local police constable who arrived at the Taj Mahal Palace & hotel [ Figure 3 -8] shortly after the gunmen lay siege to it, said he could see their carefully scripted tableau in the closed-circuit TV cameras in the hotel's second floor security room. In two teams of two, the gunmen kicked down hotel room doors, forced guests to come out into the hallway, tied the men's hands behind their backs, usually with a bedsheet, and herded their captives into one room…. The gunmen soon realized they were being watched, and so they smashed the cameras, lobbed a grenade and started firing at Mr. Pawar and his colleagues in the security room." 138 "The leader of a commando unit involved in a gun battle Thursday morning inside the Taj said during a news conference on Friday that he had seen a dozen dead bodies in one of the rooms. his team also discovered a gunman's backpack, which contained dried fruit, 400 rounds of AK-47 ammunition, four grenades, Indian and American money, and seven credit cards from some of the world's leading banks. They pack also had a national identity card from the island of Mauritius, off Africa's southeastern coast. The attackers were 'very, very familiar with the layout of the hotel,' said the commander." 139 "It is possible the Mumbai attackers chose the Taj and Oberoi because security at the two facilities was not as prominent or visible as in other hotels. In any case, that the Mumbai attackers pre-positioned explosives and other weapons for their use inside the hotel indicates they conducted extensive preoperational surveillance of the targets and likely understood the security countermeasures present in each location." 140 "India has accused a senior leader of the Pakistani militant group Lashkare-Taiba of orchestrating last week's terror attacks that killed at least 172 people here, and demanded the Pakistani government turn him over and take action against the group. Just two days before hitting the city, the group of 10 terrorists who ravaged India's financial capital communicated with yusuf Muzammil and four other Lashkar leaders via a satellite phone that they left behind on a fishing trawler they hijacked to get to Mumbai, a senior Mumbai police official told The Wall Street Journal. The entire group also underwent rigorous training in a Lashkar-e-Taiba camp in Pakistanicontrolled Kashmir, the official said." 141 Subsequently, two senior leaders of Lashkare-Taiba and 20 other alleged militants were arrested by Pakistan and the death toll was amended to 171. 142 Commenting on the incident, "What happened in Mumbai on november 26 will always remain etched in the minds of every Indian. The terrorists' attack on iconic buildings and elsewhere has definitely raised the issue of security of high-rise buildings, both commercial and residential, in our country." 143 "While the Taj and Oberoi hotels probably were attacked in part because of their status as Mumbai landmarks, the direct targeting of foreigners indicates the hotels also were chosen in a bid to strike Westerners…. The Mumbai attacks showed that attacking locations where Westerners are known to congregate, rather than attacks against marketplaces or cinemas that will primary kill Indian nationals, could well be a more efficient and effective way for militants to use their limited resources. And as hotels and other traditional soft targets harden their facilities and implement new security countermeasures to prevent further Mumbai-style attacks, militants will seek less-secure venues that will achieve the same result. Such targets could include apartment complexes or neighborhoods that primarily house Westerners-similar to the 2004 attacks on the Saudi Arabian Oil Co. residential facilities in Al Khobar, Saudi Arabia-or other soft targets such as Western-style marketplaces or restaurants. 

Bomb threats are delivered in a variety of ways. Sometimes a threat is communicated in writing, via e-mail, or by an audio recording. There is more than one reason for making or reporting a bomb threat. For instance, a caller who has definite knowledge or believes an explosive or incendiary device has been or will be placed may want to minimize personal injury or property damage. This caller could be the person who placed the device or someone who has become aware of such information. On the other hand, a caller may simply want to create an atmosphere of anxiety and panic, which will, in turn, disrupt the normal 145 Stratfor website (www.stratfor.com) December 3, 2008 . From the new york Landmarks Plot to the Mumbai attack. Fred Burton and Ben West. www.stratfor.com/weekly/20081203_new_york_landmarks_ plot_mumbai_attack; December 13, 2008. According to its website, "Stratfor is the world's leading online publisher of geopolitical intelligence. Our global team of intelligence professionals provides our members with insights into political, economic, and military developments to reduce risks, to identify opportunities, and to stay aware of happenings around the globe.… Stratfor provides published intelligence and customized intelligence service for private individuals, global corporations, and divisions of the US and foreign governments around the world" (About Stratfor. www.stratfor.com/about_stratfor; December 13, 2008). activities at the facility where the device is purportedly located. Whatever the reason for the report, there will certainly be a reaction to it. Through proper planning, the wide variety of potentially uncontrollable reactions can be greatly reduced.

The height of high-rise buildings may attract people who want to gain notoriety, publicize a cause, or quickly end their own life.

In the 1970s, the newly constructed Twin Towers of the new york World Trade Center were the scenes of three daring acts by a tightrope walker, a parachutist, and a climber. that he designed to fit the window-washing equipment tracks, in three and a half hours climbed the outside of one of the Twin Towers. The spectacle was watched by thousands of onlookers on the ground and millions of viewers on television. When he safely reached the roof he was greeted by two police officers. Later, the city of New York sued him for a quarter of a million dollars to cover the costs of police overtime and the police helicopters that were dispatched to the scene to stop news helicopters from flying too close to the towers. The lawsuit was later dropped and Willig paid a $1.10 fine, which equated to a penny a floor.

An essential element in preventing the first two types of these acts is controlling access to building roofs. In the last type, it is important for a building's perimeter to be controlled using security personnel, video surveillance, or a combination of both.

BASE is an acronym for Building, Antenna, Span (bridges), and Earth (cliffs). BASE jumping is a practice by which parachutists leap off high fixed objects.

Sometimes, high-rise building owners permit these jumps, particularly where a special film permit or sporting competition is being staged. For example, the Los Angeles Times reported that Petronas Towers, at the time the world's tallest two buildings, was the site of the 2001 Malaysia International Extreme Skydiving Championships in Kuala Lumpur. however, in many jurisdictions these jumps violate trespassing and reckless endangerment laws. "In private, some veterans tell of concocting elaborate ruses involving forged employee passes, paying off security guards and removing air-conditioning grates, all to pull off a stealth building jump. In 2001, BASE jumpers were arrested or cited for parachuting off buildings in cities including Minneapolis, new york and Paris." 148 "In a bid for credibility-and more legal jump sites-veteran jumpers are offering training sessions and camps that stress safety, and selling gear made especially for their sport." 149 According to Jean Potvin, a skydiver and physics professor, "The new BASEspecific gear is reliable, and the sport can be practiced safely by experienced jumpers if all goes well. But the ante is upped for those who want to jump off buildings, he said. Odd winds that swirl around high-rises could slam a parachutist into a window. Vision becomes tricky on a nighttime jump from a high-rise, when the backdrop is darkness and not sky blue. Jumpers must be able to steer their chutes away from power lines, telephone poles and other obstacles. All in a matter of seconds." 150 Strictly controlling access to the roof is the way to stop BASE jumpers.

Protestors have attempted to drape large banners promoting their raison d'être over the front of a building, and daredevils have used high-rises as their own personal stages to perform outlandish feats to gain attention, achieve notoriety, or simply to prove that they can do it.

Suicides numerous people have gone to a building's roof and, tragically, committed suicide by jumping over the side. Some have scaled an upper floor wall facing a building atrium; climbed over an office, apartment, or hotel guestroom balcony wall or wrought-iron railing; climbed out of windows that can be opened; and even broken out a window on a floor and subsequently jumped to their deaths. Undoubtedly, in older high-rise buildings equipped with exterior fire escapes, some have used this means of escape as a means of death. Daredevils, protestors, and suicides can also be a serious problem when a building is being constructed. Strict access control to the construction site is the key to preventing such incidents.

Since the late 1970s, elevators have been developed with fully integrated, state-of-the-art microcomputer-based systems that analyze calls, set priorities, and dispatch cars on demand, enabling operators to control every aspect of elevator function. however, not all elevator systems located in high-rise buildings are this modern and sophisticated. Sometimes, despite rigid continuing-maintenance schedules, they may malfunction or break down.

Common elevator malfunctions r include elevator cars that do not correctly align with the floor when they arrive there, elevator doors that do not close, and elevator cars that "slip" while in motion (possibly caused by stretching of the elevator cables used in traction elevators) or stall between floors, thereby entrapping occupants. If any of these conditions occurs, it must be reported promptly to management, engineering, or security staff, who in turn will notify the elevator company responsible for maintaining the equipment. The first three problems may result in temporary shutdown of the elevator for maintenance. Passenger entrapment, however, is a problem that requires immediate attention.

An elevator may momentarily stop and then immediately self-release the occupants, or it may stop completely and require an elevator technician to release the occupants (or, if a medical emergency occurs with a trapped occupant(s), the situation may necessitate calling the fire department or emergency services to deal with the situation). Attempts by a passenger to self-exit stalled elevators can have tragic consequences.

Sometimes crimes against persons-such as an assault (including that of a sexual nature) or a robbery-can occur within an elevator car, where, unless viewed by a video camera inside the car, often no one (apart from the victim of the assault or robbery) is present to witness the incident (because the perpetrator will usually not commit such a crime if anyone other than the intended victim is present).

A word of caution here is that with today's telecommunications capabilities, one must be particularly careful when granting access to elevator programming functions. The following incident of using an elevator to commit theft illustrates this point: was always the same. The computers would disappear from locked tenant spaces after normal business hours. There were never any visible signs of unauthorized entry. Every conceivable pathway, the thief might have taken to remove the items from the building was examined. It was determined that the only possible means for removal of the items was using the single service/freight elevator. However, after normal business hours this elevator was always programmed to be "on security." It was finally ascertained that the elevator was being taken "off security" for a time period that coincided with the thefts. Further investigation revealed that a building engineer had accessed the elevator system remotely from his home computer and changed the elevator's security status. The engineer then had gone to the building and to the tenant floor using the freight elevator. The thefts were carried out using a building master key to gain access to the tenant suite. The stolen items were then loaded into the elevator car and transported down to the loading dock, where there were no CCTV cameras to view the incident. Later the elevator was then remotely placed back "on security." Also, acts of vandalism can occur inside elevator cars. A possible solution is to install vandal-resistant interiors. ("In general all lift [elevator] surfaces should be robust and resistant to damage from cleaning materials and body fluids. There should be no visible fixings [,] and gaps between moving parts should be restricted to avoid attack. Stainless steel is often specified in [a] hostile environment." 151 ) Another mitigating measure is the use of elevator cars with transparent sidewalls in a transparent elevator shaft. r however, the problem of elevator vandalism may be related to the operation of the elevator itself. As noted, "clearly, installing vandal-resistant interiors and control panels in the elevator cabs will reduce the number of incidents and costs to repair damage. But if you are having repeated incidents, look beyond the surface. Is the elevator system control system working properly? Long wait times and long travel times will increase frustration. And more frustration is going to spur more elevator vandalism." 152 Despite the fact that elevators are a very safe form of transportation in modern high-rise buildings, elevator technicians and workers may sustain injuries or death while 151 Sustaining Towers website. "Lifts." April 6, 2005. www.sustainingtowers.or/LIFTSa.htm; December 6, 2008.

r "A Unique Enhancement to Building Design Observation elevators add[s] beauty and elegance to buildings while offering passengers a pleasantly novel experience. They can usually be found in hotels, shopping malls, sightseeing towers and the like, but recently they can even be seen in office buildings, [and parking garages] where they contribute to a more comfortable and stimulating atmosphere" ("Observation elevators." International Elevator & Equipment, Inc. 2005. www.iee.com.ph/observe.html; August 25, 2008).

Such transparent "views are desired, for example, for safety reasons so that a potential elevator user can immediately recognize whether other persons, who may be disagreeable to him or her, in a given case also dogs, are in the elevator car. On the other hand, undesired views into the elevator car, for example from below, can be avoided. The transparency of the glass areas at the shaft doors and at the car doors can in that case be so controlled that these are transparent only at times of low usage, thus, for example, at night or-in office buildings-on non-work days" (Freepatentsonline. "Wall plate with glass part of an elevator installation, and elevator installation with such a wall part." 2004-2008. www working on or near elevator systems. Also, the passengers who use them are potentially at risk. r

Escalator riders can be the victims of petty theft by pickpockets and more serious crimes such as physical assaults. Escalators can also be the scene of injuries and deaths caused by loose shoelaces, heels of women's shoes, unsuitable shoes, and loose clothing being caught in the moving stairs or handrails; riders (particularly young children and possibly older persons) slipping and falling, particularly when exiting the escalator; and escalator installers and repair persons being injured or killed while working on an escalator. rr Also accidents can occur when people try to travel in the opposite direction of the 

(CPWR: Center for Construction Research and Training, Silver Spring, MD, www.cpwr.com, published on Electronic Library of Construction Occupational Safety and health website. www.cdc.gov/eLCOSh/docs/d0300/ d000397/d000397.html#appendix2; December 20, 2008).

