key: cord-022736-38q8jbcl
authors: Coppola, Damon P.
title: Participants – Multilateral Organizations and International Financial Institutions
date: 2015-02-06
journal: Introduction to International Disaster Management
DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-801477-6.00010-1
sha: 
doc_id: 22736
cord_uid: 38q8jbcl

Multilateral organizations are composed of sovereign governments. They may be regional, organized around a common issue or function, or global. International financial institutions (IFIs) are international banks composed of sovereign member states that use public money from the Member States to provide technical and financial support for developing countries. The United Nations is the organization most involved in the mitigation of, preparedness for, response to, and recovery from disasters around the world. It is considered the best equipped to do so because of its strong relationships with most countries, especially the developing countries where assistance is most needed. When disasters strike, the UN is one of the first organizations to mobilize, and it remains in the affected countries during the recovery period for many years after. The Consolidated Appeal Process is one way the UN garners international support for relief and reconstruction. In many regions, governments have formed smaller international organizations, many of which address risk, as well. The IFIs provide nations with low capital reserves funding in the aftermath of disasters recovery reconstruction. The World Bank is regarded as one of the largest sources of development assistance.

A multilateral organization is an organization composed of the central governments of sovereign nations. Multilateral organizations are also called intergovernmental organizations and international organizations. Member States come together under a charter of rules and responsibilities they have drawn up and agreed on. Multilateral organizations may be regionally based (e.g., the European Union [EU] , the Association of South East Asian Nations [ASEAN]), organized around a common issue or function (e.g., the North Atlantic Treaty Organization [NATO] , the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries [OPEC]), or globally based (e.g., the United Nations [UN] ). Like sovereign states, they are recognized as having an established legal status under international law. The UN is the most well-known and largest of all of the multilateral organizations because its membership draws from nearly every nation, and because it covers a wide range of issues.

The first international organization to address the topic of disaster management was the International Relief Union (IRU), which was founded in Italy in 1921 and later integrated into the League of single vote, with key issues decided by two-thirds majority. (Less significant matters are decided by simple majority.) As mentioned earlier, the General Assembly cannot force its decisions on a sovereign state, although they generally receive wide support. The Assembly holds regular sessions from September to December, and special/emergency sessions may be called at any time. When not in session, the Assembly's work is carried out by its six main committees, other subsidiary bodies, and the Secretariat.

The UN Security Council's primary responsibility is maintaining international peace and security in accordance with the UN Charter. This council, which convenes at will, consists of 15 members, five of which are permanent members (China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States). All UN Member States are obligated to carry out the Council's decisions. Decisions require nine affirmative votes, including all five votes of the permanent members. When the Council 

Source: UN, 2014a. considers threats to international peace, it first explores peaceful settlement options. If fighting is under way, the Council attempts to secure a cease-fire, and it may send a peacekeeping mission to help the parties maintain the truce and keep opposing forces apart. The Council can take measures to enforce its decisions, such as imposing economic sanctions or arms embargoes. On rare occasions, the Council has authorized Member States to use "all necessary means," including collective military action, to see that its decisions are carried out. These are referred to as "peacemaking operations."

The Economic and Social Council is the central mechanism by which international economic and social issues are addressed and by which policy recommendations are created. It also consults with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to create and maintain working partnerships between the UN and civil society. The Council has 54 members, elected by the General Assembly for three-year terms. It meets throughout the year, but its main session is held in July, during which major economic, social, and humanitarian issues are discussed. The Council has several subsidiary bodies that regularly meet to address issues such as human rights, social development, the status of women, crime prevention, narcotic drugs, and environmental protection.

The Trusteeship Council originally provided international supervision for 11 trust territories administered by seven Member States and ensured that adequate steps were taken to prepare the territories for self-government or independence. By 1994, all trust territories had attained self-government or independence. Its work completed, the Trusteeship Council now consists of the five permanent members of the Security Council. It has amended its rules of procedure to allow it to meet as and when the occasion may require.

The International Court of Justice, also known as the World Court, is the UN's main judicial organ. The World Court consists of 15 judges elected jointly by the General Assembly and the Security Council. It serves to settle disputes between countries. Participation is voluntary, but when a state agrees to participate, it must comply with the Court's decision. The Court also provides advisory opinions to the General Assembly and the Security Council on request.

The Secretariat carries out the day-to-day work of the UN as directed by the General Assembly, the Security Council, and the other organs. At its head is the Secretary General, who provides overall administrative guidance. The Secretariat is made up of various departments and offices and maintains a total staff of about 40,000 people throughout the world. Duty stations include the UN Headquarters in New York and offices in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi, as well as other locations.

The Secretariat's functions are diverse, ranging from "administering peacekeeping operations to mediating international disputes, from surveying economic and social trends and problems to preparing studies on human rights and sustainable development" . The Secretariat staffs also work to publicize the UN's work through the world media and to organize conferences on issues of global concern. Secretariat staffs are considered international civil servants and answer only to the UN for their activities.

disaster-response-oriented projects to disaster mitigation, the UN adopted the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction to promote disaster reduction and risk mitigation as part of its central mission. This initiative continues to evolve in its pursuit of disaster risk reduction, promoting global resilience to the effects of natural hazards, and reducing human, economic, and social losses by:

• increasing public awareness of the hazard risks faced and the options to address them • obtaining commitment from public authorities to mainstream risk reduction into their work • stimulating interdisciplinary and intersectoral partnership and expanding risk-reduction networking at all levels • enhancing scientific research on the causes of natural disasters and the effects of natural hazards and related technological and environmental disasters on societies These strategies are integrated into the work carried out by each UN Country Office and promoted to the national and local governments in each member country where the UN works. Hazard mitigation and disaster preparedness strategies are communicated to members of all levels of society via public awareness campaigns, and promoted by obtaining commitment from public authorities, facilitating cooperation and communication between various government and non-governmental sectors, and enabling the provision or transfer of technical knowledge.

Because the UN is such a complex organization, it can be difficult to illustrate the myriad ways in which it addresses disaster management other than to describe the role of each organization and agency in this area.

The UN General Assembly does not partake in any operational disaster management activities. However, as the main deliberative organ of the UN, it is responsible for launching many influential and effective disaster management programs that are ultimately carried out by the various UN offices and by the UN Member State governments. Examples include the endorsement of the UNDP Capacity for Disaster Reduction Initiative (CADRI) and the launching of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction and its subsequent International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. The General Assembly is also responsible for organizing and reorganizing the UN system to maximize its disaster management capabilities, as in 1997 under the UN Program for Reform (1997) , which created the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) and the UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR).

The UN Secretariat is the international working staff of UN employees located at duty stations throughout the world. The UN Secretariat employees carry out the diverse day-to-day work of the various UN offices. It services the principal UN organs and administers the programs and policies laid down by them. At its head is the Secretary-General, who is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for five-year renewable terms.

The Secretariat has approximately 43,000 employees. As international civil servants, staff members and the Secretary-General answer only to the UN and take an oath not to seek or receive instructions from any government or outside authority. Under the Charter, each member state agrees to respect the appointed Valerie Amos of Guyana to replace Mr. John Holmes of the United Kingdom as Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs/UN Emergency Relief Coordinator.

OCHA regional offices monitor the onset of natural and technological disasters. Staff are trained in disaster assessment and post-disaster evaluation methods before disasters strike. Once an impending or actual disaster event is identified, OCHA initiates response and generates a situation report to provide the international response community with detailed information, including damage assessment, actions taken, needs assessment, and current assistance provided. If necessary, OCHA may then deploy a UN Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team to assist relief activity coordination and assess damages and needs.

If a disaster appears inevitable or is already unfolding, the ERC in consultation with IASC may designate a humanitarian coordinator (HC), who becomes the most senior UN humanitarian official on the ground for the emergency. The HC is directly accountable to the ERC, increasing the likelihood that the humanitarian assistance provided is quick, effective, and well-coordinated. The HC appointment generally signals that the event merits a long-term humanitarian presence. The criteria used by the ERC to determine whether to appoint an HC center on the need for intensive and extensive political OChA organizational chart Source: OCHA, 2010a. management, mediation, and coordination to enable the delivery of humanitarian response, including negotiated access to affected populations; massive humanitarian assistance requiring action by a range of participants beyond a single national authority; and a high degree of external political support, often from the UN Security Council.

An On-Site Operations Coordination Center (OSOCC) may be set up in the field to assist local firstresponse teams to coordinate the often overwhelming number of responding agencies. The OSOCC has three primary objectives: (1) to be a link between international responders and the government of the affected country; (2) to provide a system for coordinating and facilitating the activities of international relief efforts at a disaster site; and (3) to provide a platform for cooperation, coordination, and information management among international humanitarian agencies.

Finally, OCHA can set up communications capabilities if they have been damaged or do not exist at an adequate level, as required by the UN responding agencies. OCHA generally concludes its responsibilities when the operation moves from response to recovery.

Overall, OCHA coordination is performed to maximize the response and recovery capabilities that converge on the disaster scene, and to minimize duplications and inefficiencies. The structures and policies that have been established to support this function include (adapted from OCHA 2005):

• Developing common strategies. Humanitarian assistance is most effective when common priorities and goals exist among stakeholders and responders agree on tactics and jointly monitor progress. OCHA works with its partners to develop a common humanitarian action plan and to establish clear divisions of responsibility. • Assessing situations and needs. OCHA staff assume responsible for assessing damages and identifying needs, developing a plan of action to meeting those needs, and monitoring progress. Responses are adjusted, if necessary, using ongoing analysis of political, social, economic, and military environments and by assessing humanitarian needs to help the responding agencies better understand the situation. • Convening coordination forums. In its role as coordinator, OCHA holds a wide range of meetings to bring together the various disaster management players for planning and information exchange. These meetings help the participants to more accurately analyze the overall status of humanitarian relief efforts as well as network and share lessons learned and best practices. • Mobilizing resources. Through the CAP, OCHA leads the drive to get governments to commit funding and resources necessary to address the identified needs. Allocation of funds has been found to be more efficient within this centralized system. • Addressing common problems. Every crisis is unique, and both new and old problems arise.

As coordinator, OCHA analyzes and addresses problems common to humanitarian actors, such as negotiating with warring parties to gain access to civilians in need, or working with UN security officials to support preparedness and response measures in changing security situations. • Administering coordination mechanisms and tools. OCHA, and the UN in general, have several tools with which they can better address the humanitarian needs of disaster victims. These include the IASC; rapid-response tools, such as the UN Disaster Assessment and Coordination Teams and the International Search and Rescue Advisory Group; and smaller forums such as the Geographic Information Support Team. OCHA also assists with civil-military cooperation, ensuring a more efficient use of military and civil defense assets in humanitarian operations.

The Field Coordination Support Unit in Geneva manages OCHA's human, technical, and logistical resources. These resources are primarily provided by the Danish and Norwegian Refugee Councils, the Danish Emergency Management Agency, the Swedish Rescue Services Agency, and the Emergency Logistics Management Team of the United Kingdom Overseas Development Administration.

The Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs/Emergency Relief Coordinator advises the UN Secretary-General on disaster-related issues, chairs the Executive Committee on Humanitarian Affairs (ECHA), and leads the IASC. The coordinator is assisted by a deputy, who holds the position of Deputy Emergency Relief Coordinator (DERC) and is responsible for key coordination, policy, and management issues.

The Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) was established in 1992 under UN Resolution 46/182. It serves as a platform within which the broad range of UN and non-UN humanitarian partners (including UN humanitarian agencies, the International Organization for Migration, three consortia of major international NGOs, and the Red Cross movement) may come together to address the humanitarian needs resulting from a disaster. The IASC's primary role is to formulate humanitarian policy that ensures a coordinated and effective response to all kinds of disaster and emergency situations. The primary objectives of the IASC are to:

• Develop and agree on system-wide humanitarian policies • Allocate responsibilities among agencies in humanitarian programs • Develop and agree on a common ethical framework for all humanitarian activities • Advocate common humanitarian principles to parties outside the IASC • Identify areas where gaps in mandates or lack of operational capacity exist • Resolve disputes or disagreement about and between humanitarian agencies on system-wide humanitarian issues (OCHA 2005) IASC members (both full members and standing invitees) include:

• 

The OCHA Donor Relations Section (DRS), separated from the CAP in 2003, is the focal point for all relations with donors, particularly for funding-related issues. DRS advises the senior management team on policy issues related to interaction with donors and resource mobilization. In addition, it plays a key role in facilitating the interaction of all OCHA entities with donors, both at headquarters and in the field level.

The Coordination and Response Division (CRD) was created in 2004 by joining the former New Yorkbased Humanitarian Emergency Branch and the Geneva-based Response Coordination Branch. CRD is responsible for providing disaster-related direction, guidance, and support to the ERC, the UN Resident/Humanitarian Coordinators, and OCHA's field offices (including the deployment of extra personnel as necessary, or providing emergency cash grants).

Based in Geneva, the OCHA Emergency Services Board (ESB) was created to expedite the provision of international humanitarian assistance. ESB develops, mobilizes, and coordinates the deployment of OCHA's international rapid response "toolkit"-the expertise, systems, and services that aim to improve humanitarian assistance in support of disaster-afflicted countries. ESB's humanitarian response activities include the coordination of disaster response and assessment (UNDAC; see in the following section), the setting of international urban search and rescue standards (INSARAG; see in the following section), and the establishment of OSOCCs. ESB supports OCHA field offices through the following:

• Surge capacity and standby partnerships • Military and civil liaison and mobilization of military and civil defense assets • Dispatch of relief supplies and specialized assistance in environmental emergencies • Dissemination of disaster-related information by means of ReliefWeb, the Central Register of Disaster Management Capacities, and the Virtual OnSite Operations Coordination Center.

Within the ESB are seven separate sections, established to manage particular aspects of disaster response:

1. Civil-Military Coordination Section 2. Emergency Preparedness Section 3. Environmental Emergencies Unit 4. Emergency Relief Coordination Centre 5. Field Coordination Support Section 6. Logistics Support Unit 7. Surge Capacity Section Established by the IASC in 1995, the Civil Military Coordination Section (CMCS), previously named Military and Civil Defense Unit (MCDU), is the focal point for the efficient mobilization of military and civil defense assets for use in humanitarian emergencies and for liaison with governments, international organizations, regional organizations, and military-civil defense establishments deploying these assets. It also coordinates UN agency participation and participates in major military exercises comprising significant humanitarian scenarios. This section is responsible for the overall management of the OCHA Central Register of Disaster Management Capacities, with specific maintenance of the MCDA Directory of Military and Civil Defense Assets and expertise. CMCS acts as a facilitator and secretariat to the development of documents involving the broad international humanitarian community and is custodian of the "Oslo" and "MCDA" guidelines detailing the use of MCDA in support of UN humanitarian operations in natural, technological, and environmental disasters and complex emergencies, respectively.

The Emergency Preparedness Section (EPS) helps to maintain OCHA's operational readiness and to reinforce disaster preparedness work. EPS works with stakeholders at the national government level in UN member countries in order to help build disaster response and recovery capacity in advance of disasters. Much of the work performed by this unit is guided by the Hyogo Framework for Action, which recommends the strengthening of disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels.

The Environmental Emergencies Unit, or the Joint UN Environmental Programme (UNEP)/OCHA Environment Unit, serves as the integrated UN emergency response mechanism that provides international assistance to countries experiencing environmental disasters and emergencies. This joint unit can rapidly mobilize and coordinate emergency assistance and response resources to countries facing environmental emergencies and natural disasters with significant environmental impacts. The unit performs several key functions geared toward facilitating rapid and coordinated disaster response:

• Monitoring. The unit performs continuous monitoring and ongoing communication with an international network of contacts and permanent monitoring of news services and websites for early notification of environmental occurrences. • Notification. When disasters strike, the unit alerts the international community and issues "Information and Situation" reports to a comprehensive list of worldwide contacts. • Brokerage. The unit is able to quickly establish contact between the affected country and donor governments ready and willing to assist and provide needed response resources. • Information clearinghouse. The unit serves as an effective focal point to ensure information on chemicals, maps, and satellite images from donor sources and institutions are channeled to relevant authorities in the affected country. • Mobilization of assistance. The unit mobilizes assistance from the international donor community when requested by affected countries. • Assessment. The unit can dispatch international experts to assess an emergency's impacts and to make impartial and independent recommendations about response, cleanup, remediation, and rehabilitation. • Financial assistance. In certain circumstances, the unit can release OCHA emergency cash grants of up to $50,000 to meet immediate emergency response needs.

The Emergency Relief Coordination Center (ERCC) is the physical facility where OCHA centralized coordination activities are focused. The facility enables closer collaboration between internal and external humanitarian stakeholders and has the capacity to serve as an OCHA Situation Centre, providing updates on humanitarian relief activities worldwide. The Centre consists of a main task force room, a small conference room that can also be used for a second task force, and a technical room to control all facility capabilities. The ERCC allows OCHA to coordinate two response teams simultaneously.

The Field Coordination Support Section (FCSS) was established within ESB in 1996 to support national governments and the UN Resident Coordinators in developing, preparing, and maintaining "standby capacity" for rapid deployment to sudden-onset emergencies to conduct rapid needs assessments and coordination. FCSS manages several programs and offices to improve international disaster coordination and cooperation, including:

• The United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team. The UNDAC team is made up of disaster management specialists selected and funded by the governments of UN Member States, OCHA, UNDP, and operational humanitarian UN agencies (such as WFP, UNICEF, and WHO). It provides rapid needs assessments and supports national authorities and the UN Resident Coordinator in organizing international relief. UNDAC teams are on permanent standby status so that they can deploy within hours. • The International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG) . INSARAG is an intergovernmental network within the UN that manages urban search and rescue (USAR) and related disasterresponse issues. It promotes information exchange, defines international USAR standards, and develops methodologies for international cooperation and coordination in earthquake response. • The Virtual On-Site Operations Coordination Centre (Virtual OSOCC). The Internet has made it possible for humanitarian relief agencies to share and exchange disaster information continuously and simultaneously, and between any locations where Internet access can be obtained. The Virtual OSOCC is a central repository of information maintained by OCHA that facilitates this exchange of information with NGOs and responding governments. The information is stored on an interactive web-based database, where users can comment on existing information and discuss issues of concern with other stakeholders.

The Logistics Support Unit (LSU) manages stocks of basic relief items that can be dispatched immediately to disaster-or emergency-stricken areas. The stockpile, which is located at the UN Humanitarian Response Depot in Brindisi, Italy, includes nonfood, nonmedical relief items (such as shelter, water purification and distribution systems, and household items) donated by UN member governments. The LSU is also involved in other logistical challenges, such as designing contingency plans for the rapid deployment of emergency relief flights and providing interface on logistical matters with other humanitarian agencies (such as WFP, WHO, UNHCR, IFRC, and ICRC). The LSU participates in the operation of a UN Joint Logistics Center (see exhibit 10.1) and has co-sponsored an effort to adopt a UN-wide system for tracking

The UN Joint Logistics Center (UNJLC) is an interagency facility reporting to the Humanitarian Coordinator [within a CHE], and overall to the IASC. Its mandate is to coordinate and optimize the logistics capabilities of humanitarian organizations in large-scale emergencies. UNJLC operates under the direction of the World Food Programme (WFP), who is responsible for the administrative and financial management of the Centre. The UNJLC is funded from voluntary contributions channeled through WFP.

The requirement to establish [the UNJLC] was born out of the humanitarian response to the 1996 Eastern Zaire crisis, which demanded intensified coordination and pooling of logistics assets among UNHCR, WFP, and UNICEF. The interagency logistics coordination model was applied on subsequent UNJLC interventions in Somalia, Kosovo, East Timor, Mozambique, India, and Afghanistan. In March 2002, UNJLC concept was institutionalized as a UN humanitarian response mechanism, under the aegis of WFP, by the Inter-Agency Standing Committee Working Group (IASC-WG). The UNJLC core unit was subsequently established in Rome.

In case of major disaster with substantial humanitarian multi-sector involvement during the immediate relief phase, the UN agencies involved may consider that the establishment of a Joint Logistics Centre would contribute to the rapid response, better coordination, and improved efficiency of the humanitarian operation at hand. . . . A standby capacity will be developed for facilitating, if required, the timely activation and deployment in the field of a United Nations Joint Logistics Centre-UNJLC. The UNJLC will support the United Nations agencies and possibly other humanitarian organisations that operate in the same crisis area. The capacity includes the option to establish satellite Joint Logistic Centres (JLC) dispersed at critical locations in the [affected area] and offering logistics support on a reduced scale. . . . Upon [UNJLC] activation, agencies will establish a Deployment Requirements Assessment (DRA) Team to carry out a quick evaluation of the logistics situation and determine the requirements to deploy the UNJLC in the crisis area. This DRA Team will work in close coordination with the humanitarian authorities and, if deployed, with the United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) Team. It will take all necessary measures for installing the UNJLC and draft Ad Hoc Terms of Reference (TOR) for endorsement by the relevant humanitarian authorities. In case of peacekeeping operations or in a complex environment, the UNJLC activation will be coordinated with the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) or the relevant military entities.

• The role of the UNJLC will be to optimise and complement the logistics capabilities of cooperating agencies within a well-defined crisis area for the benefit of the ongoing humanitarian operation. • The UNJLC will provide logistics support at operational planning, coordination, and monitoring levels. Unless specified otherwise, the UN agencies and other humanitarian bodies, which are established in the area, will continue (Continued) relief supplies and common procedures for air operations. Finally, the LSU contributes information related to stockpiles and customs facilitation agreements (which helps speed up the delivery of relief items). The Surge Capacity Section (SCS) works to ensure OCHA always has the means and resources to rapidly mobilize and deploy staff and materials to address the needs of countries affected by suddenonset emergencies. SCS operates using a number of distinct surge capacity resources, which include:

• The Emergency Response Roster (ERR). ERR, which became active in June 2002, aims to rapidly deploy OCHA staff to sudden-onset emergencies to conduct assessments and establish initial coordination mechanisms. The 35 staff included in the ERR are deployable within 48 hours of a request for their services through a deployment methodology based on the UNDAC model. Staff serve on the roster for about six months. • The Stand-By Partnerships Programme (SBPP). SBPP is structured on legal agreements with 12 partner organizations that provide short-term staffing to field operations free of charge when gaps arise. Partners maintain their own rosters of trained and experienced humanitarian professionals, many of whom have OCHA or other UN humanitarian experience. SBPP staff can usually be deployed within four weeks of the formal request, and an average deployment lasts five to six months. • Associates Surge Pool (ASP). ASP, which was created in late 2010, helps to bridge the gap between the immediate response surge and the arrival of regular staff. ASP comprises external disaster management staff who can be deployed for up to six months upon the issuance of a Temporary Appointment. Contracting and deployment preparations take an average of three to four to exercise their normal responsibilities. As a result, the UNJLC will not be involved in policy and establishment of humanitarian needs and priorities. • Responsibilities will be defined as per the requirements on a case-by-case basis but will, in principle, be limited to logistic activities between the points of entry and distribution in the crisis area. Detailed responsibilities . . . would be:

• Collecting, analysing, and disseminating logistics information relevant to the ongoing humanitarian operation;

• Scheduling the movement of humanitarian cargo and relief workers within the crisis area, using commonly available transport assets; • Managing the import, receipt, dispatch, and tracking of non-assigned food and nonfood relief commodities; • Upon specific request, making detailed assessments of roads, bridges, airports, ports, and other logistics infrastructure and recommending actions for repair and reconstruction. • The scope of the UNJLC activities may vary with the type of emergency, the scale of involvement of the cooperating partners, and the humanitarian needs. The RESO and ROSO positions were created following a need to have senior surge staff available to deploy to new and escalating emergencies for up to three months to provide leadership and stability to OCHA operations. They spend 80 percent of their time in the field and 20 percent at headquarters. When not in the field, RESOs and ROSOs work with the Surge Staff Development Team to develop and deliver trainings and support lesson learning and other exercises to improve OCHA emergency response during non-deployment periods.

