key: cord-024652-4i6kktl0
authors: Santra, Hiran Kanti; Banerjee, Debdulal
title: Natural Products as Fungicide and Their Role in Crop Protection
date: 2020-05-12
journal: Natural Bioactive Products in Sustainable Agriculture
DOI: 10.1007/978-981-15-3024-1_9
sha: 
doc_id: 24652
cord_uid: 4i6kktl0

Seeking solutions from nature for solving one and all problems is the age-old practice for mankind, and natural products are proved to be the most effective one for keeping up the balance of development as well as the “healthy, wealthy, and well” condition of mother nature. Fungal pathogens are proved to be a common and popular contaminant of agroecosystem that approximately causes 70–80% of total microbial crop loss. To meet the proper global increasing need of food products as a result of population explosion, managing agricultural system in an eco-friendly and profitable manner is the prime target; thus the word “sustainable agriculture” plays it part, and this package is highly effective when coupled with nature-derived fungicidal products that can minimize the event of fungal infections in agrarian ecosystem. Present study enlists the most common and effective natural products that might be of plant or microbial origin, their mode of action, day-by-day development of phytopathogenic resistance against the prevailing fungicides, and also their role in maintenance of sustainability of agricultural practices with special emphasis on their acceptance over the synthetic or chemical one. A large number of bioactive compounds ranging from direct plant (both cryptogams algae and moss and phanerogams)-derived natural extracts, essential oil of aromatic plants, and low-molecular-weight antimicrobial compounds known as phytoalexins to secondary metabolites that are both volatile and nonvolatile organic compounds of microbes (fungal and actinobacterial members) residing inside the host tissue, called endophyte, are widely used as agricultural bioweapons. The rhizospheric partners of plant, mycorrhizae, are also a prime agent of this chemical warfare and protect their green partners from fungal invaders and emphasize the concept of “sustainable agriculture.”

Natural products are the best weapon for the survival of any type of problems regarding infection, pathogenesis, or protection from diseases. Due to their degradability in nature, they are the first options to be used by agriculturalists and plant biologist for combating fungal pathogenesis. The eukaryotic organism fungi have a separate kingdom in Whittaker's five kingdom classification and are prime member of this ecosystem as a potent decomposer. In spite of their heavy and multidimensional applications in agricultural, medicinal, and industrial field ranging from the production of life-saving medicines to food supplements, they are the cause of huge global crop loss each year and lead to economic exhaustion. Macro-and microscopic fungi-producing fruit bodies on different portions of a plant body (stem, leaf, fruit, root) lead to the death and decline of the crop species. Several methods have already been tried since the start of civilization for crop protection but because of plant and fungal coevolution, fungi have dominated on the green eukaryotes and caused significant reduction in the crop yield. Particularly in a country like India where the central GDP largely depends on agricultural output, the fungal pathogenesis has been a matter of grave concern for the agriculture department and policy makers. Huge amount of money and manpower is invested to fight against the fungal diseases for ensuring higher and qualitative yield, but still it has been a burning problem of today's conditions. The problem with chemical and synthetic tools for combating the parasitic infections includes their toxicity leading to quality deterioration and environmental pollution accompanied with side effects on human health. In a case study, it has been reported that the extreme use of antibiotics in agricultural field and their direct consumption by humans through their daily meal have led to resistance of those antibiotics in human fungal pathogens. So we are in search of bioactive agents that will be of biological origin, selective to their host, and produce no secondary symptoms with least negative impact. The problem with fungi is their secretion of various types of mycotoxins (aflatoxins, ochratoxins, patulin, fumonisin, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, etc.) in the stored food products, causing postharvest loss of cereals, pulses, dry fruits, and spices. Mycotoxins are not only food spoilers but also potent disease-causing agents in humans leading to cancer, liver damage, kidney failure, and paralysis (Miller 1995) . The severe effects of fungal crop loss are visible largely in tropical or subtropical regions where the temperature is moderately higher than the other parts of the world. Fungal devastation occurs in two phases: firstly, when the crops are growing on the field and, secondly, when they are stored for further transportation, postharvest loss. The third type of contamination occurs when the microscopic airborne pathogens like molds grow on cooked foods and lead to food spoilage. At each and every level, scientists have developed techniques to minimize fungal food loss. On a gross annual estimate, almost 25% of agricultural food items are of no use due to fungal contamination (Pittet 1998) . The major issues with fungi-related crop loss are deterioration as a result of increase of fatty acid conditions, change of color and texture of food items, poor nutritional conditions, and poor germinability of stored seeds (Dhingra et al. 2001) . Reports from Asia and Africa include death of humans and animals due to consumption of mycotoxin-contaminated foods (Reddy and Raghavender 2007) . Fungal pathogens are sometimes dependent on more than one host for their successful completion of life cycle and disease development (Puccinia graminis var. tritici, causal agent of black stem rust of wheat that requires Berberis aristata for successful infection other than there main target wheat plant). So physical controls like eradication of secondary or collateral host and burning of the old livestocks and remnants of the field are the primary measures adopted by the farmers for disease-free crop production. So maintaining the sustainability along with less pathogenic infection is the deep ecological movement for crop maintenance. There are reports of resistance developed against the common and widely used antibiotics of agricultural importance. Blasticidin S, an antibiotic obtained from Streptomyces sp. (a type of actinobacteria predominantly present in soil samples), interacts with the protein synthesis and causes the death of the rice blast pathogens. Development of resistance of this antibiotic is reported to be present in some fungal pathogens that detoxify it by deamination (Dayan et al. 2009 ). Compounds of bacterial and fungal origin from both soil and endophytic sources are used as an alternative source over the chemical ones. Plant extracts especially essential oils from plant taxa of Lamiaceae family are of immense importance and are used as fungicidal or fungistatic. Most of the active ingredients act upon the fungal cell wall by either blocking the cellular processes like respiration, cell wall and cell membrane synthesis, ergosterol biosynthesis, protein synthesis, or DNA replication. Not only the secondary metabolites of plant and microbial origin but also the direct application of microorganisms in terms of biocontrol agent could be used as potent antifungals. Other than these, plants' own defense molecules, known as the phytoalexins, could provide a strong line of defense against mycorrhizae; the root symbionts of higher plants can physically, biologically, and biochemically protect the plant root from pathogenic invasion and provide an enhanced resistance conditions to their hosts. This study includes the role of these compounds as natural agents of antifungal property and their role in disease prevention.

Mycorrhizae as a Biocontrol Agent

Mycorrhiza being the perfect example of symbiosis is known to be the oldest association between higher plant (both angiosperm and gymnosperm, monocot and dicot plants) and fungi and is an astonishing phenomenon of nature. The mycorrhizal association is one of nature's privileges for maintaining the sustainability of agriculture. In present day's changing environment, haphazard use of pesticides (fungicides) and chemicals poses a great risk to the existence and survival of mycorrhizal species in its complete biologically active form. There is a need to increase awareness in order to save mycorrhizal fungi from extinction. Plants form beneficial association with other variants of life forms (animals, bacteria, or fungi) to complete their life processes, to fight against pathogenic microorganisms, and most importantly to thrive in adverse environmental situations. The plant root and its associated living microbial flora are together called "rhizosphere," particularly the area of mycorrhizal occurrence. The term mycorrhiza is derived from two Greek words: mycos which means fungus and rhiza which means roots. In nature, more than 80% of angiosperms and almost all of gymnosperms are known to have mycorrhizal associations. The common two types of mycorrhizal associations that exist in nature are endomycorrhizae, also called arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM), for example, Endogone sp. and Rhizophagus sp., and ectomycorrhizae (EM), for instance Amanita muscaria and Laccaria bicolor. Mycorrhizal associations support its host plants to survive in untimely soil conditions and drought situations by increasing the surface area of root and efficiency of mineral uptake. Environmental threats including problems of temperature increase, climate changing, drought, and infertility of soil are some of the major challenges in agriculture and have to be mitigated to ensure global food security. In this context, mycorrhiza-based crop production is one of the key components of sustainable agriculture practices.

