# ent

id: cord-269505-7g8lio9l
type: ORG
entity:
  Ecosystem Functioning and Human Wellbeing an Ecological and Economic Perspective Ecosystems and Human Well Being Current State


id: cord-283432-od5nnxvg
type: PROTEIN
entity:
  SARS CoV 2 COVID 19 severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic Lewis 2020 Morawska


id: cord-283432-od5nnxvg
type: CELL_LINE
entity:
  Predicting Upper Room UVGI Effectiveness Aerosol and Surface Distribution of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2


id: cord-283432-od5nnxvg
type: ORG
entity:
  an Automated Multiple Emitter Whole Room Ultraviolet C Disinfection System Against Coronaviruses MHV


id: cord-283432-od5nnxvg
type: ORG
entity:
  Environmental Control for Tuberculosis Basic Upper Room Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation Guidelines for Healthcare Settings Publication


id: cord-314325-nquov2i0
type: ORG
entity:
  Virus Dynamics Mathematical Principles of Immunology and Virology Emerging Microbial Threats to Health


id: cord-311382-ioemd0ij
type: ORG
entity:
  Control Influenza Transmission Characterization of Aerosols Generated During Patient Care Activities Influenza


id: cord-003490-swlkjtyo
type: CHEBI
entity:
  molecular virus host interactions Foot and mouth disease Description of recent foot and mouth disease outbreaks


id: cord-299828-fb84rtmx
type: ORG
entity:
  National Wildlife Health Center Wildpro National Biological Information Infrastructure Wildlife Disease Information


id: cord-022103-4zk8i6qb
type: PROTEIN
entity:
  Neisseria gonorrhoeae Treponema pallidum HIV hepatitis B virus parvovirus B19 Mycobacterium tuberculosis herpes simplex virus or group B Streptococcus


id: cord-022103-4zk8i6qb
type: ORG
entity:
  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Updated Recommendations for Use of Tetanus Toxoid Reduced Diphtheria Toxoid


id: cord-305085-bv7udg9k
type: ORG
entity:
  Committee on Infectious Diseases American Academy of Pediatrics Red Book Report of the Committee on Infectious Disease Committee on Infectious Diseases American Academy of Pediatrics Red Book Report of the Committee on Infectious Disease Committee on Infectious Disease American Academy of Pediatrics Red Book Report of the Committee on Infectious Disease Mother


id: cord-305085-bv7udg9k
type: ORG
entity:
  comparison Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee Recommendations


id: cord-305085-bv7udg9k
type: DISEASE
entity:
  erythema migrans lesions cranial nerve palsies meningitis conjunctivitis arthralgia myalgia headache fatigue


id: cord-355024-v5lahyw4
type: WORK_OF_ART
entity:
  Safer Water Better Health Costs Benefits and Sustainability of Interventions to Protect and Promote Health Cofactors


id: cord-355024-v5lahyw4
type: WORK_OF_ART
entity:
  the Global Burden of Disease Study Excreta Disposal for Rural Areas and Small Communities WHO Consolidated Guidelines on the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs for Treating and Preventing HIV Infection Large


id: cord-347351-emdj66vj
type: ORG
entity:
  First Global Patient Safety Challenge Clean Care is Safer Care Inactivation of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2


id: cord-297625-eby014gm
type: DISEASE
entity:
  metapneumovirus coronavirus 229E HKU1 OC43 NL63 respiratory syncytial virus A B picornavirus and parainfluenza virus 1 2 3 A


id: cord-245161-xbw72k4m
type: ORG
entity:
  ASTM Standard Practice to Assess the Activity of Microbicides against Viruses in Suspension Active Standard ASTM


id: cord-299720-f0ny4ur5
type: ORG
entity:
  Korea Ministry of Government Legislation Infectious Disease Control and Prevention Act World Health Organization Laboratory


id: cord-299720-f0ny4ur5
type: ORG
entity:
  Jeong Gu Nam Division of Respiratory Viruses Center of Infectious Disease Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention


id: cord-285960-1zuhilmu
type: ORG
entity:
  the World Health Organization WHO COVID 19 Infection Prevention and Control Research and Innovation Advisory Group


id: cord-276758-k2imddzr
type: DNA
entity:
  ucNavMenu_TSMenuTargetType54 ucNavMenu_TSMenuID56 id51613 Streptococcus salivarius meningitis following myelography Streptococcal meningitis complicating diagnostic myelography three cases and review Streptococcal meningitis after myelography Iatrogenic meningitis an increasing role for resistant viridans streptococci Case


id: cord-276758-k2imddzr
type: GGP
entity:
  I B 3 c Airborne Transmission Airborne transmission occurs by dissemination of either airborne droplet


id: cord-276758-k2imddzr
type: ORG
entity:
  the Guidelines for Prevention of Transmission of Tuberculosis in Hospitals and Other Health Care Settings


id: cord-276758-k2imddzr
type: ORG
entity:
  The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention s National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health


id: cord-276758-k2imddzr
type: ORG
entity:
  Hygiene Task Force Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America Association for Professionals in Infection Control Infectious Diseases Society of America Guideline


id: cord-276758-k2imddzr
type: ORG
entity:
  Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America and Infectious Diseases Society of America Joint Committee on the Prevention of Antimicrobial Resistance


id: cord-276758-k2imddzr
type: DISEASE
entity:
  myocardial infarction congestive heart failure overdose stroke gastrointestinal bleeding renal failure hepatic failure multiorgan system failure


id: cord-253252-s8fm5rfa
type: DISEASE
entity:
  influenza viruses rhinoviruses coronaviruses respiratory syncytial viruses RSVs and parainfluenza viruses Morawska 2006


id: cord-350519-3h5ipcwn
type: GGP
entity:
  household 8 10 14 We used each case s symptom onset date as the date of comparison or their specimen collection date if symptom onset date was unavailable and excluded the rare cases CC BY NC ND 4 0


id: cord-334021-ex4z2b75
type: EVENT
entity:
  COVID 19 transmission Report on Ombudspersons and Commissioners for Children s Challenges and Responses


id: cord-347262-q88g1561
type: WORK_OF_ART
entity:
  Critically Ill Patients with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Infection Prevention and Control of Epidemic and Pandemic Prone Acute Respiratory Diseases in Health Care Guidelines


id: cord-347262-q88g1561
type: ORG
entity:
  Aerosol Generating Procedures and Risk of Transmission of Acute Respiratory Infections to Healthcare Workers A Systematic Review Consensus


id: cord-347262-q88g1561
type: ORG
entity:
  SARS CoV 2 Infection Prevention and Control of Epidemic and Pandemic Prone Acute Respiratory Infections in Health Care Recognition


id: cord-354254-89vjfkfd
type: GGP
entity:
  sources 1 1 1 1 12 12 12 Reynolds transportation law calculates the source quantity in control volume at time t which


id: cord-316126-j51dik7f
type: ORG
entity:
  National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Beijing China 2020 Notes


# bib

id: cord-003490-swlkjtyo
title: Quantitative impacts of incubation phase transmission of foot-and-mouth disease virus
author: Arzt, Jonathan
date: 2019-02-25
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6389902/
doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-39029-0
abstract:
  The current investigation applied a Bayesian modeling approach to a unique experimental transmission study to estimate the occurrence of transmission of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) during the incubation phase amongst group-housed pigs. The primary outcome was that transmission occurred approximately one day prior to development of visible signs of disease (posterior median 21 hours, 95% CI: 1.1–45.0). Updated disease state durations were incorporated into a simulation model to examine the importance of addressing preclinical transmission in the face of robust response measures. Simulation of FMD outbreaks in the US pig production sector demonstrated that including a preclinical infectious period of one day would result in a 40% increase in the median number of farms affected (166 additional farms and 664,912 pigs euthanized) compared to the scenario of no preclinical transmission, assuming suboptimal outbreak response. These findings emphasize the importance of considering transmission of FMD during the incubation phase in modeling and response planning.


id: cord-003767-9xbu4hnq
author: Slingenbergh, Jan
date: 2019-05-25
txt: ./txt/cord-003767-9xbu4hnq.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-003767-9xbu4hnq.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6631033/
doi: 10.3390/pathogens8020072
summary:
  The synthesis of the findings reveals a predictive virus evolution framework, based on the outerto inner-body changes in the interplay of host environment-transmission modes-organ system involvement-host cell infection cycle-virus genome. Pieced together on this basis was an outer-to inner-body line-up of viruses by organ system or combination of organ systems, guided by the one-to-four virus infiltration score, the corresponding virus organ system tropism, the matching virus transmission modes, length of the infection and shedding periods, infection severity level, and virus environmental survival rate, see Figure 3 and, also, Figure S1d . Pieced together on this basis was an outer-to inner-body line-up of viruses by organ system or combination of organ systems, guided by the one-to-four virus infiltration score, the corresponding virus organ system tropism, the matching virus transmission modes, length of the infection and shedding periods, infection severity level, and virus environmental survival rate, see Figure 3 and, also, Figure S1d .

title:
  Animal Virus Ecology and Evolution Are Shaped by the Virus Host-Body Infiltration and Colonization Pattern

abstract:
  The current classification of animal viruses is largely based on the virus molecular world. Less attention is given to why and how virus fitness results from the success of virus transmission. Virus transmission reflects the infection-shedding-transmission dynamics, and with it, the organ system involvement and other, macroscopic dimensions of the host environment. This study describes the transmission ecology of the world main livestock viruses, 36 in total, a mix of RNA, DNA and retroviruses. Following an iterative process, the viruses are virtually ranked in an outer- to inner-body fashion, by organ system, on ecological grounds. Also portrayed are the shifts in virus host tropism and virus genome. The synthesis of the findings reveals a predictive virus evolution framework, based on the outer- to inner-body changes in the interplay of host environment-transmission modes-organ system involvement-host cell infection cycle-virus genome. Outer-body viruses opportunistically respond to the variation in the external environment. For example, respiratory and enteric viruses tend to be associated with poultry and pig mass rearing. Ruminant and equine viruses tend to be more deep-rooted and host-specific, and also establish themselves in the vital inner-body systems. It is concluded that the framework may assist the study of new emerging viruses and pandemic risks.


id: cord-004578-x6uatd7j
title: Role of environmental persistence in pathogen transmission: a mathematical modeling approach
author: Breban, Romulus
date: 2012-03-01
txt: ./txt/cord-004578-x6uatd7j.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-004578-x6uatd7j.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7079992/
doi: 10.1007/s00285-012-0520-2
summary:
  Although diseases such as influenza, tuberculosis and SARS are transmitted through an environmentally mediated mechanism, most modeling work on these topics is based on the concepts of infectious contact and direct transmission. In this paper we use a paradigm model to show that environmental transmission appears like direct transmission in the case where the pathogen persists little time in the environment. However, for obtaining results emerging from the first order expansion in the pathogen persistence time (e.g., the direct transmission model and its corresponding transmissibility formula) one may use the slow-fast dynamics formalism, a general technique of singular perturbation theory. In this work, we have shown using a paradigm model that direct transmission holds as an approximation for the environmental transmission mechanism in the case where the persistence time of the pathogen in the environment is short.

abstract:
  Although diseases such as influenza, tuberculosis and SARS are transmitted through an environmentally mediated mechanism, most modeling work on these topics is based on the concepts of infectious contact and direct transmission. In this paper we use a paradigm model to show that environmental transmission appears like direct transmission in the case where the pathogen persists little time in the environment. Furthermore, we formulate conditions for the validity of this modeling approximation and we illustrate them numerically for the cases of cholera and influenza. According to our results based on recently published parameter estimates, the direct transmission approximation fails for both cholera and influenza. While environmental transmission is typically chosen over direct transmission in modeling cholera, this is not the case for influenza.