Although OCHA's efforts primarily focus on coordinating the response to major disasters, the agency also performs various tasks related to disaster risk reduction. For instance, OCHA representatives work with disaster management agencies to develop common policies aimed at improving how the wider stakeholder community of responders prepare for and respond to disasters. It also works to promote preparedness and mitigation efforts in Member States to decrease vulnerability. CRD and ESB work closely with the UN Development Programme, other UN programs as necessary, and outside organizations on various projects and activities to increase working relationships with national governments and apply lessons learned from completed disaster responses. OCHA's Geneva offices are continually monitoring geologic and meteorological conditions, as well as major news services, for early recognition or notification of emerging disasters. Working with UN resident coordinators, country teams, and regional disaster response advisers, OCHA maintains close contact with disaster-prone countries in advance of and during disaster events. OCHA's Regional Disaster Response Advisers work with national governments to provide technical, strategic, and training assistance. They also provide this assistance to other UN agencies and regional organizations to improve international disaster management capacity.

• It facilitates the negotiations of Member States in many intergovernmental bodies on joint courses of action to address ongoing or emerging global challenges. • It advises national governments on translating UN-developed policy frameworks into countrylevel programs and, through technical assistance, helps build national capacities.

This final area is where DESA addresses disaster management activities within its Division for Sustainable Development. As part of this effort, DESA launched a plan of action during the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa, that included commitments to disaster and vulnerability reduction. See exhibit 10.2 for more information on this plan of action.

The UN Center for Regional Development (UNCRD) is another component of DESA that addresses disaster management issues. Through its headquarters in Nagoya, Japan, and its regional offices in Nairobi, Kenya, and Bogotá, Colombia, UNCRD supports training and research on regional

An integrated, multi-hazard, inclusive approach to address vulnerability, risk assessment, and disaster management, including prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery, is an essential element of a safer world in the twenty-first century. Actions are required at all levels to:

1. Strengthen the role of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction and encourage the international community to provide the necessary financial resources to its Trust Fund; 2. Support the establishment of effective regional, subregional, and national strategies and scientific and technical institutional support for disaster management; 3. Strengthen the institutional capacities of countries and promote international joint observation and research, through improved surface-based monitoring and increased use of satellite data, dissemination of technical and scientific knowledge, and the provision of assistance to vulnerable countries; 4. Reduce the risks of flooding and drought in vulnerable countries by, [among other things], promoting wetland and watershed protection and restoration, improved land-use planning, improving and applying more widely techniques and methodologies for assessing the potential adverse effects of climate change on wetlands and, as appropriate, assisting countries that are particularly vulnerable to those effects; 5. Improve techniques and methodologies for assessing the effects of climate change, and encourage the continuing assessment of those adverse effects by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; 6. Encourage the dissemination and use of traditional and indigenous knowledge to mitigate the impact of disasters and promote community-based disaster management planning by local authorities, including through training activities and raising public awareness; 7. Support the ongoing voluntary contribution of, as appropriate, NGOs, the scientific community, and other partners in the management of natural disasters according to agreed, relevant guidelines; 8. Develop and strengthen early warning systems and information networks in disaster management, consistent with the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction; 9. Develop and strengthen capacity at all levels to collect and disseminate scientific and technical information, including the improvement of early warning systems for predicting extreme weather events, especially El Niño/La Niña, through the provision of assistance to institutions devoted to addressing such events, including the International Center for the Study of the El Niño phenomenon; 10. Promote cooperation for the prevention and mitigation of, preparedness for, response to, and recovery from major technological and other disasters with an adverse impact on the environment in order to enhance the capabilities of affected countries to cope with such situations. development issues and facilitates information dissemination and exchange. UNCRD maintains a Disaster Management Planning Office in Hyogo, Japan, that researches and develops communitybased, sustainable projects for disaster management planning and capacity-building in developing countries. The Hyogo office also runs the Global Earthquake Safety Initiative, designed to improve risk recognition and reduction in 21 cities around the world.

Five regional economic commissions are within the Economic and Social Council. The secretariats of these regional commissions are part of the UN Secretariat and perform many of the same functions (including the disaster management functions listed earlier). The five commissions promote greater economic cooperation in the world and augment economic and social development. As part of their mission, they initiate and manage projects that focus on disaster management. While their projects primarily deal with disaster preparedness and mitigation, they also work in regions that have been affected by a disaster to ensure that economic and social recovery involves adequate consideration of risk reduction measures. The five regional commissions are:

• 

In response periods of disasters, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) sees that development does not cease during emergencies. If relief efforts are to contribute to lasting solutions, sustainable human development must continue to be vigorously supported, complementing emergency action with new curative initiatives that can help prevent a lapse into crisis. (UN, 2000) The UNDP was established in 1965 during the UN Decade of Development to conduct investigations into private investment in developing countries, to explore the natural resources of those countries, and to train the local population in development activities such as mining and manufacturing. As the concept and practice of development expanded, the UNDP assumed much greater responsibilities in host countries and in the UN as a whole.

The UNDP was not originally considered an agency on the forefront of international disaster management and humanitarian emergencies because, while it addressed national capacities, it did not focus specifically on the emergency response systems (previously considered to be the focal point of disaster management). However, as mitigation and preparedness received their due merit, UNDP gained increased recognition for its vital risk reduction role.

Capacity building has always been central to the UNDP's mission in terms of empowering host countries to be better able to address issues of national importance, eventually without foreign assistance. International disaster management gained greater attention as more disasters affected larger populations and caused greater financial impacts. Developing nations, where the UNDP worked, faced the greatest inability to prepare for and/or respond to these disasters, largely as a result of the development trends described in chapter 1. UNDP's projects have shifted toward activities that indirectly fulfill mitigation and preparedness roles. For instance, projects seeking to strengthen government institutions also improve those institutions' capacities to respond with appropriate and effective policy, power, and leadership in the wake of a disaster.

UNDP fully recognizes that disaster management must be viewed as integral to their mission in the developing world as well as to civil conflict and CHE scenarios. There are implicit similarities between UNDP ideals and those of agencies whose goals specifically aim to mitigate and manage humanitarian emergencies.

UNDP work links disaster vulnerability to a lack of or a weak infrastructure, poor environmental policy, land misuse, and growing populations in disaster-prone areas. When disasters occur, a country's national development, which the UNDP serves to promote, can be set back years, if not decades. Even small-to medium-size disasters in the least developed countries can "have a cumulative impact on already fragile household economies and can be as significant in total losses as the major and internationally recognized disasters" (UNDP 2001) . It is the UNDP's objective to "achieve a sustainable reduction in disaster risks and the protection of development gains, reduce the loss of life and livelihoods due to disasters, and ensure that disaster recovery serves to consolidate sustainable human development" (UN 2000) .

In 1995, as part of the UN's changing approach to humanitarian relief, the Emergency Response Division (ERD) was created within the UNDP, augmenting the organization's role in disaster response. Additionally, 5 percent of UNDP budgeted resources were allocated for quick response actions in special development situations by ERD teams, thus drastically reducing bureaucratic delays. The ERD was designed to create a collaborative framework among the national government, UN agencies, donors, and NGOs that immediately respond to disasters, provide communication and travel to disaster management staff, and distribute relief supplies and equipment. It also deploys to disaster-affected countries for 30 days to create a detailed response plan on which the UNDP response is based.

In 1997, under the UN Programme for Reform, the mitigation and preparedness responsibilities of the OCHA Emergency Relief Coordinator were formally transferred to the UNDP. In response, the UNDP created the Disaster Reduction and Recovery Programme (DRRP) within the ERD. Soon after, the UNDP again reorganized, creating the Bureau of Crisis Prevention and Recovery (BCPR) with an overarching mission of addressing a range of non-response-related issues:

• Disaster risk reduction and climate change management • Conflict prevention • Rule of law, justice, and security in countries affected by crises • Women in conflict prevention, peacebuilding, and recovery • Immediate crisis response • Livelihoods and economic recovery • Crisis governance BCPR helps UNDP country offices prepare to activate and provide faster and more effective disaster response and recovery. It also works to ensure that UNDP plays an active role in the transition between relief and development.

UNDP's disaster management activities focus primarily on the development-related aspects of risk and vulnerability and on capacity-building technical assistance in all four phases of emergency management. It emphasizes:

• Incorporating long-term risk reduction and preparedness measures in normal development planning and programs, including support for specific mitigation measures where required; • Assisting in the planning and implementation of post-disaster rehabilitation and reconstruction, including defining new development strategies that incorporate risk-reduction measures relevant to the affected area; • Reviewing the impact of large settlements of refugees or displaced persons on development, and seeking ways to incorporate the refugees and displaced persons in development strategies; • Providing technical assistance to the authorities managing major emergency assistance operations of extended duration (especially in relation to displaced persons and the possibilities for achieving durable solutions in such cases).

UNDP spends between $150 and $200 million each year on disaster risk reduction projects. The focus of these projects has included the establishment or strengthening of early warning systems, the conduct of risk assessments and drafting of hazard maps, and the establishment of national disaster management agencies. Through their projects, UNDP staff help to strengthen national and regional capacities by ensuring that new development projects consider known hazard risks, that disaster impacts are mitigated and development gains are protected, and that risk reduction is factored into disaster recovery.

Following conflict, crises, and disasters, countries must transition from response to recovery. Many countries are unable to manage the difficult and widespread needs of recovery on their own, as they may have experienced widespread loss of infrastructure and services. Displaced persons and refugees may have little to return to, and economies may be damaged or destroyed. BCPR operates during the period when the response or relief phase of the disaster has ended but recovery has not fully commenced (sometimes referred to as the "early recovery period").

Sustainable risk reduction is central to the UNDP recovery mission. The Bureau recognizes that local expertise in risk management and reduction may not be available, and that the technical assistance they provide may be the only option these communities have to increase their resilience to future disasters. This program has proved effective in many countries' recovery operations, including Cambodia after three decades of civil war, Afghanistan after the 2001 conflict, and Gujarat, India, after the 2001 earthquake. The top recipients of UNDP crisis prevention and recovery funding include: To meet these recovery priorities, five support services have been developed to assist the UNDP Country Offices and other UNDP/UN agencies to identify areas where BCPR can provide assistance. These support services include:

• Early assessment of recovery needs and the design of integrated recovery frameworks. This includes assessing development losses caused by conflict or natural disaster, the need for socioeconomic and institutional recovery, identification of local partners, and the need for capacity building and technical assistance. • Planning and assistance in area-based development and local governance programs. Area-based development and local governance programs play key roles in recovery from conflict because they tailor emergency, recovery, and development issues across a country area by area, based on differing needs and opportunities. Area-based development helps bring together different actors at the operational level, promoting enhanced coordination, coherence, and impact at field level. Areabased development is often seen as the core mechanism that most benefits reintegration. • Developing comprehensive reintegration programs for IDPs, returning refugees, and ex-combatants. Internal displacement, returning refugees, and demobilized former combatants create a huge need for in-country capacity building on different levels. Protection and security become serious issues, and efforts to sustainably reintegrate these populations into their host communities are critical. BCPR provides expertise on reintegration of IDPs, returnees, and ex-combatants, including capacity building benefiting both the returnees and the formerly displaced, as well as their host communities, through activities such as income generation, vocational training, and other revitalization activities. • Supporting economic recovery and revitalization. One main characteristic of disasters and conflict is their devastating impact on the local and national economies. Livelihoods are destroyed through insecurity, unpredictability, market collapse, loss of assets, and rampant inflation. For recovery to be successful, these issues need to be well understood from the outset and addressed accordingly. • Supporting capacity building, coordination, resource mobilization, and partnerships. Protracted conflict and extreme disasters tend to create political stressors that temporarily exceed the capacities of UN Country Offices and other NGO partners. However, many recovery needs must be addressed right away to ensure that recovery sets out on a sustainable course. BCPR offers several services to accommodate the needs of this intense phase through the provision of surge capacity and short-to medium-term staff, assistance in resource mobilization within specific fundraising and coordination frameworks (such as the CAP), and partnership building.

When required to assist in recovery operations, BCPR may deploy a special Transition Recovery Team (TRT) to supplement UNDP operations in the affected country. The focus for these teams varies according to specific needs. For instance, when neighboring countries have interlinked problems (such as cross-border reintegration of ex-combatants and displaced persons), the TRT may support a subregional approach to recovery.

It is important to note that the UNDP has no primary role in the middle of a CHE peacekeeping response, only a supportive one in helping to harmonize development with relief. During recovery and reconstruction, together with others, they take the lead.

In addition to the previously mentioned roles and responsibilities, the UNDP leads several interagency working groups. One such group (which consists of representatives from the WFP, WHO, the Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO] , the UN Populations Fund, and UNICEF) develops principles and guidelines to incorporate disaster risk into the Common Country Assessment and the UN Development Assistance Framework. The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction Working Group on Risk, Vulnerability, and Disaster Impact Assessment sets guidelines for social impact assessments. UNDP also coordinates a Disaster Management Training Programme in Central America, runs the conference "The Use of Microfinance and Micro-Credit for the Poor in Recovery and Disaster Reduction," and has created a program to elaborate financial instruments to enable the poor to manage disaster risks.

The UNDP has several reasons for its success in fulfilling its roles in the mitigation, preparedness, and recovery for natural and man-made disasters. First, as a permanent in-country office with close ties to most government agencies, activities related to coordination and planning, monitoring, and training are simply an extension of ongoing relationships. The UNDP works in the country before, during, and long after the crisis. It is able to harness vast first-hand knowledge about the situations leading up to a crisis and the capacity of the government and civil institutions to handle a crisis, and can analyze what weaknesses must be addressed by the responding aid agencies. In addition, its neutrality dispels fears of political bias.

Second, the UNDP functions as a coordinating body of the UN agencies concerned with development, so when crisis situations appear, there is an established, stable platform from which it may lead. From this leadership vantage, it can (theoretically) assist in stabilizing incoming relief programs of other responding UN bodies, such as the WFP, UNICEF, the Department of Humanitarian Affairs, and the UNHCR. Once the emergency phase of the disaster has ended and OCHA prepares to leave, UNDP is in a prime position to facilitate the transition from response efforts to long-term recovery.

And third, the UNDP has experience dealing with donors from foreign governments and development banks, and can therefore handle the outpouring of aid that usually results during the relief and recovery period of a disaster. This contributes greatly to reducing levels of corruption and increasing the cost-effectiveness of generated funds. In several recent events, the UNDP has established formalized funds to handle large donor contributions, which have been used for long-term post-disaster reconstruction efforts. (See exhibits 10.3 and 10.4).

When a major disaster operation requires extended efforts, the UNDP may accept and administer special extra-budgetary contributions to provide the national government with both technical and material assistance, in coordination with OCHA and other agencies involved in the UN Disaster Management Team (DMT). An example of such assistance includes the establishment and administration of a UN DMT Emergency Information and Coordination (EIC) Support Unit. Special grants of up to $1.1 million also may be provided, allocated from the Special Programme Resources funds for technical assistance to post-disaster recovery efforts following natural disasters. See exhibit 10.5 for information about the UNDP Capacity for Disaster Reduction Initiative (CADRI).

Like most major UN agencies, UNICEF (formerly known as the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund) was established in the aftermath of World War II. Its original mandate was to aid children suffering in postwar Europe, but this mission has been expanded to address the needs of women and children throughout the world. UNICEF is mandated by the General Assembly to advocate for children's rights, to ensure that each child receives at least the minimum requirements for survival, and to increase children's opportunities for a successful future. Under the Convention on the Rights of

On May 19, 2009, the government of Sri Lanka declared military victory over the rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, formally ending a decades-long armed conflict. In the wake of the war, UNDP demonstrated that developing and building on strong partnerships is key to ensuring a fast and well-targeted response. An estimated 300,000 IDPs gathered in camps during the first half of 2009. Many of them lacked basic documentation, making it difficult to access basic services and prove claims to land and assets.

UNDP assisted the registrar general to establish a temporary office inside one of the largest camps with capacity to process 50 birth and marriage certificates per day, complemented by additional staffing capacity in Colombo to handle the increased number of document requests. Between July and December the camp office processed close to 10,000 requests, prioritizing those from children who needed identification to sit for national school exams. UNDP also supported mine action coordination and management. Survey and clearance activities advanced rapidly, and by the end of 2009 a total of 879 square kilometers of land had been released for resettlement. This allowed the pace of returns and resettlements to increase exponentially in the fourth quarter of 2009, with over 150,000 IDPs returning or resettling.

In the Eastern Province, FAO, ILO, WFP, UNHCR, and UNDP continued to champion the "delivering as one" approach to support community-based recovery and contribute to the stability of returnees in selected divisions of the East. As the funding conduit, UNDP was in charge of the overall coordination of project implementation while also directly implementing small-scale infrastructure construction such as roads, wells, and community centers (which provided a space for cooperatives and trading groups to come together).

The selection of target communities was informed through village profile maps and data generated by UNHCR, while WFP provided six months' worth of food supply rations, until the foundations for agricultural self-reliance and food security for resettled families were laid. UNDP also launched a new initiative in 2009 to foster partnerships between Sri Lanka's manufacturers and resettled communities. UNDP, with its presence in the field, played a catalytic role, identifying the resettled communities, facilitating meetings with the large consumer companies, securing fair and long-term contracts, and supporting training as well as supply of equipment to improve production. Through this project, 450 farming and fishing families in the North and the East have secured income for the next two to three years. 

On May 25, 2009, Cyclone Aila hit southern Bangladesh, resulting in widespread tidal flooding and the destruction of large parts of the region's protective embankment network. Economic losses were estimated at $106 million and more than 29,000 families were affected in Satkhira, the district that had also suffered the most from Cyclone Sidr in 2007. Many of the affected were still recovering from the impact of the earlier disaster. The government of Bangladesh provided emergency relief and planned for the reconstruction of the damaged embankment network, but many of the most vulnerable families have been unable to return to their homes, which remain submerged.

With funding from the UNDP Bureau of Crisis Prevention and Recovery (BCPR), an early recovery program focused on livelihoods was developed, covering all villages in the worst-affected part of Satkhira. The program included a cash-forwork component that built on self-recovery efforts of affected families. This resulted in the creation of an estimated 37,400 work days devoted to road repair and ground elevation. The program also included support for the restoration of essential community infrastructure; support to local small enterprises through working capital grants for carpentry tools, sewing machines, and tea stall equipment; and assistance for home-based income-generating activities, such as vegetable cultivation, crab fattening, handicrafts, poultry rearing, and fish drying. This effort benefited more than 4,000 families. the Child (CRC), a treaty adopted by 191 countries, the UNHCR holds broad-reaching legal authority to carry out its mission.

As of late 2014, UNICEF maintains country offices in more than 190 different nations. This is probably its greatest asset in terms of the agency's disaster management capacity. Preparedness and mitigation for disasters among its target groups is a priority, with programs able to address both local-level action and national-level capacity building. In keeping with the recommendations laid out by the Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World, UNICEF incorporates disaster reduction into its national development plans. It also considers natural hazard vulnerability and capacity assessments when determining overall development needs to be addressed by UN country teams.

Through public education campaigns, UNICEF works to increase public hazard awareness and knowledge and participation in disaster management activities. UNICEF country offices include activities that address these pre-disaster needs in their regular projects. For example, they develop education materials required for both children and adults, and then design websites so educators and program directors can access or download these materials for use in their communities.

In situations of disaster or armed conflict, UNICEF is well poised to serve as an immediate aid provider to its specific target groups. Its rapid-response capacity is important because vulnerable groups are often the most marginalized in terms of aid received. UNICEF works to ensure that children have access to education, health care, safety, and protected child rights. In the response and recovery periods of humanitarian emergencies, these roles expand according to victims' needs. (In countries where UNI-CEF has not yet established a permanent presence, the form of aid is virtually the same; however, the timing and delivery are affected, and reconstruction is not nearly as comprehensive.)

The UNICEF Office of Emergency Programmes (EMOPS), which has offices in New York and Geneva, maintains overall responsibility for coordinating UNICEF's emergency management activities.

CADRI was created in 2007 as a joint program of the UNDP Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery (UNDP/BCPR), the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), and the secretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). Recognizing that capacity development is a cross-cutting activity for disaster risk reduction as stipulated in the Hyogo Framework (HF), CADRI's creation is designed to support all five priorities of the HF. CADRI was formally launched by the three organizations at the Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction Meeting, June 2007, Geneva.

CADRI succeeds the UN Disaster Management Training Programme (DMTP), a global learning initiative, which trained United Nations, government, and civil society professionals between 1991 and 2006. DMTP is widely known for its pioneering work in developing high-quality resource materials on a wide range of disaster management and training topics. More than 20 trainers' guides and modules were developed and translated.

CADRI's design builds on the success and lessons learned from the DMTP and reflects the significant evolution in the training and learning field since the start of the DMTP, particularly regarding advances in technology for networking and learning purposes. CADRI's design also reflects the critical role that the UN system plays at the national level in supporting governments' efforts to advance disaster risk reduction. In the context of the UN's increasingly important role, CADRI provides capacity enhancement services to the UN system at the country level as well as to governments. These include learning and training services and capacity development services to support governments to establish the foundation for advancing risk reduction. EMOPS works closely with the UNICEF Programme Division, managing the UNICEF Emergency Programme Fund (EPF; see the following section) and ensuring close interagency coordination with other participating humanitarian organizations. In this role, UNICEF is also in the position to act as coordinator in specific areas in which it is viewed as the sector leader. For instance, UNICEF was tasked with leading the international humanitarian response in the areas of water and sanitation, child protection, and education for the 2004 Asia tsunami and earthquake response. (In Aceh province alone, more than 250 agencies addressed water and sanitation issues.) UNICEF maintains that humanitarian assistance should include programs aimed specifically at child victims. Its relief projects generally provide immunizations, water and sanitation, nutrition, education, and health resources. Women are recipients of this aid as well, because UNICEF considers women to be vital in the care of children. (See exhibit 10.6.)

To facilitate an immediate response to an emergency situation, UNICEF is authorized to divert either $200,000 or $150,000 from country program resources (depending on whether the country program's annual budget is above or below $2 million, respectively) to address immediate needs. If the disaster is so great it affects existing UNICEF programs operating in the country, the UNICEF representative can shift these programs' resources once permission is received from the national government and UNICEF Headquarters. UNICEF also maintains a $75 million global EPF, which provides funding for initial emergency response activities.

By the end of the three weeks of fighting in early 2009 in Gaza, 350 children had been killed and 1,600 injured, and much of Gaza's infrastructure, including schools, health facilities, and vital infrastructure for water and sanitation, had been damaged.

UNICEF was on hand to provide humanitarian support. It led the collective efforts of UN agencies on the ground to restore education, provide emergency water supplies and sanitation, maintain nutritional standards, and protect children from further harm.

From the early days, UNICEF made sure that first aid and emergency medical kits, essential drugs, and water purification tablets flowed into Gaza. Emergency education supplies such as classroom tents and School-in-a-Box kits maintained some sense of continuity and normalcy for children. UNICEF and its partners were able to reach more than 200,000 school-age children.

UNICEF raised global awareness of the harm being done to children through extensive media coverage and advocacy. Attention was also raised by the visits of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict, Radhika Coomaraswamy-who called for the protection of children-and UNICEF Executive Director Ann M. Veneman, as well as Goodwill Ambassadors Mia Farrow and Mahmoud Kabil.

UNICEF also extended psychosocial services, including in-depth counselling and structured recreational activities, across Gaza. Training reinforced the capacities of psychosocial workers to protect children and help them heal. Radio programmes and 200,000 leaflets designed for children warned of the risks of mines and unexploded ordnance left behind.