In most of the cases, AM fungi-mediated suppression of root pathogenic fungi is achieved by either morphological, physiological, or biochemical alterations of the host. Several experiments on fungistatic activity of the mycorrhizal species have been done, and fruitful results are found against pathogenic fungi such as Aphanomyces spp., Botrytis fabae, Chalara (Thielaviopsis) basicola, Dothiorella gregaria, Fusarium oxysporum, Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici, Ganoderma pseudoferreum, Pythium ultimum, P. splendens, Phytophthora parasitica, P. cactorum, P. vignae, Rhizoctonia solani, R. bataticola, and Sclerotium rolfsii (Lioussanne et al. 2009; Bagyaraj 2006; Bagyaraj and Chawla 2012) . The most common outcome of AM fungal colonization is seen as an increase in number of branches, resulting in a relatively larger proportion of higher-order roots in the root system. Thickening of the cell walls due to lignification and production of polysaccharides in mycorrhizal plants are the common mode of prevention of penetration and growth of pathogens like Fusarium oxysporum and Phoma terrestris. A huge percentage of AM-root pathogen interaction studies have been conducted in crop plants of agricultural and horticultural importance. But the information available on forest tree species is scanty. Mycorrhizal technology can thus play an important role in production of low-cost quality seedlings and provide plant protection. Like other methods of biological control, AM fungi are not able to offer complete immunity against the infection caused by plant pathogens. They could only impart a degree of resistance against soilborne plant pathogens. However, the possibility of biologically controlling soilborne plant pathogens looks promising.

AM fungi play a protective role for plants by activating the defense mechanisms for the better resistance of crop plants and thus may protect the host plant from further fungal pathogenic attack, thus working as a potent biocontrol agent. Researchers have proved that AM symbiosis triggers the activation of several defense-related genes and also expression of pathogenesis-related proteins. Evidences are drawn from modern techniques like molecular biology methods and immunological and histochemical analysis that strongly supports this concept. AM fungi first act as a biotrophic agent, and before entering the host plant's root cell, they cause a sharp change in endogenous salicylic acid that is reflected in quick accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), a wide range of hydrolytic enzymes, and also the activation of phenylpropanoid biosynthetic pathway (Güimil et al. 2005 , Paszkowski 2006 , Roman et al. 2011 . Research findings have proved that the amount of defense-related compounds (essential enzymes like PAL, phenylalanine ammonialyase, a product of phenylpropanoid pathway, enzymes needed for flavonoid or isoflavonoid biosynthesis like chalcone isomerase) that act for the protection of plant from fungal and bacterial pathogen is higher in the case of mycorrhiza-inoculated plant than in the uninoculated ones (Volpin et al. 1994 (Volpin et al. , 1995 . Host's physiological and biochemical processes are greatly influenced by the mycorrhizal association in terms of decreased root exudation, higher concentration of phenylalanine and serine contents, ortho-dihydroxy phenols, increased membrane phospholipid content, etc. (Smith et al. 1994) . When the phospholipid contents are high, it reduces the chances of root pathogenic attack, and higher concentrations of ortho-dihydroxy phenols show inhibitory activity against root rot pathogen Sclerotium rolfsii (causal agent of southern blight), whereas the non-mycorrhizal plants are affected by the southern blight disease. Tomato plants when inoculated with G. fasciculatum show inhibitory activity against root knot nematodes. Host-AM association leads to the formation of defense-related compounds like phytoalexins, chitinases (CHI), β-1,3-glucanase (GLU) (enzyme related to hydrolysis of fungal cell wall), peroxidases (POX), hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins, and phenolics (St Arnaud and Vujanovic 2007) . Synergistic effect of PGPRs along with AM fungi is proved to be a system of better protection than the use of AM fungi alone (Linderman 1994; Bagyaraj and Chawla 2012) . Fungal wilt of common medicinal plant Indian coleus (Coleus forskohlii) caused by Fusarium chlamydosporium could be minimized by the joint action of AM fungus and Trichoderma viride and cause a sharp increase in root yield and root forskolin concentration and may also reduce the severe disease conditions (Singh et al. 2012 ).

AM causes a drastic change in the rhizospheric microbiota and intentionally either removes directly the pathogenic microorganisms or stimulates the accumulation of potent microbial partners especially fungus that are heavily antagonistic to the plant pathogenic ones. Plants with mycorrhizal association harbor higher population of rhizospheric microorganisms, thus making it impossible for the pathogen to compete and invade the root. In the case of Phytophthora cinnamomi, the numbers of sporangia and zoospores are found to be reduced when rhizospheric soil extracts of AM plants are applied; it means the AM fungi are able to alter the microbial population and particular functional groups of rhizospheric microorganisms (Meyer and Linderman 1986; Larsen and Bodker 2003) . They cause qualitative and quantitative changes in the fungal community by several factors like changed exudation patterns; altered root size and architecture; different physiological and biochemical parameters like sugar, organic acids, and amino acids; and also putative direct AM fungal effects (Toljander et al. 2007; Ahmed et al. 2013; Vigo et al. 2000) . Fungistatic siderophore (low-molecular-weight chelating agents having higher affinity for ferric ion)-producing microorganisms are found to be crowded in mycorrhiza-infected roots and rhizospheric regions. Mycorrhizal plants are to be reported with more actinomycetes and bacterial (Gram-positive Paenibacillus sp. against Phytophthora parasitica) flora antagonistic to soilborne root pathogens (Azcon-Aguilar and Barea 1996; Budi et al. 1999 ).

Apart from providing biochemical and physiological defense strategies, arbuscular mycorrhizal species also exhibit physical barrier of defense by changing the root anatomy, morphology, and even architecture in terms of increased nutrient uptake, meristematic and nuclear activities of root cell, higher rate of growths, and branching patterns (Atkinson et al. 1994; Gamalero et al. 2010; Gutjahr and Paszkowski 2013) . Thus responses of root morphology as a result from AFM colonization seem to depend on plant characters, tap root system, etc. More benefits are seen in tap root system than fibrous root system in terms of gained biomass and nutrient acquisition. Though there is a gap of knowledge in how increased root branching caused by mycorrhizal infection help the plant to defend fungal pathogenesis, synergism is seen as something that can balance the suppressed root growth caused by several root pathogens and restore the root health.

Mycorrhiza-mediated strengthening of the vascular system allows the higher rate of flow of nutrients, increased mechanical strength, and also inactivation of vascular pathogens. In conditions of limited resource such as carbon requirement and space for inoculation, a competition between the symbiotic partner (mycorrhizae) and pathogenic fungi is very common and expected (Vos et al. 2014 ). In the direct warfare, mycorrhizae win over the pathogenic one and thus obtain higher amount of nutrients (almost 4-20% of total assimilated carbon by host plant) and occupy large areas of available root cortical cells (Jung et al. 2012; Vierheilig et al. 2008) .

Defeating the pathogenic fungi in terms of nutrient uptake and providing a little or no room for infection are probably the mightiest cause of biocontrol ability of AM fungus (Hammer et al. 2011) . Output of AM and Phytophthora interaction indicates that the pathogen does not penetrate cortical arbuscular cells, suggesting that localized competition for infection site does occur between the pathogenic fungi and the AM fungus. Not only fungi but also plant-invading nematodes are in the queue for colonization and nutrient uptake (Smith 1988) . The infection of southern root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita, M. exigua) is reduced when the roots are priorly inoculated with symbiotic partners like in the case of coffee plants also (Alban et al. 2013; Dos et al. 2010) . Reports have suggested that the number of infected sites is reduced within mycorrhizal root system than in the uninoculated one and thus strongly supports the mycorrhizal role as a biofungicide (Vigo et al. 2000) . AM fungi can help the plant uptake of nutrients like phosphate, nitrogen, minerals, microelements (zinc), and water at a higher rate than the uninfected one (Baum et al. 2015; Parniske 2008) , and as a result, they are provided with photosynthetic carbon (Smith and Smith 2011) . The plants capable of absorbing higher amount of nutrients in terms of AM fungal association have the potential to tolerate pathogenic infections (Karagiannidis et al. 2002) . Though the improved nutrition and increased tolerance are not involved in a cause-effect relationship, proofs are there that higher uptake of phosphate results in remarkable reduction in pathogenic infection in mycorrhizal plant but not in non-mycorrhizal plant (Bodker et al. 1998) . Tomato plants already infected with Rhizophagus irregularis are not colonized by the pathogen A. solani, whereas non-mycorrhizal plant is affected by the pathogen (Fritz et al. 2006) . Mixed action of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) Glomus intraradices and Trichoderma harzianum as a biocontrol agent significantly reduces the damping off disease caused by Rhizoctonia solani in the case of tomato seedlings (Amer and Seud 2008) .