id: cord-004971-jwpb7862
title: The Role of the Home Environment in the Transmission of Infectious Diseases
author: Kagan, Lori J.
date: 2002
txt: ./txt/cord-004971-jwpb7862.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-004971-jwpb7862.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7087835/
doi: 10.1023/a:1016378226861
summary:
  The home environment, particularly the kitchen and bathroom, serves as a reservoir of large numbers of microorganisms, particularly Enterobacteriacae,and infectious disease transmission has been demonstrated to occur in 6–60% of households in which one member is ill. Recent events, including widespread media coverage of foodborne outbreaks and increased marketing of a variety of antibacterial products for personal hygiene and hard surface disinfection, have resulted in a resurgence of interest and public concern about hygiene and cleanliness in the home. 17 In a study to evaluate the survival of bacteria and enteric viruses during washing and drying as performed in U.S. homes, sterile cotton swabs were inoculated with Mycobacterium fortuitum, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, E. This body of research suggests that a product containing an ingredient with disinfectant properties, such as alcohol, bleach or a phenolic, may be indicated for home use if a household member is ill with an infectious disease or in other high-risk situations.

abstract:
  The purpose of this paper is to examine current health care literature (1980–2000) regarding the microbiology of the home environment, to summarize evidence of transmission within the home, and to assess effectiveness of cleaning practices and products. The home environment, particularly the kitchen and bathroom, serves as a reservoir of large numbers of microorganisms, particularly Enterobacteriacae,and infectious disease transmission has been demonstrated to occur in 6–60% of households in which one member is ill. Current food preparation and cleaning practices provide multiple opportunities for intra-household member spread. Routine cleaning is often sufficient, but in cases of household infection, may not adequately reduce environmental contamination. The effectiveness of disinfectants varies considerably and depends on how they are used as well as their intrinsic efficacy. The behavioral aspects of infection prevention in the home (e.g., foodhandling and cleaning practices) warrant increased public attention and education.


id: cord-015884-mtpbzgr9
title: Current Practices for Infection Prevention in the Hospital Settings
author: Haynes, Alice
date: 2013-08-06
txt: ./txt/cord-015884-mtpbzgr9.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-015884-mtpbzgr9.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7119982/
doi: 10.1007/978-81-322-1608-7_3
summary:
  The CDC, in cooperation with the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC), established Standard Precautions to address the prevention of the spread of infectious agents in healthcare settings and are the result of combining the key components from Universal Precautions and Body Substance Isolation along with the understanding that all blood and body fl uids, except sweat, are potentially infectious, and inanimate objects are potentially contaminated with infectious agents, therefore are capable of being reservoirs in the chain of transmission of infectious agents [ 11 , 12 ] . Standard Precautions group together infection prevention practices consisting of the use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), such as gowns, gloves, masks, goggles or face shields, and the performance of hand hygiene, washing hands with soap and water, especially when they are visibly soiled, or using an alcohol-based hand sanitizer.

abstract:
  The principles and practices aimed at prevention and control of hospital-acquired infections are directed at various links in the chain of transmission. They include the following: (1) to contain or eliminate the reservoirs of agents and/or to curtail the persistence of agents in a specific setting, (2) to protect the host against disease caused by microorganisms, and (3) to interrupt the transmission of infection. Interventions to modify environmental reservoirs are aimed at interrupting the transmission for these inanimate environmental sources. The barriers, e.g., masks, were used to keep the smells and “contagion” away even before the germ theory of disease was conceived. The appropriate barriers now include gloves, gowns, and eye protection for blood/body fluid–borne infections and high-filtration masks for infections transmitted by droplet nuclei. The most important and effective nosocomial infection control intervention remains the routine washing of hands before, between, and after patient contact in healthcare settings. This chapter focuses on the interruption of transmission of infectious agents in the hospital setting by Standard Precautions recommended for all patients and “isolation” of patients using precautions based on known methods of transmission.


id: cord-022237-qxya4cs3
title: Biology and Diseases of Birds
author: Bryant, Everett
date: 2013-11-17
txt: ./txt/cord-022237-qxya4cs3.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-022237-qxya4cs3.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7155475/
doi: 10.1016/b978-0-12-263620-2.50019-7
abstract: nan
summary:
  The bird fits into the overall taxonomic scheme as follows: Specific pathogen-free (SPF) fertile eggs, day-old chicks, or Kingdom, Animal; Phylum, Chordata; Class, Aves; Order, 27 started pullets are available for use in research. A clear outline of the gen-free chickens or eggs come from breeding stock negative avian orders listing the common names of birds in each may be to diseases caused by mycoplasmas, Newcastle disease, infecfound in Steiner and Davis (1981) . Chickens, turkeys, and other birds require the six major nu trients: carbohydrates for energy, fats for energy and essential fatty acids, protein for meat and egg production, minerals for bones and shells, vitamins for chemical catalysts, and water. Fowl cholera, an acute septicémie disease of poultry, turkeys, waterfowl, and wild birds, is caused by Pasteurella multocida, a gram-negative, bipolar rod (Panigraphy and Glass, 1982) . Herpesvirus of turkeys (HVT) Marek''s vaccine should be administered to all birds at 1 day of age to prevent the disease.


id: cord-219107-klpmipaj
title: Risk mapping for COVID-19 outbreaks using mobility data
author: Zachreson, Cameron
date: 2020-08-14
txt: ./txt/cord-219107-klpmipaj.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-219107-klpmipaj.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://arxiv.org/pdf/2008.06193v1.pdf
doi: nan
summary:
  For community transmission scenarios, our results demonstrate that mobility data adds the most value to risk predictions when case counts are low and spatially clustered. In each case, we use the Facebook mobility data that was available during the early stages of the outbreak to estimate future spatial patterns of relative transmission risk. For each of the three outbreak scenarios, we present the mobility-based estimates of the relative transmission risk distribution, and a time-varying correlation between our estimate and the case numbers ascertained through contact tracing and testing programs. Our results indicate that aggregate mobility data can be a useful tool in estimation of COVID-19 transmission risk diffusion from locations where active cases have been identified. A heat map (Supplemental Figure S1 ) of the average number of Facebook users present during the nighttime period (2am to 10am) as a proportion of the estimated resident population reported by the ABS (2018 [32] ) shows qualitative similarity to the spatial distributions of active cases and relative risk shown in Figure 5 

abstract:
  COVID-19 is highly transmissible and containing outbreaks requires a rapid and effective response. Because infection may be spread by people who are pre-symptomatic or asymptomatic, substantial undetected transmission is likely to occur before clinical cases are diagnosed. Thus, when outbreaks occur there is a need to anticipate which populations and locations are at heightened risk of exposure. In this work, we evaluate the utility of aggregate human mobility data for estimating the geographic distribution of transmission risk. We present a simple procedure for producing spatial transmission risk assessments from near-real-time population mobility data. We validate our estimates against three well-documented COVID-19 outbreak scenarios in Australia. Two of these were well-defined transmission clusters and one was a community transmission scenario. Our results indicate that mobility data can be a good predictor of geographic patterns of exposure risk from transmission centres, particularly in scenarios involving workplaces or other environments associated with habitual travel patterns. For community transmission scenarios, our results demonstrate that mobility data adds the most value to risk predictions when case counts are low and spatially clustered. Our method could assist health systems in the allocation of testing resources, and potentially guide the implementation of geographically-targeted restrictions on movement and social interaction.


id: cord-245161-xbw72k4m
title: Fomite transmission and disinfection strategies for SARS-CoV-2 and related viruses
author: Castano, Nicolas
date: 2020-05-23
txt: ./txt/cord-245161-xbw72k4m.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-245161-xbw72k4m.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://arxiv.org/pdf/2005.11443v1.pdf
doi: nan
summary:
  Contaminated objects or surfaces, referred to as fomites, play a critical role in the spread of viruses, including SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. Elucidating the physicochemical processes and surface science underlying the adsorption and transfer of virus between surfaces, as well as their inactivation, are important in understanding how the disease is transmitted, and in developing effective interception strategies. Three primary transmission routes have been found to contribute to the spread of respiratory viruses (e.g., SARS-CoV-1 and -2, measles, HCoV, rhinovirus, and influenza virus) ( Figure 1A ): 1) direct contact between individuals, 2) indirect contact via contaminated objects (fomites), 3) airborne transmission via droplets and aerosols. A study on SARS-CoV-2 infected patients in isolation rooms showed contamination of high-contact surfaces such as doorknobs and bedrails, as well as air outlet fans which indicated virus transfer from aerosols to a surface.

abstract:
  Contaminated objects or surfaces, referred to as fomites, play a critical role in the spread of viruses, including SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. The long persistence of viruses (hours to days) on surfaces calls for an urgent need for surface disinfection strategies to intercept virus transmission and the spread of the disease. Elucidating the physicochemical processes and surface science underlying the adsorption and transfer of virus between surfaces, as well as their inactivation, are important in understanding how the disease is transmitted, and in developing effective interception strategies. This review aims to summarize the current knowledge and underlying physicochemical processes of virus transmission, in particular via fomites, and common disinfection approaches. Gaps in knowledge and needs for further research are also identified. The review focuses on SARS-CoV-2, but will supplement the discussions with related viruses.


id: cord-253252-s8fm5rfa
author: Jayaweera, Mahesh
date: 2020-06-13
txt: ./txt/cord-253252-s8fm5rfa.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-253252-s8fm5rfa.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32569870/
doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.109819
summary:
  This review paper intends to outline the literature concerning the transmission of viral-laden droplets and aerosols in different environmental settings and demonstrates the behavior of droplets and aerosols resulted from a cough-jet of an infected person in various confined spaces. There have been myriads of hypotheses corroborating that certain threshold levels of humidity, temperature, sunlight, and ventilation will speed up the virus-laden droplet and aerosol transmission, aggravating the spread of the SARS-CoV disease (Morawska, 2006) . Nevertheless, the effectiveness of the use of masks for the control of SARS-CoV-2-laden aerosol transmission from an infected person to a susceptible host is uncertain and not fully conceivable. Researchers have speculated that both droplets and aerosols generated from non-violent and violent expirations of SARS-CoV-2-infected people may be responsible for the nonnosocomial and nosocomial transmission of COVID-19 disease.

title:
  Transmission of COVID-19 virus by droplets and aerosols: A critical review on the unresolved dichotomy

abstract:
  The practice of social distancing and wearing masks has been popular worldwide in combating the contraction of COVID-19. Undeniably, although such practices help control the COVID-19 pandemic to a greater extent, the complete control of viral-laden droplet and aerosol transmission by such practices is poorly understood. This review paper intends to outline the literature concerning the transmission of viral-laden droplets and aerosols in different environmental settings and demonstrates the behavior of droplets and aerosols resulted from a cough-jet of an infected person in various confined spaces. The case studies that have come out in different countries have, with prima facie evidence, manifested that the airborne transmission plays a profound role in contracting susceptible hosts. Interestingly, the nosocomial transmission by airborne SARS-CoV-2 viral-laden aerosols in healthcare facilities may be plausible. Hence, clearly defined, science-based administrative, clinical, and physical measures are of paramount importance to eradicate the COVID-19 pandemic from the world.


id: cord-256543-7kfi2yvu
title: Sustained fecal-oral human-to-human transmission following a zoonotic event
author: de Graaf, Miranda
date: 2016-11-23
txt: ./txt/cord-256543-7kfi2yvu.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-256543-7kfi2yvu.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1879625716301687
doi: 10.1016/j.coviro.2016.11.001
summary:
  Using a comparative approach including parasites, bacteria and viruses that transmit via the fecal-oral route, the meeting aimed at identifying the key drivers of sustained human-to-human transmission after a zoonotic event, taking into account the host, the pathogen and the interface (transmission amplifiers). Enteric pathogens can be transmitted between humans by the fecal-oral route via direct contact or indirect contact via contaminated fluids, including surface water, food, and carriers such as fomites ( Figure 1 ). After shedding from the host enteric pathogens can be transmitted between humans by the fecal-oral route via direct contact between humans, or via indirect contact via contaminated fluids, including surface water, food, and carriers such as fomites. A human reservoir for non-typhoid Salmonella (NTS) transmission of multiple serotypes was demonstrated in a study of NTS-infected patients who continued to shed NTS for months up to years, and strains of these patients acquired antimicrobial resistance genes and virulence genes that possibly affected host-pathogen interactions [34 ] .