During this same period [1992] [1993] [1994] [1995] [1996] [1997] [1998] [1999] [2000] [2001] [2002] [2003] (1), Washington (2) , and Wisconsin (2) . The eight "caught in/between" deaths usually resulted after clothing became trapped at the bottom or top of an escalator or between a stair and escalator sidewall; seven of the 16 fall deaths were from head injury. Four of the fall deaths occurred due to falling off the escalator while riding the escalator siderails.

In 1994, the Consumer Product Safety Commission [CPSC] estimated that there were 7,300 escalator and 9,800 elevator injuries requiring hospitalization (CPSC. 1998. Escalator Safety. CPSC Document #5111. ,www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/pubs/5111.html.; Cooper David. 1997 Barcelona, Spain. ,www.elevator-expert.com/escalato.htm.) . The data were based on a nationwide survey of 90 hospitals. Based on the number of elevators and escalators in the United States, the CPSC estimated that there were 0.221 accidents per escalator and 0.015 accidents per elevator annually.

The CPSC estimated that 75% of the escalator injuries resulted from falls, 20% from entrapment at the bottom or top of an escalator or between a moving stair and escalator sidewall, and 5% "other." The "caught-in" incidents generally resulted in more serious injuries than did falls. Of particular concern is the fact that half of the approximately 1 moving walkway (sometimes this happens when a person who has just boarded an escalator changes his or her mind and turns 180 degrees in the opposite direction and tries to walk back to the point where he or she boarded the escalator), when riders kneel or sit on the escalator steps, or when people do not hold onto the handrails. r

As long as buildings have existed, the risk of fire occurring in them has been of special concern. "In terms of reported [high-rise building] fires, there are actually four property classes that dominate the statistics. Office buildings and hotels and motels are among them, but so are apartment buildings and hospitals (and other facilities that care for the sick)." 153 The threat of fire is always present in high-rise buildings. high-rise fires can be particularly dangerous to building occupants. "The most critical threats in high-rise structures include fire, explosion, and contamination of life-support systems such as air and potable water supplies. These threats can be actuated accidentally or intentionally, and because they propagate rapidly, they can quickly develop to catastrophic levels." 154 Before proceeding, it is helpful to understand the makeup of fire and the behavior of building occupants when it occurs.

Fire is the combustion of fuels (whether solids, liquids, or gases) in which heat and light are produced. Combustion is a chemical reaction between a substance and oxygen that needs three factors to occur-fuel, oxygen, and heat-to occur. Removal of any one of these factors usually results in the fire being extinguished.

Within a high-rise building, there is an abundance of fuel, much equipment and furnishings being made from highly combustible synthetic materials. The centralized heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (hVAC) systems ensure that there is a plentiful supply of oxygen within interior spaces. An accidental or deliberate application of heat to this scenario may have dire consequences to the life safety of occupants. When combustion occurs, heat can travel by moving from areas of high temperature to areas of lower temperature. This transfer is accomplished by means of conduction, convection, radiation, or direct contact with a flame (Figure 3-9) .

Conduction is the movement of heat by direct contact of one piece of matter (whether solid, liquid, or gas, but most often a solid) with another. This heat transfer is crucial to the spread of a fire in a high-rise. For example, in a steel-framed building, when heat is conducted from one end along a steel beam that passes through a fireproof barrier, its other end can ignite materials.

Convection involves the movement of heat when a liquid or gas is heated, expands, becomes less dense, rises, and is displaced by lower temperature and, hence, denser liquid or gas. This denser liquid or gas is then heated and the process continues. The danger r Some of this information was obtained from the Escalator Safety Guide. www.safetyinfo.ca/pdf/ttc_ escalator_safety_brochure.pdf; December 20, 2008. More escalator safety information can be obtained from the Escalator, Elevator Safety Foundation (www.eesf.org, www.safetrider.org, www.asaferide.orgwww.eesf. org, www.safetrider.org, www.asaferide.org). of heat transfer by circulating air is heightened in high-rise buildings because when a fire occurs, convection currents can carry hot gases produced by combustion upward through floor-to-floor air-conditioning systems, elevator shafts, open stairshafts, dumbwaiters, mail chutes, laundry and linen chutes, unsealed poke-throughs, r and, in some high-rises, the exterior skin of a building-thereby spreading the fire to upper floors. This phenomenon is known as stack effect (Figure 3-10 ). Stack effect, as described by Quiter, "results from the temperature differences between two areas, usually the inside and outside temperatures, which create a pressure difference that results in natural air movements within a building. In a high-rise building, this effect is increased due to the height of the building. Many high-rise buildings have a significant stack effect, capable of moving large volumes of heat and smoke through the building." 155 Radiation is the movement of heat across a space or through a material as waves. Direct contact is self-explanatory. 

Smoke is usually the principal threat to building occupants' life safety, and is the "total airborne effluent from heating or burning a material." 156 It may spread not only vertically between floors but also horizontally through a floor's corridors, open spaces, conduits and ducts, and hVAC systems. Smoke may also spread rapidly through the concealed space that extends throughout the entire floor area of many steel-framed high-rises, especially if this space is used as a return plenum for the hVAC systems. gann and nelson stated, Along with heat, the burning of every combustible material or product r produces smoke-gases and aerosols that, in sufficiently high concentration, present hazards to people in the vicinity. Products near those already burning may also contribute to the smoke as they decompose from exposure to the 156 Benedetti RP. Fire hazards of materials. Fire Protection Handbook. 20th ed. Quincy, MA: national Fire Protection Association; 2008:6-7. r "Product refers to a finished commercial item, and material refers to a single substance. Thus, for example, a chair (the product) is composed of several materials (e.g., a wooden frame, polyurethane padding, cotton batting, an aramid fire barrier, and a polyester/cotton cover fabric)" (gann Rg, Bryner nP. Combustion products and their effects on life safety. In: Fire Protection Handbook. 20th ed. Quincy, MA: national Fire Protection Association; 2008:6-11). Although not a major event, the following incident highlights the fact that many times a fire is the result of one apparently innocuous but unsafe action. As reported in "5 injured in explosion at Westwood high-rise," ibid. no other information was found regarding this incident. 165 ibid. no other information was found regarding this incident. 166 ibid. no other information was found regarding this incident.

by Louis Sahagun, on December 20, 2000, a fire and explosion occurred on the 23rd floor of a Westwood, California, residential high-rise and burned five workman. "Some workers had been spraying lacquer in an elevator vestibule that had been screened off with clear plastic drapes, humphrey [Los Angeles Fire Department spokesman Brian humphrey] said. 'Someone, either entering or leaving the area, had pulled back the curtain, allowing the volatile vapor to come into contact with a halogen work lamp,' he said. There was a flash fire, and then an explosion powerful enough to blow out a large window and shake the entire building" Asch Building Triangle Shirtwaist Company fire because locked exits contributed to its high number of fatalities and underscored the need to move occupants to a safe area during fire incidents. 161 Some of these incidents are addressed in more detail as follows.

According to the nFPA Centennial Edition, (Figure 3-11) .

The 10-story building had only one exterior fire escape and just two staircases when it should have had three. In addition, one of its two freight elevators was out of service. To prevent what some supervisors thought was an increase in pilferage, they'd further reduced the odds of escape by locking many of the exit doors.

As the fire spread unchecked, workers grabbed the standpipe hose line and tried to extinguish it, but they quickly found that the hose had rotted and the valves were frozen shut. In a panic, the workers surged towards the most familiar exits, where they were met with a wall of flame racing up the stairs. Those who could scrambled to another exit and discovered that the door was locked. When they tried to force it open, they found that the door swung inward, and the press of people jammed it shut.

Faced with a horrible death by fire, many of the workers, most of whom were young women, leapt to their deaths from the windows.

The fire, which killed 146 people, marked a turning point in the way U.S. fire protection codes address such occupancies. 173 r Incendio a video produced by the national Fire Protection Association indicated that when the airconditioning unit was installed, an electrical circuit breaker for it was not available. It had been installed in a manner that bypassed the floor's electrical control panel (NFPA Media Productions, Technical Advisor, John Sharry, 1974) . The video was based on information from a joint investigation of the national Fire Protection Association and the national Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce. 183 1980 MGM Grand Hotel, Las Vegas, Nevada November 21, 1980 The MgM grand hotel fire 189 resulted in the death of 85 persons, r injury to about 600, and more than $30 million in property damage. The fire started at approximately 7:10 a.m. in a restaurant in the Main Casino and resulted in considerable smoke spread throughout the 23-story hotel building. There were approximately 3,400 registered hotel guests. Of the 79 body locations identified, 61 were in the high-rise tower and 18 on the casino level. The most probable cause of the fire was heat caused by an electrical fault in the restaurant. 190 According to the nFPA's investigation study, the major contributing factors in this fire, and significant additional findings included the following:

Rapid fire and smoke development on the Casino level due to available fuels, building arrangement, and the lack of adequate fire barriers….

Lack of fire extinguishment in the incipient stage of the fire…. Unprotected vertical openings contributed to smoke spread to the highrise tower….

Substandard enclosure of interior stairs, smokeproof towers and exit passageways contributed to heat and smoke spread and impaired the means of egress from the high-rise tower…. 

Smoke spread through elevator hoistways r to the high-rise tower…. The performance of automatic sprinkler protection in protected areas on the Casino level was excellent and halted the spread of fire into those areas. This performance is contrasted with extensive fire development and spread in non-sprinklered areas….

There was no evidence of the execution of a fire emergency plan, and there was some delay in notifying occupants and the fire department…. 15, 1982:49-51. rr According to hall and Cote,

Led by strong industry associations and fire safety-conscious professionals at the major chains, the industry began to respond. In 1980, the year of the MGM Grand Hotel fire, sprinklers were reported present in only one of nine hotel or motel fires reported to U.S. fire departments. Detectors were reported present in just over one-fourth of reported hotel or motel fires.

An industry-sponsored study of sprinkler usage in 1988 found sprinklers present in roughly half of all properties, suggesting the percentage today is much higher still. The latest data show smoke detectors in more than 80 percent of hotel and motel fires and automatic sprinklers in 40 percent of hotel and motel fires and more than three-fourths of high-rise hotels. It is reasonable to assume that the new level of built-in fire protection had much to do with the dramatic drop in the number of hotel and motel fires since 1980. NFPA statistics from 1988 through 1997 indicated that sprinklers cut the chances of dying in a given fire by 91 percent and also reduced the average property loss per fire by 56 percent.

In terms of the deadliest fires, beginning in 1983, only two hotel or motel fires have killed 10 or more people, and each of them was on the outer fringes of the industry that formed on the exterior of the building exposed each elevator lobby on the floors above primarily by radiation. The fire progressed vertically from floor to floor to the top of the building via the building 's exterior. 192 Occupants who were trapped or who remained in their rooms and telephoned the hotel operators were told to put wet towels and sheets around the doors and wait for the fire department. Most of the smoke inhalation injuries occurred when guests opened their room doors or tried to evacuate the building. 193 Four victims were found in guest rooms.… All the rooms had open doors to the corridor or evidence that corridor doors had been opened…. There were no fatalities in rooms in which occupants kept the doors closed and waited out the fire or waited for rescue. 194 According to the nFPA's fire investigation,

[T]he most significant factors that contributed to the fire spread and subsequent fatalities, injuries and damage in the fire incident were: failure to extinguish the fire in its incipient stage and the presence of highly combustible carpeting on the walls and ceilings of the involved elevator lobbies contributing to the exterior fire spread. The resulting fire spread exposed a large number of the building's occupants on multiple floors. 195 "The person who initially called in the fire alarm to the security dispatcher was arrested, charged, and indicted for eight counts of homicide and arson. The individual was a hotel room service bus boy, and had been employed there only a few weeks. " 196 1986 Dupont Plaza Hotel & Casino, Puerto Rico December 31, 1986 , San Juan, Puerto Rico-The Dupont Plaza hotel and Casino fire [ Figure 3 -12] resulted in the death of 97 persons and over 140 injuries. The mid-afternoon fire resulted in smoke that spread to the 17-level hotel tower guest room floors.