UNICEF water tankers ensured a steady supply of clean drinking water to 135 schools with 110,000 students, while desalination units were installed to rid water of dangerous concentrations of chlorides and nitrates. To thwart the risk of acute malnutrition, UNICEF worked through 53 health clinics for mothers and children to offer supplements of micronutrients and fortified food.

The quality and supply of teaching materials were improved through UNICEF's provision of math and science teaching kits. Programmes for vulnerable adolescents concentrated on supporting remedial learning, relieving stress, and providing life skills-based education and opportunities to engage in civic activities. Through UNICEF's systematic advocacy with partner organizations, almost half the attendees were girls.

The World Food Programme (WFP) is the UN agency tasked with addressing hunger-related emergencies. It was created in 1961 by a resolution adopted by the UN General Assembly and the UN FAO. Today, the program operates in 75 countries and maintains eight regional offices. In the year 2013 alone, the WFP provided 3.1 million metric tons of food aid to 80.9 million people in 75 countries through its relief programs. Over the course of its existence, the WFP has provided more than 70 million metric tons of food to countries worldwide.

WFP was an early member of the former Inter-Agency Task Force for Disaster Reduction (see below) and maintains disaster risk reduction as one of its priority areas, focusing on reducing the impact of natural hazards on food security, especially for the vulnerable. The WFP Policy on Disaster Risk Reduction and Management, approved in 2011, highlights this role as being central to the organization's work. WFP DRR programs seek to build resilience and reduce risk through such activities as soil and water conservation, rehabilitating infrastructure, and training community members in disaster risk management and livelihood protection. The MERET project in Ethiopia is one example. This program targets food-insecure communities in degraded fragile ecosystems prone to drought-related food crises. Other programs maintained by WFP include:

• R4 Resilience Initiative: The Rural Resilience Initiative (R4) is a partnership between WFP and Oxfam America, with support from global reinsurance company Swiss Re, to test a new, comprehensive disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation approach. The program allows cash-poor farmers and rural households to pay for index insurance with their own labor, so they can both manage and take risks to build resilient livelihoods. • Livelihoods Early Assessment and Protection (LEAP): WFP has been assisting the government of Ethiopia to develop an integrated risk management system through the Livelihoods Early Assessment and Protection (LEAP) project. LEAP provides early warning data on food security that allows a rapid scale-up of the "National Productive Safety Net Programme" by activating contingency plans. When a serious drought or flood is detected, resources from a US$160 million contingency fund are made immediately available to ensure early and more effective emergency response, thereby protecting livelihoods and saving lives. • The Joint WFP/IFAD Weather Risk Management Facility (WRMF): WRMF supports the development of innovative weather and climate risk management tools, such as weather index insurance (WII). The goal of these programs is to improve quality-of-life issues and to reduce the incidence of food shortages. This program was launched in 2008 through funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. It has been piloted in China and Ethiopia.

WFP has established a steering committee for disaster mitigation to help its offices integrate these activities into regular development programs. Examples of mitigation projects that focus on food security include water harvesting in Sudan (to address drought), the creation of grain stores and access roads in Tanzania, and the creation of early warning and vulnerability mapping worldwide.

Because food is a necessity for human survival and is considered a vital component of development, a lack of food is, in and of itself, an emergency situation. The WFP works throughout the world to assist the poor who do not have sufficient food so they can survive "to break the cycle of hunger and poverty." Hunger crises are rampant-more than 1 billion people across the globe receive less than the minimum standard requirement of food for healthy survival. Hunger may exist on its own, or it may be a secondary effect of other hazards such as drought, famine, and displacement.

The WFP constantly monitors the world's food security situation through its international Food Aid Information System (FAIS). Using this system, WFP tracks the flow of food aid around the world (including emergency food aid) and provides the humanitarian community with an accurate inventory and assessment of emergency food-stock quantities and locations. This database also includes relevant information that would be needed in times of emergency, such as anticipated delivery schedules and the condition and capabilities of international ports.

In rapid-onset events such as natural disasters, the WFP is a major player in the response to the immediate nutritional needs of the victims. Food is transported to the affected location and delivered to storage and distribution centers. (See figure 10 .3.) The distribution is carried out according to preestablished needs assessments performed by OCHA and the UNDP. The WFP distributes food through contracted NGOs that have the vast experience and technical skills to plan and implement transportation, storage, and distribution. The principal partners in planning and implementation are the host Rice donated by Japan is loaded by the World Food Programme onto 72 WFP trucks to feed survivors of the 2004 Asia tsunami and earthquake events Sources: Skullard, 2005; WFP, 2005. governments, who must request the WFP aid, unless the situation is a CHE without an established government, in which case the UN Secretary-General makes the request. The WFP works closely with all responding UN agencies to coordinate an effective and broad-reaching response, because food requirements are so closely linked to every other vital need of disaster victims. During the reconstruction phase of a disaster, the WFP often must continue food distribution. Rehabilitation projects are implemented to foster increased local development, including the provision of food aid to families, who, as a result, will have extra money to use in rebuilding their lives; and food-for-work programs, which break the chains of reliance on aid as well as provide an incentive to rebuild communities.

WFP administers the International Emergency Food Reserve (IEFR), which was originally designed to store a minimum of 500,000 tons of cereals. This program has not enjoyed the full support of donors as agreed in its creation, however, and as such, annual funding levels have fluctuated significantly. If supported, IEFR would manage separate resources provided by donors to address long-term operations such as CHEs, and would dedicate $15 million from its general resources for emergency assistance in addition to $30 million for long-term emergency assistance. The program's Immediate Response Account is a cash account maintained for rapid purchase and delivery of food in emergency situations. Resources would be purchased from local markets (whenever possible), thereby ensuring food arrives sooner than other aid, which must move through regular channels.

WFP response begins at the request of the affected country's government. 1. In the early days of an emergency, while the first food supplies are being delivered, Emergency Assessment teams are sent in to quantify exactly how much food assistance is needed for how many beneficiaries and for how long. They must also work out how food can best be delivered to the hungry. 2. Equipped with the answers, WFP draws up an Emergency Operation (EMOP), including a plan of action and a budget.

[The EMOP] lists who will receive food assistance, what rations are required, the type of transport WFP will use, and which humanitarian corridors lead to the crisis zone. 3. Next, WFP launches an Appeal to the international community for funds and food aid. The agency relies entirely on voluntary contributions to finance its operations, with donations made in cash, food, or services. Governments are the biggest single source of funding. [More than 60 governments support WFP's worldwide operations.] 4. As funds and food start to flow, WFP's logistics team works to bridge the gap between the donors and the hungry. [In 2012, the agency delivered 4.8 million metric tons of food aid by air, land, and sea.] (WFP 2014) Ships carry the largest WFP cargo, their holds filled to the brim with 50,000 tons or more of grain, cans of cooking oil, and canned food; the agency has 40 ships on the high seas every day, frequently rerouting vessels to get food quickly to crisis zones. In extreme environments, WFP also uses the skies to reach the hungry, airlifting or airdropping food directly into disaster zones.

Before the aid can reach its country of destination, logistics experts often need to upgrade ports and secure warehouses. Trucks usually make the final link in WFP's food chain, transporting food aid along the rough roads that lead to the hungry. Where roads are impassable or nonexistent, WFP relies on less conventional forms of transport: donkeys in the Andes, speedboats in the Mozambique floods, camels in Sudan, and elephants in Nepal. At this stage, local community leaders work closely with WFP to ensure rations reach the people who need it most: pregnant mothers, children, and the elderly. 

The World Health Organization (WHO) was proposed during the original meetings to establish the UN system in San Francisco in 1945. In 1946, at the United Health Conference in New York, the WHO constitution was approved, and it was signed on April 7, 1946 (World Health Day). WHO proved its value by responding to a cholera epidemic in Egypt months before the epidemic was officially recognized.

WHO serves as the central authority on sanitation and health issues throughout the world. It works with national governments to develop medical and health care capabilities and assist in the suppression of epidemics. WHO supports research on disease eradication and provides expertise when requested. It provides training and technical support and develops standards for medical care. WHO was an early member of the former Interagency Task Force for Disaster Reduction (see below), and continues to assist local and national governments as well as regional government associations with health-related disaster mitigation and preparedness issues. It does this primarily by providing education and technical assistance to government public health officials about early detection, containment, and treatment of disease and the creation of public health contingency plans. WHO activities address primary hazards, such as epidemics (e.g., avian influenza, malaria, dengue fever, SARS, swine flu, and MERS/CoV), and the secondary health hazards that accompany most major disasters. Through their website and collaboration with various academic institutions, WHO has also worked to advance public health disaster mitigation and preparedness research and information exchange.

The WHO Director-General is a member of the IASC and the IASC Working Group. In those capacities, the WHO recommends policy options to resolve the more technical and strategic challenges of day-to-day emergency operations in the field. To incorporate public health considerations in UN interagency contingency planning and preparedness activities, the WHO also participates in the IASC Task Force on Preparedness and Contingency Planning.

The WHO Emergency Risk Management and Humanitarian Response department was created to enable WHO to work closely with Member States, international partners, and local institutions in order to help communities prepare for, respond to, and recover from emergencies, disasters, and crises. The Emergency Response Framework (ERF) was developed in 2013 to clarify the WHO role and their responsibilities in emergency situations (WHO 2013).

In the event of a disaster, WHO responds in several ways to address victims' health and safety. Most important, it provides ongoing monitoring of diseases traditionally observed within the unsanitary conditions of disaster aftermath. WHO also provides technical assistance to responding agencies and host governments establishing disaster medical capabilities and serves as a source of expertise. It assesses the needs of public health supplies and expertise and appeals for this assistance from its partners and donor governments.

Per the ERF, WHO is obligated to respond to emergencies under several conventions and agreements, including the International Health Regulations and the Interagency Steering Committee.

The key functions of HAC in times of crises are:

• Measure health-related problems and promptly assess health needs of populations affected by crises, identifying priority causes of disease and death; • Support Member States in coordinating action for health; • Ensure that critical gaps in health response are rapidly identified and filled; and • Revitalize and build capacity of health systems for preparedness and response.

When other government agencies, private medical facilities, or NGOs cannot meet the public health needs of the affected population, WHO's country-level Emergency Response Team and international Emergency Support Teams bring together expertise in epidemics, logistics, security coordination, and management, collaborating with UN agencies participating in response and recovery. WHO has several bilateral agreements with other UN agencies and NGOs (including the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement) and coordinates the Interagency Medical/Health Task Force (IMTF), an informal forum that provides guidance on technical and operational health challenges in humanitarian crises.

The WHO Global Emergency Management Team (GEMT) was created in 2011 to lead the planning, management, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of WHO's emergency work (including national preparedness, institutional readiness, and emergency response for disasters that exhibit public health consequences.) The GEMT is made up of staff from both WHO headquarters and regional office Directors responsible for disaster risk management issues (e.g., preparedness, surveillance, alert, and response). As needed, other relevant staff are invited to join GEMT efforts.

GEMT focuses on all-hazards emergency risk management, notably that of leadership on the Health Cluster. When technical expertise beyond that held by the team's members is needed, the Global Emergency Network (GEN), comprising Directors (or delegates) of departments and programs that have various emergency management functions, is consulted. The GEMT continuously tracks global health events and the organization-wide use of internal and external resources in all emergencies, and reports on all major emergencies.

During an actual emergency or disaster, a subset of the GEMT, known as the GEMT-Response (GEMT-R), is mobilized to grade and manage the response to a specific emergency. For larger-scale emergencies, the GEMT-R is responsible for making recommendations to executive management on the best use of WHO resources given the event's scale, scope, duration, and complexity (given other existing requirements in ongoing events).

Since its inception, six regional offices have been established. These offices focus on the health issues in each region:

• Regional Office for Africa • Pan American Health Organization • Regional Office for South-East Asia • Regional Office for Europe • Regional Office for Eastern Mediterranean • Regional Office for the Western Pacific

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) was established as a UN agency in 1945 in Quebec City, Canada. The organization's mandate is to "raise levels of nutrition, improve agricultural productivity, better the lives of rural populations and contribute to the growth of the world economy" (FAO 2006) . It provides capacity-building assistance to communities that need to increase food production. In 2000, FAO pledged to help current and future generations achieve food security by 2015. In spite of their work, more than 800 million people worldwide continue to suffer the effects of food shortages, including more than 160 million children under five years of age who show signs of malnutrition-based growth stunting.

FAO is headquartered in Rome, Italy. The organization also maintains five regional, five subregional, and 80 country offices, each of which works with UN member countries and other partners to coordinate various activities, including disaster management. It has 194 member nations, two associate member nations, and one member organization (the European Union).

FAO was an early member of the Interagency Task Force on Disaster Reduction prior to its becoming the Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction. The 1996 World Food Summit mandated FAO to assist UN member countries in developing national food security, vulnerability information, and specialized mapping systems to cut worldwide malnutrition. A key component of this strategy is strengthening the capacity of communities and local institutions to prepare for natural hazards and respond to food emergencies during disasters and crises. This objective focuses on:

• strengthening disaster preparedness and mitigation against the impact of emergencies that affect food security and the productive capacities of rural populations; • forecasting and providing early warning of adverse conditions in the food and agricultural sectors and of impending food emergencies; • strengthening programs for agricultural relief and rehabilitation and facilitating the transition from emergency relief to reconstruction and development in food and agriculture; and • strengthening local capacities and coping mechanisms by guiding the choice of agricultural practices, technologies, and support services to reduce vulnerability and enhance resilience.

In 2009, FAO released Strategic Objective I, which guided the organization in conducting "preparedness for, and effective response to, food and agricultural threats and emergencies." This strategy laid out three specific results that were sought, including:

1. Countries' vulnerabilities to crises, threats, and emergencies is reduced through better preparedness and integration of risk prevention and mitigation into policies, programs, and interventions; 2. Countries and partners respond more effectively to crises and emergencies with food-and agriculture-related interventions; and 3. Countries and partners have improved transition and linkages between emergency, rehabilitation, and development.

Within FAO, the Emergency Coordination Group is the organizational mechanism for the overall coordination of emergency and disaster reduction issues. This group strengthens FAO's capacity to perform food-based disaster management activities in support of member countries and partners in a more integrated way. ECG is chaired by the director of the Office for Coordination of Normative, Operational and Decentralized Activities and has a secretariat provided by the office of the Special Advisers to the Director-General. Key units of this group include: The Investment Centre Division prepares investment programs and projects for funding by major multilateral development banks during the rehabilitation and reconstruction and the recovery phases.

FAO field offices are in 110 developing countries. Regional and subregional offices are also maintained. At any time, FAO is involved in some 1,500 agricultural projects in the developing world. Experts working on these projects in affected countries are frequently called upon to help with emergency needs assessments and field operations. In a disaster, FAO representatives in developing countries respond by coordinating with the government and other partners.

In countries with CHEs, FAO coordinates actions that address emergency agricultural needs and assists in the development and implementation of strategies for creating conditions conducive to recovery and sustained development. FAO's approach is to set up coordination units that:

• Provide technical assistance to help the impacted government and its citizens to manage agricultural relief; • Monitor the ongoing crisis relative to food; • Advise NGOs and other organizations involved in food and agriculture; • Help build the necessary national capacity to transition from response to recovery; and • Establish information collection and database management systems.

Examples of countries where FAO emergency coordination units have been set up include Bosnia, Tajikistan, Rwanda, Burundi, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Iraq, and Angola.

FAO also maintains a website of disaster reduction information through its World Agricultural Information Center (WAICENT). This online portal provides access to the Global Information and Early Warning System, information on crop prospects, and other relevant documents and data. FAO also works to help countries adopt sustainable agricultural and other land-use practices. Its Land and Water Division has helped to reverse land loss, thus increasing disaster resilience, by promoting the development of disaster-resistant agro-ecosystems and the sound use of land and water resources.

In times of disaster, the Emergency Operations and Rehabilitation Division helps communities recover. While other agencies, such as WFP, address immediate food needs by providing the actual food aid to victims, FAO provides assistance to restore local food production and reduce dependency on food aid.

The FAO's first action following disasters, in partnership with WFP, is to send missions to the affected areas to assess crops and food supply status. The Emergency Operations Service of the Emergency Operations and Rehabilitation Division leads these missions, sending FAO experts to consult with farmers, herders, fisheries, and local authorities to gather disaster and recovery data. Using their assessment, FAO designs an emergency agricultural relief and rehabilitation program and mobilizes the funds necessary for its implementation. The Emergency Operations and Rehabilitation Division distributes material assets such as seeds, fertilizer, fishing equipment, livestock, and farm tools. In a CHE, FAO helps affected communities bolster overall resources and restore and strengthen agricultural assets to make them less vulnerable to future shocks. For example, FAO has been working in regions outside government authority in the Sudan to conduct community-based training of animal health workers aimed at keeping their livestock-a vital part of local livelihoods-from dying.

When a disaster occurs, the Emergency Operations and Rehabilitation Division of FAO establishes an emergency agriculture coordination unit consisting of a team of technical experts from a wide range of fields (including crop and livestock specialists). This field-level team provides information and advice to other humanitarian organizations and government agencies involved in emergency agricultural assistance in the affected area. FAO coordination units also facilitate operational information exchange, reducing duplications of and eliminating gaps in assistance.

FAO's primary beneficiaries include:

• Subsistence farmers • Pastoralists and livestock producers • Artisan "fisherfolk" • Refugees and internally displaced people • Ex-combatants • Households headed by women or children and/or afflicted by HIV/AIDS

The Special Emergency Programmes Service (TCES), also within the Emergency Operations and Rehabilitation Division, is responsible for the effective implementation of specially designed emergency programs. These programs require particular attention because of the political and security context surrounding their interventions and the complexity of the institutional setup. TCES was responsible for FAO's intervention in the framework of the Oil for Food Program in Iraq and FAO's emergency and early rehabilitation activities in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.

The Rehabilitation and Humanitarian Policies Unit (TCER) is the final component of the Emergency Operations and Rehabilitation Division. TCER is responsible for making recommendations regarding disaster preparedness, post-emergency, and rehabilitation initiatives. The Unit coordinates FAO's position on humanitarian policies and ensures that FAO addresses the gap between emergency assistance and development. TCER also liaises with other UN entities dealing with humanitarian matters.

The FAO's disaster-and emergency-related projects are funded by contributions from governmental agencies, NGOs, other UN agencies, and by the FAO Technical Cooperation Programme (TCP). Each year, approximately 75 percent of FAO emergency funds are raised through the CAP. FAO expenditure on emergency efforts has grown significantly during the past few years, indicative of the greater role the organization has assumed in disaster management. Current emergency-related projects include:

• Improved food security for HIV/AIDS-affected households in Africa's Great Lakes Region • Rehabilitation of destroyed greenhouses in the West Bank and Gaza Strip • Land-tenure management in Angola • Emergency agricultural assistance to food-insecure female-headed households in Tajikistan • Consolidation of peace through the restoration of productive capacities of returnee and host communities in conflict-affected areas in Sudan • Rehabilitation of irrigation systems in Afghanistan • Rehabilitation of farm-to-market roads in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

The position of United Nations Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) was created by the General Assembly in 1950 to provide protection and assistance to refugees. The agency was given a three-year mandate to resettle 1.2 million European World War II refugees. Today, UNHCR is one of the world's principal humanitarian agencies, operating through the efforts of more than 8,600 personnel and addressing the needs of 33.9 million people in more than 125 countries. UNHCR promotes international refugee agreements and monitors government compliance with international refugee law. UNHCR programs begin primarily in response to an actual or impending humanitarian emergency. In complex humanitarian disasters and in natural and other disasters that occur in areas of conflict, there is a great likelihood that refugees and IDPs will ultimately result. The organization's staffs work in the field to provide protection to refugees and displaced persons and minimize the threat of violence many refugees are subject to, even in countries of asylum. The organization seeks sustainable solutions to refugee and IDP issues by helping victims repatriate to their homeland (if conditions warrant), integrate in countries of asylum, or resettle in third countries. UNHCR also assists people who have been granted protection on a group basis or on purely humanitarian grounds, but who have not been formally recognized as refugees.

UNHCR works to avert crises by anticipating and preventing huge population movements from recognized global areas of concern ("trouble spots"). One method is to establish an international monitoring presence to confront problems before conflict breaks out. For example, UNHCR mobilized a "preventive deployment" to five former Soviet republics in Central Asia experiencing serious internal tensions following independence. UNHCR also promotes regional initiatives and provides general technical assistance to governments and NGOs addressing refugee issues.

In times of emergency, UNHCR offers victims legal protection and material help. The organization ensures that basic needs are met, such as food, water, shelter, sanitation, and medical care. It coordinates the provision and delivery of items to refugee and IDP populations, designating specific projects for women, children, and the elderly, who comprise 80 percent of a "normal" refugee population. The blue plastic sheeting UNHCR uses to construct tents and roofing has become a common and recognizable sight in international news.

UNHCR maintains an Emergency Preparedness and Response Section (EPRS), which has five emergency preparedness and response officers (EPRO) who remain on call to lead emergency response teams into affected areas. The EPROs may be supported by a range of other UNHCR human resources, including:

• Emergency administrative officers and emergency administrative assistants, for quickly establishing field offices • The 130 members of the Emergency Roster, which includes staff with diverse expertise and experience, are posted throughout the world and are available for rapid emergency deployment • Staff (by existing arrangement) from the Danish Refugee Council, the Norwegian Refugee Council, and UN volunteers, to provide specialized officials on short notice as needed (more than 500 people are available at any given time) • Individuals registered on a roster of "external consultant technicians," who are specialized in various fields often required during refugee and IDP emergencies (including health, water, sanitation, logistics, and shelter) • Select NGOs that have been identified as capable of rapid deployment to implement assistance in sectors of need (e.g., health, sanitation, logistics, and social services)

UNHCR has the capacity to respond to a new emergency impacting up to 500,000 people. The agency can also mobilize more than 300 trained personnel within 72 hours. These experts come from its Emergency Response Team (ERT) roster. UNHCR has also developed mechanisms for the immediate mobilization of financial resources to help meet the response to an emergency without delay. UNHCR staff may be supported under an agreement with the Swedish Rescue Services Agency, which is prepared to establish a base camp and office in affected areas within 48 hours' notice. Other supplies and resources, such as vehicles, communications equipment, computers, personal field kits, and prepackaged office kits are maintained for rapid deployment to support field staff.

UNHCR maintains stockpiles of relief aid, including prefabricated warehouses, blankets, kitchen sets, water storage and purification equipment, and plastic sheeting. These are stored in regional warehouses or may be obtained on short notice from established vendors that guarantee rapid delivery. UNHCR also maintains agreements with stockpiles outside the UN system from which they may access items, such as the Swedish Rescue Board and various NGOs.

UNHCR developed a Quick Impact Project (QIP) initiative. QIPs are designed to bridge the gap between emergency assistance provided to refugees and people returning home and longer-term development aid undertaken by other agencies. These small-scale programs are geared toward rebuilding schools and clinics, repairing roads, and constructing bridges and wells.

UNHCR is funded almost entirely by voluntary contributions from governments, intergovernmental organizations, the private sector, and individuals. It receives a limited subsidy of less than 2 percent of the UN budget for administrative costs and accepts "in-kind" contributions, including tents, medicines, trucks, and air transportation. As the number of people protected or of concern by UNHCR has reached record highs, its annual budget has likewise jumped several fold in just a few years. In 2008, the UNHCR budget was a record $1.8 billion, yet by 2013 that number rose to over $5.3 billion-a rate that has been maintained ever since. (See figure 10.5.)