abstract:
  Bacterial, viral and parasitic zoonotic pathogens that transmit via the fecal-oral route have a major impact on global health. However, the mechanisms underlying the emergence of such pathogens from the animal reservoir and their persistence in the human population are poorly understood. Here, we present a framework of human-to-human transmission of zoonotic pathogens that considers the factors relevant for fecal-oral human-to-human transmission route at the levels of host, pathogen, and environment. We discuss current data gaps and propose future research directions.


id: cord-261962-sfa9d1ux
author: Lei, H.
date: 2018-01-06
txt: ./txt/cord-261962-sfa9d1ux.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-261962-sfa9d1ux.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12445
doi: 10.1111/ina.12445
summary:
  In this study, we proposed a comparative analysis approach and built a model to simulate outbreaks of 3 different in‐flight infections in a similar cabin environment, that is, influenza A H1N1, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus (CoV), and norovirus. • Our identification of the dominated routes, that is the close contact route (large droplet) for influenza, the fomite route for norovirus, and all 3 routes for SARS CoV, suggested the relative importance of different environment intervention for different infectious diseases in air cabins and probably also in other indoor environments. F I G U R E 1 Spatial distribution for 3 in-flight infection outbreaks, (A) norovirus, 26 (B) SARS CoV, 27 and (C) influenza A H1N1 28 of infectious pathogens from the index source passenger, which is also sometimes termed indirect contact route.

title:
  Routes of transmission of influenza A H1N1, SARS CoV, and norovirus in air cabin: Comparative analyses

abstract:
  Identifying the exact transmission route(s) of infectious diseases in indoor environments is a crucial step in developing effective intervention strategies. In this study, we proposed a comparative analysis approach and built a model to simulate outbreaks of 3 different in‐flight infections in a similar cabin environment, that is, influenza A H1N1, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus (CoV), and norovirus. The simulation results seemed to suggest that the close contact route was probably the most significant route (contributes 70%, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 67%‐72%) in the in‐flight transmission of influenza A H1N1 transmission; as a result, passengers within 2 rows of the index case had a significantly higher infection risk than others in the outbreak (relative risk [RR]: 13.4, 95% CI: 1.5‐121.2, P = .019). For SARS CoV, the airborne, close contact, and fomite routes contributed 21% (95% CI: 19%‐23%), 29% (95% CI: 27%‐31%), and 50% (95% CI: 48%‐53%), respectively. For norovirus, the simulation results suggested that the fomite route played the dominant role (contributes 85%, 95% CI: 83%‐87%) in most cases; as a result, passengers in aisle seats had a significantly higher infection risk than others (RR: 9.5, 95% CI: 1.2‐77.4, P = .022). This work highlighted a method for using observed outbreak data to analyze the roles of different infection transmission routes.


id: cord-263764-2ewz8ok4
title: Transmission routes of respiratory viruses among humans
author: Kutter, Jasmin S
date: 2018-01-17
txt: ./txt/cord-263764-2ewz8ok4.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-263764-2ewz8ok4.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coviro.2018.01.001
doi: 10.1016/j.coviro.2018.01.001
summary:
  We here present an overview of the available data from experimental and observational studies on the transmission routes of respiratory viruses between humans, identify knowledge gaps, and discuss how the available knowledge is currently implemented in isolation guidelines in health care settings. Our observations underscore the urgent need for new knowledge on respiratory virus transmission routes and the implementation of this knowledge in infection control guidelines to advance intervention strategies for currently circulating and newly emerging viruses and to improve public health. Increasing numbers of studies focused on the detection and quantification of influenza viruses contained in droplets and aerosols expelled into the air through breathing, sneezing and coughing of infected individuals The SARS outbreak was primarily linked to healthcare settings, with 49% of the cases linked to hospitals [71] , most probably caused by aerosol-generating procedures on severely ill patients [72, 73] .

abstract:
  Respiratory tract infections can be caused by a wide variety of viruses. Airborne transmission via droplets and aerosols enables some of these viruses to spread efficiently among humans, causing outbreaks that are difficult to control. Many outbreaks have been investigated retrospectively to study the possible routes of inter-human virus transmission. The results of these studies are often inconclusive and at the same time data from controlled experiments is sparse. Therefore, fundamental knowledge on transmission routes that could be used to improve intervention strategies is still missing. We here present an overview of the available data from experimental and observational studies on the transmission routes of respiratory viruses between humans, identify knowledge gaps, and discuss how the available knowledge is currently implemented in isolation guidelines in health care settings.


id: cord-264994-j8iawzp8
title: Modelling microbial infection to address global health challenges
author: Fitzpatrick, Meagan C.
date: 2019-09-20
url: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-019-0565-8
doi: 10.1038/s41564-019-0565-8
abstract:
  The continued growth of the world’s population and increased interconnectivity heighten the risk that infectious diseases pose for human health worldwide. Epidemiological modelling is a tool that can be used to mitigate this risk by predicting disease spread or quantifying the impact of different intervention strategies on disease transmission dynamics. We illustrate how four decades of methodological advances and improved data quality have facilitated the contribution of modelling to address global health challenges, exemplified by models for the HIV crisis, emerging pathogens and pandemic preparedness. Throughout, we discuss the importance of designing a model that is appropriate to the research question and the available data. We highlight pitfalls that can arise in model development, validation and interpretation. Close collaboration between empiricists and modellers continues to improve the accuracy of predictions and the optimization of models for public health decision-making.


id: cord-269505-7g8lio9l
title: Impacts of biodiversity on the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases
author: Keesing, Felicia
date: 2010-12-01
txt: ./txt/cord-269505-7g8lio9l.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-269505-7g8lio9l.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21124449/
doi: 10.1038/nature09575
summary:
  For hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, a directly transmitted zoonotic disease, correlational and experimental studies have shown that a lower diversity of small mammals increases the prevalence of hantaviruses in their hosts, thereby increasing risk to humans (Box 2). Diversity has a similar effect for plant diseases, with species losses increasing the transmission of two fungal rust pathogens that infect perennial rye grass and other plant species 10 . This is because field studies like those on West Nile virus, hantaviruses and rye grass have typically not controlled for changes in host density that can result from changes in ''species richness'' (the number of species present in a community, which is a measure of taxonomic diversity). In sum, reducing biodiversity can increase disease transmission when the lost species are either not hosts for the pathogen or are suboptimal ones. In several case studies, the species most likely to be lost from ecological communities as diversity declines are those most likely to reduce pathogen transmission.

abstract:
  Current unprecedented declines in biodiversity reduce the ability of ecological communities to provide many fundamental ecosystem services. Here we evaluate evidence that reduced biodiversity affects the transmission of infectious diseases of humans, other animals and plants. In principle, loss of biodiversity could either increase or decrease disease transmission. However, mounting evidence indicates that biodiversity loss frequently increases disease transmission. In contrast, areas of naturally high biodiversity may serve as a source pool for new pathogens. Overall, despite many remaining questions, current evidence indicates that preserving intact ecosystems and their endemic biodiversity should generally reduce the prevalence of infectious diseases. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version of this article (doi:10.1038/nature09575) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.


id: cord-271343-0rrhiw9m
title: On the 2-Row Rule for Infectious Disease Transmission on Aircraft
author: Hertzberg, Vicki Stover
date: 2017-03-08
txt: ./txt/cord-271343-0rrhiw9m.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-271343-0rrhiw9m.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28283135/
doi: 10.1016/j.aogh.2016.06.003
summary:
  Long-standing guidance by public health agencies is that the primary transmission risk associated with air travel for most respiratory infectious diseases is associated with sitting within two rows of an infectious passenger. 1,2 Many instances of in-flight transmission have been documented, including cases of cholera, 3 influenza, 4-8 measles, 9, 10 meningococcal infections, 11 norovirus, 12 severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), 13, 14 shigellosis, 15 and tuberculosis. Longstanding guidance by public health agencies is that the primary transmission risk associated with air travel for most respiratory infectious diseases is associated with sitting within 2 rows of an infectious passenger. In this paper we document reports of in-flight transmission of respiratory infectious diseases by large droplets for which seat plans are given. k Authors reported data on 7 flights on which 9 passengers who were seated within AE2 rows of an infectious passenger became infected.

abstract:
  BACKGROUND: With over two billion airline passengers annually, in-flight transmission of infectious diseases is an important global health concern. Many instances of in-flight transmission have been documented, but the relative influence of the many factors (see below) affecting in-flight transmission has not been quantified. Long-standing guidance by public health agencies is that the primary transmission risk associated with air travel for most respiratory infectious diseases is associated with sitting within two rows of an infectious passenger. The effect of proximity may be one of these factors. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to determine the risk of infection within and beyond the 2-row rule given by public health guidance. METHODS: We searched the literature for reports of in-flight transmission of infection which included seat maps indicating where the infectious and infected passengers were seated. FINDINGS: There is a ∼ 6% risk to passengers seated within the 2-rows of infected individual(s) and there is ∼ 2% risk to passengers seated beyond 2-rows from the infectious individual. DISCUSSION: Contact tracing limited to passengers within 2-rows of the infectious individual(s) could fail to detect other cases of infections. This has important consequences for assessing the spread of infectious diseases. CONCLUSIONS: Infection at a distance from the index case indicates other factors, such as airflow, movement of passenger/crew members, fomites and contacts between passengers in the departure gate before boarding, or after deplaning, are involved.


id: cord-276758-k2imddzr
author: Siegel, Jane D.
date: 2007-12-07
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18068815/
doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2007.10.007
abstract: nan
title:
  2007 Guideline for Isolation Precautions: Preventing Transmission of Infectious Agents in Health Care Settings


id: cord-276916-j53i5xfs
title: Reconstruction and prediction of viral disease epidemics
author: Kraemer, M. U. G.
date: 2018-11-05
txt: ./txt/cord-276916-j53i5xfs.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-276916-j53i5xfs.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30394230/
doi: 10.1017/s0950268818002881
summary:
  Some pathogens that were previously not considered to pose a general threat to human health have emerged at regional and global scales, such as Zika and Ebola Virus Disease. During emerging infectious disease outbreaks, empirical information and mathematical modelling techniques are now commonly used to characterise and predict the spatio-temporal dynamics of the spread of pathogens. Common spatiotemporal analyses of pathogen genomes focus on mapping and predicting virus lineage exchange among locations, with the underlying aim of reconstructing the pathways of disease introduction and spread, albeit at a coarse spatial resolution, and often retrospectively [2, 8, 33, 35, 37, 38] . In the recent yellow fever outbreak in southern Brazil, linking epidemiological, spatial and genomic data and techniques could provide insights into the transmission potential and risk of urban transmission [102] .

abstract:
  A growing number of infectious pathogens are spreading among geographic regions. Some pathogens that were previously not considered to pose a general threat to human health have emerged at regional and global scales, such as Zika and Ebola Virus Disease. Other pathogens, such as yellow fever virus, were previously thought to be under control but have recently re-emerged, causing new challenges to public health organisations. A wide array of new modelling techniques, aided by increased computing capabilities, novel diagnostic tools, and the increased speed and availability of genomic sequencing allow researchers to identify new pathogens more rapidly, assess the likelihood of geographic spread, and quantify the speed of human-to-human transmission. Despite some initial successes in predicting the spread of acute viral infections, the practicalities and sustainability of such approaches will need to be evaluated in the context of public health responses.