Eighty four of the 97 fatalities were located in the casino.… Five fatalities occurred in the lobby area, three were found in a passenger elevator stopped between the basement and the first floor level, one fatality was in a guest room on the west side of the fourth floor, and two victims were found on the exterior of the building at the poolside bar … like the five occupants trapped in the lobby, the 84 victims in the casino were caught by the violent extension of the fire through the casino/lobby level. 197 Local authorities and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF) Even though significant amounts of smoke, heat, and toxic gases penetrated the high-rise tower, especially on its lower levels, there was only one fatality in the tower. It is felt that exterior balconies provided occupants trapped for hours with a safe refuge area until the fire could be suppressed or they could be assisted by rescuers. 200 1988 First Interstate Bank Building, Los Angeles, California May 4, 1988 , Los Angeles, California-The First Interstate Bank Building fire ( Figure  3 -13), at 707 Wilshire Boulevard, resulted in the tragic death of a building engineer trapped in a service elevator that he used to travel to the initial fire floor to investigate the source of automatic fire alarms, smoke inhalation suffered by many of the 40 people located inside the office building at the time of the fire, and a loss estimated by the national Fire Protection Association Fire Analysis and Research Division at $50 million. r "Severe fires in occupied office buildings during business hours are very rare, in large part due to the awareness of people in the building to unusual conditions. Occupants of high-rise office buildings are mobile, awake, and alert, and they are effective early detectors if they are adequately trained to summon help. When such alerting occurs, fires usually are in their initial phase of growth, when they can be controlled more easily. This illustrates the importance of occupant training that includes emergency fire notification procedures" (Klem TJ. May 4, 1988 , as flames shoot from the windows of the 62-story building. Fire officials described the 3½-hour blaze as the worst high-rise fire in the history of Los Angeles. Used with permission of AP IMAGES.

The death of the building engineer investigating the fire alarms was attributed to the fact that he took an elevator that directly penetrated the fire floor. To do so, he bypassed the building's fire life safety system and rode a service elevator to the fire floor. On arrival at the 12th floor, the engineer began to open the metal elevator car doors, but they buckled because of the intense heat of a fire that had intruded into the elevator vestibule. As a result, the doors could not be closed and he died crying out for help on his portable radio.

Taking an elevator that can directly access the floor where a fire or fire alarm is occurring is extremely dangerous, particularly by nonfire department personnel who lack firefighter training, are not wearing protective clothing, and are not equipped with the breathing apparatus and forcible entry tools that firefighters have when they respond to fire incidents.

June 30, 1989, Atlanta, Georgia-The Peachtree 25th Building fire resulted in the death of five occupants, including an electrician who apparently caused the fire, the injury of 20 building occupants and six firefighters, and direct property damage estimated at over $2 million. The fire began on the sixth floor of this 10-story office building at 10:30 a.m. on a Friday. "Caused by improper repairs to an electrical distribution system, this fire was an extreme, sudden, and intense fire." 203 The Atlanta City Fire Department extinguished the fire only after it had caused heavy damage to the sixth floor and to electrical rooms on the fourth and fifth floors.

According to the nFPA's investigation of the fire, factors contributing to the loss of life and severity of the fire included the following: other natural cracks and voids such as small openings between the top of interior partitions and the suspended ceiling assemblies. Second, the ceiling collapsed outside the room of fire origin, and pressurized smoke quickly filled the plenum space that extended all over the office areas. This smoke then entered the offices through the ceiling vents used to collect return air and seeped through cracks and crevices in the ceiling assembly." 207 1991 One Meridian Plaza, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania February 23, 1991, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania- The One Meridian Plaza fire resulted in the tragic death of three firefighters because of smoke inhalation and destroyed eight floors of this 38-story high-rise office building. The fire started on the 22nd floor at 8:23 p.m. It was caused by "spontaneous ignition of improperly stored linseed-soaked rags that were being used to restore and clean." 208 Eighteen and one-half hours later, the Philadelphia City Fire Department declared it under control on the 30th floor (the first floor above the fire floor that had an automatic sprinkler system). 209 According to the nFPA,

The following significant factors affected the outcome of the fire:

the lack of automatic sprinklers on the floor of fire origin; the effectiveness of automatic sprinklers on the 30th floor which, supplied by fire department pumpers, halted the fire's vertical spread; the lack of early detection of the incipient fire by automatic means; inadequate pressures for fire hoses because settings of pressure-reducing valves were too low for the specific application in this building; the improper storage and handling of hazardous materials, producing both the initial ignition and rapid early fire growth; and the early loss of the building's main electrical service and emergency power. 210

In this fire, when the first automatic fire alarm was received from the 22nd floor, a maintenance worker almost lost his life when he took an elevator to investigate the source of the alarm, leaving a security guard at the first-floor desk. "When he reached that floor and the elevator doors opened, he encountered heat and dense smoke. The man dropped to the floor, notified the security guard of the fire by portable radio, and told the guard that he could not close the elevator doors. however, he was able to tell the guard how to override the elevator controls so the guard could return the elevator to the first floor. The guard gained control of the elevator, and the maintenance man returned safely to the ground level." 211 207 ibid, p. 55. 1995 Residential Building, North York, Ontario, Canada January 6, 1995, North York, Ontario, Canada-At approximately 5 :00 a.m., a fire in a residential high-rise building led to the deaths of six residents. "All were found on upper stories in exit stairways. The fire appeared to have been ignited by the improper disposal of smoking materials and initially involved a couch in a fifth-floor apartment. The fire caused severe damage to the apartment and to an exit access corridor." 212 "After unsuccessfully attempting to extinguish the fire, the occupant in the apartment of fire origin left without closing the dwelling unit door to the corridor. Fire and smoke passed through the open door into the exit access corridor and made that corridor untenable for many fifth-floor residents. The residents who did not escape early in the incident stayed in their apartments until they were rescued by firefighters. The combination of closed doors and noncombustible walls prevented untenable conditions and deaths from occurring in other fifth-floor apartments…. In many instances, the people who remained in their apartments or moved to the balconies were exposed to less risk to their safety than those who attempted to escape." 213 Based on the nFPA's investigation of this fire, Staff members smelled what they thought was gas emanating from the buffet area of the coffee shop. Investigating its source, a staff member noticed that gas was leaking from the valve assembly of a 9-kilogram (20-pound) liquid propane gas cylinder.... The man tried to shut down the cylinder's main control valve. However, he inadvertently turned the valve the wrong way and, instead of shutting off the flow of gas, actually increased it. The vapor, expanding as it was released, quickly ignited....

A combination of combustible wood-and-vinyl-covered furnishings in the area of fire origin, the combustible decor of the coffee shop, the wooden decor of the complex, and the lack of any active fire suppression systems allowed the fire to develop rapidly....

Combustible interiors, the westerly breeze, and the lack of fire separation, compartmentation, and active suppression systems allowed the fire to spread rapidly through the lower levels of the complex. As the fire grew, the lack of pressurization in the stairwell, the lack of selfclosers on many of the upper-level doors, and the lack of firestopping in the service shafts allowed smoke to penetrate the upper levels, causing the hotel to fill with smoke....

According to the local police officers responsible for the initial investigation, the sister of one of the hotel's senior managers had fled the area of the fire before she realized that no one had begun to evacuate the resort's guests. When she re-entered the complex to do so, she was overcome by the fire. 217

This incident is addressed earlier in this chapter as an aircraft collision. Chicago Fire Department (CFD) logged in a call to 911 by a security officer at 5:02:29 p.m. and arrived at the building at 5:06:30 p.m. 220 The fire was reported as "knocked down" at 6:07:45 p.m. 221 According to the Report of the Cook County Commission Investigating the 69 West Washington Building Fire of October 17, 2003, Victims were found in the southeast stairwell of the 37-story office building after that stairwell filled with smoke. All of the fatalities were attributed to smoke inhalation. The southeast stairwell filled with smoke at approximately 5:15 P.M. to 5:20 P.M. after members of the Chicago Fire Department opened the stairwell door on the 12th floor, which was the floor where the fire was located. The opening of the door irretrievably compromised the stairwell as a safe escape route. Approximately 80 minutes after opening the door, the Fire Department searched the stairwell above the 14th floor for the first time. The Fire Department discovered the victims within a few minutes after beginning that search. 222 Based on its investigation, the Commission has concluded that the six deaths and the serious injuries that occurred in the fire would not have 

"Therefore, the fatalities (and much of the damage) could have been avoided by the presence of sprinklers. What was learned from this fire? Perhaps only that the knowledge that is already known should be applied. Sprinklers greatly increase the safety of buildings, and locked stairwells, even from the stair side, create a hazard." 224

According to the NFPA Fire Journal, Sometime before midnight on October 15, 2004, a fire began on the 34th floor of the East Tower of the Parque Central, a 56-story government [reinforced concrete] office building in Caracas, Venezuela, and South America's tallest high-rise. Fortunately, the building was unoccupied at the time, except for a handful of security personnel who evacuated safely.

Despite the fact that a sprinkler system had been installed in the Parque Central the fire did more than U.S. $250 million in damage, burning the structure's contents from the 34th floor to the 50th. Why? Because, as previous inspections revealed, the sprinkler system had not been properly tested or maintained, thus it wasn't in a working condition; the building designers said local fire alarm panels weren't connected to a building-wide panel; and the standpipe system was inoperable at the time of the fire…. 225 Past history and performance shows that this fire could probably have been controlled quickly by a standard wet-pipe sprinkler system and that the fire department's chances of controlling the fire at, or a few floors above, the floor of fire origin would have increased if the standpipe system had been working. This fire highlights the importance of periodic inspection, testing, and maintenance of fire protection systems, as well as the importance of strictly following manufacturers ' installation instructions. 226 2005 Windsor Building, Madrid, Spain "On the night of February 12, 2005, a fire started in the Windsor building [Edificio Windsor] in Madrid, Spain, a 32-story tower framed in steel-reinforced concrete. At its peak, the fire, which burned for almost a day, completely engulfed the upper ten stories of the building. More than 100 firefighters battled to prevent the uncontrollable blaze from spreading to other buildings." 227 223 ibid., p. 2. The report contains detailed conclusions and recommendations, "For more information on this report or to received the full version of the report and supporting documentation, contact the Fire Commission attorney" (Cook County Info Center. www.co.cook.il.us/fire_reportreport.htm; March 26, 2008 "The fire apparently caused the collapse of the top floor spans surrounding the still-standing core structure of the ten uppermost floors." 228 According to Arup, r The long delay rr between detection and fire brigade rrr intervention played an important role in allowing the unsprinklered fire to grow out of control.

In addition the rapid spread of the fire above the 21st Floor appears to be due to failure of the compartmentation measures between the facade detail and the floor which is intended to prevent vertical fire spread. Fire safety design in many countries relies heavily on sprinkler protection to prevent fire growth and thereby limit possibilities for fire spread via the facade. The lack of sprinklers, along with the failure of compartmentation, appears to be an important factor in this case.

Although there is a requirement to fire stop rrrr the gap between the slab edge and the inside of the curtain wall, most codes do not address the tie-back connection of the curtain wall to the structure. Therefore a light facade structural element can heat up quickly and the resulting expansion can produce an outward bulging away from the slab edge, which can create internal flues if it happens before the facade glazing breaks. In other words by not considering the thermo-mechanical response of the system, there are no provisions to prevent such damage in Building Codes worldwide.