In 2006, UNHCR established a new global emergency stockpile in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. The new stockpile is the largest of several UNHCR global stockpiles. It is used to store relief items such as tents, blankets, plastic sheeting, mosquito nets, kitchen sets, and jerry cans, among other items, for up to 350,000 people. Prefabricated warehouses and other safety and security equipment for staff and office support are also available. In 2013, items from the stockpile were sent to 36 countries, including Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Turkey, and others in Africa and Asia. The items shipped included 1,266,815 blankets, 73,850 buckets, 238,486 jerry cans, 197,972 kitchen sets, 310,515 sleeping mats, 60,736 mosquito nets, 283,053 plastic tarpaulins, and 25,226 family tents (UNHCR 2014). Although UNHCR does not often become involved in natural disaster response, rather focusing on areas of conflict, its expertise and assistance were required in the aftermath of the October 2005 earthquake that severely impacted South Asia. During the response phase of this disaster, UNHCR provided 12 flights loaded with supplies from its global and regional stockpiles and contributed 15,145 family tents, 220,000 blankets, 69,000 plastic sheets, and thousands of jerry cans, kitchen sets, stoves, and lanterns. The aid items were drawn from its existing warehouses in Pakistan and Afghanistan, as well as other locations throughout the world. Because of the earthquake, roads used to access 45,000 Afghan refugees affected by the earthquake were severely damaged, but UNHCR was able to quickly assess damages and needs and meet those needs through their existing networks (UNHCR 2005) .

In the event of a large-scale disaster, the UN may form a Disaster Management Team (DMT) in the affected country. If the disaster clearly falls within the competence and mandate of a specific UN agency, that organization will normally take the lead, with the UN DMT serving as the forum for discussing how other agencies will work to support that lead agency.

The UN DMT is convened and chaired by the UN Resident Coordinator and comprises country-level representatives of FAO, UNDP, OCHA, UNICEF, WFP, WHO, and, where present, UNHCR. Specific disaster conditions may merit participation by other UN agencies. The leader of the UNDAC team, assigned by OCHA, automatically becomes a member of the UN DMT. A UNDP official called the Disaster Focal Point Officer often serves as the UN DMT secretary, but the team is free to choose another person, if necessary. UNDP is also responsible for providing a venue for the team and any basic administrative support needs.

The UN DMT's primary purpose is to ensure that in the event of a disaster, the UN is able to mobilize and carry out a prompt, effective, and concerted response at the country level. The team is tasked with coordinating all disaster-related activities, technical advice, and material assistance provided by UN agencies, as well as taking steps to avoid wasteful duplication or competition for resources by UN agencies. The UN DMT interfaces with the receiving government's national emergency management team, from which a representative may, where practical, be included in the UN DMT.

The Central Emergency Response Fund (CERF) was created in 1991 through UN General Assembly Resolution 46/182 to allow for faster operational action by UN agencies. The Fund, which was originally called the Central Emergency Revolving Fund but renamed in 2005 under resolution 60/124, is administered on behalf of the UN Secretary-General by the Emergency Relief Coordinator. During times of disaster, CERF provides agencies involved in the humanitarian response with a constant source of funding to cover their activities. Its purpose is to shorten the amount of time between the recognition of needs and the disbursement of funding. Agencies that have received pledges from donors but have not yet received actual funds, or agencies that expect to receive funds from other sources in the near future, can borrow equivalent amounts of cash, interest free, through CERF.

Voluntary contributions from 125 donor nations and private-sector donors have raised billions since the inception of CERF, of which more than $3 billion has been allocated in the form of grants to almost 100 countries. The program's goal is to have $500 million replenished annually. (See table 10 .1 for a full list of donors.) At the outset, CERF was designed only for CHEs, but in 2001 the General Assembly voted 1. The lending agency submits a request for an advance to the ERC, which includes a descriptive justification on the project or activities to be funded. If a future pledge for funding has been promised by a donor or if the agency has other means for repaying the loan, this information is included in the request. 2. An OCHA officer reviews the request. If it is accepted (statistics show that the majority are accepted), the ERC informs the agency and sets out the loan use and repayment terms. 3. Disbursement usually occurs within 72 hours. Payment is made through an internal UN "voucher." 4. Loans must be repaid within six months.

This entire process is conducted at OCHA's New York office. Figure 10 .6 illustrates patterns of use by the various UN agencies.

The Consolidated Appeals Process (CAP), which began in 1991, allows humanitarian aid organizations to plan, implement, and monitor their activities. These organizations can work together to produce a Common Humanitarian Action Plan (CHAP; see the following section) and an appeal for a specific disaster or crisis, which they present to the international community and donors.

The CAP fosters closer cooperation between governments, donors, aid agencies, and many other types of humanitarian organizations. It allows agencies to demand greater protection and better access to vulnerable populations, and to work more effectively with governments and other actors. The CAP is initiated in three types of situations:

1. When there is an acute humanitarian need caused by a conflict or a natural disaster 2. When the government is either unable or unwilling to address the humanitarian need 3. When a single agency cannot cover all the needs

On November 8, 2013, Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) hit the Philippines. The humanitarian situation in the areas devastated by the typhoon was catastrophic. An estimated 13 million people were affected, including 5 million children. Close to 2 million people were displaced and in dire need of humanitarian assistance.

In response, the United Nations Emergency Relief Coordinator, Valerie Amos, released US$25 million to seven United Nations agencies and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) on 11 November. • The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) received $5,331,408 to ensure water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities.

UNICEF also provided child protection, including protective learning environments, and reduced the risk of outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases among children aged 0 to 59 months. Finally, UNICEF provided nutrition interventions to children aged 0 to 59 months as well as to pregnant and lactating women. • With an allocation of $500,004, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) provided emergency food assistance. • The United Nations Population Fund (FPA) received $748,319 to ensure access to reproductive health services and to prevent gender-based violence. • To support the internally displaced persons (IDPs), the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) provided emergency shelter assistance through an allocation of $3,002,469. • The World Food Programme (WFP) received $6,713,810 to provide emergency food assistance. WFP also coordinated the humanitarian operations in the areas affected. • The World Health Organization (WHO) provided health services through an allocation of $2,491,667. • The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) received $1,804,055 to manage time-critical debris disposal.

• Through an allocation of $5,492,378, IOM supported evacuation centers and IDP sites by procuring and distributing emergency shelter kits and essential non-food items.

The CERF allocations were expected to ultimately benefit more than 11.2 million people.

The CAP is led by the HC, who triggers the interagency appeal and collaborates with the IASC Country Team at the local level and the ERC at headquarters. Participants in the process include:

• IASC. Although all team members are encouraged to participate in CHAP development, some members may make appeals for funding outside of the UN and its CAP (as is often the case with the Red Cross). • Donors. Donors participate in CHAP development by committing to "Good Humanitarian Donorship principles." • Host government(s). The CAP is best prepared in consultation with the host government, particularly the ministries the UN operational agencies are working with on a day-to-day basis. • Affected population(s). Whenever possible, it is always advantageous to include the affected populations' perspective into relief and recovery planning.

A Consolidated Appeal (CA) is a fundraising document prepared by several agencies working to outline annual financing requirements for implementing a CHAP. Although governments cannot request funding through the CA, NGOs can make a request as long as their proposed project goals are in line with CHAP priorities. The CA is usually prepared by the HCs in September or October, and then launched globally by the UN Secretary-General at the Donor's Conference held each November. The CA lasts as long as is necessary for funding purposes, usually a year or more. The sectors that may be considered by the CA include:

• Agriculture • Coordination and support services The process for filing a CA is as follows:

1. At the onset of the emergency, a Situation Report is issued (can cover from day 1 to week 2). 2. In the meantime, a Flash Appeal may be prepared and launched (covers week 2 to month 6). 3. Finally, a CA may be issued.

If the situation and needs in the field change, a revision to any part of an appeal can be issued at any time. Additionally, projects can be added, removed, or modified within the appeal at any time.

Approximately 80 percent of CAP and Flash Appeal funding comes from a small group of wealthy nations, including Canada, the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO) and the European Commission, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In high-profile events, private donors may constitute a large percentage of donations, such as occurred in the case of the 2004 tsunami disaster in Asia.

The CHAP is a strategic plan developed by agencies working together at the field level that assesses needs in an emergency and coordinates response. It acts as the foundation for a CA, and includes the following information:

1. Common analysis of the context for humanitarian assistance 2. Needs assessment 3. Best, worst, and most likely scenarios 4. Identification of roles and responsibilities (who does what and where) 5. Clear statement of long-term objectives and goals 6. Framework for monitoring strategy and revising as necessary A Flash Appeal is a special kind of CA, designed for structuring a coordinated humanitarian response for the first three to six months of an emergency. Whenever a crisis or natural disaster occurs, the UN HC may issue a Flash Appeal in consultation with all stakeholders involved in the humanitarian response (including the affected government). It is normally issued between the second and fourth weeks of the response and provides a concise overview of urgent lifesaving needs. It may also include early recovery projects if they can be implemented within the appeal's time frame.

In 2013, as a part of the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) Transformative Agenda, the United Nations changed the way that the CAP was issued. The 2014 appeal, which addresses the 2013 emergencies, was the largest appeal to date, calling for $12.9 billion (more than $4.4 billion greater than the 2013 appeal) to support 52 million people in 17 countries. The increase was primarily due to a $6.5 billion request for the complex humanitarian emergency in Syria, as well as another CHE in the Central African Republic and Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines. The changes begin with the document's name, which is now called the "Overview of Global Humanitarian Response" rather than the former "Overview of Consolidated Appeals Process." The overall goal of the change is to ensure that the CAP process is needs-based and funds are adequately monitored. The change is explained in the appeals document as follows:

"Now, instead of one overweight CAP document trying to present all elements of the program cycle, for 2014 the key elements appear in a series of documents produced in sequence: humanitarian needs overview; strategic response plan (comprising the country strategy plus cluster plans); and periodic monitoring bulletins reporting on basic delivery and outputs compared to targets. Discussions are ongoing about the possible production of end-of-year reports on achievements versus objectives" (UN 2014b). (See exhibit 10.9).

Since 1992, more than 330 Consolidated and Flash Appeals have been launched, collectively raising more than $57 billion for NGOs, the International Organization for Migration (IOM), and UN agencies.

In addition to the UN agencies discussed previously, which tend to be the primary agencies involved in all forms of disaster management, a handful of organizations provide more focused assistance as deemed necessary in most disasters that require international participation. As illustrated in figure  10 .7, which details UN assistance to the various countries affected by the December 2004 Asian tsunami and earthquake events, a different mix of UN assistance is needed in each country, even within the same international disaster scenario. Several of these organizations are detailed in the following list.

• International Labour Organization (ILO). The ILO works with the affected population to address issues related to employment, including job creation, skills training, employment services, small business assistance, and other functions. (See exhibit 10.10.) • International Organization for Migration (IOM) . The IOM provides rapid humanitarian aid to displaced populations by supplying emergency shelter, transporting relief materials, and assisting in medical evacuations. The organization stabilizes populations through the provision of short-term community and microenterprise development programs. IOM also actively supports governments in the reconstruction and rehabilitation of affected communities by being the lead service provider of : 

Haiti cannot afford to become a forgotten crisis. Important progress has been made in recent years, but the country is still one of the most exposed to risk from disaster and climate change. Multiple disasters combined with high unemployment, increased inequality, and poor access to basic social services have prolonged the vulnerability of an estimated three million Haitians to displacement, food insecurity, and fragile living conditions. Haiti suffers the world's largest cholera epidemic, which has affected over 600,000 people and killed 8,000. 

Although the humanitarian situation in South Sudan has stabilized on several fronts, needs remain high-driven primarily by violence and displacement, persistent food insecurity, and chronic poverty. National capacity to deliver basic services is low, with aid agencies the main providers of health care, clean water, livelihoods support, and other services in many parts of the country. While needs are expected to remain high in 2014-2016, in some areas such as food insecurity, there are opportunities for innovative and more targeted approaches to break recurring cycles of hardship. The strategy for 2014-2016 has three objectives: responding to immediate needs, enhancing communities' resilience against shocks and stresses, and building national capacity to deliver basic services. Alongside core programmes to save lives and ease suffering, partners are increasingly integrating actions to reduce the risk of natural disasters, strengthen and diversify livelihoods, and address the long-term needs of vulnerable groups, including refugees and children. The strategy also emphasizes the importance of delivering aid in partnership with line ministries and national NGOs to ensure humanitarian relief has a long-term positive impact. The strategy spans three years, to better address deep-rooted challenges and measure the impact of relief actions.

Requirements: $1.1 billion Funding received against requirements: 55% People in need: 4.4 million People to receive help: 3.1 million

In Yemen, more than half the population needs some form of humanitarian aid. The collapse of basic services in 2011-12, endemic food insecurity, destroyed or damaged livelihoods and under-development, along with displacement resulting from conflict, have combined to plunge the country into a humanitarian emergency which may persist into 2015. Inflows of refugees and migrants from the Horn of Africa and returning Yemeni migrants count among the vulnerable. Ten and a half million people are food-insecure or severely food-insecure, and 1,080,000 children under five suffer from acute or severe malnutrition. About half the population has no access to adequate water sources or sanitation facilities, and a further 8.6 million have insufficient access to health services. An estimated 250,000 returnees need assistance to rebuild their lives, while 240,000 refugees, mostly from Somalia, and tens of thousands of mainly Ethiopian migrants are stranded in the country. It is expected that the number of returning Yemeni migrants, estimated to be 360,000 people, will double in 2014. The weakness of rule-of-law institutions has been identified as a serious protection risk. 

According to the latest ILO estimates, 2.8 million out of the 5.6 million workers who have either temporarily or permanently lost their livelihoods were working in the service sector. Over one third, or 1.8 million, were in agriculture and around 15 per cent in the industry sector. "Service sector includes people working in shops, public markets, restaurants, vendors, tricycle and jeepney drivers, mechanics, clerks, teachers, . . . who, like farmers and fisherfolks, have seen their source of income wiped away," said ILO Philippine Office Director Lawrence Jeff Johnson.

"At least 2.4 million affected workers were already in a vulnerable situation before the typhoon struck, often living at or near the poverty line, doing whatever work they could find to survive and provide for their families. These people have lost the little they had to begin with. They have no home, no income, no savings and no one to turn to for help," said Director Johnson.

"As the reconstruction efforts gather pace, the number one priority is to ensure that these workers have access to decent jobs, which include at least minimum wage, social protection, and safe working conditions," Johnson said.

The Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) and the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) are rolling out emergency employment programmes to respond to the enormous reconstruction and livelihoods needs. The ILO is working closely with them as well as with local governments, business' and workers' organizations, and international partners.

"These programmes comply with Philippine regulation and international labour standards, ensuring that people are not exploited while they help to rebuild their communities and local economies," Johnson explains.

Workers under the emergency employment programmes receive the minimum wage prevailing in the area and are employed for a minimum of 15 days. They also have access to social protection benefits.

"This is a very first step to jump start the economy and quickly put the affected communities back in the driver's seat in rebuilding their lives. Ensuring minimum wage and social protection will help stimulate economic growth and speed the recovery process." Johnson said.

Source: ILO, 2013. UNAIDS works with victims to protect them from the kinds of violence and activity that spreads HIV. In 2001, the UN General Assembly held a special session on HIV/AIDS and declared that through UNAIDS: [The UN would] develop and begin to implement national strategies that incorporate HIV/AIDS awareness, prevention, care, and treatment elements into programs or actions that respond to emergency situations, recognizing that populations destabilized by armed conflict, humanitarian emergencies, and natural disasters, including refugees, internally displaced persons, and in particular, women and children, are at increased risk of exposure to HIV infection; and, where appropriate, factor HIV/ AIDS components into international assistance programs. (UN 2005) • United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). UNFPA works to promote basic human rights throughout the world, and to increase the possibilities of women and young people to lead healthy and productive lives. Their work focuses specifically on reproductive health and safe pregnancies and deliveries. During humanitarian crises, there is often a demand for reproductive health services even though distribution and health care systems have broken down. UNFPA works closely with its humanitarian relief partners to support early and effective action to meet the reproductive health needs of refugees, IDPs, and others caught in crisis situations. Supply shortages compound health risks in already dangerous situations and are a major obstacle to reproductive health in emergencies. Existing supplies may fall far short of demand when large numbers of people move into a safer location. Supplies, equipment, and medicine are organized and stored by UNFPA for immediate distribution when an earthquake, flood, violent conflict, or other crisis arises. A rapid-response fund enables UNFPA to mount a quick response to emergencies, especially in the initial stages. Supplies are packaged in 12 different emergency reproductive health kits, including a "clean birthing kit." Once an emergency situation stabilizes, the procurement of reproductive health materials becomes a regular part of a more comprehensive healthcare program. • United Nations Human Settlement Programme (UN-Habitat) . UN-Habitat is mandated by the UN General Assembly to "promote socially and environmentally sustainable towns and cities with the goal of providing adequate shelter for all" (UN 2014). UN-Habitat is mandated through the Habitat Agenda (a global settlement plan adopted in June 1996 by the international community) to take the lead in mitigation, response, and post-disaster rehabilitation capabilities in human settlements. The Habitat Agenda clearly outlines the link between human settlement development and vulnerability to disasters. In addition, it emphasizes the need for coordination and close partnerships with national and local governments, as well as civil society. Finally, the Habitat Agenda recognizes the strong impact disasters have on women, and affirms the need for women's active involvement in disaster management. These steering principles underpin all normative and operational activities of the UN-Habitat Disaster Management Programme (DMP). DMP operates under the Disaster, Post-conflict and Safety Section (DPCSS), Urban Development Branch. It was created to marshal the resources of UN-Habitat and other international agencies to provide local government, civil society, and the private sector with practical strategies for mitigating and recovering from conflicts and natural disasters in the context of human settlements. Specific areas of attention include: • Protecting and rehabilitating housing, infrastructure, and public facilities • Providing technical and policy support to humanitarian agencies before and after crisis in the context of human settlements • Building partnerships and providing complementary expertise in resettlement of displaced persons and refugees • Restoring local social structures through settlement development • Rehabilitating local government structures and empowering civil society • Land and settlements planning and management for disaster prevention UN-Habitat launched the City Resilience Profiling Programme (CRPP) to support local government efforts to build capacity to reduce disaster risk. Through their guidance, governments are assisted in the development of comprehensive and integrated urban planning and implementation of a resilient management approach. The City Resilience Profile is a baseline assessment of a city-system's ability to withstand and recover from potential hazards. Examples of cities that have participated in the program include Balangoda, Sri Lanka; Barcelona, Spain; Beirut, Lebanon; Dagupan, Philippines; Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; Lokoja, Nigeria; Portmore, Jamaica; Talcahuano/Concepcion, Chile; Tehran, Iran; and Wellington, New Zealand.

UN-Habitat plays an important role in disaster recovery, given the impact on housing so many disasters have. The organization has lead agency status within the United Nations system for coordinating activities related to human settlement. It is mandated in this role through the Habitat Agenda. The organization's responsibilities in this regard are to support national governments, local authorities, and civil society in ensuring that risk is not retained in the reconstruction housing that follows the event. Housing reconstruction often begins soon after the disaster has occurred, and UN-Habitat seeks to deploy quickly to ensure that resilient building practices are incorporated into the recovery planning process.

• United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP). UNEP is the UN agency focused on the protection of the environment and wise use of natural spaces. UNEP has several divisions that address global emergency and disaster management needs. • UNEP's Disasters and Conflicts sub-program was created to assess and address the environmental impacts of disasters and conflicts, especially as they relate to human health, livelihoods, and security. Since 1999, this program has responded to crises in more than 40 countries. Their assistance is provided to other UN agencies responding as well as directly to the host country government. The Disasters and Conflicts sub-program has four overarching objectives:

• Perform post-crisis environmental assessments;

• Support post-crisis environmental recovery;

• Foster environmental cooperation for peacebuilding; and • Promote disaster risk reduction.

As the focal point for environment within the UN crisis response system, UNEP also works to integrate environmental considerations within humanitarian and peacekeeping operations. Coordinated by UNEP's Post-Conflict and Disaster Management Branch, the Disasters and Conflicts sub-program is delivered through several key actors and partners, including the Joint UNEP/OCHA Environment Unit, the Environment and Security (ENVSEC) Initiative, and the APELL (Awareness and Preparedness from Emergencies on a Local Level) Programme.

APELL, which is based out of the UNEP Industry and Environment Office in Paris, supports disaster risk reduction and disaster preparedness. It seeks to minimize the occurrence and harmful effects of technological accidents and emergencies resulting from human activity or as the consequence of natural disasters, particularly in developing countries.

Understandably, UNEP plays a major role in climate change activities, including climate change adaptation. The organization supports developing countries in their efforts to identify and address risk specifically related to changing temperature and precipitation that are associated with global climate change patterns, including sea level rise. One of the primary functions of this office is to help governments to integrate climate change adaptation policy throughout all sectors of government, such that it becomes a major policy goal rather than a distinct, stove-piped component of government. Finally, UNEP promotes sustainable land-use management and helps countries identify opportunities to reduce carbon emissions, which are often blamed for the bulk of climate variability.

• United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). UNESCO's goal is to contribute to the peace and security of the world through education, science, and culture. UNESCO has been involved in disaster management for decades. This organization advocates for the need for a shift in emphasis from relief and emergency response to prevention and increased preparedness and education of potentially affected populations. It strongly supports the design and dissemination of mitigation measures, as well as public education and awareness. UNESCO works to increase the role of academic and research sectors in creating risk and vulnerability reduction measures, and supports existing and new institutions through financial and material support. UNESCO proclaims that their function regarding disaster management is:

To promote a better understanding of the distribution in time and space of natural hazards and of their intensity, to set up reliable early warning systems, to devise rational land-use plans, to secure the adoption of suitable building design, to protect educational buildings and cultural monuments, to strengthen environmental protection for the prevention of natural disasters, to enhance preparedness and public awareness through education and training communication and information, to foster post-disaster investigation, recovery and rehabilitation, to promote studies on the social perception of risks. (UNESCO 2004) •

In 2010, the UN General Assembly created UN Women, which merged four existing UN organizations that focused exclusively on gender equality and women's issues. These included the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), the International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW), the Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women (OSAGI), and the Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW). UN Women works to ensure that the needs of women are considered in disaster planning and preparedness efforts, as well as in the aftermath of disasters and in the recovery from them, when women face extraordinary vulnerabilities. UN Women provides financial and technical assistance to innovative programs and strategies to foster women's empowerment and gender equality. (See exhibit 10.11.) • United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR). UNITAR was created to provide training and research within the UN system with the goal of increasing the effectiveness of all UN programs. In recent years, more of these efforts have focused on the four phases of disaster management, addressing many related topics such as climate change, hazardous materials and pollution, land use, and biodiversity.

The Global Platform for Disaster Reduction was established in 2007 as a forum for information exchange. The Platform meets every two years and allows participants to discuss innovations and developments in DRR as well as to share existing knowledge and build partnerships among the various stakeholders. The goal in creating the program was to improve DRR implementation by fostering better communication and coordination among stakeholders, to serve as a way for UN members to voice their concerns and needs, and to share their best practices and lessons learned. The Global Platform replaces the former Interagency Task Force for Disaster Reduction (IATF/ DR), which was led by the UN Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and composed of representatives from 25 UN agencies, international organizations, NGOs, and other civil society

For millions of people in rural Viet Nam, the impacts of climate change are mounting and sometimes deadly. As weather patterns change, many of Viet Nam's women in particular are paying a high price.

"The weather becomes more extreme and erratic. Storms, heavy rains, and floods destroy fields and houses, kill animals and people every year," said Ranh Nguyen, 35, a farmer and the head of the Women's Union group in An Dung commune, in Binh Dinh province, central Viet Nam.

There, Ranh and her neighbours have joined the Viet Nam Women's Union and are working with UN Women to strengthen the role of women in disaster risk-reduction and disaster-reduction management.

Some 80 kilometers from the city of Binh Dinh, An Dung commune is always at high risk of flooding, as it only has one road connecting it to other communes,and landslides often occur during the storm season. Almost every year, the commune suffers at least one severe flood that damages crops and houses heavily. And women are often the most affected. However, things are starting to change.