id: cord-277173-zdft23q8
title: Methods to infer transmission risk factors in complex outbreak data
author: Cauchemez, Simon
date: 2012-03-07
txt: ./txt/cord-277173-zdft23q8.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-277173-zdft23q8.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21831890/
doi: 10.1098/rsif.2011.0379
summary:
  cases rather than the uninfected, but potentially susceptible bulk of the population, they can say little about the risk factors for infection or provide estimates of transmissibility in different contexts (e.g. households, schools or as a function of distance between a susceptible and an infected individual). We present a relatively generic statistical model for the estimation of transmission risk factors, and discuss algorithms to estimate its parameters for different levels of missing data. We present a relatively generic statistical model for the estimation of transmission risk factors, and discuss algorithms to estimate its parameters for different levels of missing data. For a directly transmitted disease, the first step to estimate transmission risk factors is usually to propose a model for transmission hazard l i!j ðtjQÞ from case i to subject j on day t, i.e. define l i!j ðtjQÞ as a function of the individual covariates z i (t) and z j (t) and a set of parameters Q.

abstract:
  Data collected during outbreaks are essential to better understand infectious disease transmission and design effective control strategies. But analysis of such data is challenging owing to the dependency between observations that is typically observed in an outbreak and to missing data. In this paper, we discuss strategies to tackle some of the ongoing challenges in the analysis of outbreak data. We present a relatively generic statistical model for the estimation of transmission risk factors, and discuss algorithms to estimate its parameters for different levels of missing data. We look at the problem of computational times for relatively large datasets and show how they can be reduced by appropriate use of discretization, sufficient statistics and some simple assumptions on the natural history of the disease. We also discuss approaches to integrate parametric model fitting and tree reconstruction methods in coherent statistical analyses. The methods are tested on both real and simulated datasets of large outbreaks in structured populations.


id: cord-277818-8w15dz20
title: Infectious Disease Considerations for the Operating Room
author: Jaichenco, Andre L.
date: 2018-02-09
url: https://api.elsevier.com/content/article/pii/B9780323429740000501
doi: 10.1016/b978-0-323-42974-0.00050-1
abstract:
  The risk of infection transmission by anesthesia providers in their work area environment is reviewed. The dynamics of transmission and the strategies for preventing infection transmission in health care institutions are discussed. Anesthesiologists have long been patient safety advocates and have taken on increasing responsibility for preventing health care–associated infections. Anesthesia providers practice in a nonsterile environment within the operating room and have an impact on bacterial transmission and infection rates. Understanding the characteristics of transmission elements provides the practicing anesthesiologist with methods to protect susceptible patients and themselves to avoid spreading infection. It is vital to have in place proper systems to remove contaminated air to minimize the risk of airborne pathogens being transmitted by children. Preoperative patient skin and other bacterial reservoir decontamination and hand hygiene by anesthesia providers reduces contamination of the work area and IV access ports. Hand hygiene is a well-known and effective solution to the problem of bacterial transmission within and across patients and is considered the most important and cost-effective individual intervention in the prevention of health care–associated infections in children and health care providers Compliance with the current “5 moments” World Health Organization guidelines could make a major inroad into reducing provider hand and workspace contamination. Surgical antimicrobial prophylaxis is an essential tool to reduce the risk of postoperative infections, and the anesthesia team plays a central role in ensuring the proper timing of drug administration. Protocols, although effective, require continuous feedback and revision.


id: cord-279443-2e4gz2bo
title: Transmission of SARS-CoV-2, Required Developments in Research and Associated Public Health Concerns
author: Khan, Suliman
date: 2020-06-09
url: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2020.00310
doi: 10.3389/fmed.2020.00310
abstract:
  Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is rapidly spreading across the world to cause thousands of mortalities each day. Poor responses from the authorities to the spread of infection, lack of effective measures for prevention, unavailability of promising treatment options, and sufficient diagnostic options have created an alarming for the world. The transmission routes from human to human of SARS-CoV-2 can be the direct transmission, droplet inhalation transmission, contact transmission, transmission through saliva, and transmission via fecal–oral routes. Due to the asymptomatic spread of SARS-CoV-2's, developing control and prevention measures is challenging. Implementing proper strategies addressing the infection control and clinical supplies, understanding the mechanism associated with pathogenesis, advancing in preventive measures and effective treatment and diagnostic options are necessary to control the ongoing pandemic. In this article, we briefly discuss the features, entry mechanism, infectiousness, and health consequences related to the COVID-19 outbreak.


id: cord-279520-zccd1mq5
title: Possible SARS Coronavirus Transmission during Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
author: Christian, Michael D.
date: 2004-02-17
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15030699/
doi: 10.3201/eid1002.030700
abstract:
  Infection of healthcare workers with the severe acute respiratory syndrome–associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV) is thought to occur primarily by either contact or large respiratory droplet transmission. However, infrequent healthcare worker infections occurred despite the use of contact and droplet precautions, particularly during certain aerosol-generating medical procedures. We investigated a possible cluster of SARS-CoV infections in healthcare workers who used contact and droplet precautions during attempted cardiopulmonary resuscitation of a SARS patient. Unlike previously reported instances of transmission during aerosol-generating procedures, the index case-patient was unresponsive, and the intubation procedure was performed quickly and without difficulty. However, before intubation, the patient was ventilated with a bag-valve-mask that may have contributed to aerosolization of SARS-CoV. On the basis of the results of this investigation and previous reports of SARS transmission during aerosol-generating procedures, a systematic approach to the problem is outlined, including the use of the following: 1) administrative controls, 2) environmental engineering controls, 3) personal protective equipment, and 4) quality control.


id: cord-283432-od5nnxvg
title: How can airborne transmission of COVID-19 indoors be minimised?
author: Morawska, Lidia
date: 2020-05-27
txt: ./txt/cord-283432-od5nnxvg.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-283432-od5nnxvg.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32521345/
doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105832
summary:
  We believe that the use of engineering controls in public buildings, including hospitals, shops, offices, schools, kindergartens, libraries, restaurants, cruise ships, elevators, conference rooms or public transport, in parallel with effective application of other controls (including isolation and quarantine, social distancing and hand hygiene), would be an additional important measure globally to reduce the likelihood of transmission and thereby protect healthcare workers, patients and the general public. We believe that the use of engineering controls in public buildings, including hospitals, shops, offices, schools, kindergartens, libraries, restaurants, cruise ships, elevators, conference rooms or public transport, in parallel with effective application of other controls (including isolation and quarantine, social distancing and hand hygiene), would be an additional important measure globally to reduce the likelihood of transmission and thereby protect healthcare workers, patients and the general public. While evidence for airborne transmission of COVID-19 is currently incomplete, several hospital-based studies have performed air-sampling for SARS-COV-2, including one published paper (Ong et al.

abstract:
  Abstract During the rapid rise in COVID-19 illnesses and deaths globally, and notwithstanding recommended precautions, questions are voiced about routes of transmission for this pandemic disease. Inhaling small airborne droplets is probable as a third route of infection, in addition to more widely recognized transmission via larger respiratory droplets and direct contact with infected people or contaminated surfaces. While uncertainties remain regarding the relative contributions of the different transmission pathways, we argue that existing evidence is sufficiently strong to warrant engineering controls targeting airborne transmission as part of an overall strategy to limit infection risk indoors. Appropriate building engineering controls include sufficient and effective ventilation, possibly enhanced by particle filtration and air disinfection, avoiding air recirculation and avoiding overcrowding. Often, such measures can be easily implemented and without much cost, but if only they are recognised as significant in contributing to infection control goals. We believe that the use of engineering controls in public buildings, including hospitals, shops, offices, schools, kindergartens, libraries, restaurants, cruise ships, elevators, conference rooms or public transport, in parallel with effective application of other controls (including isolation and quarantine, social distancing and hand hygiene), would be an additional important measure globally to reduce the likelihood of transmission and thereby protect healthcare workers, patients and the general public.


id: cord-283485-xit6najq
title: The COVID-19 pandemic: diverse contexts; different epidemics—how and why?
author: Van Damme, Wim
date: 2020-07-27
url: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-003098
doi: 10.1136/bmjgh-2020-003098
abstract:
  It is very exceptional that a new disease becomes a true pandemic. Since its emergence in Wuhan, China, in late 2019, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus that causes COVID-19, has spread to nearly all countries of the world in only a few months. However, in different countries, the COVID-19 epidemic takes variable shapes and forms in how it affects communities. Until now, the insights gained on COVID-19 have been largely dominated by the COVID-19 epidemics and the lockdowns in China, Europe and the USA. But this variety of global trajectories is little described, analysed or understood. In only a few months, an enormous amount of scientific evidence on SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 has been uncovered (knowns). But important knowledge gaps remain (unknowns). Learning from the variety of ways the COVID-19 epidemic is unfolding across the globe can potentially contribute to solving the COVID-19 puzzle. This paper tries to make sense of this variability—by exploring the important role that context plays in these different COVID-19 epidemics; by comparing COVID-19 epidemics with other respiratory diseases, including other coronaviruses that circulate continuously; and by highlighting the critical unknowns and uncertainties that remain. These unknowns and uncertainties require a deeper understanding of the variable trajectories of COVID-19. Unravelling them will be important for discerning potential future scenarios, such as the first wave in virgin territories still untouched by COVID-19 and for future waves elsewhere.


id: cord-285960-1zuhilmu
author: Conly, John
date: 2020-08-06
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32762735/
doi: 10.1186/s13756-020-00779-6
title:
  Use of medical face masks versus particulate respirators as a component of personal protective equipment for health care workers in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic

abstract:
  Currently available evidence supports that the predominant route of human-to-human transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 is through respiratory droplets and/or contact routes. The report by the World Health Organization (WHO) Joint Mission on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in China supports person-to-person droplet and fomite transmission during close unprotected contact with the vast majority of the investigated infection clusters occurring within families, with a household secondary attack rate varying between 3 and 10%, a finding that is not consistent with airborne transmission. The reproduction number (R(0)) for the SARS-CoV-2 is estimated to be between 2.2–2.7, compatible with other respiratory viruses associated with a droplet/contact mode of transmission and very different than an airborne virus like measles with a R(0) widely cited to be between 12 and 18. Based on the scientific evidence accumulated to date, our view is that SARS-CoV-2 is not spread by the airborne route to any significant extent and the use of particulate respirators offers no advantage over medical masks as a component of personal protective equipment for the routine care of patients with COVID-19 in the health care setting. Moreover, prolonged use of particulate respirators may result in unintended harms. In conjunction with appropriate hand hygiene, personal protective equipment (PPE) used by health care workers caring for patients with COVID-19 must be used with attention to detail and precision of execution to prevent lapses in adherence and active failures in the donning and doffing of the PPE.


id: cord-288303-88c6qsek
title: On nonlinear incidence rate of Covid-19
author: Paul, S. K.
date: 2020-10-21
txt: ./txt/cord-288303-88c6qsek.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-288303-88c6qsek.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.10.19.20215665
doi: 10.1101/2020.10.19.20215665
summary:
  Classical Susceptible-Infected-Removed model with constant transmission rate and removal rate may not capture real world dynamics of epidemic due to complex influence of multiple external factors on the spread. Local interpretations of the model using perturbation method reveals local influence of different features on transmission rate which in turn is used to generate a set of generalized global interpretations. We experimented with available data of Covid-19 across multiple regions of USA and the model achieved 7.95% and 0.19% mean absolute percent error in terms of new infection cases in each locality and cumulative total infection cases across the country in a 10-day prediction period respectively. A long-term forecast using the trained model and modified recovery rate to satisfy disease-free equilibrium criteria reveals rapid damping of active infection cases to reach the baseline. The model predicts the transmission rate for a future time period for each pixel which in turn is used to calculate daily new infection cases ∆ + ( ) using equation 11.