An added complication in the case of Edificio Windsor was that the curtain wall facade had recently been replaced and it appears that a new support structure had been fixed onto the outside of the original mullion and transom arrangement. This means that there would have been a double-layered gap that needed to be fire stopped, complicating this detail still further…. 229 Lessons to be learned Procedures to ensure early call out to the Fire Brigade Provisions for speedy access to the fire floor via protected fire fighting lifts and use of wet risers 228 The Windsor Building Fire. http://911research.wtc7.net/wtc/analysis/compare/windsor.html; October 11, 2008. r As stated on its website Arup is "a global firm of designers, engineers, planners and business consultants." The article by Arup states that "The following is an Arup view based upon what is known about the fire event in conjunction with our structural fire design and analysis experience. It has been prepared based upon information in the public domain only and will be updated as further information becomes available" (Madrid Windsor fire: the Arup view. www.arup.com/fire/feature.cfm?pageid6150; October 11, 2008). 

programme, especially in an occupied building Structural fire full frame analysis, rather than single element small-scale fire tests, as a basis for design. 230

Fire alarms are significant events in high-rise buildings. A fire alarm is "a signal initiated by a fire alarm-initiating device such as a manual fire alarm box, automatic fire detector, waterflow switch, or other device in which activation is indicative of the presence of a fire or fire signature." 231 As Bryan explained, "The primary purpose of a fire detection system is to respond to a fire, and to transform this response into a visual-audible signal which should alert the building's occupants and the fire department that a fire has been initiated. The fire detection system is intended to respond to the initial signs, signals, or stimuli which indicates that a fire has begun." 232 (See the section titled "Manual Fire Alarm Stations" in Chapter 6 for the sequence of events caused by fire alarms in modern high-rise buildings.) Whenever a fire or a fire alarm occurs, all building occupants need to be alerted to the existence (or possible existence) of fire and to initiate emergency procedures. All occupants should be evacuated in a prompt, safe, and orderly fashion according to procedures established in the building emergency management plan.

"Some of the life-safety requirements [for a high-rise structure] actually pose unique security difficulties. The code provision which insists upon unimpeded exit during a building emergency means that if such an emergency can be faked, egress may be possible under little or no surveillance. Even if the emergency is genuine, it may occur at a time when the security forces are unprepared for the joint demands of emergency response and heightened security attention." 233 For example, in a high-rise office building, an individual could set off a fire alarm by activating a manual fire alarm station. This should result in the evacuation of occupants from that floor, and floors above and below the incident (the actual number of floors will depend on the emergency plan for the building concerned). After all occupants have left, the person could then quickly roam unchallenged through offices and steal items (including possibly from handbags and billfolds in coats left behind in the hurry to evacuate). The thief could then enter a stairwell, descend to the ground level, and freely walk out of the building.

Two individuals could similarly stage such an event to gain unauthorized entry to a floor that is normally secured (i.e., the elevators only proceed to the floor if authorized access cards are used). One person could activate a manual fire alarm station on one floor, thereby causing the stairwell doors to unlock automatically (if this feature is provided) throughout the building. An accomplice waiting in a stairwell on the targeted floor could then proceed into the tenant space (sometimes stairwells lead directly into tenant areas rather than into common corridors) and gain access to commit a crime. Afterward, the thief could then board a passenger elevator-because during fire alarm situations in many modern high-rise buildings, the elevators remain in service unless a smoke detector in the elevator lobby, elevator shaft, or elevator machine room has been activated r or the elevators have been manually recalled from the Fire Command Center-or reenter the stairwell and proceed down to the ground level to exit the building. Some buildings require security staff to manually recall all elevators serving floors in alarm to prevent occupants from using them during fire and fire alarm situations. This practice has the added advantage of securing the floor from unauthorized access using elevators.

The following measures can be considered to maintain security during a fire or fire alarm:

1. If stairwells lead directly into tenant areas, consider redesigning the space to remove this security hazard. 2. Train building occupants to always take personal valuables with them during evacuation and, if such actions do not place them in danger, to quickly secure other valuable assets. 3. Position video cameras with alarm-activated recording capability in tenant highrisk areas (particularly where valuables such as cash and high-value assets are located) and in building stairwells close to the ground-level exits to at least obtain a record of an incident.

A hazardous material is "a substance (solid, liquid, or gas) capable of creating harm to people, property, and the environment." 234 Such a substance may be corrosive, explosive, flammable, irritating, oxidizing, poisonous, radioactive, or toxic in effect. hazardous materials may be chemical, biological, or nuclear in nature.

In the high-rise setting, hazardous materials may be in a building for legitimate operational purposes or be maliciously introduced into the building in order to harm people.

hazardous materials in a high-rise building may include a variety of substances that will vary according to the type of occupancy. Such materials may include diesel fuel for the building's emergency generator, cleaning materials for use by janitorial staff, construction materials, and chemicals such as chlorine for swimming pools and hot tubs. The types of hazardous materials outside a high-rise building may include PCBs (as already mentioned), radioactive substances in a nearby nuclear facility, potentially dangerous materials transported along an adjacent or under-building railway line or roadway, or flammable and potentially harmful chemicals contained in a nearby chemical manufacturing plant or oil refinery.

As previously stated, "the most critical threats in high-rise structures include fire, explosion, and contamination of life-support systems such as air and potable water supplies. These threats can be actuated accidentally or intentionally, and because they propagate rapidly, they can quickly develop to catastrophic le9els." 239 Therefore, to minimize or eliminate the hazards to people, property or the environment, every hazardous material incident should be handled by building emergency staff according to standard operating procedures (described later in the sample Building Emergency Procedures Manual in Chapter 9).

The threat of chemical and biological weapons (CBW) has existed for some time in the modern world. however, since the mid-1990s, the potential for the use of CBW against civilians has dramatically increased. "As early as 1995, European intelligence officials learned that chemical and biological warfare instructions disseminated from Al Qaeda sources in Pakistan and Afghanistan were circulating among Islamic terrorist cells. That year, Belgium police seized what turned out to be an 8,000-page guerilla manual for jihad. r One chapter, titled 'how to Kill,' described how to prepare 'toxins, toxic gas and toxic drugs. '" 240 According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, r "The literal meaning of Jihad is struggle or effort, and it means much more than holy war. Muslims use the word Jihad to describe three different kinds of struggle:  A believer's internal struggle to live out the Muslim faith as well as possible  The struggle to build a good Muslim society  holy war: the struggle to defend Islam, with force if necessary Many modern writers claim that the main meaning of Jihad is the internal spiritual struggle, and this is accepted by many Muslims.

however there are so many references to Jihad as a military struggle in Islamic writings that it is incorrect to claim that the interpretation of Jihad as holy war is wrong" (BBC Religion and Ethics-Islam. October 2, 2002. www.bbc.co.uk The potential for deliberate contamination of buildings with toxic chemical substances, such as sarin gas or hydrogen cyanide, and dangerous biological material, such as anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) and ricin, is a concern, particularly due to several highprofile incidents involving sarin gas and anthrax.

March 1995, Tokyo, Japan-A Japanese cult terrorist group deliberately released sarin gas on a Tokyo subway. It killed 13 people and caused 5,000 more to seek medical attention. "First responders had difficulty in identifying the odorless, colorless chemical and in knowing how to simultaneously protect themselves, handle mass casualties and stop the toxin from spreading in the subway system. Some of the deaths included subway maintenance workers who rushed to the scene and unknowingly touched, breathed in and further agitated the lethal nerve agent." 242 September 2001, East Coast United States-Five anthrax-contaminated letters were mailed to two Democratic senators and news media (CBS, nBC, and the new york Post). These letters were received soon after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the new york World Trade Center and the Pentagon and led to the deaths of five people and 17 others being infected. According to Barbara Rosenberg, a molecular biologist, "The anthrax discovered in the letters mailed to the two U.S. senators was so refined that it contained 1 trillion spores per gram, characteristic of the 'weaponized' anthrax made by U.S. defense labs." 243 On July 29, 2008, the suspected perpetrator of these attacks, U.S. government microbiologist Bruce Ivins, died of an apparent suicide while under investigation for these crimes. 244 The difference between a chemical and biological attack is that "a biological [and radiological] agent will almost never cause immediate symptoms; a chemical agent almost always will." 245 "nuclear Terrorism denotes the use, or threat of the use, of nuclear or radiological weapons in acts of terrorism, including attacks against facilities where radioactive materials are present. In legal terms, nuclear terrorism is an offense committed if a person unlawfully and intentionally 'uses in any way radioactive material … with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury,' according to international conventions." 246 The Institute of Real Estate Management states,

The immediate effects of a nuclear attack are unmistakable: a flash of intense light followed by a blast of heat and radiation. Likewise, the secondary effect is [well] known … radioactive fallout. The degree of immediate and secondary effects will depend on the size and type of weapon, the terrain (hilly versus flat), the height of the explosion (e.g., near or far from the ground), the distance from the explosion, and weather conditions. People near the explosion most likely would be killed or seriously injured by the initial blast, heat, or radiation. Those several miles away from the explosion would be endangered by the initial blast, heat, and subsequent fires. Others probably would survive but would be affected by radioactive fallout. It is for these people that an emergency plan must be provided.

The only precaution that a property manager can take to prevent loss due to a nuclear attack is to provide an emergency shelter for occupants, employees, and others at the property at the time of such an attack. Such a shelter could be a special building, underground bunker, or any space with walls and roof thick enough to absorb radioactive waves given off by fallout. 247 "There is also growing concern about so-called dirty bombs, [or a radiological dispersal device (RDD) 248 ] laced with radioactive material from a hospital, nuclear plant or manufacturing facility, for instance, that can contaminate the environment." 249 A dirty bomb uses conventional explosives to spread radioactive material.

Depending on the type and quantity of radioactive material used in a device and variables such as weather conditions and the size of particles released, the impact of an RDD attack could vary greatly. 250 However, experts generally agree that an RDD is most appropriately characterized as a weapon of mass disruption, rather than mass destruction. A typical attack would result in few, if any, immediate casualties from radiation exposure, but the ensuing contamination would likely prompt widespread panic, causing significant economic and psychosocial damage. 251 Long-term economic consequences, moreover, could be very significant if affected areas included major commercial or industrial sites and could not be readily restored to public use. 252

Such a weapon could be hand-carried into a building concealed in a suitcase.

Kidnapping is "the forcible abduction or stealing and carrying away of a person…. A person is guilty of kidnapping if he unlawfully removes another from his place of residence or business, or a substantial distance from the vicinity where he is found, or if he unlawfully confines another for a substantial period in a place of isolation, with any of the following purposes: (a) to hold for ransom or reward, or as a shield or hostage; or (b) to facilitate commission of any felony or flight thereafter; or (c) to inflict bodily injury on or to terrorize the victim or another; or (d) to interfere with the performance of any governmental or political function." 253 high-rise buildings may be the site of kidnappings of business executives, wealthy citizens, children involved in custody battles, political hostages, diplomats, politicians, and other individuals.

A hostage is "an innocent person held captive by one who threatens to kill or harm him if his demands are not met." 254 high-rise buildings have been the site of hostage-taking situations, examples of which follow:

1982, First Interstate Bank Building, Los Angeles, California-A man entered this 62story high-rise office building, accosted the building's chief engineer in the main lobby, and demanded to be taken to the roof. On reaching it, he then tried to obtain publicity for a cause he was promoting-in this case, that smoking is bad for your health. Building management immediately called the police department, and after a tense standoff, the individual eventually surrendered without anyone being injured. The gunman held as many as 18 people hostage in the building's main lobby, and more than 200 people were trapped in their offices. After seven hours, the gunman shot himself. All hostages were freed unharmed. Reportedly, the gunman was protesting the advertising practices of a major electronics firm that was previously headquartered in the high-rise. 255 December 8, 2006, Citigroup Center, Chicago, Illinois-"Joe Jackson forced a security guard at gunpoint to take him up to the 38th floor offices of Wood, Phillips, Katz, Clark & Mortimer, which specialized in intellectual property and patents. he carried a revolver, knife and hammer in a large manila envelope and chained the office doors behind him, the police said.

"Jackson, 59, told the police before he was shot that he had been cheated over a toilet he had invented for use in trucks, Superintendent Phil Cline of the Police Department said Saturday…. The gunman who fatally shot three people in a law firm's high-rise office before he was killed by police felt cheated over an invention." 256 "The building was locked down during the seige. Occupants of the other offices were instructed to lock themselves into their offices and not to venture out into the halls. The lockdown took place for 45 minutes. All Metra Train services [a train station is located at the building] were shut down until 5:00 pm, while the crime scene was considered active." 257

Events such as labor disputes, demonstrations, and civil disorder can have a significant impact on the day-to-day operation of a high-rise building. Their effects will be influenced by the nature of the incident, the number of persons participating in it, the conduct of the participants, the response of building management and involved outside agencies, and the location of the incident in relation to the building.