"Thanks to good preparation and detailed mapping that we developed in the meetings before each storm, nobody in the village was killed or injured severely in the last year storm season. Crops, fowl, and cattle were saved," explains Ranh, now an official member of the Committee for Flood and Storm Control in her commune.

Prior to the project, there were few women on the Committees for Flood and Storm Control (CFSC) in the village. Through the training of women in disaster management, as well as national lobbying-supported by UN Women, UNDP and other stakeholders-the contribution of women has been recognized. A government decree issued in September 2013 now provides an official space for the Women's Union in decision-making boards of the CFSC at all levels.

"After being involved in the project, I am more aware of the situation of climate change and its impacts on us. Last year, we participated in the training and exchanged experiences with other women. We prepared better for our families and our village before the storm came," Ranh said. She said that she talked to the other members of the communal committee for flood and storm control. As a result, before the flooding began, they had plans ready to evacuate people living in lowland areas and near the river.

"The mapping we did together in the training was really helpful. We discussed how to encourage people to harvest earlier, before the storm season started." In the end, she said, no lives were lost.

Last year, a four-year-old boy was saved from drowning because his mother performed CPR on him. She and another 120 women and girls learned this technique from the Rescue and First Aid training provided by the project.

"I could not swim before and used to be frightened by the flooded river. But now I am no longer afraid of water thanks to the swimming classes. I will teach my children how to swim and tell other people to learn how to swim too," Ranh said.

This project continues to be implemented in four new provinces including Thua Thien Hue, Quang Binh, Ca Mau and Dong Thap, all of which face a high risk of flooding.

This project is financed through core funding to UN Women and from the Government of Luxemburg.

stakeholders. The Global Platform is organized by the UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR; see below). The Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction is considered the most significant gathering of disaster risk reduction and disaster management stakeholders worldwide. Every ten years, the World Conference on Disaster Reduction is held. The first was held in 1995. The second world conference, held in 2005 in Kobe, Japan, led to the launching of the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA). The 2015 world conference is to be held in Sendai, Japan, which was significantly impacted by the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami in 2011. The focus of the conference is on the follow-up to the Hyogo Framework for Action, termed the Post-2015 Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction in the lead-up to the conference.

The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) is the secretariat of the International Strategy of Disaster Reduction and the global hub of the disaster risk reduction community, which includes national governments, NGOs, intergovernmental organizations, financial institutions, technical bodies, and others. UNISDR serves as the focal point for the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA), the ten-year plan to address global disaster risk that commenced in 2005 and is set to expire in 2015.

UNISDR was created in 1999, at the end of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. The organization functions as a clearinghouse for disaster reduction information; campaigns to raise hazard awareness; and produces articles, journals, and other publications and promotional materials related to disaster reduction. UNISDR maintains an organizational vision that is guided by the three strategic goals of the HFA for which it is tasked to oversee. These include:

Integrating disaster risk reduction into sustainable development policies and planning; 2. Developing and strengthening institutions, mechanisms and capacities to build resilience to hazards; and 3. Incorporating risk reduction approaches into emergency preparedness, response, and recovery programs.

The organization describes the four key functions that guide its efforts as follows:

• We coordinate international efforts in disaster risk reduction and guide, monitor as well as report regularly on progress of the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action. We organize a biennial Global Platform on disaster risk reduction with leaders and decision makers to advance risk reduction policies and support the establishment of regional, national and thematic platforms. • We campaign and advocate to create global awareness of disaster risk reduction benefits and empower people to reduce their vulnerability to hazards. Our current campaigns focus on safer schools and hospitals as well as resilient cities. • We encourage for greater investments in risk reduction actions to protect people's lives and assets including climate change adaptation, more education on DRR, and increased participation of men and women in the decision making process. • We inform and connect people by providing practical services and tools such as the risk reduction website PreventionWeb, publications on good practices, country profiles and the Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction, which is an authoritative analysis of global disaster risks and trends. (UNISDR 2012) UNISDR is led by the UN Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Disaster Risk Reduction. Margareta Wahlstrom currently holds this post. The position was created in 2008 to lead and oversee all DRR activities mandated by the UN General Assembly (GA), the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), and the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA), as well as policy directions by the Secretary-General. Other responsibilities include the ongoing and arduous process of facilitating the development of the Post-2015 Framework for DRR that will follow the HFA, overseeing the management of the Trust Fund for the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, and carrying out highlevel advocacy and resource mobilization activities for risk reduction and implementation of the HFA.

One of the most significant functions of UNISDR is monitoring the progress achieved by nations and global regions per the Hyogo Framework for Action. Monitoring is an almost ongoing process, with reports on progress produced every two years (as well as interim reports on off years, in some instances). The HFA Monitor is an online reporting system that nations and regional organizations use to assess their capabilities and progress according to the indicators outlined in the HFA. The HFA Monitor Template, found on the HFA Monitor website, defines the areas of assessment. The result of this process is a national or regional HFA Progress Report. Not all countries produce the reports, and for those that do, reports are not necessarily submitted for each reporting period. Critics note that it is a self-reporting and ranking system, but in the absence of any other system on the scale of the HFA Monitor, the information it provides is highly informative and very useful in estimating capacity. The information is also used to produce papers and reports on various thematic issues, such as gender in disaster management, integration of DRR and climate change adaptation, early warning, and others.

The World Bank and UNISDR work closely together on a number of key disaster risk reduction issues, notably those related to development and disaster reconstruction, through a UNISDR/World Bank Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (WB/GFDRR) partnership. Other similar DRR-and disaster risk management-focused partnerships have been formed with various regional international organizations, including the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), Applied Geoscience and Technology Division of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SOPAC), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and African Union (AU).

UNISDR is headquartered in Geneva and has representation at the UN Headquarters in New York City. The organization also has regional offices in Africa (Nairobi), the Americas (Panama and Brazil), Asia/Pacific (Bangkok, Japan, and Korea), the Pacific (sub-regional office in Suva), the Arab States (Cairo), Europe (Brussels and Bonn), and Central Asia (sub-regional office in Almaty). (See figure 10 .8.) UNISDR also works with and advises a number of key thematic platforms on disaster risk reduction issues, including: 

Response (UN-SPIDER)

The UN is the only global international organization of its kind. It is not, however, the only governing organization made up of several national governments. Many of the world's regions have pooled their collective resources and services to create large, influential organizations. Like the UN, these organizations address issues of regional and global importance, many of which focus on or peripherally address disaster management. In times of disaster, both within and outside of their regions of concern, they bring much of the same financial, technical, and equipment resources discussed throughout this book. This section identifies and briefly describes the largest of these organizations.

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is an alliance of 28 countries from North America and Europe formed by a treaty signed on April 4, 1949. Its fundamental goal is safeguarding its members' freedom and security using political and military means. Over the years, NATO has taken on an increasing role in international disaster management and peacekeeping missions.

NATO maintains a military force made up of member countries' troops. Although they work in concert, troops always remain under the control of their home nation's government. NATO has helped to end violent conflicts in Bosnia, Kosovo, and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.

NATO's disaster and crisis management activities, which extend beyond its typical military operations, are geared toward protecting populations. As part of the worldwide civil protection drive described in chapter 8, NATO began developing measures to protect member nation citizens from nuclear attack as early as the 1950s. As elsewhere, NATO member countries soon realized that these capabilities could be used effectively during disasters induced by floods, earthquakes, and technological incidents and during humanitarian disasters.

NATO's first involvement in disaster operations came in 1953, following devastating floods in northern Europe. In 1958, it established detailed procedures for the coordination of assistance between NATO member countries in case of disasters. These procedures remained in place and provided the basis for NATO's civil emergency planning in subsequent years. In 1998, NATO established the Euro-Atlantic Disaster Response Coordination Center to coordinate aid provided by member and partner countries to a disaster-stricken area in a member or partner country. It also established a Euro-Atlantic Disaster Response Unit, which is a non-standing, multinational mix of national civil and military elements volunteered by member or partner countries for deployment to disaster areas.

Civil emergency planning has become a key facet of NATO involvement in crisis management. In recent years, NATO has assisted flood-devastated Albania, Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, and Ukraine, supported the UNHCR in Kosovo, sent aid to earthquake-stricken Turkey, helped to fight fires in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and in Portugal, supported flood response in Pakistan, and supported Ukraine and Moldova after extreme weather conditions destroyed power transmission capabilities. NATO has taken an active role in the response to the 2005 South Asia earthquake, as described in exhibit 10.12. NATO also regularly conducts civil emergency planning exercises.

The European Union (EU) originated in May of 1950, when six European countries (Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands) joined together to address common issues related to the coal and steel industries. Since that time, the scope of their work has expanded significantly, as has their membership. The EU is now a major regional international organization representing 28 Member States and is in the process of admitting several other eastern and southern European countries in a push toward greater inclusion. The EU considers itself a "family of European countries, committed to working together for peace and prosperity" (BBC 2014). Like the UN, it is not a government, nor does it have any authority over its members; it is an organization established for increased regional cooperation. REGIONAL INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

The devastating October 2005 earthquake in Pakistan is estimated to have killed 80,000 people and left up to three million without food or shelter just before the onset of the harsh Himalayan winter. On October 11, 2005, in response to a request from Pakistan, NATO launched an operation to assist in the urgent relief effort. NATO airlifted supplies donated by NATO member and partner countries as well as the UNHCR via two air bridges from Germany and Turkey; 168 flights delivered almost 3,500 tons of relief supplies. The supplies provided included thousands of tents, stoves, and blankets necessary to protect the survivors from the cold. In addition, NATO deployed engineers and medical units from the NATO Response Force to assist in the relief effort. The first teams arrived on October 29, 2005.

In just three months of operations, NATO achieved the following: • NATO's air bridges flew almost 3500 tons of aid to Pakistan with 168 flights. These flights carried in nearly 18,000 tents, 505,000 blankets, nearly 17,000 stoves/heaters, more than 31,500 mattresses, 49,800 sleeping bags, tons of medical supplies, and more. • NATO's field hospital treated approximately 4,890 patients and conducted 160 major surgeries. Mobile medical units treated approximately 3,424 patients in the remote mountain villages; they also contributed significantly to the WHO immunization program that has helped to prevent the outbreak of disease. • In the cities of Arja and Bagh, NATO engineers repaired nearly 60 kilometers of roads and removed over 41,500 cubic meters of debris, enabling the flow of aid, commerce, and humanitarian assistance to the inhabitants of the valley. Nine school and health structures were completed and 13 tent schools erected. The engineers distributed 267 cubic meters of drinking water and upgraded a permanent spring water distribution and storage system to serve up to 8,400 persons per day. • NATO engineers also supported the Pakistani Army in Operation Winter Race, by constructing 110 multipurpose shelters for the population living in the mountains. • NATO helicopters transported more than 1,750 tons of relief goods to remote mountain villages and evacuated over 7,650 disaster victims. • NATO set up an aviation fuel farm in Abbottabad, which carried out some 1,000 refueling missions for civilian and military helicopters. During the mission some 1,000 engineers and supporting staff, as well as 200 medical personnel, worked in Pakistan. NATO was part of a very large effort aimed at providing disaster relief in Pakistan. The Pakistani Army provided the bulk of the response, with the support of NATO, the UN, and other international organizations and several individual countries.

On October 10, NATO received from Pakistan a request for assistance in dealing with the aftermath of the 8 October earthquake. The next day, the North Atlantic Council approved a major air operation to bring supplies from NATO and Partner countries to Pakistan.

The airlift began on 13 October and the first tons of supplies arrived in Pakistan on 14 October. On 19 October, NATO opened a second air bridge from Incirlik, Turkey, to deliver large quantities of tents, blankets, and stoves donated by the UNHCR.

On 21 October, in response to a further request from Pakistan, NATO agreed to deploy engineers and medical personnel from the NATO Response Force to Pakistan to further assist in the relief effort. A NATO headquarters was deployed to Pakistan on 24 October to liaise with Pakistani authorities and pave the way for the incoming troops. The first troops, the advance elements of the medical team, began arriving on 29 October, and immediately began treating hundreds of people a day.

Engineering teams followed and began working in the area around Bagh in support of Pakistani efforts to repair roads and build shelters and medical facilities. NATO engineers also supported the Pakistani Army in Operation Winter Race, by constructing multipurpose shelters for the population living in the mountains.

On 9 November, NATO opened a sophisticated 60-bed field hospital, which provided a wide range of care including complex surgical procedures. On the same day, heavy-lift transport helicopters assigned to NATO for the operation began flying and delivering supplies to remote mountain villages and evacuating victims. NATO also set up an aviation fuel farm in Abbottabad, which carried out refueling for civilian and military helicopters, which were essential to the relief effort.

On 27 October, Additional Foreign Secretary of Pakistan Tariq Osman Hyder addressed a meeting of the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council at NATO Headquarters in Brussels, asking for further assistance. He said that NATO could provide continued airlift, funds, logistic and airspace management, mobile fuel tanks, spare parts for helicopters and tactical aircraft, command and control, and winterized tents and sleeping bags. That same day, NATO's Euro-Atlantic Disaster Response Coordination Center (EADRCC) received an urgent request from the UNHCR for the transport of additional shelter and relief items stored in Turkey to Pakistan before the winter sets in.

NATO's relief mission came to an end, on schedule, on 1 February 2006. NATO's short-term relief mission was based on the following five elements: 1. Coordination of donations from NATO and partner countries through the EADRCC in Brussels; 2. The air bridge from Turkey and Germany for the transport of relief goods to Pakistan; 3. Five helicopters operating in the earthquake-affected area for the transport of supplies to remote mountain villages and evacuation of victims; 4. Medical support with a field hospital and mobile medical teams in the area of Bagh; 5. Engineer support operating in the area around Bagh in support of Pakistani efforts for the repair of roads and building of shelters, schools, and medical facilities. 

Humanitarian assistance has been a part of the EU mission since 1992, and since that time the organization's work in that area has grown such that today it is the world's most significant humanitarian aid donor. Taken together, its members represent a sizeable piece of the global economy, thus enabling them the ability to provide more than 50 percent of all humanitarian aid worldwide. The EU has also structured itself to be an active stakeholder in international disaster management. Their work in this regard is not limited to Europe and in fact has a global presence. Since taking on disaster management responsibilities, the EU has responded through one or more of its various departments to disasters in more than 140 countries.

In 2010, the EU restructured its global hazard risk and disaster management capacities. These changes resulted in the merging of two former divisions: one that handled humanitarian assistance and another that centered on civil protection. Together these units formed the combined Directorate General for Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection (ECHO). The acronym is a carryover from a former component of the EU's response mechanism called the European Community Humanitarian Office. The move effectively integrated these two functions, which, over time, saw duplicative missions. Exhibit 10.13 is drawn from an EU factsheet describing how the EU responded to Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines in 2013 using this combined function.

Through its Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection department (ECHO), the European Commission made available US$40.6 million to help the survivors of the typhoon with food assistance, shelter, water and sanitation, health and nutrition, short-term livelihood support, reconstruction of schools, emergency logistics, and coordination of relief efforts. Within hours after the disaster struck, the European Commission's experts had been deployed to identify priority needs.

The Commission implemented its assistance primarily through the following partner organizations: Assistance supported by ECHO reached approximately 1.2 victims in the areas affected by the typhoon. The EU Civil Protection Mechanism was activated to ensure coordination of European relief efforts. Participating member states supplied personnel and material to support the operation. The EU Civil Protection Mechanism, coordinated by the Commission's Emergency Response and Coordination Centre (ERCC), also supported the transport of civil protection assets to the region with around US$4.9 million.

In addition to humanitarian funds, the European Commission has released $13.5 million from the EU's development funds to help rebuild people's lives by assisting in recovery and rehabilitation.

Examples of EU-funded humanitarian projects are described in the following section. • To address food insecurity among the affected population who had little to eat and little to no access to markets, the EU funded the efforts of the World Food Programme (WFP). WFP provided general distribution of food, including highenergy biscuits during the emergency phase, and then provided supplementary feeding for children and pregnant and lactating women. "Food-for-work" and "cash-for-work" initiatives were established. • The EU provided funds to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and national Red Cross societies to provide thousands of families with shelter repair kits and to support the livelihoods recovery and WASH clusters. The national Red Cross societies projects supported the delivery of non-food items, including blankets and water storage containers. Many families were provided with unconditional cash grants, and communities were given assistance in improving sanitation facilities, restoring primary healthcare services (including medicines), disease prevention, and hygiene awareness. • The EU supported a consortium that includes Plan International and OXFAM. Funding helped to provide relief for the most significantly affected households by enabling livelihoods recovery, distribution of cash-for-work vouchers, and rehabilitation of public service infrastructure, including child-friendly spaces, classrooms, day care centers, and health stations. • To help the approximately 4 million people left homeless by the typhoon, the EU funded the International Organization for Migration (IOM) efforts to improve the well-being and living conditions of those who were displaced, who have returned, or who are planning to go back to their places of origin. Special attention was given to persons with disabilities and other special needs. The project provided shelter repair kits to the affected populations and ensured quality management of displacement sites and timely information on communities' return and relocation processes. Finally, vulnerable groups targeted by the initiative received health services, psychosocial support, and non-food items such as blankets.

Based on: EC, 2014. ECHO enables the EU to respond to most major crises regardless of where they are in the world. At the time of this publication, the EU was involved in the response to CHEs in Syria, South Sudan, and the Central African Republic and was working in several other countries that were no longer entrenched in conflict but nonetheless faced humanitarian needs (e.g., Côte d'Ivoire).

In recent years, the EU annual budget allocation for humanitarian operations has remained at around US$1.35 billion, or about US$3 per person from the combined population of the EU member countries. Through this funding, the organization has reached on average about 120 million people each year.

ECHO maintains a staff of more than 300 at its Brussels headquarters and more than 400 dispersed throughout 44 field offices in 38 countries worldwide. When a disaster strikes, and presumably upon request, ECHO staff deploy in order to conduct a needs assessment. If it is determined that assistance is warranted, staff will remain and monitor the situation as it progresses and oversee the implementation of the humanitarian aid projects that ECHO supports. ECHO has established relationships with more than 200 other disaster management stakeholders, including 14 UN agencies and 194 NGOs.

ECHO humanitarian assistance can come in several forms, including food aid; clothing; healthcare supplies; and materials for shelter, water, and sanitation. ECHO also supports relief work, such as infrastructure repair, removal of mines, psychological support, and education, among many others. ECHO has a special program, called the "forgotten crisis assessment," that focuses on less salient events. Through this program, ECHO tries to raise the profile of serious incidents it finds are receiving too little attention among the humanitarian community, for the purpose of increasing the funds available to impacted victims.

In 2011, ECHO distributed humanitarian aid worth US$1.48 billion (which amounts to less than 1 percent of the EU budget, yet is, in gross terms, a significant amount in total funding when compared to most other donors). This funding assisted 117 million people in more than 90 countries outside the European Union.

ECHO also oversees the EU Civil Protection Mechanism, which comprised 32 states (28 EU Member States, plus former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway). This mechanism enables these nations to coordinate and cooperate in the event of a disaster in one or more EU countries or elsewhere in the world. Civil protection agencies from member countries provide inkind assistance, equipment, and teams, or experts that perform damage and needs assessments. ECHO civil protection relies on the resources of member governments and, if assistance is required in non-EU countries, it typically works in parallel with the humanitarian aid component of ECHO.

For European countries, the coordination and cooperation provided under ECHO is, in essence, a highly formalized mutual assistance compact that increases the capacity of all nations involved. Nations pool their resources and maximize their collective efforts. The key instrument for European civil protection is the Civil Protection Mechanism (CPM), which was established in 2001. The operational heart of CPM is the European Commission's Monitoring and Information Centre (MIC), which will soon become the European Emergency Response Centre (ERC). Any country inside or outside EU affected by a disaster and overwhelmed by its magnitude can make an appeal for assistance through the MIC/ERC.

To provide formalized mitigation and preparedness assistance, ECHO launched its disaster preparedness program, Disaster Preparedness ECHO (DIPECHO), in 1996. DIPECHO attempts to reduce population vulnerability in disaster-prone regions. Between 1996 and 2011, DIPECHO provided more than $255 million for hundreds of projects worldwide. DIPECHO-funded projects are implemented by aid agencies working in the region of concern, and support training, capacity building, awareness raising, and early warning projects, as well the organization of relief services. ECHO disaster preparedness efforts, however, extend beyond DIPECHO. Many of ECHO's major humanitarian financing decisions, for example, include disaster preparedness or prevention as an objective. Even post-disaster emergency responses can seek to reduce future risk. Examples of ECHO risk-reduction activities include livestock shelters built after extreme cold snaps to protect against further herd depletion (Peru), training and equipping of community-based fire brigades in forest fire risk zones (Indonesia), cholera preparedness and health information (Malawi), and antirust measures to prevent water pollution and protect pipes from the effects of volcanic ash (Ecuador).

The Organization of American States (OAS) was established in 1948 by 21 nations located in North, Central, and South America and the Caribbean that wished to strengthen cooperation and advance their common interests in the Western Hemisphere. Through the OAS Charter these nations committed to a set of common goals. Respect for each other's sovereignty has always played a central role in OAS affairs. Today, all 35 independent nations in the region have ratified the OAS Charter and serve as members of the organization (though the Cuban government was excluded from participation in OAS from 1962 to 2009, and has yet to rejoin since the lifting of its ban).

The OAS is heavily involved in disaster risk reduction and preparedness efforts in the region. The vast majority of such projects are facilitated by the OAS Office for Sustainable Development and Environment (OSDE), which supports activities in both individual countries and those that involve multiple countries. The more prominent of these activities focus on the following goals:

• Supporting the management of trans-boundary water resources • Improving information for decision making in biological diversity • Establishing land-tenure reform and property rights • Supporting the exchange of best practices and technical information in environmental law and enforcement, renewable energy, water management, and biodiversity • Improving management systems to reduce the impacts of natural disasters • Understanding climate-related vulnerabilities affecting small island states

The following is a list of projects that illustrates the range of disaster risk reduction and preparedness activities carried out by OAS: Mitigation Capacity Building Program. The three-year program assisted countries in the Caribbean region to develop comprehensive, national hazard vulnerability reduction policies and associated implementation programs, and develop and implement safer-building training and certificate programs.

Improvement Program with assistance from OAS to offer hurricane-resistant home improvement options to low-income families. This program trains local builders in safer construction, offers small loans to families wishing to upgrade their homes, and provides the services of a trained building inspector who approves materials to be purchased and checks minimum standards.

In addition to the OSDE, OAS supports disaster risk reduction through its Inter-American Committee for Natural Disaster Reduction (IACNDR). IACNDR is the organization's main forum for integrating disaster risk reduction into sustainable development practices. The OAS General Assembly established the IACNDR to strengthen its role in natural disaster reduction and emergency preparedness.

The Southern African Development Community (SADC) began in 1980, when a loose alliance of nine southern African states formed (then known as the Southern African Development Coordination Conference, or SADCC). The organization's aim was to coordinate development projects to decrease economic dependence on South Africa. In 1992, it shifted from a "coordination conference" to a development community known as the SADC. SADC Member States are Angola, Botswana, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

SADC's primary mission is to help define regional priorities, facilitate integration, assist in mobilizing resources, and maximize regional development. It approaches problems and national priorities through regional cooperation and action. Several SADC programs address the region's safety and security, primarily through risk-reduction mechanisms that include disaster preparedness and mitigation. The following are some examples of SADC disaster-related programs:

• Food, Agriculture, and Natural Resources Directorate • Regional Early Warning Unit • Regional Remote Sensing Unit

The Coordination Center for Natural Disaster Prevention in Central America (CEPREDENAC) was established in 1988 as a coordination center to strengthen the Central American region's ability to reduce their population's vulnerability to natural disasters. In May 1995, CEPREDENAC became an official organization to foster regional cooperation among the governments of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. The organization's headquarters are in Guatemala City, Guatemala.