abstract:
  Classical Susceptible-Infected-Removed model with constant transmission rate and removal rate may not capture real world dynamics of epidemic due to complex influence of multiple external factors on the spread. On top of that transmission rate may vary widely in a large region due to non-stationarity of spatial features which poses difficulty in creating a global model. We modified discrete global Susceptible-Infected-Removed model by using time varying transmission rate, recovery rate and multiple spatially local models. No specific functional form of transmission rate has been assumed. We have derived the criteria for disease-free equilibrium within a specific time period. A single Convolutional LSTM model is created and trained to map multiple spatiotemporal features to transmission rate. The model achieved 8.39% mean absolute percent error in terms of cumulative infection cases in each locality in a 10-day prediction period. Local interpretations of the model using perturbation method reveals local influence of different features on transmission rate which in turn is used to generate a set of generalized global interpretations. A what-if scenario with modified recovery rate illustrates rapid dampening of the spread when forecasted with the trained model. A comparative study with current normal scenario reveals key necessary steps to reach baseline.


id: cord-297625-eby014gm
title: Survival of rhinoviruses on human fingers
author: L''Huillier, A.G.
date: 2014-12-11
txt: ./txt/cord-297625-eby014gm.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-297625-eby014gm.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25614158/
doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2014.12.002
summary:
  Our study confirms that rhinovirus infectiousness is related to the viral concentration in droplets and suggests that children represent the main transmission source, which occurs only rarely via adults. We conducted a series of experiments to assess the duration of human rhinovirus infectiousness duration on fingers, as well as the impact of viral concentration on survival rates. One hour after the deposit of disrupted droplets on the fingers of the six volunteers, infectious viruses could be detected by culture in all subjects contaminated with HC droplets (6/6), in four of the six volunteers with AC droplets, and none of the six volunteers with LC droplets, which confirmed the influence of concentration on survival (Fig. 1) . Our study showed that virus survival, and therefore infectiousness, was related to the viral concentration in droplets. Potential role of hands in the spread of respiratory viral infections: studies with human parainfluenza virus 3 and rhinovirus 14

abstract:
  Rhinovirus is the main cause of the common cold, which remains the most frequent infection worldwide among humans. Knowledge and understanding of the rhinovirus transmission route is important to reduce morbidity as only preventive measures are effective. In this study, we investigated the potential of rhinovirus to survive on fingers. Rhinovirus-B14 was deposited on fingers for 30, 60, 90 and 120 min. Survival was defined as the ability of the virus to grow after 7 days, confirmed by immunofluorescence. Rhinovirus survival was not dependent on incubation time on fingers. Droplet disruption had no influence on survival. Survival was frequent with high rhinovirus concentrations, but rare with low-concentration droplets, which corresponded to the usual rhinovirus concentrations in mucus observed in children and adults, respectively. Our study confirms that rhinovirus infectiousness is related to the viral concentration in droplets and suggests that children represent the main transmission source, which occurs only rarely via adults. It confirms also that rhinovirus hand-related transmission is possible and supports hand hygiene as a key prevention measure.


id: cord-299720-f0ny4ur5
author: Kim, Seung Woo
date: 2017-03-01
txt: ./txt/cord-299720-f0ny4ur5.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-299720-f0ny4ur5.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27940937/
doi: 10.1093/cid/ciw768
summary:
  title: Risk Factors for Transmission of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Infection During the 2015 Outbreak in South Korea Transmission heterogeneity was observed during the 2015 Korean outbreak of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection. Transmission heterogeneity was a significant characteristic of the 2015 South Korean outbreak of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection [1] . Epidemiological reports from the outbreak were evaluated to collect data regarding basic demographic characteristics, medical history, MERS-CoV exposure, symptoms and their onset date(s), sampling date(s), contact history, and post-exposure infection control. In the univariate analyses, transmission was associated with underlying respiratory disease, Ct value, interval from symptom onset to diagnosis, number of contacts, and pre-isolation hospitalization or ER visits. It appears that both host infectivity and the number of contacts influenced MERS-CoV transmission, whereas super-spreading events were mostly associated with a greater likelihood of encountering other people under diverse environmental conditions.

title:
  Risk Factors for Transmission of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Infection During the 2015 Outbreak in South Korea

abstract:
  BACKGROUND. Transmission heterogeneity was observed during the 2015 Korean outbreak of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection. Only 22 of 186 cases transmitted the infection, and 5 super-spreading events caused 150 transmissions. We investigated the risk factors for MERS-CoV transmission. METHODS. Epidemiological reports were used to classify patients as nonspreaders, spreaders, or those associated with a super-spreading event (5 or more transmissions). Logistic regression analyses were used to evaluate the factors for MERS-CoV transmission. RESULTS. Compared to nonspreaders, spreaders exhibited a longer interval from symptom onset to isolation (7 days vs 3 days) and more frequent pre-isolation pneumonia diagnoses (68.2% vs 17.1%). Spreaders also exhibited higher values for pre-isolation contacts (149 vs 17.5), pre-isolation hospitalization (68.2% vs 16.5%), and emergency room (ER) visits (50% vs 7.3%). Spreaders exhibited lower cycle thresholds for the upE and ORF1a genes (22.7 vs 27.2 and 23.7 vs 27.9, respectively). In multivariate analysis, transmission was independently associated with the cycle threshold (odds ratio [OR], 0.84; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.75–0.96) and pre-isolation hospitalization or ER visits (OR, 6.82; 95% CI, 2.06–22.84). The super-spreading events exhibited higher values for pre-isolation contacts (777 vs 78), pre-isolation ER visits (100% vs 35.3%), and doctor shopping (100% vs 47.1%) compared to non-super-spreading events. CONCLUSIONS. These findings indicate that transmission is determined by host infectivity and the number of contacts, whereas super-spreading events were determined by the number of contacts and hospital visits. These relationships highlight the importance of rapidly enforcing infection control measures to prevent outbreaks.


id: cord-299828-fb84rtmx
title: Taming wildlife disease: bridging the gap between science and management
author: Joseph, Maxwell B.
date: 2013-04-16
txt: ./txt/cord-299828-fb84rtmx.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-299828-fb84rtmx.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12084
doi: 10.1111/1365-2664.12084
summary:
  Despite the wealth of empirical WDM research, management outcomes can be difficult to predict because system-specific information is lacking for novel pathogens and many theoretical concepts in disease ecology (see Table 1 for a subset) have not been widely tested in the field, leading to uncertainty in their generality. Corridor vaccination can reduce disease in metapopulations; movement controls are unlikely to work for chronic infections Keeling & Eames (2005) Transmission increases with host density Host density reductions may reduce disease transmission, and density thresholds for disease persistence may exist Anderson & May (1979) Transmission increases with disease prevalence independent of host density Transmission associated with sexual interactions is more likely to cause host extinction, and non-selective culling may not reduce transmission Getz & Pickering (1983) Predation as a regulator of host population and disease We use a quantitative, case-based approach to provide a critical retrospective of WDM over the last four decades to: (i) quantify how frequently specific theoretical concepts from disease ecology have been applied in the literature, (ii) identify prevailing management objectives, groups and reported outcomes and (iii) assess taxonomic biases in WDM literature.

abstract:
  1. Parasites and pathogens of wildlife can threaten biodiversity, infect humans and domestic animals, and cause significant economic losses, providing incentives to manage wildlife diseases. Recent insights from disease ecology have helped transform our understanding of infectious disease dynamics and yielded new strategies to better manage wildlife diseases. Simultaneously, wildlife disease management (WDM) presents opportunities for large‐scale empirical tests of disease ecology theory in diverse natural systems. 2. To assess whether the potential complementarity between WDM and disease ecology theory has been realized, we evaluate the extent to which specific concepts in disease ecology theory have been explicitly applied in peer‐reviewed WDM literature. 3. While only half of WDM articles published in the past decade incorporated disease ecology theory, theory has been incorporated with increasing frequency over the past 40 years. Contrary to expectations, articles authored by academics were no more likely to apply disease ecology theory, but articles that explain unsuccessful management often do so in terms of theory. 4. Some theoretical concepts such as density‐dependent transmission have been commonly applied, whereas emerging concepts such as pathogen evolutionary responses to management, biodiversity–disease relationships and within‐host parasite interactions have not yet been fully integrated as management considerations. 5. Synthesis and applications. Theory‐based disease management can meet the needs of both academics and managers by testing disease ecology theory and improving disease interventions. Theoretical concepts that have received limited attention to date in wildlife disease management could provide a basis for improving management and advancing disease ecology in the future.


id: cord-303651-fkdep6cp
title: Key questions for modelling COVID-19 exit strategies
author: Thompson, Robin N.
date: 2020-08-12
url: https://arxiv.org/pdf/2006.13012v4.pdf
doi: 10.1098/rspb.2020.1405
abstract:
  Combinations of intense non-pharmaceutical interventions (lockdowns) were introduced worldwide to reduce SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Many governments have begun to implement exit strategies that relax restrictions while attempting to control the risk of a surge in cases. Mathematical modelling has played a central role in guiding interventions, but the challenge of designing optimal exit strategies in the face of ongoing transmission is unprecedented. Here, we report discussions from the Isaac Newton Institute ‘Models for an exit strategy’ workshop (11–15 May 2020). A diverse community of modellers who are providing evidence to governments worldwide were asked to identify the main questions that, if answered, would allow for more accurate predictions of the effects of different exit strategies. Based on these questions, we propose a roadmap to facilitate the development of reliable models to guide exit strategies. This roadmap requires a global collaborative effort from the scientific community and policymakers, and has three parts: (i) improve estimation of key epidemiological parameters; (ii) understand sources of heterogeneity in populations; and (iii) focus on requirements for data collection, particularly in low-to-middle-income countries. This will provide important information for planning exit strategies that balance socio-economic benefits with public health.


id: cord-304013-nzigx0k0
author: Lipinski, Tom
date: 2020-09-13
url: https://api.elsevier.com/content/article/pii/S266620272030032X
doi: 10.1016/j.ijft.2020.100045
title:
  Review of ventilation strategies to reduce the risk of disease transmission in high occupancy buildings

abstract:
  An unforeseen pandemic is facing the world caused by a corona virus known as SARS-CoV-2. Numerous measures are being put in place to try and reduce the spread of this deadly disease, with the most effective response to the outbreak being mass quarantines, a public health technique borrowed from the Middle Ages. The widely accepted main transmission mechanism is through droplet borne pathways. However, many researchers and studies are considering that this virus can also spread via the airborne route and remain for up to three hours in the air. This is leading to questions as to whether enough is being done regarding ventilation to reduce the risk of the spread of this or other diseases that may be air borne. Ventilation and air conditioning systems are the main focus when it comes to the transmission of such deadly pathogens and should be appropriately designed and operated. This paper reviews and critically evaluates the current ventilation strategies used in buildings to assess the state of the art and elaborates if there is room for further development, especially for high occupancy buildings, to reduce or eradicate the risk of pathogen transmission and adapt ventilation measures to new threats posed by pandemics.


id: cord-306466-y4yg42p8
title: Who complies with COVID-19 transmission mitigation behavioral guidelines?
author: Nofal, Ahmed Maged
date: 2020-10-08
url: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240396
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0240396
abstract:
  During the past 6 months, the world has lost almost 950,000 lives because of the outbreak of COVID-19, with more than 31 million individuals diagnosed with COVID-19 worldwide. In response, lockdowns, and various other policies have been implemented. Unfortunately, many individuals are violating those policies and governments have been urging people to comply with the behavioral guidelines. In this paper, we argue that personality traits need to be considered to understand and encourage more effective public compliance with COVID 19 transmission mitigation behavioral guidelines. Using a sample of 8,548 individuals from Japan, we show that certain personality traits are related to the tendency to comply with COVID-19 transmission mitigation behavioral guidelines. We emphasize the importance of understanding why people respond differently to the same authority’s messages and provide actionable insights for government policy makers and those who implement policies.


