key: cord-021655-ojfm5rt3
authors: Langan, Jennifer N.; Jankowski, Gwen
title: Overview of African Wild Dog Medicine
date: 2018-09-28
journal: Fowler's Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy, Volume 9
DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-55228-8.00077-1
sha: 
doc_id: 21655
cord_uid: ojfm5rt3

nan

The African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)-also referred to as the African hunting dog, painted dog, and Cape hunting dog-is one of Africa's most endangered carnivores. 1 Owing to its decreasing numbers, it holds an International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list priority status for the conservation of canid species in Africa. 2 African wild dogs were formerly distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa but are now mostly confined to southern Africa and the southern portion of East Africa (Fig. 77.1 ). 3, 4 They require large ranges and live at low population densities. The population is currently estimated at 6600 animals and continues to decline as a result of ongoing habitat fragmentation, conflict with humans, and infectious disease. 1, 5 Predation by lions and competition with spotted hyenas also contribute to population suppression. 6 There are approximately 600 African wild dogs in zoos, which serve to educate the public and fulfill an important role as ambassadors aiding the recovery effort for this species.

The African wild dog is a member of the family Canidae in the order Carnivora; it likely diverged from wolves in the Pleistocene period. 1 Genetic studies demonstrate that it is sufficiently different from other canid species to warrant being classified into a separate genus. Adults weigh 18-35 kg, with males slightly larger than females. 2, 3, 7 The average age of survival in zoos is 10.3 years 8 ; a few animals live 12-16 years. 2, 7, 9 The African wild dog's most striking characteristic is the tricolored spotted coat, for which it received its Latin name, Lycaon pictus, meaning "painted wolf." It has large round ears, lacks a supracaudal (tail) gland, has four digits on each limb (lacks dew claws), and the pads of the middle digits are connected by dermal webbing. Reproductive anatomy is similar to that of domestic dogs in both males and females, but females have 12-14 mammae. They have very sharp, large premolars relative to their body mass, which allow them to consume 77 Overview of African Wild Dog Medicine JENNIFER N. LANGAN AND GWEN JANKOWSKI sizable quantities of meat and bone with impressive speed. The dental formula is I3/3, C1/1, PM3/4, M3/3 = 21, of which the last mandibular molar is vestigial and generally not visualized. 1

The typical wild pack is composed of an older dominant female paired with a young dominant male and subordinates of both sexes. Dominant males may be displaced as they age or lose strength. Juvenile males are most likely to stay with the pack, whereas females often emigrate. Following the death of the dominant female, significant social changes occur within the group, which can result in pack dispersal in the wild. 1, 7 Social management of African wild dogs under human care is challenging and can have significant health impacts. It involves working across institutions to create and maintain packs that thrive socially, support a healthy population, and sustain genetic diversity. The most stable social groups include a well-established dominant pair with male offspring of any age and young female offspring. The inability to disperse may result in conflict between female offspring above 18 months of age and the dominant female. The decreasing frequency of "hoo-calls" (long-distance communication calls) and distance between resting sites of same-sex groups suggest that unrelated individuals under human care are more likely to integrate into a pack successfully. 10 If animals need to be separated due to social incompatibility, it is recommended that individuals be split up as same-sex packs or with littermates less than 18 months of age. 7 Contraception for reproductively mature individuals intended to reduce aggression has not been successful. 7 Measurement of fecal corticosteroids may be a useful management tool and has demonstrated that dominant animals generally have the highest stress levels. [11] [12] [13] Behavior is a key indicator of social and physical wellbeing in African wild dogs. "Normal" behavior varies by an individual's status within the pack, and establishing pack hierarchy is essential for avoiding excessive aggression.

have access to multiple heated areas if the temperature regularly drops below 4.4°C-7.2°C (40°F-45°F) and should have shelter from the elements. 7 Additionally, a heated den should be provided if breeding is planned. Facilities should have sufficient holding space to accommodate separating animals for long periods. With the exception of fish, housing African wild dogs with other species is not recommended due to their high predatory drive.

African wild dogs should be moved only in sturdy metal or wood crates with good ventilation that meet US Department of Agriculture (USDA) and International Air Transport Association (IATA) requirements for live animal transport. Completing a written transport plan, health evaluation, and crate training facilitates transitions when animals are relocated.