Since its founding, the organization has been instrumental in securing region-wide commitment to disaster risk reduction through the passing of several resolutions and the creation of several plans and strategies signed by participating countries. The organization's agenda parallels and coordinates with other specialized regional entities in areas including hydrological resources, agriculture, nutrition, and food security. The CEPREDENAC Regional Disaster Reduction Plan (PRRD) was created to foster disaster reduction as an integral part of the sustainability of Central American societies. Its strategic objectives are:

• Promoting the incorporation of disaster risk reduction in legislation, policies • Enhancing and developing greater resilience of the population to disaster risk • Promoting the incorporation of disaster risk analysis in the design and implementation of prevention, mitigation, response, recovery, and reconstruction in the countries of the region A participating state may request disaster response assistance once its capabilities have been overwhelmed. CDEMA solicits and coordinates the assistance offered by other governments, organizations, and individuals, both within and outside the region. This is CDEMA's primary function. Other functions include:

• Securing, collating, and channeling disaster information to interested governmental organizations and NGOs as needed • Mitigating disaster consequences affecting participating states • Establishing and maintaining sustainable disaster response capabilities among participating states • Mobilizing and coordinating disaster relief from governmental organizations and NGOs for affected participating states

The 16 CDEMA participating states are structured into four subregions, each of which is headed by an operation unit known as a Sub-Regional Focal Point. The functions of each focal point relevant to the recovery effort are to:

• Acquire and maintain comprehensive emergency management capacity information • Test and maintain communications with the Coordinating Unit and with national disaster management agencies • Ensure subregion continuity of operations Membership in CDEMA requires the participating state to establish or maintain a National Disaster Organization (NDO) or a national relief organization capable of responding swiftly, effectively, and in a coordinated manner to disasters in participating states (typically the government body tasked with domestic emergency management). NDOs are headed by the National Disaster Coordinator (NDC), who is a government official responsible for the day-to-day management of the organization; NDOs are the national focal points for CDERA's activities in the participating state. The participating states are, in addition, required to:

• Establish planning groups and define national policies and priorities to address disasters • Provide national relief organizations with adequate support, including named emergency coordinators, liaison officers with key Ministries, emergency services, utilities, etc. • Define the disaster role and functions of government agencies • Establish and equip a suitable Emergency Operations Center (EOC) • Develop and maintain an appropriate emergency telecommunications system • Perform disaster operations planning and associated drills and exercises • Review and rationalize disaster-related statutory authorities • Develop an emergency shelter policy program involving local participation • Develop and implement a comprehensive disaster public awareness program • Develop and implement appropriate training programs for disaster management staff

In 1989, twenty-four countries in Eastern and Southern Africa established a Drought Monitoring Centre, with its headquarters in Nairobi (the DMCN) and a sub-center in Harare (DMCH), in response to a series of devastating weather-related disasters. In October 2003, the heads of state and governments of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) held their 10th Summit in Kampala, Uganda, where DMCN was adopted as a specialized IGAD institution. The name of the institution was changed to IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC) in order to better reflect its expanded mandates, mission, and objectives within the IGAD system. A protocol was signed in April 2007, integrating the institution fully into IGAD.

ICPAC is responsible for seven member countries (Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, and Uganda) and three other countries (Burundi, Rwanda, and Tanzania). The Centre's vision is "to become a viable regional centre of excellence in climate prediction and applications for climate risk management, environmental management, and sustainable development," while its mission is "provision of timely climate early warning information and support specific sector applications to enable the region to cope with various risks associated with extreme climate variability and change for poverty alleviation, environment management and sustainable development of the member countries"

The objectives of the Centre are:

1. To provide timely climate early warning information and support specific sector applications for the mitigation of the impacts of climate variability and change for poverty alleviation, management of environment, and sustainable development; 2. To improve the technical capacity of producers and users of climatic information, in order to enhance the use of climate monitoring and forecasting products in climate risk management and environment management; 3. To develop an improved, proactive, timely, broad-based system of information/product dissemination and feedback, at both sub-regional and national scales through national partners; 4. To expand climate knowledge base and applications within the sub-region in order to facilitate informed decision making on climate risk related issues; and 5. To maintain quality controlled databases and information systems required for risk/vulnerability assessment, mapping and general support to the national/ regional climate risk reduction strategies. (ICPAC n.d.)

The Centre has several functions relative to these objectives, which are:

• Acquisition of climate and remotely sensed data; • Develop and archive national and regional climate databanks including calibration of remote sensing records; • Process data and develop basic climatological statistics required for baseline risk scenarios and other applications; • Monitor, predict, and provide early warning information of the space-time evolutions of weather and climate extremes over the sub-region;

• Hazards and climate risk mapping of the extreme climate events thresholds;

• Networking with WMO, the National Meteorological and Hydrological institutions as well as regional and international centers for data and information exchange; • Capacity building in the generation and applications of climate information and products; • Applications of climate tools for specific climate sensitive sector risk reduction, environment management , and sustainable development, including integration of indigenous knowledge; • Monitor, assess, detect and attribute climate change and associated impacts, vulnerability, adaptation and mitigation options; • Develop relevant tools required to address the regional climate challenges through research and applications in all climate sensitive socio-economic sectors including addressing linkages with other natural and man-made disasters; and • Networking and exchange of information regarding disasters in the sub-region. (ICPAC n.d.)

The Centre offers a number of informational products, including periodic climate and weather bulletins, updates on climate and El Niño, and annual climate summaries. To date, the Centre has been instrumental in increasing DRR in the sub-region through the provision of capacity enhancement, informational products, networking assistance, and more.

The League of Arab States (LAS) is a regional IGO based in Cairo, Egypt and encompassing North Africa and Southwest Asia. LAS was formed in 1945 following the adoption of the Alexandria Protocol, with a stated goal to "draw closer the relations between member States and co-ordinate collaboration between them, to safeguard their independence and sovereignty, and to consider in a general way the affairs and interests of the Arab countries." Member states include Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, State of Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.

In response, and as a follow-up to the First Arab Summit on Socio-Economic Development, the Council of Arab Ministers responsible for the environment adopted specific actions relating to disaster risk reduction through a decision in May of 2009 to develop an Arab strategy for disaster risk reduction. This strategy, entitled the Arab Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction 2020, adopted in December of 2010, has a two-fold purpose:

1. To outline a vision, strategic priorities, and core areas of implementation for disaster risk reduction in the Arab region, and 2. To enhance institutional and coordination mechanisms and monitoring arrangements to support the implementation of the Strategy at the regional, national, and local level through preparation of a Programme of Action.

The Arab Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction is designed to complement existing and ongoing efforts in disaster risk reduction by national institutions and regional technical organizations in the LAS region. Implementing partners of the Strategy are to focus on multi-sectorial approaches with the purpose of reducing emerging risks across the Arab region by 2020, in line with the global priorities outlined by the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) and the Millennium Development Goals. The five priorities of the LAS Strategy directly mirror those of the HFA, including the desire to increase nations' capacity to incorporate DRR into disaster recovery. Specific commitments detailed under these priorities, which pertain to recovery planning actions in the region, include:

• Ensuring that disaster risk reduction measures are integrated into post-disaster recovery and rehabilitation processes • Establishing disaster preparedness plans, contingency plans, and recovery and reconstruction plans at all administrative levels with the participation of women, the aged, children, IDPs, and people with special needs • Ensuring that national/ local financial reserves and contingency mechanisms are in place and well understood by all stakeholders to ensure effective response and recovery when required • Addressing national trans-boundary cooperation on disaster response, preparedness and recovery among Arab states

In the Arab region, funding remains the main challenge faced by national and local authorities, civil society organizations, and humanitarian workers implementing disaster risk reduction measures targeting communities at risk. LAS encourages its members to dedicate at least 1 percent of national development funding and development assistance toward disaster risk reduction measures. Specifically, it was recommended that member states assess the possibility of utilizing existing regional funds and mechanisms (including, among other mechanisms, socio-economic development funds and national disaster relief and response budgets) by allocating a dedicated budget for disaster risk reduction and recovery activities at the subregional, national, or local level. The LAS Regional Centre for Disaster Risk Reduction (RCDRR) was established in 2009 by a partnership between the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR), and the Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport (AAS-TMT), as an intergovernmental organization of the League of Arab States targeting the achievement of sustainable development in the Arab region. The Centre seeks to address risk through knowledge, research, and training of scientific and technical cadres in various disciplines on DRR. The main objectives of RCDRR, as per the 2009 RCDRR Statutes, are:

• Integration of DRR into regional and national sustainable development policies, strategies, and plans • Enhancing regional and national capacities in the field of DRR research, education, and training • Contributing to the development and harmonization of regional DRR methodologies and tools, including database and guidelines • Promoting partnership building with a multi-stakeholder approach to accelerate the implementation of the Hyogo Framework of Action

The South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was officially established in 1985. The objectives of the organization are to:

• Promote the welfare of the people of South Asia and to improve their quality of life • Accelerate economic growth, social progress, and cultural development in the region and to provide all individuals the opportunity to live in dignity and to realize their full potential • Promote and strengthen selective self-reliance among the countries of South Asia • Contribute to mutual trust, understanding, and appreciation of one another's problems • Promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in the economic, social, cultural, technical, and scientific fields • Strengthen cooperation with other developing countries • Strengthen cooperation among themselves in international forums on matters of common interest • Cooperate with international and regional organizations with similar aims and purposes.

The SAARC member countries include Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.

After • Establish and strengthen the regional disaster management system to reduce risks and to improve response and recovery management at all levels • Identify and elaborate country and regional priorities for action • Share best practices and lessons learnt from disaster risk reduction efforts at national levels • Establish a regional system to develop and implement regional programs and projects for early warning • Establish a regional system of exchanging information on prevention, preparedness, and management of natural disasters • Create a regional response mechanism dedicated to disaster preparedness, emergency relief, and rehabilitation to ensure immediate response • Create a regional mechanism to facilitate monitoring and evaluation of achievements toward goals and strategies.

The SAARC Disaster Management Centre (SDMC) was established in October of 2006 at the facilities of the National Institute of Disaster Management in New Delhi to serve as a center of excellence for knowledge, research, and capacity building in disaster management. The Centre has the mandate to serve the SAARC Member Countries by providing policy advice and facilitating capacity building services, including strategic learning, research, training, system development, and exchange of information for effective disaster risk reduction and management in South Asia. SDMC conducts studies and research, organizes workshops and training programs, publishes its reports and documents, and provides various policy advisory services to the Member Countries.

The Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) was founded in Australia in 1947 under the Canberra Agreement to restore order in the region following World War II. In 1972, the SPC Applied Geoscience and Technology Division (SOPAC) was created as a UNDP Regional Project, and in 1990 it became an independent IGO. In 2011, SOPAC became a new division under SPC, dedicated to promoting sustainable development in its member countries, and its work is carried out through its Secretariat based in Suva, Fiji. SOPAC members include Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji Islands, Guam, Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu, Niue, Nauru, and Palau. Associate members (local administrations of nonself-governing territories) include American Samoa, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, and Tokelau.

The purpose of SOPAC is to ensure the earth sciences (inclusive of geology, geophysics, oceanography, and hydrology) are utilized fully in the fulfillment of the SPC mission. To fulfill this purpose, the division has three technical work programs:

• Ocean and Islands • Water and Sanitation • Disaster Reduction These three programs share common technical support services:

The SOPAC Disaster Reduction Programme (DRP) provides technical and policy advice and support to strengthen disaster risk management practices in Pacific Island Countries and Territories. The program carries out this responsibility in coordination and collaboration with other technical program areas within SOPAC and also with a range of regional and international development partners and donors. The overarching policy guidance for DRP is the HFA-linked Pacific Disaster Risk Reduction and Disaster Management Framework for Action 2005-2015 (Pacific DRR and DM Framework for Action), which supports and advocates for the building of safer and more resilient communities. The other significant regional policy instruments that help to guide the efforts of the DRP are the Pacific Plan and the Pacific Islands Framework for Action on Climate Change 2006-2015.

The SOPAC Disaster Risk Management Policy and Planning Team (PPT) is responsible for the DRM mainstreaming initiative, which SOPAC spearheads on behalf of the Pacific Disaster Risk Management Partnership Network. In fulfilling this responsibility, the PPT provides the following services to Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs):

• Leads and coordinates high level advocacy at cabinet/political level to garner support for DRM mainstreaming in national, sectorial, local, and community planning and budgetary processes • Leads and coordinates the development and implementation of DRM National Action Plans with the support of other members of the Pacific DRM Partnership Network • Supports the integration of DRM and climate change adaptation initiatives at the national level within PICTs • Analyzes budgeted DRM investment in annual appropriations of PICTs • Analyzes the economic impact of disaster events • Analyzes the cost-benefit of DRM measures A major focus of the PPT is to build member country resilience by facilitating the creation of disaster risk management national action plans (NAPs). The Partnership Network continued to provide strong support in terms of the realization of DRM initiatives linked to NAP exercises and also for other risk reduction and disaster management-related activities. In the past several years, this support has shifted to development of joint national action plans (JNAPs) that integrate policy on disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation. Several of the countries in the region have established JNAPs at the national level. The region is also moving toward a regional-level integrated joint strategy for disaster risk reduction and climate change. At present, regional-level disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation policies remain separate.

SOPAC led the development of the Pacific Disaster Risk Reduction and Disaster Management Framework for Action (RFA), signed in 2005, and the Secretariat of the Pacific Community Environmental Programme (SPREP) led the development of the Pacific Islands Framework for Action on Climate Change (PIFACC), also signed in 2005. However, these organizations initiated an effort in 2011 to establish a more integrated solution to coincide with the year 2015 expiration of both frameworks. An ongoing process named "The Roadmap" is marked by wide stakeholder involvement via a steering committee and broad technical support provided by a technical working group (which includes SPC/SOPAC, SPREP, and UNISDR). The Roadmap process has to date resulted in a draft-integrated strategy entitled The Strategy for Disaster and Climate Resilient Development in the Pacific (SRDP). The draft strategy is designed to promote action that is harmonized with existing member state institutional arrangements for climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction "[to] ensure that efforts are nested within the context of countries' national development strategies and reflected in their budgets, encourage the participation of multiple stakeholder groups, strengthen countries' capacities for risk governance and support the development of well-coordinated innovative funding mechanisms" (SPC 2013).

DRP supports the strengthening of disaster management governance, which has included the development of institutional, policy, and decision-making processes such as disaster management legislative and planning frameworks, and national focal points (NDMOs) and guidelines or models of good practice for national application. The emergency management preparedness, response, and coordination capabilities within countries will be critically assessed to determine the level of resources and capacity that is available to protect vulnerable communities. A priority will be to ensure that effective emergency response, communication, and coordination processes are established, and that existing resources are utilized in the most effective way.

The DRP Disaster Management Team provides the following services to PICTs:

• Technical advice and support to review and update national DRM governance arrangements and legislation, operational plans and procedures • Support for the design and conduct of operational and table-top exercises to test emergency response plans and procedures • Support for the conduct of disaster risk management training in collaboration with the Pacific DRM Program of The Asia Foundation/Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance • Design and development of professional training courses in collaboration with TAF/OFDA and the Fiji National University

In 2006, SOPAC established the Pacific Disaster Risk Management Partnership Network to provide a collaborative and cooperative mechanism to support disaster risk management capacity building in the region and help Pacific Island Countries and Territories adapt and implement the Pacific DRR and DM Framework for Action. The Partnership is an "open-ended, voluntary" membership of international, regional, and national government and non-government organizations, with comparative advantages and interests in supporting Pacific countries toward mainstreaming DRM through addressing their disaster risk reduction and disaster management priorities. The members of the Partnership Network agree that:

• disaster risk reduction and disaster management are sustainable development issues within the broader context of economic growth and good governance; • national governments have a critical role in developing disaster risk reduction and disaster management national programs and plans that reflect the needs of all stakeholders in a whole-ofcountry approach; • a regional effort must be responsive to and support and complement national programs and plans to strengthen resilience to disasters; • as regional partners, we commit to coordinating our activities and to work cooperatively and collaboratively under the guidance of the Pacific Plan and Regional Framework for Action 2005-2015; and • we can build safer and more resilient nations and communities to disasters if we work in unison and accept this disaster risk management charter as a basis for future action.

International financial institutions (IFIs) provide loans for development and financial cooperation throughout the world. They exist to ensure financial and market stability and to increase political balance. These institutions are made up of Member States arranged on a global or regional basis that work together to provide financial services to national governments through direct loans or projects. In a disaster's aftermath, nations with low capital reserves often request increased or additional emergency loans to fund the expensive task of reconstruction and rehabilitation. Without IFIs, most developing nations would not have the means to recover. Several of the largest IFIs are detailed in the following section, including the World Bank; one of its subsidiaries, the International Monetary Fund (IMF); the Asian Development Bank; and the Inter-American Development Bank.

The World Bank was created in 1944 to rebuild Europe after World War II. In 1947, France received the first World Bank loan of $250 million for post-war reconstruction. Financial reconstruction assistance has been provided regularly since that time in response to countless natural disasters and humanitarian emergencies.

Today, the World Bank is one of the largest sources of development assistance. In the 2009 fiscal year, it provided more than $58.8 billion in loans, breaking all previous lending records for the organization. In fiscal year 2013, the amount of loans had fallen to $52.6 billion, but the Bank remains one of the largest development lenders. The World Bank is owned collectively by 188 countries and is based in Washington, DC. It comprises several institutions referred to as the World Bank Group (WBG):

• International Bank for Reconstruction and Development • International Development Association

The World Bank's overall goal is to reduce poverty, specifically to "individually help each developing country onto a path of stable, sustainable, and equitable growth, [focusing on] helping the poorest people and the poorest countries" (Wagstaff 2001) . As disasters and CHEs take a greater and greater toll on the economic stability of many financially struggling countries, the World Bank is taking on a more central role in mitigation and reconstruction.

Developing nations, which are more likely to have weak disaster mitigation or preparedness capacity and therefore little or no affordable access to disaster insurance, often sustain a total financial loss. In the period of rehabilitation that follows the disaster, loans are essential to the success of programs and vital to any level of sustainability or increased disaster resistance. The World Bank lends assistance at several points along this cycle.

For regular financial assistance, the World Bank ensures that borrowed funds are applied to projects that give mitigation a central role during the planning phase. It utilizes its privilege as financial advisor to guide planners, who otherwise might forego mitigation measures in an effort to stretch the loaned capital as far as possible. Ensuring that mitigation is addressed increases systems of prediction and risk analysis in projects funded by the World Bank.

Once a disaster occurs, the World Bank may be called on for help. Because it is not a relief agency, it will not take on any role in the initial response; however, it works to restore damaged and destroyed infrastructure and restart production capabilities. (See exhibit 10.14.) A World Bank team may assist with initial impact assessments that estimate financial losses resulting from the disaster and estimated costs of reconstruction, including raised mitigation standards. The World Bank also could restructure the country's existing loan portfolio to allow for expanded recovery projects. In addition, World Bank projects that have not yet been approved but are in the application process can be redesigned to account for changes caused by the disaster.

Finally, an Emergency Recovery Loan (ERL) can be granted to specifically address recovery and reconstruction issues. ERLs restore affected economic and social institutions and reconstruct physical assets such as essential infrastructure. It is important to note that ERLs are not designed for relief activities. They are most appropriate for disasters that adversely impact an economy, are infrequent (recurrent disasters are accommodated by regular lending programs), and create urgent needs. ERLs are expected to eventually produce economic benefits to the borrowing government; they are usually implemented within three years and are flexible to accommodate the specific needs of each unique scenario. Construction performed with ERLs must use disaster-resistant standards and include appropriate mitigation measures, thus providing overall preparedness for the country affected. Once an ERL has been granted, the World Bank coordinates with the IMF, the UNDP, NGOs, and several other international and local agencies to create a strategy that best utilizes these funds within the overall reconstruction effort.

The two lending arms of the World Bank are the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Development Association.

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) . Established in 1945, the IBRD reduces poverty in middle-income and creditworthy poorer countries. The IBRD attempts to promote sustainable development activities through its loans. It also provides guarantees and other analytical and advisory services. Following disasters, countries with strong enough credit can borrow or refinance their existing loans from the IBRD to pay the often staggering costs of reconstruction.

International Development Association (IDA). The IDA lends to the world's poorest countries, classified as those with a 2010 income of less than $1,135 per person. Sixty-four countries currently are eligible to borrow from the IDA. It provides interest-free loans and grants for programs aimed at boosting economic growth and improving living conditions. This need is almost always present in the aftermath of disasters, including those caused by violent conflict.

In 2006, the Global Facility for Disaster Risk Reduction, or GFDRR, was created, with the World Bank designated as facility manager on behalf of the 41 countries and eight international organizations that make up its membership. GFDRR has a secretariat, based in the Washington DC World Bank headquarters, which carries out its day-to-day operations. The purpose of GFDRR is to help developing countries address disaster vulnerability and vulnerability to the effects of climate change. Its work is primarily driven by the Hyogo Framework for Action, and its programs focus on mainstreaming EXHIBIT 10.14 WORLD BANK DISASTER ASSISTANCE TO BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA WASHINGTON, June 30, 2014 - The World Bank Group's Board of Executive Directors today approved a US$100 million credit for the Floods Emergency Recovery Project for Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), to meet critical needs and restore the functionality of infrastructure essential for public services and economic recovery in affected areas in the aftermath of the worst flooding to hit the country in documented history. The project was prepared in record time in view of the dire situation in the country and will be financed from the International Development Association's (IDA) Crisis Response Window resources.

This project will target areas that were hit hardest by the devastating floods. Preliminary evidence shows that the largest impact from this disaster was on livelihoods, housing, transport, agriculture, and energy. Given the magnitude of the damage caused by flooding and subsequent landslides, the project is designed to support efforts by local and entity governments to quickly re-establish public services to pre-flood levels. The project will also support the Government's on-going economic recovery initiatives, in particular in the agriculture sector.

In addition to this project, the World Bank is working on several other fronts to ensure the provision of a comprehensive package of support for BiH as it recovers and rebuilds from the physical and economic devastation. Notably, the Bank is participating in a systematic recovery needs assessment, led by the Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) authorities and supported also by the European Union and the United Nations. The assessment will provide a basis for developing effective rehabilitation measures for infrastructure and services in the affected areas. The World Bank is also considering the restructuring of existing projects in its BiH portfolio to meet reconstruction needs.

While immediate recovery needs are the top priority of this project, the World Bank also stands ready to work with the BiH authorities to scale-up flood protection and implement early warning systems. The recently approved Drina Flood Protection Project is a good example of the type of work that could be scaled-up, as it addresses the need to prevent future flooding.

As emphasized by Laura Tuck, World Bank Vice President for Europe and Central Asia, "The Floods Emergency Recovery Project will finance critical goods, such as fuel and electricity imports, as well as the reconstruction of local infrastructure. This immediate response, combined with the Drina River Flood Protection Project, will support economic recovery in the affected areas, and will help restore Bosnia and Herzegovina to a growth path following the floods."