id: cord-307133-bm9z8gss
title: Modeling Heterogeneity in Direct Infectious Disease Transmission in a Compartmental Model
author: Kong, Lingcai
date: 2016-02-24
txt: ./txt/cord-307133-bm9z8gss.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-307133-bm9z8gss.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26927140/
doi: 10.3390/ijerph13030253
summary:
  Finally, we calibrated the model with the number of daily cases of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Beijing in 2003, and the estimated parameters show that the control measures taken at that time were effective. A low level of heterogeneity results in dynamics similar to those predicted by the homogeneous-mixing model with a frequency-dependent transmission term, βSI N . The greatest difference is that at the overall level, the heterogeneity slows the transmission speed and decreases the peak sizes, which means milder disease outbreaks, because in the scenario with a high level of heterogeneity, only a small proportion of susceptible individuals have chances of coming into contact with infectious individuals and becoming infected, which results in a slower increase of the infected population. Our results show that, keeping other conditions identical, the higher is the level of heterogeneity in contact rates, the greater is the difference in the disease dynamics observed from those predicted using the homogeneous-mixing models.

abstract:
  Mathematical models have been used to understand the transmission dynamics of infectious diseases and to assess the impact of intervention strategies. Traditional mathematical models usually assume a homogeneous mixing in the population, which is rarely the case in reality. Here, we construct a new transmission function by using as the probability density function a negative binomial distribution, and we develop a compartmental model using it to model the heterogeneity of contact rates in the population. We explore the transmission dynamics of the developed model using numerical simulations with different parameter settings, which characterize different levels of heterogeneity. The results show that when the reproductive number, [Formula: see text] , is larger than one, a low level of heterogeneity results in dynamics similar to those predicted by the homogeneous mixing model. As the level of heterogeneity increases, the dynamics become more different. As a test case, we calibrated the model with the case incidence data for severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Beijing in 2003, and the estimated parameters demonstrated the effectiveness of the control measures taken during that period.


id: cord-308089-q2w9fb0i
title: Evolution of virulence
author: Ewald, Paul W.
date: 2005-03-01
txt: ./txt/cord-308089-q2w9fb0i.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-308089-q2w9fb0i.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15081500/
doi: 10.1016/s0891-5520(03)00099-0
summary:
  This new germ theory is emphasizing how environments and human activities influence the characteristics of infectious agents and the broader role of infection as a cause of chronic diseases. The association between vector-borne transmission and virulence explains why diseases such as malaria, yellow fever, dengue, sleeping sickness, and visceral leishmaniasis are so severe, whereas most of the respiratory-tract pathogens of humans are relatively benign. Evolutionary management of the virulence of vector-borne diseases requires interventions that elevate the immobilization of hosts more costly to the infecting pathogens. Although sexually transmitted pathogens are molded by natural selection to be benign over the short run, this long-term persistence within hosts raises the possibility of long-term damage, even though there is low probability of severe damage during any small period of time during the first years of infection. The theoretical framework for understanding the evolution of virulence of sexually transmitted pathogens provides clues about which infectious agents are the most likely causes of these illnesses.

abstract:
  At the close of the 19th century, the germ theory had generated a new understanding of the causes of acute infectious diseases and revealed new directions for study. This understanding contributed to the greatest improvements in health in the history of medicine. At the end of the 20th century, the second stage of this disciplinary development is occurring. The old germ theory is being expanded into a new germ theory, which, by integrated the full spectrum of biologic disciplines. This new germ theory is emphasizing how environments and human activities influence the characteristics of infectious agents and the broader role of infection as a cause of chronic diseases.


id: cord-308165-pk8d48hs
author: Olu, Olushayo Oluseun
date: 2020-10-28
url: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-020-00740-0
doi: 10.1186/s40249-020-00740-0
title:
  Moving from rhetoric to action: how Africa can use scientific evidence to halt the COVID-19 pandemic

abstract:
  The ongoing pandemic of the coronavirus disease 2019 has spread rapidly to all countries of the world. Africa is particularly predisposed to an escalation of the pandemic and its negative impact given its weak economy and health systems. In addition, inadequate access to the social determinants of health such as water and sanitation and socio-cultural attributes may constrain the implementation of critical preventive measures such as hand washing and social distancing on the continent. Given these facts, the continent needs to focus on targeted and high impact prevention and control strategies and interventions which could break the chain of transmission quickly. We conclude that the available body of scientific evidence on the coronavirus disease 2019 holds the key to the development of such strategies and interventions. Going forward, we recommend that the African research community should scale up research to provide scientific evidence for a better characterization of the epidemiology, transmission dynamics, prevention and control of the virus on the continent.


id: cord-311382-ioemd0ij
title: Recognition of aerosol transmission of infectious agents: a commentary
author: Tellier, Raymond
date: 2019-01-31
txt: ./txt/cord-311382-ioemd0ij.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-311382-ioemd0ij.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-019-3707-y
doi: 10.1186/s12879-019-3707-y
summary:
  For example, when the infectious dose (the number of infectious agents required to cause disease) of an organism is low, and where large numbers of pathogen-laden droplets are produced in crowded conditions with poor ventilation (in hospital waiting rooms, in lecture theatres, on public transport, etc.), explosive outbreaks can still occur, even with pathogens whose airborne transmission capacity is controversial, e.g. the spread of influenza in a grounded plane where multiple secondary cases were observed in the absence of any ventilation [11] . For example, tighter control of the environment may reduce or prevent airborne transmission by: 1) isolating infectious patients in a single-bed, negative pressure isolation room [25] ; 2) controlling environmental relative humidity to reduce airborne influenza survival [59] ; 3) reducing exposure from aerosols produced by patients through coughing, sneezing or breathing with the use of personal protective equipment (wearing a mask) on the patient (to reduce source emission) and/or the healthcare worker (to reduce recipient exposure) [60] ; 4) carefully controlling the use and exposure to any respiratory assist devices (high-flow oxygen masks, nebulizers) by only allowing their use in designated, containment areas or rooms [61] .

abstract:
  Although short-range large-droplet transmission is possible for most respiratory infectious agents, deciding on whether the same agent is also airborne has a potentially huge impact on the types (and costs) of infection control interventions that are required. The concept and definition of aerosols is also discussed, as is the concept of large droplet transmission, and airborne transmission which is meant by most authors to be synonymous with aerosol transmission, although some use the term to mean either large droplet or aerosol transmission. However, these terms are often used confusingly when discussing specific infection control interventions for individual pathogens that are accepted to be mostly transmitted by the airborne (aerosol) route (e.g. tuberculosis, measles and chickenpox). It is therefore important to clarify such terminology, where a particular intervention, like the type of personal protective equipment (PPE) to be used, is deemed adequate to intervene for this potential mode of transmission, i.e. at an N95 rather than surgical mask level requirement. With this in mind, this review considers the commonly used term of ‘aerosol transmission’ in the context of some infectious agents that are well-recognized to be transmissible via the airborne route. It also discusses other agents, like influenza virus, where the potential for airborne transmission is much more dependent on various host, viral and environmental factors, and where its potential for aerosol transmission may be underestimated.


id: cord-314325-nquov2i0
title: Epidemiology of Human and Animal Viral Diseases
author: Murphy, F.A.
date: 2008-07-30
txt: ./txt/cord-314325-nquov2i0.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-314325-nquov2i0.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://api.elsevier.com/content/article/pii/B9780123744104003903
doi: 10.1016/b978-012374410-4.00390-3
summary:
  Viral disease epidemiology has come to have a major role in clarifying the etiologic role of particular viruses and viral variants as the cause of specific diseases, in improving our understanding of the overall nature of specific viral diseases, and in determining factors affecting host susceptibility and immunity, in unraveling modes of transmission, in clarifying the interaction of viruses with environmental determinants of disease, in determining the safety, efficacy, and utility of vaccines and antiviral drugs, and especially in alerting and directing disease prevention and control actions. Epidemiology is also effective in (1) clarifying the role of particular viruses and viral variants as the cause of disease, (2) clarifying the interaction of viruses with environmental determinants of disease, (3) determining factors affecting host susceptibility, (4) unraveling modes of transmission, and (5) field testing of vaccines and antiviral drugs.

abstract:
  Viral disease epidemiology is the study of the determinants, dynamics, and distribution of viral diseases in populations. The risk of infection or disease in a population is determined by characteristics of the virus, the host, and the host population, as well as behavioral, environmental, and ecological factors that affect virus transmission from one host to another. Viral disease epidemiology has come to have a major role in clarifying the etiologic role of particular viruses and viral variants as the cause of specific diseases, in improving our understanding of the overall nature of specific viral diseases, and in determining factors affecting host susceptibility and immunity, in unraveling modes of transmission, in clarifying the interaction of viruses with environmental determinants of disease, in determining the safety, efficacy, and utility of vaccines and antiviral drugs, and especially in alerting and directing disease prevention and control actions. Information on incidence, prevalence, and morbidity and mortality rates contributes directly to the establishment of priorities for prevention and control programs, whether this involves vaccine or drug development and delivery, environmental and hygienic improvements, enhancement of nutritional status, personal or community behavior, agricultural and food processing enhancements, reservoir host and vector control, and international cooperation and communication.


id: cord-315744-nr0fu2qb
author: Wang, Yu
date: 2020-05-28
txt: ./txt/cord-315744-nr0fu2qb.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-315744-nr0fu2qb.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-002794
doi: 10.1136/bmjgh-2020-002794
summary:
  title: Reduction of secondary transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in households by face mask use, disinfection and social distancing: a cohort study in Beijing, China Conclusion The study confirms the highest risk of transmission prior to symptom onset, and provides the first evidence of the effectiveness of mask use, disinfection and social distancing in preventing COVID-19. Conclusion The study confirms the highest risk of transmission prior to symptom onset, and provides the first evidence of the effectiveness of mask use, disinfection and social distancing in preventing COVID-19. Given epidemic growth is dominated by household transmission, 5 6 studying the use of NPIs, such as face masks, social distancing and disinfection in the household setting, may inform community epidemic control and prevent transmission of COVID-19 in households. Transmission was significantly reduced BMJ Global Health by frequent use of chlorine or ethanol based disinfectant in households and family members (including the primary case) wearing a mask at home before the primary case developed the illness (table 4) .

title:
  Reduction of secondary transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in households by face mask use, disinfection and social distancing: a cohort study in Beijing, China

abstract:
  INTRODUCTION: Transmission of COVID-19 within families and close contacts accounts for the majority of epidemic growth. Community mask wearing, hand washing and social distancing are thought to be effective but there is little evidence to inform or support community members on COVID-19 risk reduction within families. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study of 335 people in 124 families and with at least one laboratory confirmed COVID-19 case was conducted from 28 February to 27 March 2020, in Beijing, China. The outcome of interest was secondary transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) within the family. Characteristics and practices of primary cases, of well family contacts and household hygiene practices were analysed as predictors of secondary transmission. RESULTS: The secondary attack rate in families was 23.0% (77/335). Face mask use by the primary case and family contacts before the primary case developed symptoms was 79% effective in reducing transmission (OR=0.21, 95% CI 0.06 to 0.79). Daily use of chlorine or ethanol based disinfectant in households was 77% effective (OR=0.23, 95% CI 0.07 to 0.84). Wearing a mask after illness onset of the primary case was not significantly protective. The risk of household transmission was 18 times higher with frequent daily close contact with the primary case (OR=18.26, 95% CI 3.93 to 84.79), and four times higher if the primary case had diarrhoea (OR=4.10, 95% CI 1.08 to 15.60). Household crowding was not significant. CONCLUSION: The study confirms the highest risk of transmission prior to symptom onset, and provides the first evidence of the effectiveness of mask use, disinfection and social distancing in preventing COVID-19. We also found evidence of faecal transmission. This can inform guidelines for community prevention in settings of intense COVID-19 epidemics.


id: cord-316126-j51dik7f
author: Zhang, X. Sophie
date: 2020-10-28
txt: ./txt/cord-316126-j51dik7f.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-316126-j51dik7f.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.00184-20
doi: 10.1128/cmr.00184-20
summary:
  title: SARS-CoV-2 and Health Care Worker Protection in Low-Risk Settings: a Review of Modes of Transmission and a Novel Airborne Model Involving Inhalable Particles Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been intense debate over SARS-CoV-2''s mode of transmission and appropriate personal protective equipment for health care workers in low-risk settings. This review attempts to summarize current cumulative data on SARS-CoV-2''s modes of transmission and identify gaps in research while offering preliminary answers to the question on everyone''s mind: is the airborne route significant and should we modify our COVID-19 PPE recommendations for frontline workers in low-risk settings? Given that substantial disagreement persists on the importance of natural aerosol generation by COVID-19 patients, and consequently, the necessary level of respiratory protection in non-AGP contexts, our review will focus on transmission and PPE in low-risk health care settings.