In order to combat parasitic (fungal, bacterial, viral, nematoidal, and insectal) infection like mammalian cells, plant cells also develop defense systems that mediate the release of low-molecular-weight and short-lived (generally 72-96 h of existence) antimicrobial compounds or molecules known as the phytoalexins (Braga 1991; Echiverri et al. 2010; Paxton 1980) . These secondary metabolites help the plant to withstand biotic and abiotic stress (Grayer and Kukubun 2001) . Most of them being lipophilic compounds can cross the plasma membrane and act inside the fungal cell causing cytoplasmic granulation of the infecting fungal cells, disorganization of the cellular components, rupture of the plasma membrane, and inhibition of the fungal enzymes and mycelial growth (Cavalcanti 2005) . Mode of action of phytoalexins against fungal pathogenesis varies from species to species (Table 9 .1). Metabolism of phytoalexin mediated by fungus involves the tendency for its increased polarity by addition of hydroxyl group (oxygenation), removal of methyl group (demethylation), etc. (Jeandet et al. 2014) . Muller and Borger first enlightened the concept of phytoalexins almost 70 year ago (Muller and Borger 1940). The first reported case analyzed with the concept of phytoalexin was potato tuber infection by the different strains of causal organism of "late blight of potato," Phytophthora infestans. This pathogenic fungus initiated the hypersensitive reactions that lead to the formation of some "plant secondary metabolite" that inhibited further infection of the same plant when infected with another strain of the same genus of Phytophthora. Muller and his coworker named this "principle" as "phytoalexins" that have protected the plant from secondary infection (Deverall 1982) . Accumulation of phytoalexins in the green plant tissue clearly indicates the presence of remarkable amount of fungal and bacterial infections in the host tissue (Stoessl 1980) . Phytoalexins are naturally occurring products secreted and accumulated temporarily by plants in response to pathogenic attack or abiotic stress and agents like heavy metal toxicity, UV radiation, and wounds on tissue (Naoumkina et al. 2007 ). The inducer agent may be of two types, elicitor and elicitin. The elicitors are commonly the oligosaccharides from fungal cell origin (like hepatosaccharide from soja cell wall) (Sharp et al. Pezet and Pont (1990) , Adrian et al. (1997) , Adrian and Jeandet (2012) Camalexin

Induction of the fungal programmed cell death (PCD) by apoptotic mechanisms et al. (2011) 1984). The elicitin types of molecules are generally a type of glycoproteins secreted by the fungal cells (Cordelier et al. 2003) . Reports on detailed investigations about phytoalexins have covered a very few families (Leguminosae and Solanaceae) of the green world (Ingham 1982; Kuc 1982) . Though investigations on some selected number of species and genera are made from plant families including both monocotyledonous (Amaryllidaceae, Orchidaceae, Poaceae) and dicotyledonous plants (Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Convolvulaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Linaceae, Moraceae, Piperaceae, Rosaceae, Rutaceae) and even gymnospermic taxa (Ginkgoaceae) (Coxon 1982) , cash crops like members of Poaceae (focusing on maize and rice), Vitaceae, and Malvaceae (cotton) have been studied for their phytoalexin production (Schmelz et al. 2014; Langcake and Pryce 1976; Jeandet et al. 2010; Sunilkumar et al. 2006) . Though till date a lot of researches have already been performed regarding phytoalexins, a natural weapon against mycopathogens, but still to increase the fungitoxic effectivity of these stress metabolites, further advancement in design and genetic control is needed ).

Phytoalexin synthesis not only is dependent on pathogenic attack but also could be influenced by various abiotic factors such as temperature, humidity, and water availability ( Fig. 9.1 ). There are evidences that different parts of the plant like leaves, flowers, stems, seeds, and root tubers are site of phytoalexin biosynthesis (Mikkelsen et al. 2003) . Different biochemical pathways are used for producing various types of phytoalexins. The three most common pathways include (i) the phenylpropanoic-polymalonic acid pathway, (ii) the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) and geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGDP) route, and (iii) the indole phytoalexin (IP) pathway (Jeandet et al. 2014 ). It is not always obvious that phytoalexins could be categorized not only by their chemical structure or biosynthetic pathway but also by their function and tissue specificity. Examples include the occurrence of momilactone A on different plant parts of rice plant (Lee et al. 1999; Cartwright 1981) . Momilactone A is known to be residing in rice husks and rice stems constitutively, but they are also a phytoalexin of rice leaves. Further studies by Toyomasu and his coworkers conclude that momilactone A is constitutively synthesized and oozed out from root of rice plants. Still there is no sufficient data available to consider phytoalexins as ubiquitous throughout the whole plant kingdom. A lot of studies have revealed their complex biochemical synthetic machinery that involves their de novo synthesis, regulation, and mode of action (Jeandet et al. 2013 Ahuja et al. 2012 . Regulatory mechanisms involve defense-related marker genes, calcium sensors, hormone signaling, phosphorylation cascades, and also their antipathogenic activity. There are reports on genetic engineering-mediated manipulation of phytoalexin production and increased disease resistance in the case of plants (Delaunois et al. 2009; Jeandet et al. 2012 Jeandet et al. , 2013 .

Phytoalexins are secondary or stress metabolites that are produced when the host plant is infected with pathogenic fungus. Phytoalexin-mediated defense response includes the expression of lytic enzymes such as chitinases and glucanases and a number of pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins, oxidizing agents, and lignification of cell walls (Dixon and Lamb 1999) . Mode of action of phytoalexin involves the coordinated synergism between several defense factors for the effective inhibition of the fungal pathogen (Purkayastha 2017; Mansfield 1999) . In the case of Sorghum plant, significant infection caused by Fusarium proliferatum and Fusarium thapsinum stimulates the production of 3-deoxyanthocyanidin, apigeninidin, and luteolinidin and also the concentration of defense-related proteins like peroxidases, β-1,3 glucanases, and chitinases that help to fight the pathogenic infection (Huang and Backhouse 2004 (Koga et al. 1997; Fukuta et al. 2007 ). There are several ways of blocking the fungal infection in host plant tissues by phytoalexin-mediated response. That includes inhibition of fungal spore on the leaf surface and inhibition during and after penetration to host cell (Usman et al. 2018) . The occurrence of fungal germ tube on the leaf surface and diffusion of fungal metabolites through the leaf cells cause the accumulation of phytoalexins by the underlying cells and provide the first line of induced chemical defense (VanWees et al. 2003) . Phytoalexins may be located on papillae or cell walls, thereby producing a localized, fungitoxic barrier to penetration (Friend 2016) . Examples include occurrence of fungitoxic (against Erysiphe graminis) flavonoid (thought to be phytoalexin) on papillae of resistant barley leaves.

Phytoalexins are known to be solely produced as a result of induction or stimulus by external agents. Fruitful evidences could be drawn regarding this fact. Induction of disease resistance in plants is developed through the direct and indirect involvement of elicitors. Extracts of fungal basidiocarp, essential oils of aromatic plants (Walters et al. 2013) , and also synthetic chemicals like aminobutyric acid, salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, and acibenzolar-S-methyl ( (Matiello and Bonaldo 2013) , Hymenolobium petraeum, Qualea albiflora, and Corymbia citriodora (Matiello et al. 2016 ) that act as the elicitors of deoxyanthocyanidins and glyceolin production. Homeopathic preparations of species of Calcarea (C. citriodora and Calcarea carbonica), essential oils of Eucalyptus globulus (Telaxka et al. 2014; Oliveira et al. 2014) , and mild concentrations of salicylic acid (Durango et al. 2013 ) are major elicitins of pistain production and accumulation in cotyledons of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). Silicon-mediated enhancement of disease resistance by peroxidase (POX), polyphenol oxidase (PPO), chitinases (CHI), β-1,3-glucanases (GLU), and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) is found in the case of leaf spot of cotton plant caused by Ramularia areola (Curvêlo et al. 2013 ).

Southern Amazonian amphibian family Bufonidae represents the true toads, and their cutaneous secretions are of diverse source of bioactive compounds which can be fruitful as new chemical weapons for agrochemical development. Use of elicitors in the case of crop protection nowadays is becoming a very popular method of inducing response which are proved to be durable and broad-spectrum disease control mechanism where the plant's own resistance is used. A group of seven Brazilian scientists (Deice et al. 2019) evaluated the possibilities of methanolic extracts of cutaneous secretions of two species of Bufonidae, Rhaebo guttatus and Rhinella marina, on synthesis of phytoalexins named glyceolin (soybean plant), deoxyanthocyanidins (Sorghum plants), and phaseolin (mung plant) in soybean cotyledons, sorghum mesocotyls, and bean hypocotyls, respectively. There is a direct relationship between the phytoalexins production and defense ability of the host plant against the fungal pathogenesis. Studies reveal that when the phytoalexin glyceolin is produced in higher amount in the soybean plant (cultivar TMG 132 RR) as a result of methanolic extracts of amphibian's (R. guttatus) cutaneous secretion (at a concentration of 0.2 mg/mL), stimulates the enzyme β-1,3-glucanase that can cause the hydrolysis of the fungal cell wall along with other defense-related enzymes (chitinase) is also produced in higher amount, but when suppression of glyceolin occurs, that particular enzyme is also not produced. There are evidences in the case of Glycine max that the effectivity of phytoalexins varies from cultivar to cultivar. Application of R. marina (amphibian) methanolic extracts induced glyceolin production in TMG 132 RR and Monsoy 8372 cultivars IPRO but did not induce TMG 132 RR cultivars to synthesize these defense-related compounds.