The World Bank portfolio of active projects in BiH now includes 14 operations totaling approximately US$578.6 million. Areas of support include agriculture, environment, energy efficiency, health, social safety and employment, local infrastructure, and private sector development. Release, 2014. disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation throughout all government sectors in member countries. GFDRR organizes its efforts according to three "business lines," which include:

• Track I: Global and Regional Partnerships -Track I supports UNISDR in helping countries to leverage resources to perform pre-disaster investments and activities related to prevention, disaster risk reduction, and disaster preparedness. The key objectives of Track I are to: 1) enhance global and regional advocacy, strategic partnerships, and knowledge management for mainstreaming disaster risk reduction; and 2) promote the standardization and harmonization of hazard risk management tools, methodologies, and practices. • Track II: Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction in Development -Track II provides pre-disaster assistance to developing countries to mainstream and expand disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation activities. Work in this Track is performed in conjunction with World Bank regional teams, UN agencies, and national governments, and is aimed at integrating disaster risk reduction into poverty reduction and development efforts. There are also several sub-programs that include risk assessment, risk reduction, risk financing, and climate change adaptation. • Track III: Sustainable Recovery -Track III is aimed at early post-disaster recovery in low-income countries through its Standby Recovery Financing Facility (SRFF). Track III is less programmatic than Track I and Track II because it is deployed for post-disaster situations, but it does work to build national capacity and facilitate knowledge management with the long term in mind. SRFF support includes two financing windows: 1) the technical assistance (TA) fund, which supports damage, loss, and needs assessments and develops national capacity for recovery planning and implementation; and 2) the callable fund for accelerated recovery, which provides speedy access to financial resources for disaster recovery and reconstruction.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was established in 1946 to "promote international monetary cooperation, exchange stability and orderly exchange arrangements; to foster economic growth and high levels of employment; and to provide temporary financial assistance to countries to help ease balance of payments adjustment." It carries out these functions through loans, monitoring, and technical assistance.

Since 1962, the IMF has provided emergency assistance to its 188 member countries after they were struck by natural disasters, and, in a great many cases, when affected by complex emergencies. The assistance provided by the IMF is designed to meet the country's immediate foreign-exchange financing needs, which often arise because earnings from exports fall while the need for imports increases (among other causes). IMF assistance also helps the affected countries avoid serious depletion of their external reserves.

In 1995, the IMF began to provide this type of emergency assistance to countries facing post-conflict scenarios in order to enable them to reestablish macroeconomic stability and to provide a foundation for recovery, namely in the form of long-term sustainable growth. This type of assistance is particularly important when a country must cover costs associated with an "urgent balance of payments need, but is unable to develop and implement a comprehensive economic program because its capacity has been damaged by a conflict, but where sufficient capacity for planning and policy implementation nevertheless exists" (IMF 2005) . The IMF maintains that their support must be part of a comprehensive international effort to address the aftermath of a conflict in order to be effective. Its emergency financing is provided to assist the affected country and to gather support from other sources.

It is not uncommon for a country to severely exhaust its monetary reserves in response to an emergency situation. In the event of a natural disaster, funding is directed toward local recovery efforts and any needed economic adjustments. The IMF lends assistance only if a stable governing body is in place that has the capacity for planning and policy implementation and can ensure the safety of IMF resources. After stability has been sufficiently restored, increased financial assistance is offered, which is used to develop the country in its post-emergency status.

When a country requests emergency assistance, it must submit a detailed plan for economic reconstruction that will not create trade restrictions or "intensify exchange." If the country is already working under an IMF loan, assistance may be in the form of a reorganization of the existing arrangement. It can also request emergency assistance under the Rapid Financing Instrument (RFI).

The Rapid Financing Instrument (RFI) is the vehicle that the IMF uses to meet disaster-impacted countries' financing needs. The RFI provides funding quickly and with few requirements in instances where it is determined that a disaster or emergency situation has resulted in urgent balance-of-payments needs. Emergencies need not be related to a natural or technological hazard-they can also be the result of rapid increases in the price of certain commodities or because of an economic crisis. Unlike other IMF assistance, there does not need to be a full-fledged financing program in place.

Prior to the creation of the RFI, the IMF used a number of separate programs to address emergency needs, including the Emergency Natural Disaster Assistance (ENDA) program and the Emergency Post-Conflict Assistance (EPCA) program. The 2011 creation of the RFI program combines all emergency needs. RFI financial assistance is provided in the form of outright purchases without the need for a full-fledged program or reviews. However, when a country does request assistance under RFI, they must cooperate with the IMF to make every effort to solve their balance-of-payment problems, and must explain the economic policies it proposes to follow to do so.

The IMF makes the RFI program available to all of its members, though oftentimes very poor countries are more likely to seek assistance under a different program called the Rapid Credit Facility (RCF), which provides similar assistance but has economic-based requirements that many wealthier countries cannot meet. Funds access under the RFI program is limited to 50 percent of a nation's quota per year and 100 percent of quota on a cumulative basis. Under the RCF program, the access limits are 50 percent of a nation's quota per year and 125 percent of quota on a cumulative basis. The level of access in each case depends on the country's balance-of-payments need. Financial assistance provided under the RFI is subject to many of the same financing terms that nations would see in other IMF programs, and the funds borrowed are ideally paid back within 39 to 60 months (IMF 2011).

In certain cases, as decided by the IMF and according to specific criteria, recipients of emergency funding may benefit from the IMF Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). The PRGF is the IMF's low-interest lending facility for low-income countries. PRGF-supported programs are underpinned by comprehensive country-owned poverty reduction strategies. Under this program, the interest rate on loans is subsidized to 0.5 percent per year, with the interest subsidies financed by grant contributions from bilateral donors. This program has been available for post-conflict emergencies since 2000, but in January 2005, following the South Asia tsunami events, the IMF Executive Board agreed to provide a similar subsidization of emergency assistance for natural disasters upon request.

The government of a country devastated by disaster often requires technical assistance or policy advice because it has no experience or expertise in this situation. This is especially common in post-conflict situations, where a newly elected or appointed government has been established and officials are rebuilding from the ground up. The IMF offers technical assistance in these cases to aid these countries in building their capacity to implement macroeconomic policy. This can include tax and government expenditure capacity; the reorganization of fiscal, monetary, and exchange institutions; and guidance in the use of aid resources.

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) is a multilateral development financial institution whose primary mission is reducing poverty in Asia and the Pacific. ADB was established in 1966 by 31 countries from both within and outside the region, and has grown to include 67 members as of 2014. Forty-eight are from the region and 19 are from other regions. Its clients are the 67 member governments, who are also the ADB's shareholders.

The ADB provides emergency rehabilitation loans to its member countries following disasters. ADB determined that its assistance in this critical phase of recovery would allow an affected developing country to maintain its development momentum. Bank analysts found that, without such assistance, the affected country may reallocate its scarce budgetary resources away from development issues to cover disaster-related expenses, sidetracking development progress. Additionally, they found that the production of goods and services would quickly suffer or fail completely if the country could not perform adequate rehabilitation following a disaster.

ADB assistance in emergencies began in 1987, but was initially extended only to smaller developing countries (e.g., the Maldives, Papua New Guinea, and the smaller Pacific island states). Loans were limited to $500,000 (increased to $2 million in 1997), with funded projects to be completed within 12 months of disbursement. The funding was designed to address only simple repair and rehabilitation activities as needed in the immediate aftermath of a disaster, with more comprehensive repair being covered by regular bank lending programs. Lending was designed to be provided within six weeks of being requested.

In 1989, emergency lending was extended to all developing member countries regardless of their size. This change included a fundamental shift in what the emergency loans would cover, from simple repairs to more comprehensive, informed rehabilitation activities. Most important, ADB wanted to ensure that projects funded by its loans reduced overall risk to the affected nation and its population. Other major changes in ADB emergency lending policy are included in the following list:

• Introducing a typology of the causes and effects of disasters • More clearly defining the ADB's response during various phases of post-disaster situations • Identifying the nature, focus, and coverage of rehabilitation projects • Introducing detailed, yet simplified, guidelines for processing rehabilitation projects • Targeting rehabilitation loans toward restoring infrastructure and production activities, including capacity building and modernization • Mandating that risk analysis and disaster prevention measures be included in all ADB projects in disaster-prone developing member countries • Closely coordinating disaster responses at all levels (local, national, and international) with those of other external funding agencies, NGOs, and community groups • Specifying that disaster prevention and mitigation activities were to be promoted along with regional cooperation • Including non-natural disasters, for example, wars, civil strife, and environmental degradation (ADB 2005) Between 1987 and 2013, ADB provided $6.4 billion to disaster-affected countries in the form of loans at a rate of approximately one loan per month. The vast majority of the ADB emergency loan services during this period were provided in response to natural disaster events, with the remaining dedicated to post-conflict situations. These loans rarely averaged more than 6 percent of the total annual lending by ADB and were concentrated primarily in South Asia. The Project comprises two components: (i) reconstruction and upgrading of damaged roads and bridges in Sichuan and Shaanxi provinces, and (ii) reconstruction and improvements of damaged schools in Shaanxi Province. The project will rehabilitate and reconstruct 368 high-priority earthquake-damaged roads in the 19 worst affected counties of Sichuan Province and 10 subprojects in the four worst affected counties of Shaanxi Province. The project will rehabilitate and reconstruct 12 highpriority earthquake-damaged education facilities in the three worst affected counties in Shaanxi Province. These components are designed to be mutually supporting in achieving the overall objective of restoring the affected communities' access to infrastructure to pre-earthquake levels, and ensuring restored infrastructure is in strict compliance with the latest seismic code.

Based on the government's damage and needs assessment and the request of the PRC Government, the project identifies specific sectors that require emergency assistance in two of the worst earthquake-affected provinces (i.e., Sichuan and Shaanxi). The project seeks to (i) build on the immediate relief provided by the Government in the earthquake-affected provinces; (ii) contribute to coordinated rehabilitation and reconstruction by different development partners and the government; and (iii) specifically address sustainable recovery priorities by providing indirect livelihood support through public infrastructure rehabilitation and reconstruction, which generates public employment and underpins the restoration of livelihood activities by rehabilitating roads, bridges, and schools. The project design draws on the ADB experience in delivering emergency assistance acquired in different developing member countries over the past two decades, and complements relief and other rehabilitation and reconstruction assistance provided by the government, United Nations agencies, NGOs, bilateral development partners, and the World Bank. By meeting the earthquake reconstruction needs of the next three years, the project is consistent with ADB's Disaster and Emergency Assistance Policy (2004) . The Project supports the State Overall Plan for Post-Wenchuan Earthquake Restoration and Reconstruction approved by the Government on 19 September 2008.

The impact of the project is accelerated restoration of education and transport infrastructure in earthquake-affected areas of Sichuan and Shaanxi provinces. The project will support the government's efforts to (i) restore the livelihoods and economic activities of the affected population; (ii) accelerate poverty alleviation in the earthquake-affected counties, many of which have a high incidence of poverty; and (iii) rehabilitate and reconstruct public and community-based infrastructure that is vulnerable to natural disasters. The outcome of the project is restoration of people's access to transport and education infrastructure to preearthquake levels in 19 counties of Sichuan and four counties of Shaanxi provinces.

The total project cost is estimated at $441.6 million equivalent.

A loan of $400 million from ADB's ordinary capital resources will be provided under ADB's London interbank offered rate (LIBOR)-based lending facility. The loan will have a grace period of 8 years with a maturity period of 32 years, an interest rate determined in accordance with ADB's LIBOR-based lending facility, a commitment charge of 0.15% per annum, and such other terms and conditions set forth in the draft loan and project agreements.

Until June 30, 2012.

ADB also provides mitigation-related project loans and regional technical assistance (RETA) aimed at reducing member countries' overall disaster vulnerability. Between August 1987 and December 2013, ADB approved $13.1 billion for more than 300 disaster risk management-related projects (in addition to the $6.4 billion provided in disaster-related financing). Mitigation and preparedness projects are not considered "emergency" in nature and are therefore funded through the Bank's regular lending activities. Because mitigation and preparedness activities are most often included as components within larger development projects, ADB does not maintain records of its total financial risk reduction-based lending. Projects may include resilience-increasing activities such as reforestation, watershed management, coastal protection, agricultural diversification, slope stabilization, and land-use planning, although the project's overall goal is more development oriented. RETA and single-country technical assistance activities have included hazard management and disaster preparedness software programs and infrastructure protection assistance. ADB has

December 31, 2011.

As the project is for emergency assistance, implementation will start immediately after approval and be completed within 36 months.

Sichuan Provincial Communications Department in Sichuan Province; and Hanzhong city government and Baoji city government in Shaanxi Province Implementing Agencies Sichuan Highway Administration Bureau in Sichuan Province; and county-level highway administration bureaus for roads and bridges, and county-level education bureaus for schools in Shaanxi Province.

The project will bring benefits to the project area by (i) reconstructing and improving road conditions and accessibility in townships and in villages in the Sichuan and Shaanxi provinces, (ii) reconstructing and improving 12 schools in Shaanxi Province, and (iii) creating local employment opportunities from project construction and related activities. The project will provide equal benefits to females and males.

The economic benefits of the rural roads and bridges include (i) savings in vehicle operating costs as a result of improved traffic and road conditions, (ii) time-savings for rural road users, (iii) savings in road accident costs as a result of fewer accidents, and (iv) economic benefits from generated traffic. The reconstruction and upgrading of rural roads in Sichuan and Shaanxi provinces will benefit about 5.6 million people, three-quarters of whom are rural and one-third of whom are poor. As reliable transport to markets becomes more readily available, cash crop farming in remote or isolated areas will be stimulated and access to off-farm employment opportunities will be broadened.

The project will focus on reconstruction of and improvements to 12 model schools to appropriate design standards, including six junior secondary and six primary schools. This will bring immediate benefits to the schools' 16,600 students (including more than 8000 female students), and long-term benefits to future students drawn from the 460,000 residents of the areas serviced by the schools, about 40% of whom are from rural areas of remote counties. The project will contribute to the government's efforts to rebuild the economy, rehabilitate public infrastructure and utilities, reinstate seismic code compliance, and generate employment. The rehabilitation and reconstruction of damaged schools will enable education services to be restored and will offer long-term benefits for affected persons by supporting opportunities for employment and participation in economic activities. Finally, ADB assists countries in restarting rehabilitation and overall development in the aftermath of armed conflict. In the past, ADB post-conflict intervention focused almost exclusively on infrastructure rehabilitation, an area in which the ADB has extensive experience. Its focus in this area began to shift in the 1990s to preventing conflicts and helping post-conflict countries move along a solid path of economic and social development. ADB is now committed to assisting affected member countries develop mechanisms to effectively manage conflict, including addressing the problems of poor governance and corruption.

In 2009, ADB established the Asia Pacific Disaster Response Fund (APDRF) to provide quick funding in the aftermath of a disaster to help governments meet urgent life-saving disaster-response needs. Between 2009 and 2013, 19 grants were approved under the fund. APDRF assistance is provided as a grant that may be no larger than US$3 million per event. The size of the grant is determined by:

1. The geographical extent of the disaster's damage; 2. Initial estimates of fatalities, injuries, and displaced persons; 3. The country's disaster response capacity; and 4. The date and magnitude of the last disaster to have impacted the country (thereby taking into account the cumulative effect of disasters on the country's ability to respond) (ADB 2014).

In 2012, ADB approved a pilot Asian Development Fund Disaster Response Facility for countries eligible for low-interest loans in the event of a disaster. The pilot program, which runs from 2013 to 2016, is being conducted to strengthen ADB's ability to respond to disaster-impacted member countries in a manner that is less ad hoc. The DRF will require countries that are eligible to borrow from the Asian Development Fund (ADF countries) to contribute a small fraction of their allocations for the benefit of accessing the DRF in case of a disaster. The DRF will be available to these countries in the case of natural disasters, and will support relief, response, recovery, and reconstruction needs. Per the pilot program, the size of the DRF will be 3 percent of the total performance-based allocation (PBA) received. In case of a disaster, an ADF country can get up to 100 percent of its annual PBA, or US$3 million per disaster, whichever is higher, from the DRF. A blend country, which is a country eligible for both the ADF and ADB ordinary capital resources, can receive up to 3 percent of its annual PBA from the DRF if affected by a disaster.

Established in December 1959, the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) is the oldest and largest regional multilateral development institution. It was first created to help accelerate economic and social development in Latin America and the Caribbean. The IADB has been a pioneer in supporting social programs; developing economic, social, educational, and health institutions; promoting regional integration; and providing direct support to the private sector, including microenterprises.

The IADB addresses disaster and risk management through its Sustainable Development Department. Through the efforts and actions of this department and its disaster risk management policy, the IADB addresses the root causes of the region's high vulnerability to disasters. Building on its mandate to promote sustainable development in Latin America and the Caribbean, the IADB works with countries to integrate risk reduction into their development practice, planning, and investment, and to increase their capacity to manage risk reduction. It also provides funding that directly or indirectly supports disaster mitigation and preparedness. In their "Plan of Action: Facing the Challenge of Natural Disasters in Latin America and the Caribbean," the IADB outline their six strategic areas of assistance:

1. National Systems for Disaster Prevention and Response: Building national legal and regulatory frameworks and programs that bring together the planning agencies, local governments, and civil society organizations; developing national strategies for risk reduction; and assessing intersectoral priorities, backed by separate budgets. 2. A Culture of Prevention: Developing and disseminating risk information and empowering citizens and other stakeholders to take risk-reduction measures. 3. Reducing the Vulnerability of the Poor: Supporting poor households and communities in reducing their vulnerability to natural hazards and recovering from disasters through reconstruction assistance. 4. Involving the Private Sector: Creating conditions for the development of insurance markets, encouraging the use of other risk-spreading financial instruments where appropriate, and designing economic and regulatory incentives for risk reduction behavior. 5. Risk Information for Decision-Making: Evaluating existing risk assessment methodologies; developing indicators of vulnerability, and stimulating the production and wide dissemination of risk information. 6. Fostering Leadership and Cooperation in the Region: Stimulate coordinated actions and to mobilize regional resources for investments in risk mitigation. (IADB 2000) The IADB created two mechanisms to allow for rapid loan disbursement in times of disaster: the Disaster Prevention Sector Facility and the Facility for the Immediate Response to Natural and Unexpected Disasters (formerly the Immediate Response Facility).

In 2001 the IADB established the Natural Disaster Network, represented by each of its borrowing member countries. Network members meet annually to discuss topics related to disaster management, such as "National Systems for Risk Management" (2001) The IADB revised its disaster risk management policy in 2008. The new policy is designed to improve the IADB's ability to assist member countries in reaching their development goals by supporting their disaster risk management efforts. (See appendix 10.1 for the full text of the 2008 IADB Disaster Risk Management Policy Guidelines.) . IADB supports disaster risk reduction through the Disaster Prevention Sector Facility, which provides up to $5 million to assist countries in taking an integrated approach to reducing and managing their risk.

The IADB also provides loans to help countries cope with financial or economic crises and natural or other disasters through its Emergency Lending Program. In the case of a financial or economic crisis, the IADB requires that the emergency loan fits within an IMF-approved and monitored macroeconomic stabilization program. Emergency loan disbursement periods are much shorter than other non-disaster loans, ranging up to 18 months in duration. They may be used to support national, provincial, state, and municipal governments and autonomous public institutions. They have a five-year term and a three-year grace period. In the case of natural or other disasters, the emergency lending program is known as the Emergency projects, in order to improve project viability. Whenever significant risks due to natural hazards are identified in project preparation, appropriate measures will be taken to secure the viability of the project, including the protection of populations and investments affected by Bank-financed activities. The Bank has nonreimbursable resources that may be used to cover the transaction costs incurred with the implementation of these guidelines. 1.6. These guidelines will also recommend ways to evaluate the benefits and opportunity costs of loan reformulations and give guidance on how to ensure adequate transparency and effective monitoring, auditing, and reporting on the use of redirected funds. In addition, the guidelines describe precautions to be taken to avoid rebuilding or increasing vulnerability during rehabilitation and reconstruction. 1.7. The guidelines are designed to be flexible in their application to the various situations that borrowing member countries and the Bank may experience, in the face of natural hazards and disasters affecting their development prospects and performance.

1.8. The present guidelines apply to all natural hazards, including the hydrometeorological hazards-windstorms, floods, and droughts-that are associated with both the existing climate variability and the expected change in long-term climate conditions. Of note for risk assessments, climate change is expected to change some countries' disaster risk (their probable losses) by changing the characteristics of the hydrometeorological hazards. 1.8 Although uncertainty persists, recent advances in downsizing climate models are allowing disaster managers to better calibrate their risk assessments to understand potential impacts due to climate change at the subnational level. Tools for identifying such climate risk at the country and project levels, and measures for mitigating these increased risks to Bank investments (climate change adaptation) will be developed under Pillar 4 of the Bank's Sustainable Energy and Climate Change Initiative (SECCI) Action Plan.

Purpose and Scope 2.1. The purpose of this section is to provide guidance to Bank teams on the implementation of Directive A-1 of the Disaster Risk Management Policy, particularly for countries classified as having high disaster risk, as well as for those sectors that are associated with a high vulnerability to natural disasters and in which the Bank has identified opportunities for financing. In accordance with this Policy, the Bank will encourage countries to include proactive DRM in programming activities in those countries, as indicated in Directive A-1 of the Policy: 2.2. A-1. Programming Dialog with borrowing member countries. The Bank will seek to include the discussion on proactive disaster risk management in the dialog agenda with borrowing member countries. The Bank will give due consideration to vulnerability associated with natural hazards and risk management in relation to the priority areas of intervention discussed and agreed with the borrowers for the development of country and regional strategies, and operational programs. The Bank will identify countries according to their level of exposure to natural hazards based on existing indicators and Bank experience. For countries that are highly exposed to natural hazards, the Bank will identify their potential vulnerability as a major development challenge and propose a country level disaster risk assessment. When the assessments identify that potentially important disruptions in the country's social and economic development could be caused by disasters resulting from natural hazards, the Bank will encourage the inclusion of disaster risk management activities in the country strategy and operational program agreed with the borrower. These may include policy reforms, specific institutional strengthening and land-use planning activities, measures of financial protection such as through risk transfer, and investment projects conducive to reducing vulnerability at the national, regional, and municipal levels. Where the natural hazards may affect more than one country, the Bank will encourage a regional approach within the existing programming framework. The Bank will promote the use of the Disaster Prevention Sector Facility and the Disaster Prevention Fund, described in Section V of this policy, and other means it offers to finance the recommended actions resulting from the assessment process.

To meet the requirement of the DRM Policy to identify countries according to their level of risk exposure, a provisional country classification has been developed. The provisional classification will be subject to change, based on expert knowledge, and eventually on the complete data set of risk information derived from the implementation of the Bank's Indicators for Disaster Risk and Risk Management Program in its 26 borrowing member countries. The Indicators Program has been completed in 14 countries to date.

As indicated in Directive A-1, countries that have been identified as being highly exposed to natural hazards will be encouraged by the Bank to include DRM as a priority area for Bank assistance. In those cases, the Bank will propose that a country disaster risk assessment be carried out. The assessment would give an overview of the risks facing a country; identify the sectors and geographical areas that should receive priority attention; and provide initial policy orientation, reviews of relevant institutional capacities, and assistance needs. These assessments may already exist, or may be put together from country and secondary sources. 2.5. The evaluation of the macroeconomic impacts as part of the country disaster risk assessment may allow for the identification of risk reduction needs and the quantification of possible resource gaps between available resources and funding needed for disaster response and recovery. Recommendations will be prepared concerning opportunities for the Bank to contribute to financial protection against disasters, as appropriate, such as direct funding for risk identification and support for risk transfer in financial markets in order to improve the effectiveness of the country's development efforts in the areas and sectors of Bank involvement. 2.6. Identification of Opportunities for Bank Financing. In line with the new country development risk framework, a more detailed disaster risk assessment will be recommended when disaster risks faced by certain areas/sectors of Bank involvement could significantly jeopardize the achievement of a country's development objectives. These sector-specific or areaspecific assessments would analyze how these risks could affect specific areas/sectors and make recommendations on how best to address the risks identified. For this purpose, loans, technical cooperations, and nonfinancial Bank products for proactive DRM may be proposed within the country programming activities.

2. Implementation of the Country Strategy: Programming Dialogue and Portfolio Management 2.7. When deemed necessary by the Bank and if the borrower agrees, DRM activities will be included as in the implementation of the country strategy. The Bank will give due consideration to the following: In the programming and portfolio reviews, the Bank and the borrower may seek to implement risk reduction investments in the priority sectors and geographical areas through disaster prevention and mitigation measures. These investments may be financed with free-standing loans or as part of larger investment programs, Policy Based Loans (PBL), or private sector operations. Technical assistance may be considered for carrying out area-or sector-specific risk evaluations, strengthening risk management through policy reforms, organizational design, land-use planning activities, the preparation of new prevention loan programs, and supporting the implementation of financial protection schemes such as through insurance to cover disaster losses.