title:
  SARS-CoV-2 and Health Care Worker Protection in Low-Risk Settings: a Review of Modes of Transmission and a Novel Airborne Model Involving Inhalable Particles

abstract:
  Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been intense debate over SARS-CoV-2’s mode of transmission and appropriate personal protective equipment for health care workers in low-risk settings. The objective of this review is to identify and appraise the available evidence (clinical trials and laboratory studies on masks and respirators, epidemiological studies, and air sampling studies), clarify key concepts and necessary conditions for airborne transmission, and shed light on knowledge gaps in the field. We find that, except for aerosol-generating procedures, the overall data in support of airborne transmission—taken in its traditional definition (long-distance and respirable aerosols)—are weak, based predominantly on indirect and experimental rather than clinical or epidemiological evidence. Consequently, we propose a revised and broader definition of “airborne,” going beyond the current droplet and aerosol dichotomy and involving short-range inhalable particles, supported by data targeting the nose as the main viral receptor site. This new model better explains clinical observations, especially in the context of close and prolonged contacts between health care workers and patients, and reconciles seemingly contradictory data in the SARS-CoV-2 literature. The model also carries important implications for personal protective equipment and environmental controls, such as ventilation, in health care settings. However, further studies, especially clinical trials, are needed to complete the picture.


id: cord-320560-yn3bbkdh
title: Review of indoor aerosol generation, transport, and control in the context of COVID‐19
author: Kohanski, Michael A.
date: 2020-07-24
txt: ./txt/cord-320560-yn3bbkdh.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-320560-yn3bbkdh.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://doi.org/10.1002/alr.22661
doi: 10.1002/alr.22661
summary:
  [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] The lack of studies within the otorhinolaryngology field assessing the aerosol-generating potential of procedures involving mucosal surfaces pre-COVID-19 made it challenging to understand in an evidence-based fashion the potential risks of SARS-CoV-2 transmission associated with instrumentation of the upper airway; that is, whether these procedures may be infectious AGPs. At the early stages of the pandemic, based on the risks of exposure to high viral load mucosal surfaces, 10, 11 as well as on the lack of any immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and of any vaccines or effective treatments, an array of practice changes to protect health-care workers and patients were recommended and instituted for otorhinolaryngology procedures involving upper airway mucosal surfaces.

abstract:
  The coronavirus disease‐2019 (COVID‐19) pandemic has heightened the awareness of aerosol generation by human expiratory events and their potential role in viral respiratory disease transmission. Concerns over high severe acute respiratory syndrome‒coronavirus‐2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) viral burden of mucosal surfaces has raised questions about the aerosol‐generating potential and dangers of many otorhinolaryngologic procedures. However, the risks of aerosol generation and associated viral transmission by droplet or airborne routes for many otorhinolaryngology procedures are largely unknown. Indoor aerosol and droplet viral respiratory transmission risk is influenced by 4 factors: (1) aerosol or droplet properties; (2) indoor airflow; (3) virus‐specific factors; and (4) host‐specific factors. Herein we elaborate on known aerosol vs droplet properties, indoor airflow, and aerosol‐generating events to provide context for risks of aerosol infectious transmission. We also provide simple but typically effective measures for mitigating the spread and inhalation of viral aerosols in indoor settings. Understanding principles of infectious transmission, aerosol and droplet generation, as well as concepts of indoor airflow, will assist in the integration of new data on SARS‐CoV‐2 transmission and activities that can generate aerosol to best inform on the need for escalation or de‐escalation from current societal and institutional guidelines for protection during aerosol‐generating procedures.


id: cord-327651-yzwsqlb2
title: Network inference from multimodal data: A review of approaches from infectious disease transmission
author: Ray, Bisakha
date: 2016-09-06
txt: ./txt/cord-327651-yzwsqlb2.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-327651-yzwsqlb2.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbi.2016.09.004
doi: 10.1016/j.jbi.2016.09.004
summary:
  In infectious disease transmission network inference, Bayesian inference frameworks have been primarily used to integrate data such as dates of pathogen sample collection and symptom report date, pathogen genome sequences, and locations of patients [24] [25] [26] . Pathogen genomic data can capture within-host pathogen diversity (the product of effective population size in a generation and the average pathogen replication time [25, 26] ) and dynamics or provide information critical to understanding disease transmission such as evidence of new transmission pathways that cannot be inferred from epidemiological data alone [40, 41] . As molecular epidemiology and infectious disease transmission are areas in which network inference methods have been developed for bringing together multimodal data we use this review to investigate the foundational work in this specific field. In this section we briefly review multimodal integration methods for combining pathogen genomic data and epidemiological data in a single analysis, for inferring infection transmission trees and epidemic dynamic parameters.

abstract:
  Networks inference problems are commonly found in multiple biomedical subfields such as genomics, metagenomics, neuroscience, and epidemiology. Networks are useful for representing a wide range of complex interactions ranging from those between molecular biomarkers, neurons, and microbial communities, to those found in human or animal populations. Recent technological advances have resulted in an increasing amount of healthcare data in multiple modalities, increasing the preponderance of network inference problems. Multi-domain data can now be used to improve the robustness and reliability of recovered networks from unimodal data. For infectious diseases in particular, there is a body of knowledge that has been focused on combining multiple pieces of linked information. Combining or analyzing disparate modalities in concert has demonstrated greater insight into disease transmission than could be obtained from any single modality in isolation. This has been particularly helpful in understanding incidence and transmission at early stages of infections that have pandemic potential. Novel pieces of linked information in the form of spatial, temporal, and other covariates including high-throughput sequence data, clinical visits, social network information, pharmaceutical prescriptions, and clinical symptoms (reported as free-text data) also encourage further investigation of these methods. The purpose of this review is to provide an in-depth analysis of multimodal infectious disease transmission network inference methods with a specific focus on Bayesian inference. We focus on analytical Bayesian inference-based methods as this enables recovering multiple parameters simultaneously, for example, not just the disease transmission network, but also parameters of epidemic dynamics. Our review studies their assumptions, key inference parameters and limitations, and ultimately provides insights about improving future network inference methods in multiple applications.


id: cord-334021-ex4z2b75
author: Tupper, P.
date: 2020-10-22
txt: ./txt/cord-334021-ex4z2b75.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-334021-ex4z2b75.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.10.20.20216267
doi: 10.1101/2020.10.20.20216267
summary:
  Early evidence indicated that schools were low risk and children were unlikely to be very infectious, but it is becoming clear that children and youth can acquire and transmit COVID-19 in school settings and that transmission clusters and outbreaks can be large. Total cluster size is the number of students who are ultimately infected in class (or in both classes in the high school), including the index case. This pattern continues; with a highly infectious index case in a higher-risk room (fourth row): in the baseline protocol in which the main intervention is that symptomatic individuals do not attend, cluster sizes range from 0 to over 20 students in a single classroom (median=4, sympt. We illustrate this by showing results on cluster size for a high school with pre-COVID structure: four 1.25 hour classes every day with largely different students in each.

title:
  COVID-19''s unfortunate events in schools: mitigating classroom clusters in the context of variable transmission

abstract:
  Widespread school closures occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic. Because closures are costly and damaging, many jurisdictions have since reopened schools with control measures in place. Early evidence indicated that schools were low risk and children were unlikely to be very infectious, but it is becoming clear that children and youth can acquire and transmit COVID-19 in school settings and that transmission clusters and outbreaks can be large. We describe the contrasting literature on school transmission, and argue that the apparent discrepancy can be reconciled by heterogeneity, or ``overdispersion'' in transmission, with many exposures yielding little to no risk of onward transmission, but some unfortunate exposures causing sizeable onward transmission. In addition, respiratory viral loads are as high in children and youth as in adults, pre- and asymptomatic transmission occur, and the possibility of aerosol transmission has been established. We use a stochastic individual-based model to find the implications of these combined observations for cluster sizes and control measures. We consider both individual and environment/activity contributions to the transmission rate, as both are known to contribute to variability in transmission. We find that even small heterogeneities in these contributions result in highly variable transmission cluster sizes in the classroom setting, with clusters ranging from 1 to 20 individuals in a class of 25. None of the mitigation protocols we modeled, initiated by a positive test in a symptomatic individual, are able to prevent large transmission clusters unless the transmission rate is low (in which case large clusters do not occur in any case). Among the measures we modeled, only rapid universal monitoring (for example by regular, onsite, pooled testing) accomplished this prevention. We suggest approaches and the rationale for mitigating these ``unfortunate events'', even if they are expected to be rare.


id: cord-336687-iw3bzy0m
title: Big city, small world: density, contact rates, and transmission of dengue across Pakistan
author: Kraemer, M. U. G.
date: 2015-10-06
txt: ./txt/cord-336687-iw3bzy0m.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-336687-iw3bzy0m.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2015.0468
doi: 10.1098/rsif.2015.0468
summary:
  Here, we fitted a mathematical model of dengue virus transmission to spatial time-series data from Pakistan and compared maximum-likelihood estimates of ''mixing parameters'' when disaggregating data across an urban–rural gradient. Accounting for differences in mobility by incorporating two fine-scale, density-dependent covariate layers eliminates differences in mixing but results in a doubling of the estimated transmission potential of the large urban district of Lahore. In no application of the TSIR model to date has the potential for variation in these parameters been assessed, leaving the extent to which inhomogeneity of mixing varies across space and time as an open question in the study of infectious disease dynamics. To assess the potential for spatial variation in the inhomogeneity of mixing as it pertains dengue transmission, we performed an analysis of district-level time series of dengue transmission in the Punjab province of Pakistan using a TSIR model with separate mixing parameters for urban and rural districts.

abstract:
  Macroscopic descriptions of populations commonly assume that encounters between individuals are well mixed; i.e. each individual has an equal chance of coming into contact with any other individual. Relaxing this assumption can be challenging though, due to the difficulty of acquiring detailed knowledge about the non-random nature of encounters. Here, we fitted a mathematical model of dengue virus transmission to spatial time-series data from Pakistan and compared maximum-likelihood estimates of ‘mixing parameters’ when disaggregating data across an urban–rural gradient. We show that dynamics across this gradient are subject not only to differing transmission intensities but also to differing strengths of nonlinearity due to differences in mixing. Accounting for differences in mobility by incorporating two fine-scale, density-dependent covariate layers eliminates differences in mixing but results in a doubling of the estimated transmission potential of the large urban district of Lahore. We furthermore show that neglecting spatial variation in mixing can lead to substantial underestimates of the level of effort needed to control a pathogen with vaccines or other interventions. We complement this analysis with estimates of the relationships between dengue transmission intensity and other putative environmental drivers thereof.


id: cord-340357-gyvvcnuf
title: Being a front-line dentist during the Covid-19 pandemic: a literature review
author: Fallahi, Hamid Reza
date: 2020-04-24
url: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40902-020-00256-5
doi: 10.1186/s40902-020-00256-5
abstract:
  Coronavirus is an enveloped virus with positive-sense single-stranded RNA. Coronavirus infection in humans mainly affects the upper respiratory tract and to a lesser extent the gastrointestinal tract. Clinical symptoms of coronavirus infections can range from relatively mild (similar to the common cold) to severe (bronchitis, pneumonia, and renal involvement). The disease caused by the 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) was called Covid-19 by the World Health Organization in February 2020. Face-to-face communication and consistent exposure to body fluids such as blood and saliva predispose dental care workers at serious risk for 2019-nCoV infection. As demonstrated by the recent coronavirus outbreak, information is not enough. During dental practice, blood and saliva can be scattered. Accordingly, dental practice can be a potential risk for dental staff, and there is a high risk of cross-infection. This article addresses all information collected to date on the virus, in accordance with the guidelines of international health care institutions, and provides a comprehensive protocol for managing possible exposure to patients or those suspected of having coronavirus.