Less toxicity of phytoalexins than chemical fungicides is the reason for their universal acceptance. For over 75 years, phytoalexins have been a detailed area of study for its antimicrobial activity, especially antifungal properties. Several investigations include the in vivo bioeffectivity of the phytoalexins against serious plant pathogenic fungi (Table 9 .2). Phytoalexin synthesizing genes have also been genetically modified to cope up with the pathogenic evolution. Still reports are there that include examples of cruciferous phytoalexins detoxification by fungal enzymes (Pedras and Abdoli 2017) . Modification of pathogen to overcome phytoalexinmediated damage includes curved germ tubes as a result of asymmetric growth of the germ tube. Phytoalexins are natural products of diverse chemical nature, for example, alkaloids, coumarins, isoflavonoid (coumestans, isoflavans, isoflavones, isoflavanones, pterocarpans, pterocarpenes), lignans, polyacetylenes, pterocarpons (pisatin, phaseolin, glyceollin, medicarpin, and maackiain), terpenes, and non-isoflavonoid compounds (furanoacetylenes and stilbenes) ( Fig. 9 .2) (Grayer and Kokubun 2001) . Both in vitro and in vivo fungicidal activity are shown by sakuranetin (rice phytoalexins) against the blast fungus (Hasegawa et al. 2014 ). Reduction of green mold (caused by Penicillium digitatum) infections is achieved by the action of coumarin type of phytoalexin (scopoletin) of orange (Sanzani et al. 2014 ). The loss of apples production caused by Penicillium expansum and accumulation of patulin is minimized by the action of phenolic phytoalexins like resveratrol, scopoletin, scoparone, and umbelliferone (Sanzani et al. 2009 ). In the case of Medicago sativa (alfalfa), the isoflavonoid 7-O-methyltransferase provides increased resistance against Phoma medicaginis by synthesizing maiackiain (He and Dixon 2000) . For soybean plants, transformation of resveratrol to pterostilbene 7, Langcake and Pryce (1976) , Coxon (1980) , and Harding and Heale (1981) (continued) (Zernova et al. 2014) . Scientists have proven that not only fungal infection acts as the stimulus for phytoalexin synthesis but also the hormone levels; phosphorylation cascades play a major role in this purpose. Cytokinin overexpression in Nicotiana tabacum is directly associated with its resistance against P. syringe by higher concentration of capsidiol and scopoletin (Grosskinsky et al. 2011 .) The fungitoxicity of the phytoalexin could be enhanced by methylation or presence of electron-attracting groups on aromatic rings that is directly involved in affinity with membrane proteins being an uncoupler of ETS system.

Endophytes are a type of hidden beneficial microorganisms that reside within the host plant causing no visible disease symptoms and syndrome and promote the plant to maintain its existence in typical harsh conditions. Sometimes they could be latent pathogens at a very distant path of the host's life cycle but are simply a unique area of research where plant science and their microbial association get new definition. Endophytes have been a constant and reliable source of exploration of bioactive compounds, but extensive search has not been performed till date, and that has given the endophyte biologists a great opportunity to search endophytic fungal and actinobacterial flora for the establishment of novel bioactive compounds. Selection of plant for endophytic isolation is the most vital part of this study. Exploitation of the proper isolates accelerates this search and opens up new angle of research. The search for uncommon products of agrochemical importance is a common demand of todays' world. The safer the antifungal agents become, the more it is well accepted in the scientific community as well as agricultural market. In general, the screening of thousands of natural products ends up giving only one commercial product. So indeed it's a tough job to end the search of new antibiotics with a hopeful result. A total of 6 out of 20 of the popular prescribed medicines are of fungal origin, and it is a fact that 5% of the fungi have been described till date (Hawksworth 1991 (Hawksworth , 2001 . So fungi serve as a continuous dependable source of new natural products. The intelligent screening procedure includes the selection of fungal flora of endophytic sources to open up the untapped potential of secondary metabolites synthesized by fungi.

Microorganisms grown in the petri plates or culture broth constitute minimal growth medium needed for their survival. Any kind of stress or transfer of microorganisms on selective media acts as a stimulation for production of their secondary bioactive compounds. These secondary metabolites are produced for their survival in odd environments and strictly act as the selection force for the expression of their antimicrobial-producing genes. These crude by-products of microbial cultures are filtered and purified for their industrial, medicinal, and agricultural exploitation. Soil microorganisms have been exploited for a long time for production of antibiotics, but microorganisms inhabiting plants are a new source in that respect. Plants are selected usually with potent medicinal applications. Here the knowledge of ethnobotany and folk taxonomy contributes a lot in this selection procedure. A strong literature survey supports the plant selection. The plants are surface sterilized and plated in nutrient-less solid plates. The fungi emerge out from different explants using the decaying plant parts as their primary growth substance. The isolates are identified by microscopic structures focusing on their conidial morphology, spore sculpturing, and colony characters. Confirmatory identification includes 18s rRNA analysis. Endophytic fungi are tested for their antifungal activity against phytopathogenic fungi by one-to-one inhibition assay or antagonistic test ( Fig. 9 .3). Two agar portions containing fungal hypha of endophyte and pathogen are placed on opposite sides of the plate. If the growth of pathogenic one is arrested partially or completely, that endophytic isolate is marked as antifungal agent and selected for further studies. Another way of screening includes separating the agar plate into two equal halves, and two fungi are placed on two separate sides of the discontinuous plate. This test aims to screen the endophytes that produce volatile antifungals. If the isolate is potent enough to produce volatile organic compounds with fungi static or cidal activity, this will cease the growth of the pathogenic strain. Then that isolate would be qualitatively and quantitatively measured for their volatile emissions using GC-MS as the master equipment ( Fig. 9 .4). Liquid extracts of endophytic fungi are also tested for antifungal potentials by agar well-diffusion method. The fungal extract having antibiotic property shows clear zone of inhibition of growth of the pathogenic fungus surrounding the area of application of that fungal liquid. The potent isolate will be mass cultured, and the bioactive molecules will be extracted using organic solvents like ethyl acetate, ethyl ether, and n-hexane. Steps include purification of that fungal extract by column chromatography, detection of the compound by thin-layer chromatography, and analysis of compounds by HPLC and mass chromatography. Field experiment includes the synergistic effect of a pure compound with mixture of natural compounds, and the effectivity of a newly applied antifungal agent strictly depends on the host plant and pathogenic microorganism's interaction, environmental condition, and development of drug resistance by that organism. Application of pellets soaked in fungal extracts also is a method of determination of antifungal activity.

Secondary metabolites are itself diverse in nature. A variety of bioactive secondary metabolites are produced at significant concentrations by the endophytic microbial flora. The major components include quinones, phenols, phenolic esters, steroids, terpenoids, cytochalasins, benzopyranone, alkaloids, isocoumarins, and chromones.

Till date, a large number of plants have been studied for their endophytic flora as antifungal agents (Table 9 .3).

Alkaloid was the first ever reported insecticidal bioactive product. Cryptocin was isolated from endophyte of Tripterygium wilfordii, a plant of Celastraceae family. The inner barks of the stem were used as explant, and Cryptosporiopsis cf. quercina was isolated as a potent endophyte active against Pyricularia oryzae and some other phytopathogenic fungi (Li et al. 2000) . Colletotrichum sp. produces 6-isoprenylindole-3-corboxylic acid having inhibitory action against Phytophthora capsici, a pathogen of Cucurbitaceae, Fabaceae, and Solanaceae, and also other phytopathogens Rhizoctonia cerealis and Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici, a common pathogen of Poaceae family . Epoxycytochalasin H and cytochalasins N and H were isolated as chloroform and methanolic extracts of (Fu et al. 2011) . A lot of endophytes have been explored for their antifungal production, but only a few of them were positive for antifungal metabolites categorizing in alkaloids. The common alkaloids acting as the antifungal agents of endophytic fungal origin are gliotoxin, cryptocanadin, tyrocidine A, fumigaclavine C, fumitremorgin C, 1-N-methyl albonoursin, and phomapsichalasin. 