Labor disputes may be peaceful affairs where orderly groups of persons assemble outside the building; quietly display placards, signs, and banners to passing motorists; pass out leaflets explaining their cause; and present petitions to the parties involved. They can, however, be violent events, where large groups of angry persons protesting a labor issue pertaining to the building, or one of its tenants, throw rocks and various other objects in an attempt to forcibly enter the building or surround the building to prevent occupants and visitors from entering or leaving.

A demonstration is a gathering of people for the purposes of publicly displaying their attitude toward a particular cause, issue, or other matter. Such an activity, if carried out 255 The Associated Press. Dutchman in product dispute takes hostages, kills himself. Los Angeles Times. March 12, 2002:A4. 256 The Associated Press. Police: Ill. gunman felt cheated over an invention. December 9, 2006. www. msnbc.msn.com/id/16114776/#storyContinued; May 29, 2008. peacefully on public property, is permissible. however, the activity must not obstruct, block, or in any way interfere with the ingress to and egress from private property such as a high-rise building. As with a labor dispute, a demonstration may vary from a peaceful affair to a violent one.

Civil disorder is "any public disturbance involving acts of violence by assemblages of three or more persons, which causes an immediate danger of or results in damage or injury to the property or person of any other individual." 258 Sometimes civil disorder is known as a civil disturbance. A riot is "a form of civil disorder characterized by disorganized groups lashing out in a sudden and intense rash of violence, vandalism or other crime. While individuals may attempt to lead or control a riot, riots are typically chaotic and exhibit herd behavior.... Riots typically involve vandalism and the destruction of private and public property. The specific property to be targeted varies depending on the cause of the riot and the inclinations of those involved. Targets can include shops, cars, restaurants, state-owned institutions, and religious buildings." 259

Medical emergencies that can occur in high-rise buildings range from people choking to drug overdoses, from respiratory emergencies to seizures, from food poisoning to dental emergencies, and from serious injury to suicide. Because building populations are made up of people often working under pressure and stress, there is always the possibility of heart attacks or strokes.

natural disasters may be earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes, heat waves, storms (non cyclone, tornadoes, and tropical cyclones [cyclones, hurricanes, and typhoons]), and floods and landslides.

The foundations of the earth shake. The earth is broken asunder, The earth is split through, The earth is shaken violently. Earthquake is "a term used to describe both sudden slip on a fault, and the resulting ground shaking and radiated seismic energy caused by the slip, or by volcanic or magmatic 258 Publisher's Editorial Staff. Black's Law Dictionary. 6th ed. (nolan JR, nolan-haley JM, co-authors). St. Paul, Mn: West Publishing; 1990:245. activity, or other sudden stress changes in the earth." 261 Earthquakes range from an almost indiscernible tremble of the ground to the violent shaking of a major quake. This shaking is sometimes side-to-side and other times up-and-down; it can last for a few seconds or for several minutes.

When earthquakes occur, the strength and duration of the shaking largely determines the potential for damage. Some earthquakes are preceded by smaller quakes called foreshocks, some occur suddenly with no forewarning, some occur in groups of approximately the same magnitude (called swarms or clusters), and some are followed by smaller quakes called aftershocks.

According August 15, 1950 . Bull Seismol Soc Am. 1955 45(2) :93-113. In 1931, there were about 350 stations operating in the world; today, there are more that 4,000 stations and the data now comes in rapidly from these stations by telex, computer and satellite. This increase in the number of stations and the more timely receipt of data has allowed us and other seismological centers to locate many small earthquakes which were undetected in earlier years, and we are able to locate earthquakes more rapidly.

The NEIC now locates about 12,000 to 14,000 earthquakes each year or approximately 35 per day. Also, because of the improvements in communications and the increased interest in natural disasters, the public now learns about more earthquakes. According to long-term records (since about 1900) , we expect about 18 major earthquakes (7.0-7.9 ) and one great earthquake (8.0 or above) in any given year. However, let's take a look at what has happened in the past 32 years, from 1969 32 years, from through 2001 32 years, from , so far. Our records show that 1992 32 years, from , and 1995 32 years, from -1997 were the only years that we have reached or exceeded the long-term average number of major earthquakes since 1971 . In 1970 and in 1971 A temporal increase in earthquake activity does not mean that a large earthquake is about to happen. Similarly, quiescence, or the lack of seismicity, does not mean a large earthquake is going to happen. A temporary increase or decrease in the seismicity rate is usually just part of the natural variation in the seismicity. There is no way for us to know whether or not this time it will lead to a larger earthquake. Swarms of small events, especially in geothermal areas, are common, and moderate-large magnitude earthquakes will typically have an aftershock sequence that follows. All that is normal and expected earthquake activity. 270 In many parts of the world, modern high-rise buildings in areas subject to earthquake activity are constructed in accordance with strict building codes. Older buildings erected before seismic design considerations may need structural retrofits to bring them up to code.

The effect of earthquakes on a high-rise building depends on factors such as the building's location in relation to the quake's epicenter, type of soil or rock beneath the structure, magnitude of the quake, duration of the shaking, type of motion the structure is subjected to, and the building's design and construction. The shaking of an earthquake may cause no structural damage, or it may cause damage so severe that the building collapses. Modern high-rise buildings can be seismically designed to withstand certain magnitude earthquakes. "The idea of earthquake-proof construction is unrealistic, unless exceptionally expensive measures are taken. Any building will collapse if the ground under it shakes hard enough or becomes permanently deformed. But structures can be designed and constructed to incorporate a high degree of earthquake resistance." 271 As Dames and Moore/URS Corporation explained, "To resist seismic forces, steel buildings are either constructed with braced frames (such as X-bracing) or moment frames (rigid beam-column assembly r )." 272 Many structures, particularly seismically designed steel-framed buildings, have been constructed to flex and move without breaking. Lower floors may shake more rapidly, but movement of the building from side to side is greatest on uppermost floors. "To dissipate the force of the ground shaking through a tall structure, the building is designed to sway rr as a unit in a side-to-side motion." 273

Case Study: 1994 , Northridge Earthquake January 17, 1994 .31 a.m. an earthquake of magnitude 6.7 rocked the heavily populated San Fernando Valley. It severely impaired the public transportation network and residential community; 72 people were killed and 11,846 people were treated for earthquake-related injuries. Steel moment frames "consist of beams and columns joined by a combination of welding and bolting" (Property Risk. "What are steel moment frames?" www.propertyrisk.com/refcentr/steel-side.htm; november 2, 2008). 272 Dames & Moore/ URS Corporation, "how buildings fared," The Northridge Earthquake, January 17, 1994 (Dames and Moore: Los Angeles; 1994:21) . rr Most high-rise buildings are designed to sway in a gentle wind but not so much that occupants on upper floors experience motion sickness. The object is to "make [the building] stiff enough that people wouldn't get sick, but not so rigid that it could snap if it got too big a load…. Often big buildings are designed to be stiff enough that the period to go one way and back the other way is 15 to 20 seconds, or even 30 seconds. That keeps people from getting sick." (Eagar, Dr., Thomas, commenting on the World Trade Center collapse in "Why the towers fell." April 30, 2002 [nOVA Online. www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/wtc/collapse.html; 2, 3; January 1, 2009] were attributed to heart attacks." 274 Thousands were left homeless in the wake of this disaster that had an insured loss of $12,500,000,000. 275 The January 17, 1994, northridge earthquake raised some serious safety concerns about the degree of earthquake resistance that high-rise buildings, in particular steel moment frame structures, afford. Unlike braced frames, these moment frames feature larger beams and columns, with additional welding or bolting of the connections. Before this earthquake, this structural system was thought to be among the safest seismically. As John hall, an associate professor of civil engineering at the California Institute of Technology, pointed out, During the 1994 Northridge earthquake, many modern steel buildings suffered unexpected fractures in welded beam-to-column connections. Although none of these buildings collapsed, fractured connections are a serious matter since they reduce the lateral strength of the structure, and, thereby, increase the risk of collapse. The problem is apparently widespread and, at this point, one must assume that any welded steel moment-frame is susceptible to this type of connection failure. 276

The following comments regarding this situation were written shortly after the quake in The Northridge Earthquake, January 17, 1994 After this disaster, the city of Los Angeles by ordinance required that owners of steel moment frame buildings inspect for damage, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) subsequently prepared guidelines to address this potential hazard.

Even though issues about weld cracks in steel-framed construction were the most startling results of the quake, the failures of concrete-framed parking structures were among the most dramatic (Figure 3-14) . As the Engineering News Record reported, "In response to such collapses, federal officials anticipate a new treatment of parking structures in the national Earthquake hazard Reduction Program's 1997 provisions, to serve as a basis for model codes." 278 During a severe earthquake, occupants and building contents will be shaken. Items not properly secured may fall; desks and furniture may slide; filing cabinets and bookcases may topple; ceiling tiles may be dislodged; windows may crack or shatter; sprinkler heads may shear off and result in water discharge; seismic devices may cause building elevators to go to the nearest floor in the direction of travel, stop, automatically open elevator car doors, and then cease operation; automatic fire detection and reporting equipment may produce multiple false alarms; electrical power may be disrupted; lights may go off; the telephone system may be damaged or, shortly after the shaking has stopped, be deluged with calls. Falling objects will often cause injuries.

Soil liquefaction, landslides, and fires are common results of major earthquakes. Liquefaction occurs in areas where loose soils with a high water table are present. "As the earthquake causes water to percolate up through the loose soil, it creates quicksand. heavy objects such as buildings and other structures may sink or tilt into the liquefied soil." 279 Fires can result from fuel spillage, rupturing of gas lines, and the many ignition 278 Engineering News Record. new york: Mcgraw-hill, Inc.; January 16, 1995:28-33 . sources available in urban areas. If the earthquake is a major one, public fire fighting capabilities will be severely strained because of extraordinary demands for service, difficulties in transporting equipment along damaged or blocked roadways and freeways, and possible disruption of the public water supply.

A tsunami is "a large wave caused by earthquakes, submarine landslides, and, infrequently, by eruptions of island volcanoes. During a major earthquake, an enormous amount of water can be set in motion as the seafloor moves up and down. The result is a series of potentially destructive waves that can move at more than 500 miles [805 kilometers] per hour." 280 "Tsunamis travel at high speed through deep water (350 [563 kilometers] to 500 miles [805 kilometers] per hour) with modest wave heights (inches or feet) that have wavelengths that are hundreds of kilometers long. These open ocean tsunamis are imperceptible to humans, but can be detected by water pressure sensors on the ocean floor. When it reaches shallower coastal waters, the tsunami slows down, causing its wave height to build rapidly. Tsunamis are common in the Pacific Ocean and less frequent in the Indian and Atlantic Oceans." 281 (See Table 3 -5 for a listing of major tsunamis that have occurred in the world.) Japan has a history of tsunamis following major earthquakes; its government has developed a tsunami early warning system similar to the U.S. Emergency Broadcast System, which broadcasts warnings over television and radio networks. "The Tsunami Warning System (TWS) in the Pacific, comprised of 26 participating international Member States, has the functions of monitoring seismological and tidal stations throughout the Pacific Basin to evaluate potentially tsunamigenic earthquakes and disseminating tsunami warning information. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) is the operational center of the Pacific TWS. Located near honolulu, hawaii, PTWC provides tsunami warning information to national authorities in the Pacific Basin." 300

According to CBC news Online, A volcano is a geological formation, usually a conical mountain, that forms when molten rock, called magma, flows up from the interior of the Earth to the surface. Magma finds its way upwards along fissures or cracks in the planet's crust and bursts out onto the surface, resulting in a volcano.

The Earth's crust is composed of 15 plates that float on the molten layer beneath them. Most volcanoes line the boundaries of these plates. One of these boundaries is referred to as "the circle of fire" and extends from the west coast of the Americas to the east coast of Asia. Seventy-five per cent of the world's active volcanoes are found along this "circle of fire."