Loan portfolio modifications will likely be necessary due to the occurrence of major disasters during the regular programming cycle. Borrowers may request new emergency or reconstruction financing and will have access to either new resources, for instance, through the Immediate Response Facility for Emergencies Caused by Disasters (GN-2038-12 and GN-2038-16), or "existing" resources, through loan reformulations (see Directive B-1). 2.8. The results of the DRM implementation in-country programming will be evaluated using the monitoring system defined in the Country Strategy document.

The Bank may recommend activities of a regional nature whenever it is known that a particular disaster could affect several borrowing member countries simultaneously. Examples of this situation are the ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) phenomenon, and the hurricanes and tropical storms in the Caribbean and Central America. 2.10. The regional activities that possibly involve Bank financing will be agreed beforehand with the affected borrowing member countries and may involve coordination with other international entities. The resulting operations to be included in the regional portfolio of the Regional Strategy document could be funded through Bank instruments, such as technical cooperation of the Regional Public Goods Program or Disaster Prevention Fund, or loans prepared in parallel, in close cooperation with the countries interested in a regional program.

3.1. The purpose of this section is to provide guidance to project teams on the implementation of the Bank's Disaster Risk Management Policy Directive A-2: Risk and Project Viability. This Directive is designed to promote the incorporation of DRM in a systematic manner during project preparation and execution. The objective is to reduce risk to levels that are acceptable to the Bank and the borrower, as indicated in Directive A-2 of the Policy: 3.2. Identification and reduction of project risk. Bank-financed public and private sector projects will include the necessary measures to reduce disaster risk to acceptable levels as determined by the Bank on the basis of generally accepted standards and practices. The Bank will not finance projects that, according to its analysis, would increase the threat of loss of human life, significant human injuries, severe economic disruption, or significant property damage related to natural hazards. During the project preparation process project teams will identify if the projects have high exposure to natural hazards or show high potential to exacerbate risk. The findings will be reported to the Bank through the social and environmental project screening and classification process. Project teams should consider the risk of exposure to natural hazards by taking into account the projected distribution in frequency, duration, and intensity of hazard events in the geographic area affecting the project. Project teams will carry out a natural hazard risk assessment for projects that are found to be highly exposed to natural hazards or to have a high potential to exacerbate risk. Special care should be taken to assess risk for projects that are located in areas that are highly prone to disasters as well as sectors such as housing, energy, water and sanitation, infrastructure, industrial and agricultural development, and critical health and education installations, as applicable. In the analysis of risk and project viability, consideration should be given to both structural and nonstructural mitigation measures. This includes specific attention to the capacity of the relevant national institutions to enforce proper design and construction standards and of the financial provisions for proper maintenance of physical assets commensurate with the foreseen risk. When significant risks due to natural hazard are identified at any time throughout the project preparation process, appropriate measures should be taken to establish the viability of the project, including the protection of populations and investments affected by Bank-financed activities. Alternative prevention and mitigation measures that decrease vulnerability must be analyzed and included in project design and implementation as applicable. These measures should include safety and contingency planning to protect human health and economic assets. Expert opinion and adherence to international standards should be sought, where reasonably necessary. In the case of physical assets, the Bank will require that, at the time of project preparation, the borrower establish protocols to carry out periodic safety evaluations (during construction as well as during the operating life of the project) and appropriate maintenance of the project equipment and works, in accordance with generally accepted industry norms under the circumstances. The Bank's social and environmental project screening and classification process will evaluate the steps taken by project teams to identify and reduce natural hazard risk. 3.3. Under the Bank's new risk management development effectiveness framework, a common approach to the management of project risks is proposed. Disaster risk is one of several project risks. These guidelines are an input to the Bank's approach on project risk management. They apply to Bank-financed investment loans and technical cooperation projects in the public and private sector as well as to operations supported by the Multilateral Investment Fund.

3.4. During the assessment, management, and monitoring of disaster risk at the project level, the disaster risk is reviewed at various stages of project preparation and implementation. On this basis, appropriate actions are taken to protect project benefits and outcomes. 3.5. Directive A-2 requires that the Bank's social and environmental project screening and classification process provide for project teams to identify and reduce disaster risk. The recommended DRM steps are as follows:

Project Screening and Classification Outcome: Identifies those projects where the DRM Policy is applicable and classifies as high, moderate or low risk. Document: Report of the Social and Environmental Safeguards Policy Filter (SPF) and Social and Environmental Safeguards Screening Form. Document: Disaster Risk Profile in the Environment and Social Strategy.

Disaster Risk Assessment (DRA), including disaster risk management plan Outcome: Provides a detailed evaluation of the impacts of the significant natural hazards identified during project classification on project components; and outlines appropriate risk management and mitigation measures. Document: DRA Report, prepared by the Borrower (this may be a stand-alone report or it may be incorporated into the environmental impact assessment report). Disaster Risk Management Summary Outcome: Provides information on the specific disaster risks associated with the project and the risk management measures proposed by the Borrower. Document: DRM Summary, for inclusion in the Environmental and Social Management Report (ESMR), prepared by Project Teams. Project Implementation, Monitoring and Evaluation Outcome: Identifies the approaches which the executing agency applies during project implementation; and which project teams apply during project monitoring and evaluation.

3.6. The Bank's social and environmental screening and classification system of projects will be used to filter and classify those projects for which disaster risk is likely to be an issue for project viability and effectiveness. 3.7. There are two possible types of disaster risk scenarios:

Type 1: The project is likely to be exposed to natural hazards due to its geographic location. Type 2: The project itself has a potential to exacerbate hazard risk to human life, property, the environment or the project itself.

3.8. The purpose of this step is to establish, early in the project preparation process, whether natural hazards are likely to pose a threat to the project area during the execution (construction) period and/or the operational life of the project, due to Type 1 and Type 2 risk scenarios. Project Classification 3.9.

Type 1 Risk Scenario: The level of disaster risk associated with a given project is dependent on the characteristics of the natural hazards as well as on the vulnerability of the sector and project area. The project is classified on the basis of an estimate of the impacts/losses due to the significant hazards associated with Type 1 risk scenario. Project teams classify their projects in terms of high, moderate, or low disaster risk on the basis of the (i) projected frequency of occurrence and magnitude or intensity of the hazard and (ii) estimated severity of the impacts associated with the hazard, i.e., the magnitude and extent of the likely social, economic, and environmental consequences of the hazard on the various project components and on the general zone of influence of the project. The classification process also provides project teams with a preliminary indication of the hazards likely to be of greatest significance, as well as their likely impacts on project components.

and reported as part of the disaster risk profile presented in the Environment and Social Strategy document. The project team will report its findings to the Bank unit responsible for social and environmental screening and classification of projects, as part of the Bankwide safeguards and risk management procedure. High-Risk Projects 3.11. The project will typically be classified as high-risk if one or more of the significant natural hazards may occur several times during the execution (construction) period and/ or the operational life of the project and/or the likely severity of social, economic, and/or environmental impacts in the short to medium term are major or extreme. These impacts are of sufficient magnitude to affect project viability and may affect an area broader than the project site. As such hazards may affect project viability, a more detailed investigation of disaster risk, in the form of a DRA, is required. Moderate-Risk Projects 3.12. The project will typically be classified as moderate risk if one or more of the prevalent natural hazards are likely to occur at least once during the execution (construction) period and/or the operational life of the project and/or the likely severity of impact in the short to medium term is average. These impacts are typically confined to the project site and can be mitigated at reasonable costs. Projects associated with a moderate disaster risk do not typically require a DRA. However, a more limited DRA may be required, depending on the complexity of the project and where the anticipated vulnerability of a specific project component may compromise the achievement of project outcomes. Low-Risk Projects 3.13. The project will typically be classified as low risk if natural hazards are not likely to occur during construction and/or the operational life of the project and/or associated with a low severity of impact in the short to medium term. Those impacts that occur do not lead to a disruption in the normal functioning of the operation and can be corrected as part of project maintenance. The occurrence of the hazard event does not impact on the achievement of project outcomes. A DRA is not required. 3.14. Type 2 Risk Scenario: The impacts associated with Type 2 risk scenario are addressed under Directive B-3 of the Bank's Environment and Safeguards Compliance Policy (OP-703). Such impacts are thus considered and included in the categorization of environmental impacts. 3.15. The unit responsible for environmental and social risk mitigation reviews the classification of all operations and may recommend a new classification based on the review of the disaster risk profile presented in the Environment and Social Strategy. The unit and Line Divisions will need to agree on the final classification of the operations, the level of disaster risk assessment required, and a proposed strategy to address and manage the anticipated impacts.

For projects that are identified as high-risk, a DRA is required and is prepared by the Borrower. The objective of the assessment is to evaluate in greater detail the impacts of the significant natural hazards identified during project classification on project components. The results of the risk assessment will guide the selection of appropriate risk management and mitigation measures.

Evaluates the frequency, intensity, and severity of previous hazard events that have affected the project area, as well as those predicted to affect the site over the project's operational life. Identifies the vulnerability and probable losses of project components, i.e., the nature and magnitude of the probable social, economic, and environmental impacts due to each hazard; this includes both direct and indirect impacts. Provides a disaster risk management plan, including proposals for the design of disaster prevention and mitigation measures, including safety and contingency plans to protect human health and economic assets, and their estimated costs; an implementation plan; a monitoring program and indicators for progress; and an evaluation plan. The implementation plan includes protocols to undertake periodic safety evaluations from project implementation up to project completion and maintenance of project equipment and works.

Project teams include a summary of the DRA Report in the Environmental and Social Management Report, which is reviewed by both the Bank unit responsible for environmental and social risk mitigation screening and the Sector Divisions Chiefs will sign off on the ESMR and safeguard compliance plan, including the DRM activities. The DRM Summary provides information on the specific disaster risks associated with the project and the risk management measures proposed by the Borrower. 3.19. The project's proposed management and mitigation measures should comply with international standards of good practice and relevant national laws and regulations, such as national planning policies, laws and regulations, as well as national building codes and standards. 3.20. Project teams will analyze the impact of the disaster risk prevention and mitigation elements in their assessment of project viability, verifying that identified hazard impacts on project components are reduced to acceptable levels.

3.21. The Executing Agency is responsible for ensuring that all DRM activities ( including prevention and mitigation measures) associated with the project are implemented in accordance with the provisions of the loan agreement. This includes periodic safety evaluations and appropriate maintenance during project implementation and through project completion. Project teams will monitor implementation to verify that the DRM actions in the project risk management plan are carried out effectively; they shall use standard monitoring (Project Performance Monitoring Report; PPMR) procedures.

Purpose and Scope 4.1. The loan reformulation addressed by these guidelines provides financing for postdisaster response to the impacts of natural hazard events and physical damage (such as structural collapse and explosions) caused by technological accidents or other types of disasters resulting from human activity. Loan reformulation includes the diversion of existing loan resources to specific analysis needs to determine performance indicators, based on the possible revisions and reformulations being considered. Analysis of Loans Used as a Source of Funding 4.11. The impact of redirecting loan resources from existing loans will be estimated taking into account the intended uses and project objectives of the loan or loans to be used as a source relative to the new proposed use of the funds, thereby creating the conditions for more informed decisions. Resource transfers could be done between cost categories within a project (in which case more streamlined approval procedures will apply), or between separate loans as stipulated by Bank procedures. 4.12. For choosing existing projects as origin of resources, following factors (in order of priority) would be considered: a. Public sector projects. Only public sector loans would be considered. Loans to the private sector should not be included in the package of loans for possible reformulation as a result of disasters. b. Development impact in the reformulated operations. The loans that are having a relatively low economic/financial impact in the country should be considered first as a source for redirecting resources from existing loans toward emergency funding. Redirecting resources that are within a loan generally have a smaller effect than those involving several operations. The original development objectives may not be achieved due to the new social or economic situation created by the disaster or it could be considered too expensive to reorient the resources within the old operation. Recommendations regarding the redirection of resources will be based on project performance indicators used by the Bank. c. Level of execution. Operations with a low level of physical execution or disbursements and commitments could be chosen for redirection, except for those loans with a very high development impact. The selection should not only be based on a low disbursement rate of the existing loans alone, but also on an analysis of the underlying causes of the poor performance and any remaining opportunities for attaining project goals. d. Loans in affected sectors. Resource transfers within an affected sector will be preferred due to the greater similarity of their respective objectives compared with those of loans in different sectors. e. Loans in affected region(s). In general, existing projects in the disaster area will not be used to provide resources to be transferred to other programs in the same area. However, when damage is so severe that the attainment of the original development objectives is in jeopardy, or the continuation of a certain component of the project as a whole is unjustifiable on account of excessive costs, parts or all of the undisbursed balances may be re-channeled toward emergency or rehabilitation and reconstruction projects in the same area. Factors to be Considered in Projects Receiving Funding 4.13. The following are the recommended actions to be considered by project teams, while preparing the funding analysis: 4.14 i. Technical analysis. For emergencies, the technical analysis will be aimed at re-establishing basic services and critical infrastructure in a time efficient manner. The attainment of fully functioning facilities and productive capacity through rehabilitation and reconstruction will be measured through a detailed technical analysis with the objective of reaching disaster resistance, and fulfilling technical standards across the board and performance criteria required by the Bank. 4.15 ii. Socioeconomic analysis. For emergency response, the socioeconomic analysis will be limited to the evaluation of the cost-effectiveness of restoring the basic services and critical infrastructure. If information is scarce, the analysis may be done based on comparable data from similar operations elsewhere. Any delays in the analysis and processing of the emergency financing may limit the Bank to have a meaningful contribution to resolve critical needs that are affecting the population, urgent re-establishment of basic services and critical activities. The analysis for rehabilitation and reconstruction investments will follow standard Bank practices. If future project benefits cannot be estimated, cost-effectiveness analysis will be carried out. 4.16 iii. Evaluation of institutional capacity and coordination. In order to gain sustainability, existing agencies are preferred to the establishment of new, ad hoc entities. A rapid analysis will be carried out of the institutional capacity, procurement management capability, and financial track record of the existing agencies. Based on its results, it will be determined if the resources will be disbursed on an ex post or on a concurrent basis.

The administrative and technical responsibilities of all the participating institutions in different sectors and means of coordination need to be clearly defined to facilitate successful execution in a limited time frame. Planned strategies and activities need to be coordinated with other international agencies participating in the post-disaster financing.

4.17 i. Procurement procedures. The applicable Bank policy and rules will be followed for the procurement of goods and services. As an exception, for emergency situations, specific procurement procedures are available, in view of the special nature of these operations and the urgency involved. 4.18 ii. Transparency in financing. The financial management and evaluation of procurements, expenses, and the utilization of goods and services to be funded with Bank resources for emergency situations will be audited on a concurrent basis, following current Bank practices. For rehabilitation and reconstruction investments the review may be on a concurrent or ex post basis depending on risk of lack of transparency estimated by the project teams. Loan resources can be used to contract the services of independent public accountants to audit the operation's financial statements as required by the Bank. 4.19 iii. Monitoring and evaluation. Bank resources will be subject to review on a concurrent basis for emergency investments. For rehabilitation and reconstruction, an audit will be required on a concurrent or ex post basis, depending on the risk of lack of transparency as estimated by the project team. Data collection will be planned for monitoring and evaluation. Only direct project impacts will need to be evaluated.

4.20. Vulnerability should not be replicated when designing disaster response financing. In the preparation of reformulations for rehabilitation and reconstruction, a proportion of the resources of the operation should be allocated to prevention and mitigation activities. The percentage of the total cost that will be dedicated to prevention and mitigation should be defined and the viability of these investments assessed by the project team. The project team should also justify any potential deviations from international practices in these allocations for disaster prevention and mitigation.

Purpose and Scope 5.1. The purpose of this section is to provide assistance to project teams on the implementation of Directive B-2: Reconstruction. Specifically guidance is provided on the precautions that country programming process and project teams should take to promote revitalization of development efforts in the aftermath of disasters, while ensuring that rehabilitation and reconstruction projects do not lead to a rebuilding of or an increase in vulnerability. As indicated in Directive B-2 of the Policy: 5.2. Avoiding rebuilding vulnerability. Operations that finance rehabilitation and reconstruction after a disaster require special precautions to avoid rebuilding or increasing vulnerability. These include the precautions mentioned in A-2, as well as correcting deficiencies in risk management policies and institutional capacity as reflected in A-1. A significant share of the new investment will be earmarked to reduce vulnerability to future disasters and improve the country's capacity for comprehensive disaster risk management. Particular attention must be given to lessons learned from recent hazard events. The Bank will not assume that pre-disaster conditions persist in whole or in part in the affected area. Disaster risk assessment of the reconstruction project should be carried out taking into account the specifics of the area, the sector, and the infrastructure concerned, as well as the current environmental, social, and economic situation and any changes in the affected area as a result of the disaster. 5.3. Reconstruction may follow as a response to the impacts of natural hazard events, and physical damage (such as structural collapse and explosions) resulting from technological accidents or other types of disasters resulting from human activity.

5.4. The guidelines for Directive A-2: Risk and Project Viability, as described in Section 4 of these guidelines, also apply to rehabilitation and reconstruction projects. For projects identified as high risk, the disaster risk assessment, and design and implementation of risk reduction measures, will incorporate the lessons learned from the disaster event, including the performance of the physical works, the relevant sectors, institutions, and other project components. Risk reduction measures will include enhancements in national, regional, and sectoral risk management policies and strengthening of institutional capacity. 5.5. In order to avoid the rebuilding of or an increase in vulnerability, a proportion of the resources of the operation will be allocated to prevention, mitigation, and risk transfer. The percentage of the total cost is at the discretion of the project team, but will be guided by international practices.

Used with permission from IADB, 2008.

Reconstruction Facility or Immediate Response Facility for Emergencies Caused by Natural and Unexpected Disasters. The Emergency Reconstruction Facility can use up to $20 million of the IADB's ordinary capital or up to $10 million of the Fund for Special Operations to assist an impacted country The IFIs described in this chapter

BSTDB) • Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) • Council of Europe Development Bank (COEB) • Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA)

• European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) • Islamic Development Bank (IDB)

• North American Development Bank (NADB)

Proposed Loan: Peoples Republic Of China Emergency Assistance for Wenchuan Earthquake Reconstruction Project

European Commission

FAO's Mandate. FAO Website

Facing the Challenge of Natural Disasters in Latin America and the Caribbean

Service Sector Severely Affected by Typhoon Haiyan

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), 2010. Pakistan Earthquake Relief Operation

OCHA-85FM3C/$file/OCHA_AR2009_Hi%20Res.pdf?openelement

Japan diverts rice to tsunami survivors. World Food Programme (WFP)

Roadmap towards a strategy for disaster and climate resilient development in the Pacific (SRDP) by 2015: Executive summary

UN-HABITAT. Secretary-General's Envoy for Youth

Overview of Global Humanitarian Response

Johannesburg Plan of Implementation. United Nations Website

Disaster profiles: Third UN conference on least developed countries

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization)

UNHCR in Dubai: First Line Responder in Emergencies. UNHCR Supply Office, Dubai. UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund)

About the UNJLC. UNJLC Website

Connect and convince to reduce disaster impacts

Lives Saved in Viet Nam by Involving Women in Disaster Planning. Press Release

Economics, health, and development: some ethical dilemmas facing the World Bank and the international community

Fast Food: WFP's Emergency Response

Food Aid Information System: Quantity Reporting

Emergency response framework

World Bank group to support flood recovery in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Through their efforts to mitigate, prepare for, respond to, and recover from natural disasters, multilateral organizations have a major role in international disaster management. All nations are at risk from disasters and, likewise, all nations face the prospect of one day finding themselves requiring help from one or more of these organizations. Multilateral organizations direct the collective experience and tools of their Member States to benefit all nations in need of assistance-even the wealthiest ones. The progress witnessed by the international disaster management community in recent years can be traced directly to the work of these multilateral organizations, especially focused initiatives such as the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. provide effective and efficient support to borrowing members in reducing disaster risks and (ii) to facilitate rapid and appropriate assistance by the Bank to its borrowers after a disaster. The guidelines are part of the Bank's framework for the management of development risk at the country and project levels.

There are four possible strategies to manage risks: (i) acceptance, when risks remain below levels deemed tolerable by the parties involved; (ii) prevention and mitigation; (iii) sharing, when risks can be effectively transferred to a third party, for example through insurance; and (iv) rejection ("avoidance"), when the level of risk exceeds the risk level deemed acceptable but cannot be lowered at a reasonable cost.

1.3. The Policy directives outline the actions that are to be used both by the IADB staff and by teams of the borrowers, who are responsible for a. Country programming-Policy Directive A-1 b. Preparation and execution of new projects-Directive A-2 c. Loan reformulations for financing disaster response-Directive B-1 d. Preparation and execution of reconstruction projects-Directive B-2 1.4. The guidelines will contribute to the mainstreaming of disaster risk management (DRM) into the Bank's programming exercises with the borrowers, particularly in high-risk countries.To determine which of the IDB's borrowing member countries will require a country risk assessment, a provisional classification of all countries has been prepared. 1.5. The guidelines will be used for the design and implementation of lending programs, technical cooperations, small projects, cofinancing, and preinvestment activities consistent with the identified risk level. They will address ways to manage risk in public and private sector activities within the same project or to another existing project, in order to finance unplanned disaster response. Reformulations may thus involve just a single loan or several operations. 4.2. Loan reformulation allows for the reallocation of resources from existing loans to other projects under certain circumstances, in the aftermath of disasters, as stipulated in Directive B-1 of the Policy: 4.3. The Bank may approve the reformulation of existing loans in execution in response to disasters if: (i) a state of emergency or disaster has been officially declared by the government; (ii) the impact of the loan reformulation has been estimated taking into account the intended uses and project objectives of the loan or loans to be reformulated relative to the new proposed use of the funds, thereby creating the conditions for more informed decisions on the part of the approving authorities; (iii) adequate transparency and sufficient mechanisms for monitoring, auditing, and reporting the use of the redirected funds are in place, while taking into account the need of a timely response given the nature of the situation; and (iv) a significant share of the redirected funds will be earmarked to reduce the borrower's vulnerability to future disasters and improve the country's capacity for comprehensive disaster risk management.

In order to be considered for loan reformulation funding in response to a disaster, the Government must have declared a state of emergency or its equivalent, for a region or the country as a whole, according to the laws and regulations of the country. 4.5. The Country Office should prepare an originating document after the formal declaration of state of emergency by the Government, recommending the decisions that should be taken in relation to the projects/programs potentially affected by the disaster. 4.6. The Bank may offer technical support to the government in preparing an official request for financing through loan reformulation, on the basis of the Originating Report. 4.7. Once a financing request is received, a project team is appointed, and the approval process of the reformulation operation(s) will follow the established Bank procedures on delegation of authority, according to regular Bank procedures.

Once the Bank has received an official request from the borrowing country for financing disaster response, the possibility of using fresh IDB resources, such as through the Immediate Response Facility (GN-2038-12 and GN-2038-16), is analyzed. If their use is not considered feasible, the impact of the loan reformulation will be estimated by VPC, with support from VPS, taking into account the intended uses and project objectives of the loan(s) to be reformulated either: (i) as a provider of funding or (ii) as a recipient of resources.

The analysis for operations receiving funding in response to a natural hazard or physical damage from technological activities or other types of disasters resulting from human activity will reflect the nature of the projects, available information, and use of the reallocated resources for an emergency, rehabilitation, and reconstruction. 4.10. The revision of the portfolio in emergency situations should be done jointly with the Borrower. Those projects whose development objective is unlikely to be achieved should be considered first as candidates for reformulation. The team responsible for the portfolio