The terpenoids, usually called isoprenoids, are large and diverse group of naturally occurring organic compounds derived from terpenes that are multicyclic. Sixty percent of all the known natural products are terpenoids in nature. Some endophytic fungicidal products are of terpenes by their native chemical structure. Endophytic isolates (Hormonema sp.) of gymnospermous plant Juniperus communis were reported to be antifungal producers of a triterpene glycoside enfumafungin (Pelaez et al. 2000) . Known antifungal sterols of endophytic origin are 3β-hydroxyergosta-5-ene, 3-oxoergosta-4,6,8,22-tetraene, etc. The sterols are strong inhibitors of Helminthosporium sativum (present name: Bipolaris sorokiniana), the asexual stage of Cochliobolus sativus, a common root rot pathogen of wheat and barley crops which also infects leaf and stems of Poaceae plants . Sesquiterpenes are reported to be the growth inhibitors of Cladosporium phlei (causal organism of leaf spot disease of timothy grass, Phleum pratense). This is a unique example where the host plant (Phleum pratense) itself harbors the endophyte (Epichloe typhina) that inhibits the growth of its leaf spot pathogen (Cladosporium phlei).

From the point of view of organic chemistry, isocoumarins are defined as the isomer of coumarin where the orientation of the lactone is reversely arranged. Zhang and his coworkers in the year 2008 isolated an endophytic fungus named Microdochium bolleyi from Fagonia cretica (also known as virgin's mantle of Zygophyllaceae family), a herb of semiarid regions of Gomera. Isocoumarins were identified as the active compounds having antifungal activity against Microbotryum violaceum (previously known as Ustilago violacea), an obligate parasite of Basidiomycete group and a common infectant of members of Caryophyllaceae causing smut of anther. The four isolated and identified isocoumarins are monocerin, 12-oxo epimers of monocerin, and open-ring derivative compounds of monocerin. The compounds are obtained as mixtures by column chromatography followed by Sephadex LH-20 chromatography techniques. Preparative TLC further differentiated the four compounds. Monocerin and its analogues were previously reported as antifungal compounds from fungal sources of Drechslera monoceras, Exserohilum monoceras, Helminthosporium monoceras, Exserohilum turcum, and Fusarium larvarum (Aldridge and Turner 1970; Robeson and Strobel 1982; Grove and Pople 1979; Claydon et al. 1979) . These secondary metabolites act on pathogens by interfering stages of divisional phases of cell cycle. The second isocoumarin was colorless oil. The third and fourth one are represented by the empirical formula of C 16 H 20 O 7 and C 16 H 22 O 7 . The fourth one is structurally correlated to fusarentin 6,7-dimethyl ether. Both the compounds are of heptaketide in their origin, and it is revealed that fusarentins are the probable precursors of the active compounds monocerins (Scott et al. 1984; Axford et al. 2004 ). Dihydroisocoumarins, mellein (an isocoumarin derivative), (R)-7-hydroxymellein, and fonsecinone were reported from species of Xylaria (endophyte of Piper aduncum), Pezicula, Penicillium (Alibertia macrophylla), and Aspergillus (Cynodon dactylon), respectively (Oliveira et al. 2011; Schulz et al. 1995; Song et al. 2004 ).

Phenols (popularly known as phenolics) represent a class of chemical compounds characterized with a hydroxyl group attached to an aromatic hydrocarbon group. Phenol (or carbolic acid) is a colorless crystalline solid, aromatic compound having benzene rings. They are predominantly found in the plant kingdom as a response to stress and are of utmost importance. Endophytic culture extracts are also known to be rich sources of phenolics; usually they are directly proportional to the antioxidative property of any fungal isolate, but in some particular cases, they are characterized with their antifungal potentials against phytopathogenic fungus. Usually the liquid culture extracts of the endophytic isolates are subjected to solvent extraction using ethyl acetate, n-hexane, ethyl ether, etc. Those organic solvents are believed to extract the phenolics from the water-based culture broth. Those extracted compounds are further screened for their antifungal efficiency. Ethyl acetate extracts of endophytic Phoma sp. are reported to contain tetralone metabolites (derivatives of α-tetralone, 3,6,7-trihydroxy-α-tetralone) inhibiting the growth of two common broad phytopathogenic fungus Fusarium oxysporum and Rhizoctonia solani.

Griseofulvin is known to be the first antifungal compound isolated from Penicillium griseofulvum. Later it is isolated from several species of fungi including endophytic Penicillium canescens and Xylaria sp. (member of Xylariaceae family). Griseofulvin from endophytic P. canescens of popular Chinese medicinal plant Polygonatum cyrtonema (Polygonaceae) showed strong inhibitory effectivity against phytopathogenic Botrytis cinerea, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Colletotrichum orbiculare, and Didymella bryoniae . Other than Penicillium, endophytic Xylaria sp. isolated as an endophyte of Abies holophylla yields griseofulvin and dechlorogriseofulvin for in vitro and in vivo effectivity against pathogenic Magnaporthe grisea, Corticium sasakii, Blumeria graminis (Park et al. 2005) . The ascomycete fungus Pestalotiopsis is known to be a common plant pathogen but also has been reported many times because of their endophytic existence in the host plants. The two common species Pestalotiopsis microspora (host: tropical plant Terminalia morobensis) and P. fici are reported to be producing antifungal metabolites isopestacin and pestalofones D-E (Harper et al. 2003; Liu et al. 2009a, b) . Chlorogenic acid and colletotric acids are antifungal phenolics of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Sordariomycetes sp., respectively Zou et al. 2000) . They were isolated from medicinal plants of China (Artemisia mongolica and Eucommia ulmoides) and effective against fungi imperfecti Helminthosporium sativum.

Orcinol is used for the production of a dye called orcein used randomly for the staining of cells and chromosomes. Orcinol is popularly known for its antifungal activity too and has been isolated as a product of endophytic origin of Penicillium sp. from Alibertia macrophylla (a plant of Rubiaceae) showing bioactivity against Cladosporium cladosporioides and Cladosporium sphaerospermum (Oliveira et al. 2014) . Endophytic Phomopsis sp., Dothiorella sp., and Diaporthe sp. have also been tested for their antifungal production and antifungal compounds that were detected (Brady et al. 2000; Xu et al. 2004; Huang et al. 2008 ).

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are said to be a type of organic low-molecularweight carbon-containing small compounds (up to C20) that have a high vapor pressure with low molecular mass (100-500 daltons) at room temperature. The high vapor pressure results from a low boiling point of that chemical compound, which causes a huge quantity of molecules to evaporate from the liquid, solid, or semisolid form of the compound and gets released into the surrounding environment. The endophytes are unique in their volatile emissions. The term mycofumigation that is very much popular with the treatment of agricultural phytopathogens is actually the output of VOCs that originated from endophytic isolates. The first ever reported volatile antibiotic producer was Muscodor albus (Xylariaceae family), an endophyte of Guazuma ulmifolia (a plant of Sterculiaceae family collected from tropical forest of SW Ecuador), isolated by Gary Strobel and his co-workers ). The major compounds isolated by GCMS are known to be involved in antifungal, antibacterial activity. Compounds include butanoic acid, 2-methyl-; butanoic acid, 3-methyl-; 2-butenal, 2-methyl-; butanoic acid, 3-methylbutyl ester; 3-buten-1-ol, 3-methyl; guaiol; 1-octene, 3-ethyl-; formamide, N-(1-methylpropyl); azulene and naphthalene derivatives; caryophyllene; phenylethyl alcohol; acetic acid, 2-phenylethyl ester; bulnesene; and various propanoic acid, 2-methyl-derivatives. These compounds were tested against a number of phytopathogenic fungi (Botrytis cinerea, Mycosphaerella fijiensis, Pythium ultimum, Phytophthora cinnamomi) showing partial or complete death or growth inhibition of those pathogens after 2 or 4 days of incubation. Muscodor albus was reported from a diverse type of host plants, i.e., Myristica fragrans, Terminalia prostrata, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, and Ginkgo biloba, by several workers (Worapong et al. 2001; Sopalun et al. 2003; Ezra and Strobel 2003; Mercier et al. 2004; Ezra et al. 2004a, b; Atmosukarto et al. 2005; Lacey and Naven 2006; Lacey et al. 2009; Strobel et al. 2007; Banerjee et al. 2010a, b; Corcuff et al. 2011; Alpha et al. 2015) . The mycofumigants are effective against pathogen Fusarium culmorum, causal agent of seedling blight, foot rot, ear blight, stalk rot, and common rot of cereals. Sexual stage (teleomorph) of Glomerella cingulata, a fungus of Glomerellaceae, is a potent pathogen causing anthracnose-like symptoms of water-soaked, sunken spots and necrotic lesions on fruits of forest trees. This phytopathogen is strictly inhibited by the volatile emissions of this novel endophyte. Banerjee et al. (2010a, b) first reported Muscodor albus strain GBA from the USA as an isolate of Ginkgo biloba (first isolate of M. albus from G. biloba) and tested the biological efficacy of its volatile mixtures against agricultural pathogens and also evaluated its promises to be used as a commercial mycofumigant agent for controlling the fungal diseases in storage fruits and vegetables, that is, agricultural productions and during food transportation. The strain GBA in comparison to other strains of Muscodor E6 and CZ620 completely inhibits and potentially kills the member of Phycomycetes, Pythium ultimum after 2 days of exposure of the mixture of volatiles. The organic compounds include alcohols, acids, esters, ketones, and lipids as their active components. 1-butanol, 3-methyl-, acetate was found in significant quantities. Vitrine, a terpenoid, was first isolated from Muscodor albus strain GAB. The volatile mixture is artificially produced by the mixture of the pure compounds, and that mixture is again checked for antifungal activity. A positive mycocidal or mycostatic effect similar to the effect of endophyte's volatile emission will confirm establishment of the endophyte and its mixture as the biocontrol or antifungal agent. Myrothecium inundatum, an endophyte of herbaceous Acalypha indica (Euphorbiacea member collected from northeastern part of India), produces unique mixture of volatile components having 3-octanone, 3-octanol, 7-octen-4-ol, sesquiterpenes, organic acids, methyl esters, naphthalene, 2-octanoic acid, heptanoic acid, etc. This endophyte produces foam in its liquid culture predominant with long-chain carbon compounds like octane, 1,4-cyclohexadiene, 1-methyl-and cyclohexane, and 1-ethylpropyl. (Meshram et al. 2013 (Meshram et al. , 2017 Suwannarach et al. 2015; Saxena et al. 2015; Suwannarach et al. 2010 Suwannarach et al. , 2012 Suwannarach et al. , 2013 Kudalkar et al. 2012; Mitchell et al. 2010; Worapong et al. 2002; Daisy et al. 2002; Siri-udom et al. 2016 