African wild dogs are generalist predators, occupying a range of habitats where they hunt medium-sized antelope. 6 In natural settings, reduced prey populations and competition from other predators inhibit population growth. 3, 17 African wild dogs in zoos are fed a nutritionally complete raw meat-based diet (1-1.36 kg/adult/day) and are supplemented with small whole prey, knuckle/rib/shank bones (one to two times week), and carcasses (pig, deer, calf, horse). Lactating bitches require up to three times Permanent or even brief temporary removal of an established pack member may have profound social impacts, including changes in social hierarchy with aggression so substantial that reintroduction may not be possible. 7, 15 Detailed plans to reduce stress and promote normal behaviors should be implemented if a dog must be isolated, including maintaining olfactory and visual contact. If separation is required, it may be helpful to subdivide the pack and then reintroduce them all simultaneously. Alternatively, introductions of subordinate dogs first, then dominant pairs, may be effective.

Successful implementation of enrichment has included environmental devices, sensory stimulants, and food, behavioral, and habitat variance. 16 Piles of leaves, dirt, and mulch allow natural digging and rolling behaviors. Rotating exhibits with other predators provides habitat diversity and promotes scent-marking behavior. Offering carcass feeds hung from trees or on zip lines, feeding bones, providing several types of enrichment to the pack simultaneously, and permitting breeding when possible are recommended for this species. 15, 16 Enclosures should be large and contain ample space for exercise to meet the animals' physical, social, behavioral, and psychological needs. 7 Specific size and perimeter recommendations may be found in the Association of Zoos & Aquariums (AZA) Large Canid Care Manual. 7 Facilities that allow the public to observe the animals should prevent close contact or inadvertent access to the enclosure. Dogs should AH, Inc., Fort Worth, Texas). Current estimates show 23% of females have some degree of reproductive pathology, 28 the most frequently reported of which is cystic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH) with or without pyometra and adenomyosis ( Fig. 77.2 ). [27] [28] [29] Adenocarcinoma, uterine rupture, and pyometra without other pathology have also been reported (Kinsel, personal communication, April 10, 2017). 23, 27, 28 The Species Survival Plan Program (SSP) currently recommends that all postreproductive females (>10 years) be spayed. 8 Deslorelin implants have been used for contraception and behavioral alteration in males with variable results (see Table  77 .1 for a summary of reproductive information) (see also Chapter 22) . 26, 30, 31 

Healthy adult African wild dogs are not physically restrained due to safety concerns. Noninvasive procedures including visual examination, hand injections, wound treatment, venipuncture, and crate training may be accomplished with operant conditioning.

Restraint cages are useful and provide a safe, controlled environment to facilitate intramuscular injections of anesthetics. A quiet area away from the pack promotes quick inductions and smooth recoveries. Remote injection systems are recommended for immobilizing free-ranging African wild dogs or in situations when a chute is not available. Anesthetic regimens selected should take into account health status, age, and environmental conditions. In cases where cardiovascular disease has been confirmed or cardiac status is unknown, alpha-2 agonists should be avoided and alternatives such as ketamine-midazolam-butorphanol with propofol or gas anesthesia (isoflurane, sevoflurane) should be considered. Chemical restraint protocols used in African wild dogs may be found in Table 77 .2 and have been previously published. [32] [33] [34] Drug combinations at higher dosages for free-ranging African wild dogs are available in the literature. 35, 36 Reversal of alpha-2 agonists and opioids with atipamezole and naloxone decreases recovery time. To avoid dysphoria, it is advised to wait at least 60 minutes postinduction before administering reversals. Recovery in a crate or nest box may reduce struggles to stand during recovery. Telazol (tiletamine HCL and zolazepam HCL, Zoetis, Parsippany, New Jersey) as a sole agent or used in combination with medetomidine is a reliable option during an emergency response but often results in a prolonged recovery time. 34 Vascular access, intubation, and monitoring equipment are applied as in other canids. Every wild dog anesthesia should include oxygen supplementation, electrocardiography (ECG), and monitoring of pulse oximetry, heart and respiratory rate, blood pressure, and temperature.