id: cord-345504-4d6rq9qj
title: Transmission routes of SARS-CoV-2
author: Patel, Jay
date: 2020-05-14
txt: ./txt/cord-345504-4d6rq9qj.txt
cache: ./cache/cord-345504-4d6rq9qj.txt
extension: .txt
mime: text/plain
url: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1991790220300878
doi: 10.1016/j.jds.2020.05.005
abstract: nan
summary:
  title: Transmission routes of SARS-CoV-2 journal: J Dent Sci However, the authors make inaccurate references to the established transmission routes of SARS-CoV-2. The authors state that the novel coronavirus is spread via aerosols and the faecal-oral route, in spite of a largely undeveloped evidence-base in support of these pathways. 2 Indeed, aerosol-generating procedures (AGPs) are implied in facilitating airborne transmission but limited evidence is available to support this for SARS-CoV-2. The authors imply confirmation of the faecal-oral route and reference a paper by Meng and colleagues however this seems to have been misinterpreted. Although the suggested infection control measures for oral healthcare settings seem practical, a thorough awareness of transmission routes is pre-requisite to devising effective advice. Oral healthcare during the COVID-19 pandemic Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): emerging and future challenges for dental and oral medicine COVID-19: faecaleoral transmission? Please cite this article as: Patel J, Transmission routes of SARS-CoV-2


id: cord-347262-q88g1561
author: Schutzer‐Weissmann, J.
date: 2020-07-11
url: https://doi.org/10.1111/anae.15221
doi: 10.1111/anae.15221
title:
  Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) infection risk during elective peri‐operative care: a narrative review

abstract:
  The protection of healthcare workers from the risk of nosocomial severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) infection is a paramount concern. SARS‐CoV‐2 is likely to remain endemic and measures to protect healthcare workers against nosocomial infection will need to be maintained. This review aims to inform the assessment and management of the risk of SARS‐CoV‐2 transmission to healthcare workers involved in elective peri‐operative care. In the absence of data specifically related to the risk of SARS‐CoV‐2 transmission in the peri‐operative setting, we explore the evidence‐base that exists regarding modes of viral transmission, historical evidence for the risk associated with aerosol‐generating procedures and contemporaneous data from the COVID‐19 pandemic. We identify a significant lack of data regarding the risk of transmission in the management of elective surgical patients, highlighting the urgent need for further research.


id: cord-347351-emdj66vj
author: Kampf, Günter
date: 2020-09-18
url: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2020.09.022
doi: 10.1016/j.jhin.2020.09.022
title:
  Potential sources, modes of transmission and effectiveness of prevention measures against SARS-CoV-2

abstract:
  During the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic new studies are emerging daily providing novel information about sources, transmission risks and possible prevention measures. In this review, we aimed to comprehensively summarize the current evidence on possible sources for SARS-CoV-2, including evaluation of transmission risks and effectiveness of applied prevention measures. Next to symptomatic patients, asymptomatic or pre-symptomatic carriers are a possible source with respiratory secretions as the most likely cause for viral transmission. Air and inanimate surfaces may be sources; however, viral RNA has been inconsistently detected. Similarly, even though SARS-CoV-2 RNA has been detected on or in personnel protective equipment, blood, urine, eyes, the gastrointestinal tract and pets, these sources are currently thought to play a negligible role for transmission. Finally, various prevention measures such as hand washing, hand disinfection, face masks, gloves, surface disinfection or physical distancing for the healthcare setting and public are analysed for their expected protective effect.


id: cord-348192-ibohbjfb
title: Could Water and Sanitation Shortfalls Exacerbate SARS-CoV-2 Transmission Risks?
author: Odih, Erkison E.
date: 2020-06-09
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32524953/
doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.20-0462
abstract:
  SARS-CoV-2, the etiologic agent of COVID-19, is shed in stool. SARS coronaviruses have been detected in wastewater during outbreaks in China, Europe, and the United States. In this perspective, we outline the risk fecal shedding poses at locations without safely managed sanitation, as in most of Nigeria where we work. We believe that feco-oral transmission could occur if community transmission becomes high and sustained in densely populated cities without proper sanitation in Nigeria and many other African and Asian settings. In the absence of basic sanitation, or where existing sanitation is not safely managed, groundwater, which is often drawn up from wells and boreholes for drinking and household use, can become contaminated with enteric bacteria and viruses from fecal matter. Endemic and epidemic transmission of multiple feco-oral pathogens via this route continues to be documented in areas without safely managed sanitation, and, therefore, the risk of SARS-CoV-2 transmission needs to be evaluated, tracked, and forestalled in such settings. We suggest that fecal matter from treatment facilities and recovered patients should be carefully and properly disposed. Furthermore, environmental surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater and accumulated human waste, as well as efforts to mitigate the virus’ entry into unprotected household water sources, should be a priority part of the COVID-19 response in settings without safely managed sanitation for the duration of the pandemic.


id: cord-350519-3h5ipcwn
title: Characteristics associated with household transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in Ontario, Canada
author: Paul, L. A.
date: 2020-10-26
txt: ./txt/cord-350519-3h5ipcwn.txt
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url: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.10.22.20217802
doi: 10.1101/2020.10.22.20217802
summary:
  From adjusted logistic models, we observed increased odds of any household transmission with longer testing delays for the index case compared to 0-day (i.e., the individual was tested on the same day as their symptom onset) testing delays (ORs: 1-day delay=2·02, 2-day delay=1·96, 3-day delay=2·36, 4-day delay=2·64, ≥5-day delay=3·02) (Figure 3 , Supplementary Table S4 ). In this retrospective study of 26,152 confirmed cases of COVID-19 residing in 21,226 private households, we found that longer testing delays and male sex were associated with greater odds of household secondary transmission, while being a healthcare worker or linked to a known outbreak was associated with lower odds of household transmission. Adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for the associations between index case delay metrics and odds of household transmission 269 cases were excluded from the testing delay models that had COVID-19 symptoms flagged in provincial reportable disease systems but were missing symptom onset date.

abstract:
  BACKGROUND: Within-household transmission of SARS-CoV-2 infection has been identified as one of the main sources of spread of COVID-19 after lockdown restrictions and self-isolation guidelines are implemented. Secondary attack rates among household contacts are estimated to be five to ten times higher than among non-household contacts, but it is unclear which individuals are more prone to transmit infection within their households. METHODS: Using address matching, a cohort was assembled of all laboratory-confirmed cases of COVID-19 residing in private households in Ontario, Canada. Descriptive analyses were performed to compare characteristics of cases in households that experienced secondary transmission versus those that did not. Logistic regression models were fit to determine index case characteristics and neighbourhood characteristics associated with transmission. FINDINGS: Between January and July, 2020, there were 26,152 cases of COVID-19 residing in 21,226 households. Longer testing delays ([≥]5 days versus 0 days OR=3.02, 95% CI: 2.53 - 3.60) and male sex (OR=1.28, 95% CI: 1.18 - 1.38) were associated with greater odds of household secondary transmission, while being a healthcare worker (OR=0.56, 95% CI: 0.50 - 0.62) was associated with lower odds of transmission. Neighbourhoods with larger average economic family size and a higher proportion of households with multiple persons per room were also associated with greater odds of transmission. INTERPRETATION: It is important for individuals to get tested for SARS-CoV-2 infection as soon as symptoms appear, and to isolate away from household contacts; this is particularly important in neighbourhoods with large family sizes and/or crowded households.


id: cord-351225-dq0xu85c
title: Transmission and control of SARS
author: Poutanen, Susan M.
date: 2004
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15142486/
doi: 10.1007/s11908-004-0012-7
abstract:
  Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) was first recognized in China in November 2002 and was subsequently associated with a worldwide outbreak involving 8098 people, 774 of whom died. The outbreak was declared contained on July 5, 2003, after the last human chain of transmission of SARS had been broken. Whether outbreaks of SARS will return is debatable, but no one disagrees that it is important to be prepared for this possibility. This article presents an overview of the transmission and control of SARS based on the current state of knowledge derived from published studies of the outbreak and on our own personal experience.


id: cord-351905-tjcyvkcv
title: Controlling emerging zoonoses at the animal-human interface
author: Mummah, Riley O.
date: 2020-09-18
url: https://doi.org/10.1186/s42522-020-00024-5
doi: 10.1186/s42522-020-00024-5
abstract:
  BACKGROUND: For many emerging or re-emerging pathogens, cases in humans arise from a mixture of introductions (via zoonotic spillover from animal reservoirs or geographic spillover from endemic regions) and secondary human-to-human transmission. Interventions aiming to reduce incidence of these infections can be focused on preventing spillover or reducing human-to-human transmission, or sometimes both at once, and typically are governed by resource constraints that require policymakers to make choices. Despite increasing emphasis on using mathematical models to inform disease control policies, little attention has been paid to guiding rational disease control at the animal-human interface. METHODS: We introduce a modeling framework to analyze the impacts of different disease control policies, focusing on pathogens exhibiting subcritical transmission among humans (i.e. pathogens that cannot establish sustained human-to-human transmission). We quantify the relative effectiveness of measures to reduce spillover (e.g. reducing contact with animal hosts), human-to-human transmission (e.g. case isolation), or both at once (e.g. vaccination), across a range of epidemiological contexts. RESULTS: We provide guidelines for choosing which mode of control to prioritize in different epidemiological scenarios and considering different levels of resource and relative costs. We contextualize our analysis with current zoonotic pathogens and other subcritical pathogens, such as post-elimination measles, and control policies that have been applied. CONCLUSIONS: Our work provides a model-based, theoretical foundation to understand and guide policy for subcritical zoonoses, integrating across disciplinary and species boundaries in a manner consistent with One Health principles.


id: cord-354254-89vjfkfd
author: Peng, Shanbi
date: 2020-08-31
url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33027870/
doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142090
title:
  The role of computational fluid dynamics tools on investigation of pathogen transmission: Prevention and control

abstract:
  Transmission mechanics of infectious pathogen in various environments are of great complexity and has always been attracting many researchers' attention. As a cost-effective and powerful method, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) plays an important role in numerically solving environmental fluid mechanics. Besides, with the development of computer science, an increasing number of researchers start to analyze pathogen transmission by using CFD methods. Inspired by the impact of COVID-19, this review summarizes research works of pathogen transmission based on CFD methods with different models and algorithms. Defining the pathogen as the particle or gaseous in CFD simulation is a common method and epidemic models are used in some investigations to rise the authenticity of calculation. Although it is not so difficult to describe the physical characteristics of pathogens, how to describe the biological characteristics of it is still a big challenge in the CFD simulation. A series of investigations which analyzed pathogen transmission in different environments (hospital, teaching building, etc) demonstrated the effect of airflow on pathogen transmission and emphasized the importance of reasonable ventilation. Finally, this review presented three advanced methods: LBM method, Porous Media method, and Web-based forecasting method. Although CFD methods mentioned in this review may not alleviate the current pandemic situation, it helps researchers realize the transmission mechanisms of pathogens like viruses and bacteria and provides guidelines for reducing infection risk in epidemic or pandemic situations.


id: cord-355024-v5lahyw4
title: Principles of Infectious Diseases: Transmission, Diagnosis, Prevention, and Control
author: van Seventer, Jean Maguire
date: 2016-10-24
url: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128036785005166
doi: 10.1016/b978-0-12-803678-5.00516-6
abstract:
  Infectious disease control and prevention relies on a thorough understanding of the factors determining transmission. This article summarizes the fundamental principles of infectious disease transmission while highlighting many of the agent, host, and environmental determinants of these diseases that are of particular import to public health professionals. Basic principles of infectious disease diagnosis, control, and prevention are also reviewed.