Postharvest fungal disease is one of the prime causes of agricultural loss of crops. Use of biological agent to minimize this loss is one of the vital targets of agriculturalists, horticulturalists, and plant biologists. Several chemical agents have been already tested for practical applications, but endophytes are less explored organisms in this arena. Volatiles from endophytic source open up new scope of utilization of unique mixtures of chemicals to be used as mycofumigant agents. A large number of endophytes have already been screened for their postharvest disease management ability (Table 9 .4). The volatiles of the endophyte could be considered as the natural fungicides. Muscodor vitigenus, an endophyte of Hevea brasiliensis, was analyzed in GC-MS for their volatile production. The isolates produce a unique mixture of Myroxylon balsamum 1, 4-Cyclohexadiene, 1-methyl-; 1,4-pentadiene and cyclohexene, 1-methyl-4-(1methylethenyl)-; alkyl alcohols starting with 1-butanol-3-methyl, 1-propanol-2-methyl, Cinnamomum bejolghota. This isolate was known to produce azulene, a new compound detected first from any Muscodor species. This species was tested in vitro and in vivo for antifungal activity against a common worldwide devastating pathogen Rhizoctonia solani (causal agent of damping off). The VOCs produced by this fungi include (S)-(+)-5-methyl-1-heptanol; ethyl acetate; propanoic acid, 2-methyl-, methyl ester; cis-2,4-dimethylthiane; S,S-dioxide; cyclopentane; butanoic acid, 2-methyl-, methyl ester; 1-butanol, 3-methyl-, acetate; β-humulene; azulene, 1,2,3,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-1,4-dimethyl-7-(1-methylethenyl)-; 1S-(1.α., 7.α., 8a.β); and eudosma-4(14),11-diene 1,1,1,5,7,7,7-heptamethyl-3,3-bis(trimethylsiloxy) tetrasiloxane. Rhizoctonia solani-infected seedlings were treated with volatile mixtures to assess the mycofumigation property. In vivo experiment was conducted on four seedlings of bird pepper, bush bean, garden pea, and tomato. It was concluded that 30 gm of Muscodor cinnamomi prepared on rye grain solid media is the minimum dose required for inhibition of Rhizoctonia infection and total control and elimination of damping off symptoms. Muscodor cinnamomi-infected soil does not show any seed germination inhibition in comparison to Rhizoctonia solani-infected soil. So it is a type of pioneer study of using endophytic species as potent agents of fumigation and biocontrol. Candida intermedia strain C410 (Saccharomycetaceae) was isolated as an endophyte of strawberry (Fragaria ananassa), and the volatile emission was known to be a mixture of 49 organic compounds including esters, alcohols, alkenes, alkanes, alkynes, organic acids, ketones, and aldehydes of which 1, 3, 5, 7-cyclooctatetraene and 3-methyl-1-butanol were the most dominant (Huang et al. 2011 ). Volatiles of strawberry endophyte were itself useful as postharvest control agent for the host plant against Botrytis fruit rot. Other compounds include 1,3,5,7-cyclooctatetraene; 3-methyl-1-butanol; 2-nonanone; pentanoic acid, 4-methyl-, ethyl ester; 3-methyl-1-butanol, acetate; acetic acid, pentyl ester; and hexanoic acid, ethyl ester that were found to be extremely inhibitory to conidial germination (reproductive growth) and also vegetative (mycelial) proliferation of B. cinerea. When the fruits are exposed to C. intermedia synthetic volatiles or itself to the fungus, the incidence of Botrytis fruit rot reduces significantly. Strawberry fruits inoculated directly with the endophyte also remain disease-free. So mixtures of Candida intermedia C410, the unique natural products, are useful as mycofumigation technique or for postharvest disease management by biological control policies. Tangerine fruit (Citrus tangerine), the commercial citrus crop of Northern Thailand, faces huge postharvest losses due to pathogenesis of green mold (Penicillium digitatum). The pathogen is the prime cause of worldwide deterioration of tangerine fruits by mycopathogenesis. Out of 32 detected compounds, the most predominant were 2-methylpropanoic acid and 3-methylbutan-1-ol. Other compounds include carbitol, octanoyl chloride, azulene, 3-methylhexane, 2-methylpropan-1-ol, 2,3-butanediol, caryophyllene, 2-methylbutyric acid, ethyl 2-hydroxyproponate, etc. The pathogen was treated both in vitro and in vivo for their inhibition by endophytic volatile components. In both cases, pathogen growth was restricted. During transportation of the fruits, fungus causes huge crop loss by infecting the fruits; when fruits were inoculated with 30 gm of rye grain culture of M. suthepensis (1 month old), the disease development is ceased. So it is a classic example of mycofumigation by the biocontrol agent of tangerine fruit for the control of rot lesions caused by P. digitatum infection. The in vivo application requires the proper surface sterilization (using sodium hypochlorite) of the targeted parts where the inoculation is going to be done, for example, fruit, stem, root, and leaf. Usually infection on fruits for assessing the biocontrol potential is the most common and popular method. The seeds will be washed in distilled water, and using sterile needle, uniformly the whole area would be done, and the whole area would be infected or inoculated with the endophytic liquid extracts containing spore suspensions. Muscodor albus VOCs are potent enough to cause a significant reduction of in vitro spore germination of the Tilletia species T. horrida, T. indica, and T. tritici. Endophytic Nodulisporium spp., Trichoderma spp., Phomopsis spp., and Oxyporus latemarginatus are reported to produce VOCs that inhibit mycelial growth of phytopathogenic fungi (Lee et al. 2009; Park et al. 2010; Ajith and Lakhsmidevi 2010; Amin et al. 2010) . Black sigatoka disease (also known as leaf spot or black leaf streak disease) of banana (Musa paradisiaca) is caused by Mycosphaerella fijiensis (ascomycete fungus). This phytopathogen is inhibited by the volatile emissions of Muscodor sutura, an endophytic isolate of Prestonia trifidi. The volatiles are effective also against Ceratocystis ulmi, the causal agent of Dutch elm disease of American elm (Ulmus americana). The volatile mixtures include thujopsene, chamigrene, isocaryophyllene, and butanoic acid, 2-methyl-that are potent inhibitors of the common anthracnose pathogen of cucumber, muskmelon, and watermelon (members of cucurbits), Colletotrichum lagenarium. So this unique endophyte and its chemical mixtures are potent mycofumigants and ensure crop protections against destructive pathogens like C. ulmi and C. lagenarium, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (causing white mold, cottony rot, water soft rot, stem rot, drop, crown rot, and blossom blight diseases of the host), and also Phytophthora palmivora (oomycete fungi), the causal agent of bud root of palms and areca nut predominantly occurring in regions of South India (Kudalkar et al. 2012) . Liarzi and his coworkers tested the biological control efficacy of the endophytic Daldinia cf. concentrica, isolated from olive tree (Olea europaea L.) of Israel against 18 phytopathogens, and the unique mixtures of 27 volatile were effective against the phytopathogenic mycelial growths. The mixtures include a variety of organic compounds: 3-methyl-1-butanol, 2-methyl-1-butanol, 1-methyl-1,3-cyclohexadiene, 1-methyl-1,4-cyclohexadiene, 4-heptanone, isoamyl acetate, 4-heptyn-2-ol, 2-octenal, octanal, β-elemene, α-guaiene, β-selinene, α-selinene, α-bulnesene, germacrene A, etc. The unique mixtures having broad-spectrum antifungal property could be used for fumigation for eliminating the pathogenic infections of Aspergillus niger (mold-causing organism on fruits of economic importance). So the endophytic D. cf. concentrica opens up opportunities for fungal disease control in food and agricultural industries (Liarzi et al. 2016) . Nodulisporium sp. strain GS4d2II1 (Hypoxylon anthochroum) and Hypoxylon anthochroum strain Blaci are potent enough to be used as biopesticide against Fusarium oxysporum, a common contaminant of Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme (cherry tomato) causing a great percentage of crop loss globally. Six VOCs of alcohols' mixture, phenylethyl alcohol, 2-methyl-1-butanol, 3-methyl-1-butanol, eucalyptol, ocimene, and terpinolene, were detected and applied together with synergistic effect and individually both in vitro and in vivo. Inoculation of pathogen on the cherry tomato fruits yields significant reduction in Fusarium contamination. Both agar dilution techniques and gas test were done to assess the in vitro antifungal activity, and the endophytic volatile mixtures were effective in both the cases. Volatiles kill the pathogens probably by interfering cell membrane permeability, hyphal morphology, and respiratory activity of the pathogenic Fusarium oxysporum. So it is a great opportunity to use the unique mixture of volatile organic compounds of the endophytic isolate to reduce the crop loss caused by the pathogenic infection on the commercially valuable plant of cherry tomato worldwide. Endophytic Phoma sp. (Didymellaceae) and Phomopsis sp. (Valsaceae) were isolated from Larrea tridentata and Odontoglossum sp. Singh et al. 2011) . The volatiles detected are effective against phytopathogens Verticillum sp., Ceratocystis sp., Cercospora sp., Sclerotinia sp. Sclerotinia sp., and Botrytis sp.