As in other canids, the jugular, cephalic, and saphenous veins are commonly used sites for venipuncture. Tables 77.3 maintenance caloric intake. Specific recommendations for kilocalorie requirements may be found in the AZA Large Canid Care Manual. 7 Feeding African wild dogs a portion of their diet while separated from the pack aids in monitoring individual animals' food consumption. Packs are generally fasted from their normal meat diet 1 day per week and may be provided with bones.

African wild dogs are seasonally monoestrous obligate cooperative breeders with a brief copulatory tie. 18, 19 Within a pack the alpha male and female produce the majority of surviving pups annually. 7, 20, 21 Most successful reproduction occurs after 2 years of age, with senescence around 8-9 years. 8, 21 Subordinate females may reproduce, but offspring typically do not survive. More often, subordinate females develop pseudopregnancy and may lactate in order to help care for the pups of the dominant pair. 1 Females produce an average of six to eight pups 22,23 and up to 21 pups 8 in a den after a gestation of 69-71 days. [24] [25] [26] Primiparous females have higher estrogen, which is reported to result in more male offspring. 24 Hand-rearing is not recommended due to the extremely aggressive and social nature of these animals. 8 In zoos, the breeding pair is separated from the pack to prevent trauma to the pups. The group is gradually introduced when the pups begin to emerge from the nest box. A birth plan detailing responses to aggression toward the pups, large litter size, and other contingencies is recommended.

Newborn pups weigh about 300 g, open their eyes around 2 weeks of age, and emerge from the den to start taking solid food at 3 weeks. Sex determination is similar to that for other canids. Pups are weaned and start to follow the pack at 11-12 weeks of age. In free-range settings, all members of the pack raise the pups; they regurgitate food while the young are in the den and relinquish kills to the pups and yearlings. 1, 3 Reproductive anatomy is similar to that of other canid species. Owing to social dynamics, most reproduction has been natural; however, semen has been preserved and used for artificial inseminations. 15 Captive Lycaon pictus generally reproduce in the fall in the northern hemisphere. 8 Estrus lasts 6-9 days and includes vulvar swelling and sanguineous discharge with interest from the male. Attraction from the male may be observed for 1-2 weeks prior to tying. 14, 25 Males show increased testicular development, spermatorrhea, and semen production; therefore the corresponding seasonal ability to collect sperm via electroejaculation is improved. 15 The progestin-based melengestrol acetate (MGA) implant, previously used in canids, has been associated with uterine pathology. 27 The AZA Reproduction Management Center (formerly the Wildlife Contraception Center) (www.stlzoo.org/ animals/scienceresearch/reproductivemanagementcenter) recommends gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists such as Suprelorin (deslorelin acetate) implants or Lupron Depot (leuprolide acetate 4.7 mg implant, Virbac extinction events. [38] [39] [40] [41] There is serologic evidence of exposure to canine parvovirus, canine distemper virus, adenovirus, rabies virus, coronavirus, rotavirus, and Ehrlichia canis. 21, 42, 43 Outbreaks of anthrax in Kruger National Park occur, but infected animals commonly survive. 43 Contact with domestic dogs has been reported to increase exposure to some canid pathogens, but sylvatic viral strains also pose a significant threat. 5, 44 Parasitic disease and infection has rarely been described. [44] [45] [46] Toxocara canis, Dipylidium caninum, Spirometra sp., Taeniidae, and Ancylostoma spp., as well as two genera of canid protozoan gastrointestinal parasites, Sarcocystis and Isopora, were identified in fecal samples from free-ranging animals but were not associated with clinical disease. 44, 47 Standard anthelmintics at canine dosages have been successfully used to treat internal parasites. It is recommended that African wild dogs be routinely tested and maintained on prophylactic heartworm preventative in endemic areas.