A volcano erupts in one of two ways: either the magma is forced up to the surface or the rising magma heats water trapped within the surface, causing an explosion of steam. In either case, the eruption can eject rocks, volcanic ash, cinders and hot gases into the air. The rapidly cooling lava can form volcanic glass. 301 See Table 3 -6 for a listing of the world's deadliest volcanoes. "The best warning of a volcanic eruption is one that specifies when and where an eruption is most likely to occur and what type and size eruption should be expected. 299 Such accurate predictions are sometimes possible but still rare in volcanology. The most accurate warnings are those in which scientists indicate an eruption is probably only hours to days away based on significant changes in a volcano's earthquake activity, ground deformation, and gas emissions. Experience from around the world has shown that most eruptions are preceded by such changes over a period of days to weeks." 302

A heat wave is "a period of abnormally and uncomfortably hot and usually humid weather. To be a heat wave such a period should last at least one day, but conventionally it lasts from several days to several weeks." 303 Deadly heat waves have struck areas such as Europe in 2003 r and India in 1998 India in , 2002 India in , and 2003 304 Shanghai in 1998 and 305 Chicago in 1995; 306 Japan in 1994; and Athens in 1987. 307 "In Australia during the 20th century, heatwaves caused If a building is not air conditioned, a heat wave can be a threat to the life safety of its occupants. In a widespread heat wave impacting a city or region, there will greater pressure on public utilities to meet increased demands for electrical power to operate cooling fans and air conditioners. As a result, electrical power outages may occur at buildings, and as a consequence hVAC systems will shut down.

A storm is "any disturbed state of the atmosphere, especially as affecting the earth's surface, implying inclement and possibly destructive weather…. Storms range in scale from tornadoes and thunderstorms, through tropical cyclones, to widespread extratropical cyclones … rainstorms, windstorms, hailstorms, snowstorms, etc. notable special cases are blizzards, ice storms, sandstorms, and duststorms." 309 Noncylone noncyclone storms may include torrential rains, windstorms, hailstorms, snowstorms, blizzards, ice storms, sandstorms, and dust storms.

A tornado is defined by the Glossary of Meteorology as "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud." r310 "Tornadoes are generally spawned by thunderstorms, though they have been known to occur without the presence of lightning. The stronger tornadoes attain an awe-inspiring intensity, with wind speeds that exceed 200 mph [322 kilometers per hour] and in extreme cases may approach 300 mph [483 kilometers per hour]…. Tornadoes can come one at a time, or in clusters, and they can vary greatly in length, width, direction of travel, and speed. They can leave a path 50 yards [46 meters] wide or over a mile [1.61 kilometers] "Tornadoes occur on all continents r but are most common in the United States, where the average number of reported tornadoes is roughly 1000 per year, with the majority of them on the central plains and in the southeastern states (see Tornado Alley rr ). They can occur throughout the year at any time of the day. In the central plains of the United States they are most frequent in spring during the late afternoon." 313 In the United States, if a threat of tornadoes is reported, tornado watch or tornado warning advisories may be issued by the national Weather Service (nWS). A tornado watch means that tornadoes are possible; a tornado warning means that tornadoes actually have been sighted in the area.

A tropical cyclone is "the general term for a cyclone that originates over the tropical oceans. This term encompasses tropical depressions, tropical storms, hurricanes, and typhoons." 314 "A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a low pressure center and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and flooding rain." 315 A cyclone is "an atmospheric cyclonic circulation, a closed circulation. A cyclone's direction of rotation (counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere) is opposite to that of an anticyclone. While modern meteorology restricts the use of the term cyclone to the so-called cyclonic-scale circulations, it is popularly still applied to the more or less violent, small-scale circulations such as tornadoes, waterspouts, dust devils, etc. (which may in fact exhibit anticyclonic rotation), and even, very loosely, to any strong wind." 316 "hurricanes rrr and typhoons are large and sometimes intensely violent storm systems. In meteorological terms, they are tropical cyclones that have maximum sustained r Perkins stated that one exception is Antarctica. Perkins, Sid (2002-05-11 winds of at least 120 km/h (75 mph). Atlantic and eastern Pacific storms are called hurricanes, from the West Indian huracan ("big wind"), whereas western Pacific storms are called typhoons, from the Chinese taifun, "great wind." 317 In addition to high winds, heavy rains characterize tropical cyclones. Although the winds can cause serious damage, including broken building windows, the majority of damage is a result of flooding during and after the tropical cyclone.

Torrential rain, melting snow, a tsunami, or a hurricane may produce too much water for land, rivers, and flood control channels to handle and therefore results in serious flooding that will impact an entire area, including high-rise buildings. Floods also can occur as a result of a public water main pipe break or a reservoir failing.

Subterranean parking garages located beneath high-rise buildings can become flooded with water. This can result in damage to vehicles and substantial damage to elevator systems because of water cascading into elevator shafts. Building operations can be paralyzed for days as a result of the cleanup of impacted areas and repair of damaged equipment. Also, a severe landslide 318 could result in the collapse of a building. r

A disease is "an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly." 319 An infectious disease-also called a contractible or a communicable diseaseis caused by pathogenic microbial agents. 320 "Transmission of an infectious disease may occur through one or more of diverse pathways including physical contact with infected individuals. These infecting agents may also be transmitted through liquids, food, body fluids, contaminated objects, airborne inhalation, or through vector-borne r spread." 321 Some diseases such as influenza, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and tuberculosis are infectious and contractible. These diseases are an ever-increasing threat to the public as outbreaks result in public health emergencies.

"Influenza (the flu) is a contagious respiratory infection caused by influenza viruses. It can cause mild to severe illness, and at times can lead to death." 322 "An influenza pandemic rr is an epidemic of an influenza virus that spreads on a worldwide scale and infects a large proportion of the human population." 323 "Influenza pandemics occur when a new strain of the influenza virus is transmitted to humans from another animal species. Species that are thought to be important in the emergence of new human strains are pigs, chickens and ducks. These novel strains are unaffected by any immunity people may have to older strains of human influenza and can therefore spread extremely rapidly and infect very large numbers of people." 324 Three influenza viruses within the 20th century have produced major outbreaks: "Pandemics become possible when the population has had no opportunity to build up immunity and no vaccine is available. In the case of the so-called Bird Flu or Avian Flu-the h5n1 flu virus-there is no evidence at this point that the strain has mutated to be easily transmitted from human to human. Most of the people who have died from r A vector-borne disease is "one in which the pathogenic microorganism is transmitted from an infected individual to another individual by an arthropod or other agent, sometimes with other animals serving as intermediary hosts" (Changes in the Incidence of Vector-borne Diseases Attributable to Climate Change. www.ciesin.columbia.edu/Tg/hh/veclev2.html; november 2, 2008). 321 h5n1 in Asia have had very close contact with birds carrying it. however, the CDC r claims that h5n1 is a rapidly mutating virus, and if it were to begin passing from human to human, a pandemic could ensue." 326 Because of the extended period needed to develop a vaccine for an influenza pandemic the number of deaths can be extremely high.

"Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) is a respiratory disease in humans which is caused by the SARS corona virus (SARS-CoV)." 327 In november 2002, SARS originated in southern China and then spread to hong Kong. Visitors in a hong Kong hotel were then infected and traveled to Canada, Singapore, Taiwan, and Vietnam. The disease then spread to those countries. 328 Between november 2002 and July 2003, there were 8,096 known cases and 774 deaths worldwide. 329 "Symptoms of SARS can be similar to those of other viral infections. The first symptoms begin 2-7 days after exposure and may include the following: fever (temperature of more than 100.4°F), headache, fatigue (tiredness), muscle aches and pain, malaise (a feeling of general discomfort), decreased appetite, and diarrhea. Respiratory symptoms develop 3 or more days after exposure. Respiratory symptoms include the following: dry cough, shortness of breath, runny nose and sore throat (uncommon). By day 7-10 of the illness, almost all patients with laboratory evidence of SARS infection had pneumonia that could be detected on x-ray films." 330 Diagnosis can be through a combination of observation, blood tests, and chest X-rays.

Tuberculosis, or "consumption" as it was previously known, is an infectious disease that causes lumplike lesions to form in the lungs. Inside the lesions there are degenerating macrophages and tuberculosis bacteria, which when ruptured can infect the lung and the entire body. 331 "Tuberculosis usually attacks the lungs (as pulmonary TB) but can also affect the central nervous system, the lymphatic system, the circulatory system, the genitourinary system, the gastrointestinal system, bones, joints, and even the skin…. The typical symptoms of tuberculosis are a chronic cough with blood-tinged sputum, fever, night sweats and weight loss…. Tuberculosis is spread through the air, when people who have the disease sneeze, cough, or spit." 332 Some people infected with tuberculosis may not be aware of it because they do not feel any symptoms or experience any discomfort. This is called latent r The CDC is the U.S. Department of health and human Services' Centers for Disease Control. 326 Lang RF. Pandemic flu issues and your response. Security Technology & Design. January 2007: 58. 327 TB disease. "Transmission [of TB] can only occur from people with active-not latent-TB." 333 "Treatment for TB uses antibiotics to kill the bacteria." 334 "A rising number of people in the developed world are contracting tuberculosis because their immune systems are compromised by immunosuppressive drugs, substance abuse, or AIDS." 335 The problem with contractible diseases such as pandemic influenza, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and tuberculosis is that any building user, including visitors, could be infected, and before symptoms develop they could infect many other building occupants with the disease.

Failure of electrical power to a building has a serious impact on its operations, including computer memory loss and equipment damage, particularly if the failure occurs when the building is fully occupied. A power failure may be a brownout (a partial reduction in service) or a total blackout.

Power failure can be caused by man-made or natural events. Man-made causes may include vehicle drivers who collide with utility poles or power transformers, human error in operating equipment within the building or outside of it (such as at the utility company supplying the power), or malicious tampering. natural events include storms, floods, and earthquakes.

Because of the large numbers of tenants and visitors using high-rise buildings, slip-and-falls (whether a trip only, a slip only, a fall only, a trip-and-fall, a slip-and-fall, or a slip-tripand-fall) do occur. It is most important that these incidents are properly handled according to established procedures, particularly as these types of events frequently lead to claims for compensation from the building owner, and they sometimes lead to litigation.

Stalking Although the legal definition of stalking varies from country to country and from state to state, a general definition is a pattern of repeated, unwanted attention, harassment, and contact. It is a course of conduct that can include the following: "Stalking is a distinctive form of criminal activity composed of a series of actions that taken individually might constitute legal behavior. For example, sending flowers, writing love notes, and waiting for someone outside her place of work are actions that, on their own, are not criminal. When these actions are coupled with intent to instill fear or injury, however, they may constitute a pattern of behavior that is illegal. Though antistalking laws are gender neutral, most stalkers are men and most victims are women." 337 A study of the incidence of stalking behaviors conducted among 3,700 men and women in the Australian State of Victoria revealed the following:

The majority of those reporting stalking were female (75%). 338 Some 43%

were aged between 16-30 when the behaviour commenced, though all age groups were vulnerable to pursuit. Perpetrators of stalking behaviours were overwhelmingly male (84%). 339 In 24% of cases stalking victims were pursued by a person of the same gender, with males significantly more likely to experience such harassment than females (76% versus 8%). The majority of those reporting stalking were pursued by someone previously known to them (57%)…. In 42% the perpetrator was a stranger to the victim, or someone whose identity, though suspected, was yet to be revealed. Since the instigation and passage of antistalking legislation in the US, stalking has generated in most English-speaking nations a growing discourse in legal, scientific and popular domains. This study confirms that such attention and concern is not misplaced. 

Workplace violence is "any physical assault, threatening behavior, or verbal abuse occurring in the work setting. A workplace may be any location either permanent or temporary where an employee performs any work-related duty. This includes, but is not limited to, the buildings, and surrounding perimeters, including the parking lots, field locations, clients' homes and traveling to and from work assignments." 341 It is "any incident in which a person is abused, threatened or assaulted in circumstances relating to their work. This can include verbal abuse or threats as well as physical attacks." 342 howard 343 developed categories for describing workplace violence by defining the relationship between the victim and the perpetrator. Table 3 -7 interprets these findings.