Algae are diverse group of autotrophs and the leading producers of O 2 in the ecosystem. They range from prokaryotic unicellular to eukaryotic complex multicellular forms involved in the marine and terrestrial food chain. Antifungal activity of the seaweed (members of Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae) is a major weapon for natural fungicides along with their antibacterial, anti-protozoan, and antiviral activities. Algal seaweeds are potent holders of large number of secondary metabolites including phenolics, terpenes, alkaloids, and lectins which are not directly involved in photosynthesis and reproduction and thus fall under the category of secondary metabolites. They are common antimicrobial of algal origin that act on the target organisms by altering the microbial cell permeability accompanied with the loss of internal macromolecules or sometimes interfere with the membrane function causing cellular disintegrity ultimately leading to cell death (Abu-Ghannam and Rajauria 2013). Several studies include antifungal activity of algal members against human pathogens; a very few studies include their efficacy against plant pathogens (Cheung et al. 2014; Singh et al. 2007; Stirk et al. 2007; Padmakumar and Ayyakkannu 1997; Ismail et al. 2014; Genovese et al. 2013; Lopes et al. 2015 ). Padmakumar and Ayyakkannu tested 80 species of algae against a variety of bacterial and fungal pathogens. Out of the all screened organisms, 70% exhibited antibacterial efficiency, and only 27.5% inhibited fungal growth. Polysaccharides found in the cell wall and deposited in terms of storage food from red and brown algal sources include ulvans (obtained from Ulva sp.), alginates and fucans (from Fucus sp.), laminarin (Laminaria sp.), and carrageenans that can induce defense responses in plants against phytopathogens by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (MAPs) and are capable of inducing plant resistance (Vera et al. 2011) . Polysaccharides stimulate regular cellular changes associated with pathogen perception and defense activation by change in Ca 2+ concentration and burst due to oxidative stress activation of salicylate, ethylene, and jasmonate biosynthetic pathways and by activating pathogenesis-related proteins (PRPs) (Jaulneau et al. 2010; Zhao et al. 2012) . As a result of the depolymerization of the polysaccharides, the obtained oligosaccharides induce protection against a variety of fungal, viral, and bacterial diseases by accumulation of the antimicrobial compounds in the cell. Algal polysaccharides as an alternative weapon over the synthetic agricultural drugs for controlling plant disease have been widely studied (Stadnik and Freitas 2014; Hahn et al. 2008 ).

Brown algae Laminaria digitata, a genus of Phaeophyceae, is commonly called seaweeds and known to be the potent producers of kelp, an iodine-rich substance needed for the normal functioning of thyroid gland. Laminaria produces laminarin, glucan polysaccharide-containing 1,3-linked β-d-glucose moiety, a reserve food material found on the vacuoles of the vegetative cells of this genus. β-Glucans are involved as a major part of daily diet and obtained from the brands of common cereals. They are involved in the defense responses of agricultural crops like tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), eggplant (Solanum melongena), pepper (Piper nigrum), watermelon (Citrullus lanatus), grape (Vitis vinifera), apple (Malus sp.), and pear (Pyrus communis). Elicitation of defense response by laminarin against causal agents of gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) and downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola) in grapevine plants remarkably suppresses their infection up to 55% and 75%, respectively (Copping et al. 2004 ). So, natural product from brown algae Laminaria sp. known as laminarin or laminaran can act as the biofungicide or biocontrol compounds. Use of laminarin significantly reduces the mycelial growth and aflatoxin production in Aspergillus flavus and ensures its use as a fungicide (Liangbin et al. 2012) . The advantage of using laminarin over other products is that as it breaks down finally to glucose molecules, it has no maximum residue limit (MRL) on the plant treated with this product. So, there is no need of preharvest interval constraint. This has been a prime cause why laminarin has substituted five popular fungicides involved in the treatment of apple scab (Venturia inaequalis) in France (Mery et al. 2013 ). This phyto-pharmaceutical is used widely in France and some countries of Europe in the name of Vacciplant (major active constituent is laminarin). Laminarin has broad-spectrum applicability on fire blight of apples and pears in Greece, France, Belgium, Switzerland, Portugal, and also Morocco. It is effective for apple scab disease in France and Belgium and for curing storage diseases of apples caused by Gloeosporium sp. in Belgium. Laminarin comes out as a fungicide of natural origin after being eligible in 33 tests between 2001 and 2011 in several parts of Europe, for example, France, Belgium, Italy, and Poland, on natural contamination of orchards on several sensitive strains of scab fungus including Golden Delicious, Golden Smoothie, Read Cheaf, Galaxy, Gala, and Pink Lady. Laminarin is applied widely against secondary scab (to minimize secondary scab during summer and up to harvest) as a result of its uniqueness in its mode of action. It does not involve cell death of the host plant or hypersensitivity induction in the host organism but rather stimulates plants' natural resistance (Klarzynski et al. 2000) . Aziz et al. (2003) reported its effectiveness in tobacco plants, wheat, strawberries, apples, and vines. The application of laminarin and alginate reduced the development of wilt symptoms caused by Verticillium dahliae on olive twigs, stimulating its phenolic metabolism (Salah et al. 2018) . Moreover, alginates reduced pathogen growth in vitro. Laminarin induces the release of H 2 O 2 in cells of tobacco plants and leads to the increase in PAL activity (phenylalanine ammonia-lyase) and causes the accumulation of PR-1, PR-2 (glucanase), PR-3 (chitinase), and PR-5. Concerning red algae polysaccharides, carrageenans induced protection against a broad range of pathogens such as tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), B. cinerea, and E. carotovora on tobacco (Vera et al. 2011) . Again on tobacco, Mercier et al. (2001) showed that carrageenan infiltrated the leaves and increased the expression of genes coding for a sesquiterpene cyclase involved in the synthesis of the antimicrobial terpenoid capsidiol, PR-3 proteins (basic chitinases), and proteinase inhibitor with antipathogenic activity. An adequate percentage of growth and spore germination inhibition of Botrytis cinerea was mediated by the hexane extracts of Laminaria digitata and Undaria pinnatifida. Porphyra umbilicalis, laverbread, is an edible seaweed (Corato et al. 2017) . Other than B-glucan polysaccharides (laminarin) of Laminaria, other secondary metabolites (phenols, terpenes) of phaeophycean algae (Sargassum sp.) showed effectivity against common pathogens Fusarium solani, Rhizoctonia solani, Aspergillus spp., Fusarium oxysporum, Penicillium spp., and Botrytis cinerea (Khallil et al. 2015; Ibraheem et al. 2017; Mabrouk et al. 1985; Liu et al. 2014 ).