Over the last decade, valvular dysplasia of varying severity has been increasingly recognized as a significant concern in African wild dogs in North America. Sibling groups and offspring have been affected over multiple generations, and 77.4 show normal hematologic and serum chemistry reference ranges for captive African wild dogs. 9, 37 Diseases Rabies and distemper have contributed to mortality in African dog populations, occasionally resulting in local Neoplasia has not been extensively reported in the literature but appears to play an important role in the health of captive populations. 48 Apocrine gland tumors have been documented in clinical settings, presenting as single or multiple dorsal cutaneous masses that can progress to large regionally invasive tumors (Fig. 77.4) (Agnew, personal communication, April 25, 2017) . Cases from females are overrepresented in pathology reports submitted to the African wild dog SSP (Kinsel, personal communication, April 10, 2017). Surgical excision is recommended, although large tumors may require other forms of treatment. Tumor growth results in ulceration and necrosis and negatively affects an animal's quality of life. Other common neoplasias include hemangiosarcoma, peripheral odontogenic fibroma (fibromatous epulis), adrenocortical adenoma/carcinoma, and mammary and uterine neoplasia.

Other notable conditions diagnosed in African wild dogs include dental disease-particularly fractured teethpancreatitis, diabetes, spina bifida, syringomyelia, keratitis, snake bites, 49 and trauma from conspecifics (Kinsel, personal communication, April 10, 2017). African wild dogs mask signs of illness and may have advanced disease by the time a change in behavior or appetite is observed.

suggesting that the condition has a genetic, inheritable basis, as is well documented in domestic dogs. 8 Cases range from minor to severe valvular insufficiency with congestive heart failure (Fig. 77.3) . Mildly affected animals exhibit no clinical signs, making the condition difficult to detect. The extent of this disease is uncertain, but it is highly probable that cardiac disease is underdiagnosed. Incorporating 

Preventative health, preshipment, and quarantine examinations should be conducted to determine an animal's health. A complete physical exam-including a dental examination, complete blood count, chemistry panel, heartworm testing, urinalysis, radiographs of the thorax and abdomen, and evaluation for endo-and ectoparasites-should be completed on a routine schedule as part of a preventive medicine plan. Additionally, abdominal ultrasound examination or computed tomography in females and echocardiograms for both sexes are recommended owing to disease predilection in this species. Athens, Georgia) provided persistent protective titers. 57 A survey in 2006 showed that most African wild dogs maintained presumably protective titers after vaccination for canine distemper and rabies for 1 year; however, few dogs maintained titers for 2-3 years. 58 There is a paucity of scientific information regarding vaccination against canine parvovirus and leptospiral infection. Protocols should be developed that take into consideration local environmental disease prevalence, animal health, and risk factors. Select vaccination protocols for captive African wild dogs are listed in Table 77 .5 (see also Chapter 79).

External and internal parasites should be treated according to domestic dog guidelines. Fleas, ticks, and ear tip trauma from biting flies have responded well to products containing carbaryl or pyrethrins. Good hygiene, removing standing water, fly traps, and premise sprays help control fly and mosquito populations.

Newly acquired animals should be quarantined away from the collection for a predetermined period based on a thorough risk assessment by the supervising veterinarian and have at least two negative fecal examinations. Animals should be individually identified with microchip transponders placed subcutaneously between the shoulder blades or to the left of midline over the shoulder.

Currently there are no universal recommendations for vaccination protocols. The safety and efficacy of vaccines in African wild dogs have historically been unsatisfactory. Vaccination strategies to conserve free-ranging populations have been reported and continue to be investigated. 50 Modified live canine distemper vaccinations have failed to produce protective antibody levels in some cases 51 and have induced distemper resulting in mortality in other cases. 7, 45, 52, 53 Vaccine-induced distemper can be avoided by using killed vaccines, and at least one vaccine (Purevax ferret Distemper, Merial Inc., Athens, Georgia) has been shown to produce measurable titers after a series of three injections at 2-to 3-week intervals. 54 Subunit canine distemper vaccines (CDV-ISCOM, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands) stimulated appropriate titer formation, but titers did not endure relative to the Purevax Ferret Distemper vaccine. Vaccine recommendations for domestic dogs have been reduced from yearly to triennially; however, it is unknown whether nondomestic canids maintain titers in a similar manner. In one study, protective titers from the Purevax vaccine persisted in 39%-85% of African wild dogs for a minimum of 1 year. 55 Early studies have indicated that vaccination with killed rabies vaccines may not be sufficient for protection. 5, 50, 56 However, a recent study showed that a single intramuscular vaccination of dogs older than 14 weeks with Imrab 3 (Merial Inc., 