The following statements indicate that workplace violence is affecting workers in many parts of the world: Richardson and Windau, 348 about three-quarters of workplace homicides result from injuries inflicted with guns. The seriousness of homicide has made it the focus of the concern about workplace violence. The rate of workplace homicide has declined gradually since the 1980s and fell somewhat more rapidly than the rate for all homicides in the 1990s. 349 

The building occupancies discussed in this book-office, hotel, residential and apartment, and mixed-use buildings-could be the setting for someone to commit workplace violence. For office buildings, hotels, and residential buildings, the workplace violence may be as simple as the verbal abuse that security staffs, particularly security officers, doormen, and concierge/receptionists sometimes receive. Although it is difficult to make generalizations about the types of perpetrators of workplace violence, the following observations have been made about them:

Frustrated employees, who in many instances are simply shuffled between jobs requiring only menial tasks with very little advancement opportunity open to them. Professionals who are experiencing personal frustration and cannot handle emotional deflations such as workforce cutbacks or layoffs. Individuals who are simply bitter, dissatisfied people and are unable to "shake" their negativity toward everything. People unable to accept personal blame for their own problems. Individuals with uncontrollable pent-up rage who operate on a "short fuse"

when it comes to getting upset or mad over anything. Persons who have little or no support systems such as family, friends, neighbors, and who are unable to vent their rage by either confiding in someone or having some other avenue of relief in which they can "blow off steam."

People who are prone to use firearms and have access to weaponry of any kind.

In dealing with employees, the ideal solution would be for employers to screen out, during the initial hiring process, those applicants who have an inclination for violence. This could include inquiring about an applicant's prior criminal convictions and conducting a thorough background check with previous employers. Despite some ethical questions and a degree of uncertainty about their predictive powers, psychological tests are also used to screen prospective employees-and still it is difficult to recognize potentially problematic employees.

The following are indicators of potential workplace violence: Sound personnel practices, such as preemployment screening and meaningful job performance evaluations, may help identify and screen out potential problem employees.

Employers may take the following preventive measures, some of which have been adapted from the Cal/OSHA Guidelines for Workplace Security, to address the workplace violence problem: According to the ASIS International Foundation Research Council CRISP Report by Dana Loomis, "Enforcing a no-weapons policy for employees as allowed by law is a fundamental component of establishing effective countermeasures. Weapons policies should be written, made known to all employees, and consistently enforced." 354 This report also cautions that "not enough rigorous research has been conducted to gauge the effectiveness of mandatory or voluntary measures for preventing workplace violence. To date, most research has focused on the use of crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED r ) concepts used to prevent robbery-related, or Type I [see Table 3 -7], violence, in retail businesses. 355,356 " 357 A number of preventive measures can be accomplished without great expense to the employer. For example, if workforce reductions are anticipated, they should be thoroughly planned with dignity and respect afforded to the affected employees. Workers who will be laid off need as much advance notice as possible. giving severance benefits and offering placement counseling and assistance will help outgoing employees cope with their situation r "The CPTED [pronounced sep-ted] concept, coined by Dr. C. Ray Jeffery in his book by the same title, expands upon the assumption that the proper design and effective use of the built environment can lead to a reduction in the fear of crime and the incidence of crime, and to an improvement in the quality of life" (Crowe TD. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design. 2nd ed. Woburn, MA: Butterworth-heinemann; 2000:1). 357 and nurture a supportive work environment for the remaining employees. It has the added potential of lowering insurance premiums, because it may avoid triggering an incident of violence in the workplace and the expensive litigation that can result.

Motor vehicles such as cars, buses, vans, and trucks commonly enter the parking areas of high-rise buildings. As on public thoroughfares, traffic accidents sometimes occur. Although the incident may have occurred on private property, depending on its seriousness, immediate medical aid or public law enforcement assistance may need to be summoned.

A water leak in a high-rise building-particularly those on upper floors of a high-risecan result in considerable damage to the structure and its contents. Water may drain down through multiple floors via stairwells, elevator shafts, and poke-throughs. This can lead to water in concealed ceiling spaces, soaked acoustical ceiling tiles that may fall from their own weight, water-soaked walls, and malfunction and possible failure of electrical systems if water comes in contact with them.

Leaks may be caused by a broken water pipe, a severed fire system sprinkler head, seepage through subterranean walls, overflow of a toilet receptacle, a backed-up sewer line, a blocked drain, failure of a sump pump, or a malfunctioning fountain. Someone deliberately leaving a water tap running in an area such as a public restroom may also cause a leak.

There are many potential security and fire life safety threats to the people who use high-rise buildings and to the assets contained within them. l Sometimes threats can become events that quickly develop into emergencies. These include aircraft collisions; bombs and bomb threats; daredevils, protestors, and suicides; elevator and escalator incidents; fires and fire alarms; hazardous materials, chemical and biological weapons, and nuclear attack; kidnappings and hostage situations; labor disputes, demonstrations, and civil disorder; medical emergencies; natural disasters; contractible diseases; power failures; slip-and-falls; stalking and workplace violence; traffic accidents; and water leaks. present; or (c) creates a hazardous or physically offensive condition." 374 Depending on the nature of the offense can be considered a threat to people or property. Earthquake. "A term used to describe both sudden slip on a fault, and the resulting ground shaking and radiated seismic energy caused by the slip, or by volcanic or magmatic activity, or other sudden stress changes in the earth." 375 Emergency. "An event, actual or imminent, which endangers or threatens to endanger life, property or the environment, and which requires a significant and coordinated response." 376 Espionage. "The crime of 'gathering, transmitting or losing' information respecting the national defense with intent or reason to believe that the information is to be used to the injury of the [country], or to the advantage of any foreign nation." 377 This could also be perpetrated by a business competitor engaging in industrial espionage. Explosives. "Devices designed to explode or expand with force and noise through rapid chemical change or decomposition." 378 Also known as bombs. Fire alarm. "A signal initiated by a fire alarm-initiating device such as a manual fire alarm box, automatic fire detector, waterflow switch, or other device in which activation is indicative of the presence of a fire or fire signature." 379 Fire stop. "Material or member that seals open construction to inhibit spread of fire." 380 Floor plan. "Architectural drawings showing the floor layout of a building and including precise room sizes and their relationships. The arrangement of the rooms on a single floor of a building, including walls, windows, and doors." 381 Heat wave. "A period of abnormally and uncomfortably hot and usually humid weather.

To be a heat wave such a period should last at least one day, but conventionally it lasts from several days to several weeks." 382 Hoistway. "The structural component in which the elevators move in a building." 383 Hostage. " An innocent person held captive by one who threatens to kill or harm him if his demands are not met." 384 374 Murder. "The unlawful killing of a human being by another with malice aforethought, either express or implied." 394 Panic. "A sudden terror often inspired by a trifling cause or a misapprehension of danger and accompanied by unreasoning or frantic efforts to secure safety." 395 Partial or zoned evacuation. This strategy "provides for immediate, general evacuation of the areas of the building nearest the fire incident. A partial evacuation may be appropriate when the building fire protection features assure that occupants away from the evacuation zone will be protected from the effects of the fire for a reasonable time. however, evacuation of additional zones may be necessary." 396 Sometimes known as staged evacuation. Performance-based codes. "Detail the goals and objectives to be met and establish criteria for determining if the objective has been reached.… Thus, the designer and builder gain added freedoms to select construction methods and materials that may be viewed as nontraditional as long as it can be shown that the performance criteria can be met." 397 Performance-based design. "Applies a procedure to predict and estimate damage or behavior anticipated of a structure's design to design events, compared against preselected objectives. The design is revised until the predictive methodology indicates that acceptable performance can be obtained." 398 Physical security. "That part of security concerned with physical measures designed to safeguard people, to prevent unauthorized access to equipment, facilities, material and documents, and to safeguard them against espionage, sabotage, damage, theft and loss." 399 Poke-throughs. holes cut through floors to allow the passage of conduits or ducts, primarily for the passage of electrical wiring, plumbing, heating, air-conditioning, communications wiring, or other utilities. Problems arise when the space between the conduit or the duct and the surrounding floor is not completely sealed with fire-resistant material, thereby negating the fire-resistance rating of the floor and potentially providing a passageway for deadly fire gases. 400 Prescriptive-based codes. "Spell out in detail what materials can be used, the building geometry (heights and areas), and how the various components should be assembled." 401 Also known as specification-based codes. Prescriptive design approach. "Includes extensive detailed criteria for the design of systems that have been developed over many years of experience." 402 394 of a building, place of assembly, or facility of public transportation, or otherwise to cause serious public inconvenience, or in reckless disregard of the risk of causing such terror or inconvenience." 413 Theft. "A popular name for larceny. The act of stealing. The taking of property without the owner's consent.… It is also said that theft is a wider term than larceny and that it includes swindling and embezzlement and that generally, one who obtains possession of property by lawful means and thereafter appropriates the property to the taker's own use is guilty of a 'theft.'" 414 Larceny-theft includes offenses such as shoplifting, pickpocketing, auto theft, and other types of stealing where no violence occurs. See also larceny. Threat. "Any indication, circumstance, or event with the potential to cause loss of, or damage to an asset." 415 Tornado. "A violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud." 416 Trespass. "Any unauthorized intrusion or invasion of private premises or land of another…. Criminal trespass is entering or remaining upon or in any land, structure, vehicle, aircraft or watercraft by one who knows he [or she] is not authorized or privileged to do so." 417 This includes remaining on property after permission to do so has been revoked. Tropical cyclone. "general term for a cyclone that originates over the tropical oceans.

This term encompasses tropical depressions, tropical stroms, hurricanes, and typhoons." 418 See also cyclone. Tsunami. "A large wave caused by earthquakes, submarine landslides, and, infrequently, by eruptions of island volcanoes. During a major earthquake, an enormous amount of water can be set in motion as the seafloor moves up and down. The result is a series of potentially destructive waves that can move at more than 500 miles [805 kilometers] per hour." 419 Tuberculosis. A contagious disease that "usually attacks the lungs (as pulmonary TB) but can also affect the central nervous system, the lymphatic system, the circulatory system, the genitourinary system, the gastrointestinal system, bones, joints, and even the skin." 420 Typhoon. "hurricanes and typhoons are large and sometimes intensely violent storm systems. In meteorological terms, they are tropical cyclones that have maximum sustained

Institute of Real Estate Management

Term "radiological dispersal device (RDD)" stated in

The Four Faces of Nuclear Terrorism

References cited: Cameron C. The 1923 Great Kanto Earthquake and Fire

Kanamori h. Importance of historical seismograms for geophysical research

Some remarks on historical seismograms and the microfilming project

Update and English translation of noviy Katalog Sil'nykh Zemletryaseniy na Territoriy SSSR s Drevneyshikh Vremyen do 1975 g

Contribution to the Seismotectonics of Iran (Part II), geological Survey of Iran

Catalogue of Strong Italian Earthquakes from 461 B.C. to 1990, Istituto nazionale di geofisica, Rome and Storia geofisica Ambiente

Catalog of Significant Earthquakes, 2150 B.C-1991 A.D. Including Quantitative Casualties and Damage, nOAA national geophysical Data Center

Kanamori h. Importance of historical seismograms for geophysical research

Some remarks on historical seismograms and the microfilming project

Lobash M. hertz group: coming to grips with storm's devastation

Cruden (1991) as quoted in Samah FA. Paper 10: Landslides in the Hillside development in the Hulu Kland, Klang Valley; 150. http:// eprints.utm.my/1627/1/LAnDSLIDES_In_ThE_hILLSIDE_DEVELOPMEnT___In_ThE_hULU_KLAng,_ KLAng_VALLEy.pdf

12-story apartment building, located below Po Shan Road, in the hong Kong Island Mid-Levels district, was destroyed by a hillside collapse and resultant landslide, following heavy rains, causing 67 deaths (www.csb.gov.hk/hkgcsb/doclib/showcasing_ced_e.pdf as reported on Edward Cy yiu's (Assistant Professor Department. of Real Estate and Construction

12-story apartment building, highland Towers, Selangor, Malaysia, collapsed due to a landslide after 10 days of continuous rainfall, resulting in 48 deaths (Wikipedia