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Steroid metabolism and validation of noninvasive endocrine monitoring in the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)

Seasonal changes in steroid hormone profiles, body weight, semen quality and the reproductive tract in captive African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in South Africa

Naturally occurring and melengestrol acetate-associated reproductive tract lesions in zoo canids

Retrospective study of mortality of captive African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in a French zoo

Cystic endometrial hyperplasia and pyometra in three captive African hunting dogs (Lycaon pictus)

Control of reproduction and sex related behaviour in exotic wild carnivores with the GnRH analogue deslorelin: preliminary observations

Induction of contraception in some African wild carnivores by downregulation of LH and FSH secretion using the GnRH analogue deslorelin

Immobilization of wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) with a tiletamine hydrochloride/ zolazepam hydrochloride combination and subsequent evaluation of selected blood chemistry parameters

Anesthesia of captive African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) using a medetomidine-ketamineatropine combination

Zoo animal and wildlife immobilization and anesthesia

Chemical restraint and immobilization of wild canids

Immobilization of freeranging African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) using a ketamine/ xylazine/atropine combination

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African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) endangered by a canine distemper epizootic among domestic dogs near the Masai Mara National Reserve

Canine distemperrelated mortality among wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in Chobe National Park

Fatal canine distemper infection in a pack of African wild dogs in the Serengeti ecosystem

Contact with domestic dogs increases pathogen exposure in endangered African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus)

Diet of four sympatric carnivores in Save Valley Conservancy, Zimbabwe: implications for conservation of the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)

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Behavioural cues can be used to predict the outcome of artificial pack formation in African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus)

Monitoring stress in captive and free-ranging African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) using faecal glucocorticoid metabolites

Evaluating adrenal activity in African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) by fecal corticosteroid analysis

Social stress and dominance

Reproductive hormonal patterns in pregnant, pseudopregnant and acyclic captive African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus)

Studies of male reproduction in captive African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus)

Enrichment options for African painted dogs (Lycaon pictus)

Order carnivora

Hormonal and experiential factors in the expression of social and parenteral behavior of canids

Natural selection of the communal rearing of pups in African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus)

A molecular genetic analysis of social structure, dispersal, and interpack relations of the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)

Serosurvey for selected viral diseases and demography of African wild dogs in Tanzania

Conservation role of captive African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus)

Intrapartum uterine rupture with coincidental uterine adenomyosis in an African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)

Vaccination strategies to conserve the endangered African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)

Serum antibody levels before and after administration of live canine distemper vaccine to the wild dog (Lycaon pictus)

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Vaccine-associated canine distemper infection in a litter of African hunting dogs (Lycaon pictus)

Comparison of oral and intramuscular recombinant canine distemper vaccination in African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus)

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Attempts to reintroduce African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) into Etosha National Park, Namibia

Single versus double dose rabies vaccination in captive African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus)

Immunization and antibody persistence to canine distemper and rabies vaccination in captive african wild dogs (Lycaon pictus

Rabies in African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in the Serengeti region

Serologic survey for selected microbial pathogens in African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) and sympatric domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) in Maasai Mara

An investigation into the health status and diseases of wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in Kruger National Park

A survey of internal parasites in free-ranging African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus

Distemperlike disease and encephalitozoonosis in wild dogs (Lycaon pictus)

Molecular detection of Babesia rossi and Hepatozoon sp. in African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in South Africa

African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) and spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) in the Luangwa Valley, Zambia

Multilobular tumor of bone in an African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)

Successful snakebite treatment in three juvenile African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) with polyvalent antivenom: A Namibian case report

This chapter is dedicated to the researchers, veterinarians, biologists, and animal care staff that have contributed to our collective knowledge, helped conserve wild populations, and have improved the care of African wild dogs around the world. We thank Drs. Anneke Moresco and Mike Kinsel for their contributions to reproduction, pathology, and disease presented in this chapter and Drs. Sathya Chinnadurai and Matthew Lenyo for sharing their expertise and thoughtful review.