Infectious disease. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The Mcgraw-hill Companies, Inc.; 2005, as referenced in Disease

rr According to the World health Organization, "a pandemic can start when three conditions have been met: (1) a new disease emerges among the population; (2) the agent infects humans, causing serious illness, and (3might be)

Pandemic flu issues and your response. Security Technology & Design

Caister Academic Press; 2007 as referenced in Wikipedia. Severe acute respiratory syndrome

It's time to plan. Security Management

Summary of probable SARS cases with onset of illness from november 1

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS): SARS symptoms. EMedicineHealth. www. emedicinehealth.com/severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_sars/page3_em.htm

Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology. new york: Mcgraw hill

Workplace Violence Prevention

United Kingdom, health and Safety Executive. www.hse.gov.uk/violence/

as stated in Preventing Gun Violence in the Workplace by Dana Loomis [CRISP REPORT Connecting Research in Security to Practice

an international expert on stress and workplace violence, and Duncan Chappell, past president of the new South Wales Mental health Review, Australia, and the Commonwealth Arbitral Tribunal

Census of fatal occupational injuries (CFOI): current and revised data

Trends in workplace homicides in the U.S., 1993-2002: A decade of decline

Diversity of trends in occupational injury mortality in the United States

Census of fatal occupational injuries (CFOI)-current and revised data

Fatal and nonfatal assaults in the workplace

Trends in workplace homicides in the

Preventing Gun Violence in the Workplace (CRISP Report Connecting Research in Security to Practice

Effectiveness of crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) in reducing robberies

Preventing workplace violence through environmental and administrative controls

ASIS Online Glossary of Terms

362 FEMA 426: Reference Manual to Mitigate Potential Terrorist Attacks against Buildings. FEMA Risk Management Series

:5). The original definition was U.S. centric and has been modified to be applicable to any threatened country

Publisher's Editorial Staff. Black's Law Dictionary

Publisher's Editorial Staff. Black's Law Dictionary

www.asisonline.org/library/glossary/index.xml; ASIS International

Emergency Management Australia Canberra, as quoted in the SRM Lexicon, srmbok Security Risk Management Body of Knowledge, Julian Talbot and Dr. Miles Jakeman (Risk Management Institution of Australasia Limited

Edition (from Webster's College Dictionary by Random house, Inc. Copyright 1995, 1992, 1991 by Random house, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Random house

Publisher's Editorial Staff. Black's Law Dictionary

nFPA Glossary of Terms. national Fire Code. Quincy, MA: national Fire Protection Association

national Association of Realtors

The Construction Info Exchange. www.constructioninfoexchange.com/constructiondictionary.aspx ?DictionarySearchKeyF

Emergency Evacuation Elevator Systems Guideline. Council on Tall Buildings and Urban habitat

Department of the Interior

Publisher's Editorial Staff. Black's Law Dictionary

hurricanes and typhoons are large and sometimes intensely violent storm systems. In meteorological terms, they are tropical cyclones that have maximum sustained winds of at least 120 km/h (75 mph)

A device placed or fabricated in an improvised manner incorporating destructive, lethal, noxious, pyrotechnic, or incendiary chemicals and designed to destroy, incapacitate, harass, or distract

The forcible abduction or stealing and carrying away of a person…. A person is guilty of kidnapping if he unlawfully removes another from his place of residence or business … or if he unlawfully confines another for a substantial period in a place of isolation

The unlawful taking and carrying away of property of another with intent to appropriate it to use inconsistent with the latter's rights

The unjustifiable, inexcusable, and intentional killing of a human being without deliberation, premeditation and malice

A type of injury which permanently render[s] the victim less able to fight offensively or defensively; it might be accomplished either by the removal of (dismemberment), or by the disablement of, some bodily member useful in fighting. Today, by statute, permanent disfigurement has been added

People with physical disabilities rely on a variety of artificial means for mobility. Such devices range from canes and walkers to motorized wheelchairs

Fire Administration. www.usfa.fema.gov

Edition (from Webster's College Dictionary by Random house, Inc. Copyright 1995, 1992, 1991 by Random house, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Random house

Definition from DOD, nATO as stated on Answers.com website. 2008. www.answers.com/topic/ improvised-explosive-device

Publisher's Editorial Staff. Black's Law Dictionary

hurricane and Typhoon. grolier Online. www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id 5179

Publisher's Editorial Staff. Black's Law Dictionary

Webster's Third New International Dictionary

Strategies for occupant evacuation during emergencies. Fire Protection Handbook

Building and fire codes and standards

MA: national Fire Protection Association

Fundamentals of structurally safe building design

MA: national Fire Protection Association

ASIS Online Glossary of Terms. www.asisonline.org/library/glossary/index.xml

Brannigan's Building Construction for the Fire Service

Building and fire codes and standards. Fire Protection Handbook

national Fire Protection Association

The spread of local damage, from an initiating event, from element to element, eventually resulting in the collapse of an entire structure or a disproportionately large part of it

A form of civil disorder characterized by disorganized groups lashing out in a sudden and intense rash of violence, vandalism, or other crime. While individuals may attempt to lead or control a riot, riots are typically chaotic and exhibit herd behavior

Riots typically involve vandalism and the destruction of private and public property

Felonious taking of money, personal property, or any other article of value, in the possession of another, from his [or her] person or immediate presence, and against his

wil[l]ful and malicious destruction of employer's property during a labor dispute or interference with his normal operations

A respiratory disease in human which is caused by the SARS corona virus (SARS-CoV)

A type of employment discrimination, includes sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature prohibited by … law

Consist of beams and columns joined by a combination of welding and bolting

Terrorism is considered an unlawful act of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives

A person is guilty of a terroristic threat "if he [or she] threatens to commit any crime of violence with purpose to terrorize another or to cause evacuation 410 What is stalking? The national Center for Victims of Crime. www.ncvc.org/ncvc/main.aspx?dbname DocumentViewer&DocumentID32457

412 FEMA 452: Risk Assessment: A How-To Guide to Mitigate Potential Terrorist Attacks against Buildings

ASCE 7-05 (nIST nCSTAR 1A Federal Building and Fire Safety Investigation of the World Trade Center Disaster. Final Report on the Collapse of World Trade Center Building

Publisher's Editorial Staff. Black's Law Dictionary

Publisher's Editorial Staff. Black's Law Dictionary

Publisher's Editorial Staff. Black's Law Dictionary

413 Publisher's Editorial Staff. Black's Law Dictionary

415 FEMA 452: Risk Assessment: A How-To Guide to Mitigate Potential Terrorist Attacks against Buildings

Publisher's Editorial Staff. Black's Law Dictionary

416 Glossary of Meteorology

big wind'), whereas western Pacific storms are called typhoons, from the Chinese taifun

A military term for a car bomb or truck bomb. These are typically employed by suicide bombers, and can carry a relatively large payload. They can also be detonated from a remote location. VBIEDs can create additional shrapnel through the destruction of the vehicle itself, as well as using vehicle fuel as an incendiary weapon

A geological formation, usually a conical mountain, that forms when molten rock, called magma, flows up from the interior of the Earth to the surface. Magma finds its way upwards along fissures or cracks in the planet's crust and bursts out onto the surface, resulting in a volcano

Any physical assault, threatening behavior, or verbal abuse occurring in the work setting. A workplace may be any location either permanent or temporary where an employee performs any work-related duty. This includes, but is not limited to, the buildings, and surrounding perimeters, including the parking lots, field locations, clients' homes and traveling to and from work assignments

Norton Information Resources Center

Building Performance Study: Data Collection, Preliminary Observations, and Recommendations, Federal Emergency Management Agency

Lessons Learned from the Oklahoma City Bombing Defensive Design

NIST NCSTAR 1: Federal Building and Fire Safety Investigation of the World Trade Center Disaster: Final Report on the Collapse of the World Trade Center Towers

Structural Fire Fighting. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association

Publisher's Editorial Staff. Black's Law Dictionary

Workplace Violence Prevention

hurricane and Typhoon. grolier Online. www2.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id 5179

All hazardous materials should be identified, their characteristics documented, and instructions provided for their safe handling. r The presence of hazardous materials in a building can cause serious problems, particularly when an explosion occurs. The following example illustrates this point.April 25, 2002, New York, New York-A late-morning explosion caused by volatile chemicals severely damaged the façade, hailing sheets of glass and debris onto the street, of a 10-story Manhattan commercial building. The blast that originated in the basement was possibly linked to shipments of 50-gallon drums of acetone used by a sign company. "The explosion, which rocked the busy commercial neighborhood, triggered mass evacuations of surrounding buildings and caused widespread alarm in the area, witnesses said." 237 

As unlikely as a nuclear attack may be, the events of September 11, 2001, have brought the widespread realization that certain individuals in this world will stop at nothing to achieve their objectives. Therefore, a nuclear attack needs to be addressed as a possible threat to high-rise buildings situated in major urban centers. 

Assault. "Any willful attempt or threat to inflict injury upon the person of another, when coupled with an apparent present ability so to do, and any intentional display of force such as would give the victim reason to fear or expect immediate bodily harm, constitutes an assault. An assault may be committed without actually touching, or striking, or doing bodily harm, to the person of another." 359 Assault and battery. "Any unlawful touching of another which is without justification or excuse." 360 Asset. "Any real or personal property, tangible or intangible, that a company or individual owns, that can be given or assigned a monetary value. Intangible property includes things such as goodwill, proprietary information, and related property." 361 "A resource of value requiring protection. An asset can be tangible (e.g., people, buildings, facilities, equipment, activities, operations, and information) or intangible (e.g., processes or a company's information and reputation is licensed or privileged to enter." 364 Chicane. "A sequence of tight serpentine curves (usually an S-shape curve …) in a roadway, used in motor racing and on city streets to slow cars. On modern raceways, chicanes are usually located after long straightaways, making them a prime location for overtaking." 365 Civil disorder. "Any public disturbance involving acts of violence by assemblages of three or more persons, which causes an immediate danger of or results in damage or injury to the property or person of any other individual." 366 Sometimes known as a civil disturbance. Crime. "An act or omission which is in violation of a law forbidding or commanding it for which the possible penalties for an adult upon conviction include incarceration, for which a corporation can be penalized by a fine or forfeit, or for which a juvenile can be adjudged delinquent or transferred to criminal court for prosecution. The basic legal definition of crime is all punishable acts, whatever the nature of the penalty." 367 359 ibid., p. 114. 360 ibid., p. 115.

Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED-pronounced sep-ted) . "The CPTED concept, coined by Dr. C. Ray Jeffery in his book by the same title, expands upon the assumption that the proper design and effective use of the built environment can lead to a reduction in the fear of crime and the incidence of crime, and to an improvement in the quality of life." 368 Cyberattack. "An assault against a computer system or network." 369 Cyberterrorism. "The convergence of terrorism and cyberspace. It is generally understood to mean unlawful attacks and threats of attack against computers, networks, and the information stored therein when done to intimidate or coerce a government or its people to further political or social objectives. Moreover, to qualify as cyberterrorism, an attack should result in violence against persons or property, or at least cause enough harm to generate fear. Attacks that lead to death or bodily injury, explosions, plane crashes, water and food contamination, or severe economic loss are examples. Serious attacks against critical infrastructures can be acts of cyberterrorism depending on their impact. Attacks that disrupt nonessential services or that are mainly a costly nuisance are not." 370 Cyclone. "An atmospheric cyclonic circulation, a closed circulation. A cyclone's direction of rotation (counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere) is opposite to that of an anticyclone. While modern meteorology restricts the use of the term cyclone to the so-called cyclonic-scale circulations, it is popularly still applied to the more or less violent, small-scale circulations such as tornadoes, waterspouts, dust devils, etc.(which may in fact exhibit anticyclonic rotation), and even, very loosely, to any strong wind." 371 Demonstration. A gathering of people for the purposes of publicly displaying their attitude toward a particular cause, issue, or other matter. Dirty bomb. A radiological dispersal device (RDD) 372 that uses conventional explosives to spread radioactive material. Disaster. "A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society causing widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources." 373 Disorderly conduct. "If, with purpose to cause public inconvenience, annoyance or alarm, or recklessly creating a risk thereof, he (a) engages in fighting or threatening, or in violent or tumultuous behavior; or (b) makes unreasonable noise or offensively coarse utterance, gesture or display, or addresses abusive language to any person