Cyanophycean blue-green algae are abundant all over the world and ranging from pond ecosystem to oceanic system. Though they have been reported to produce a large number of toxins and involved in death and disease of cattle and human being, they are of serious interest from the point of view of natural fungicidal products. Drawing the similarities with bacteria, they are characterized with a mucilaginous or gelatinous sheath composed of polysaccharides which are the weapon against fungal pathogenesis. Cyanobacterial polysaccharides (POL) show higher disease resistance against B. cinerea when they are applied on the intact fruit (preharvest conditions when fruit is attached to the plant) rather than the fruit detached (postharvest conditions) from the plant (Zheng et al. 2011; Feliziani et al. 2015; Yao and Tian 2005) . Polysaccharides are involved in elicitation as elicitors for development of local and systemic disease resistance and expression of defense enzyme synthesis, for example, chitinases and glucanases that are involved directly in antifungal responses (Paulert et al. 2009; Reymond and Farmer 1998; Sharma et al. 2014) . Water extracts of common BGA Anabaena sp., Ecklonia sp. (common edible marine algae of Japan and Korea), and Corallina sp. (hard seaweed of Corallinaceae family) exhibit antifungal activity against Podosphaera xanthii (causal agent of powdery mildew of cucurbits) on zucchini plant, Cucurbita pepo, of Cucurbitaceae (Roberti et al. 2015 (Roberti et al. , 2016 . In the recent past, fungi inhibitory ability of algal members has been reported by several workers (Righini et al. 2018; Corato et al. 2017; Khallil et al. 2015; Ibraheem et al. 2017) . In vitro growth inhibition of Aspergillus oryzae and Penicillium notatum has been seen by cyanophycean Anabaena laxa (Frankmölle et al. 1992) . Devastating plant pathogens Pythium sp., Fusarium sp., and Rhizoctonia sp. were restricted by extracts of Anabaena sp. (Moon et al. 1992; Manjunath et al. 2010) . The use of BGA extract as the growth inhibitor of pathogenic Chaetomium globosum, Cunninghamella blakesleeana, Aspergillus oryzae, Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium sp., Pythium sp., and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is reported. The extracts of Phormidium fragile and Nostoc muscorum (Rizk 2006 

Bryophytes, the simplest member of the broad umbrella of Embryophyta, are situated between algae and pteridophytes, are known to be plant amphibians growing in the marshy or shady habitat, and require water for their fertilization and for the perfect swimming motility of their sperms. They have been evaluated for their antimicrobial activity for a long time. It has been proved that these cryptograms are rich source of bioactive secondary metabolites and can easily be exploited as an alternative source of fungicidal compounds. As they grow in marshy habitats and can protect themselves from biotic (ultraviolet rays, heat stress, and predation) and abiotic stress (fungal or bacterial attack), they are store house of diverse bioactive chemicals (Xie and Lou 2008) . Members of Hepaticopsida and mosses (the evolved members of bryophytes) are known to possess antifungal activity and are rich source of flavonoids, terpenoids, bibenzyls, and fatty acids of therapeutic importance (Krzaczkowski et al. 2008) . Bryophytes are known to possess antibiotic property (Banerjee and Sen 1979; Banerjee 2000; Singh et al. 2007; Shirzadian et al. 2009; Savaroglu et al. 2011) . Their antibiosis has been evaluated against a large number of plant and human pathogenic fungus (Mekuria et al. 2005) . Antimicrobial compounds from bryophyte can cure the problems of conventional antibiotic resistance (Vanden Bossche et al. 1998) . The antifungal efficacy is tested by disc diffusion assay and microdilution method ( Fig. 9 .5). Different concentrations of the extracts are prepared and checked for their antifungal efficacy against phytopathogenic fungi. They may be fungicidal or fungistatic in nature, interfering at cellular, genetic level and creating blockage at metabolic pathways. Extracts are made on several organic solvents or water extractions and also mixture of one or two organic solvents. The solvents popularly used are ethanol, methanol, chloroform, ether, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), acetone, chloroform, and hexane (Table 9 .5). Sporophytes and gametophytes of different bryophytes at different stages of growth and at a different amount are first surface sterilized and then crushed on the organic solvents and used as antifungals in vitro against the fungal pathogens (Wolters 1964 (Sabovljevic et al. 2011; Pejin et al. 2012; Veljic et al. 2009; Gahotri and Chaturvedi 2011; Alam et al. 2011; Deora and Jain 2008; Dey and De 2011; Deora and Suhalka 2017) . 

Actinobacteria are a group of gram-positive filamentous bacteria that are called as the branched bacteria or ray fungi (from Greek actis, ray beam, and mykes, fungus) and are characterized with the high G + C content occurring in mostly aerobic conditions but occasionally being anaerobes (Ludwig and Klenk 2005; Olanrewaju and Babalola 2019). Their morphology varies from forming branching filaments or mycelial growth to external spores. They are ubiquitous in nature ranging their distribution from soil and human microbiota to plant and even animal kingdom. They are predominant in aquatic as well as terrestrial ecosystem playing a major part in mineralization and recycling of organic matters leading to soil formation (Sharma et al. 2014 ). They are not only free-living members of the ecosystem but also a plant symbiont or endophyte, contributing to the plants' survival in extreme conditions and pursuing several bioactivities in vivo and in vitro. Actinomycetes produce a diverse range of secondary metabolites, for example, antibiotics, antitumor, insectrepellent, and immunosuppressive agents, and plant growth-promoting regulators (PGPRs) that are of immense pharmaceutical and agricultural importance. They are the prime producers of diverse antibiotics after the landmark discovery of penicillin in the year 1928. The single genus of Streptomyces sp. itself produces 76% of the total known bioactive (10,000 are produced by actinobacteria out of 23,000 produced by microorganisms, almost 45%) compounds from actinobacterial and 

Riccia gangetica Curvularia lunata Deora and Suhalka (2017) , Guhil (2015, 2016) bacterial source (Berdy 2012) and is known to be the prime organism in the pharmaceutical world. They are equally profitable when isolated from plant source and designated as endophytic actinomycetes. So exploitation of the actinobacterial novel bioactive compounds both from endophytic and non-endophytic source is the ultimate way to fight against human and plant diseases. Here we focus only on actinobacterial compounds' antifungal activity and role in plant protection from deadly diseases caused by severe phytopathogens leading to irreparable crop loss and economic breakdown of agricultural sectors.

Actinomycetes from soil source are selected based on the enrichment culture technique and are plated on selective media for isolation. Antifungal agents, for example, nystatin and cycloheximide, are supplemented for the inhibition of fungal contamination. For isolation of endophytic actinobacteria from plant source, plants are first selected and surface sterilized for the elimination of the epiphytic contaminants and finally plated on the selective growth media like starch casein nitrate agar (SCNA), chitin-vitamin B, tap water yeast extract agar (TWYA), soybean, humic acid-vitamin B (HV), yeast extract casamino acid (YECA), modified Gausse, and glycine-glycerol (Ivantiskaya et al. 1978; Küster 1959; Küster and Williams 1964; Williams and Davies 1965; Hayakawa and Nonomura 1987; Crawford et al. 1993) . International Streptomyces Project (ISP) medium is also popular media used for isolation, and they are supplemented with amino acids (L-asparagine for ISP 5, tryptone for ISP 1), inorganic trace salts, starch or carbohydrate sources (malt extract for ISP 4), and agar as solidifying agent. pH set at near to optimum or slightly basic is mandatory for proper isolation techniques using ISP medium. The actinomycete isolates are grown in solid or liquid medium for their antifungal bioactivity detection. Antagonistic activities of the potent isolates are tested by growing them on both sides of the fungal hyphae, and isolate having anti-phytopathogenic activity will inhibit the growth of the pathogens. Actinobacterial aqueous-or solvent-based extracts will be evaluated for either fungistatic or fungicidal activity by agar welldiffusion techniques. Soluble bioactive compounds of antifungal importance will be extracted using wide range of organic solvents followed by purification by column and thin-layer chromatographic techniques. HPLC analysis will be the most useful method for the detection of the purity of the compound, and further NMR studies are needed for the proper identification of the bioactive compound. Cell line studies are made with the coupling of bioinformatics tools for the proper knowledge about their mode of action.

Actinobacteria can be a part of plant as endophyte, rhizospheric soil as symbiont for plant growth-promoting substance producer, and organisms' normal microbial flora as gut microorganism. So they are ubiquitous in their distribution. Out of several biologically potent compound produced from the actinobacterial source, antibiotics are the major contribution of these microorganisms toward human civilization. All the known antibiotics (blasticidin, mildiomycin, natamycin, validamycin, kasugamycin) are of actinobacterial (most of them are the Streptomyces sp.) source showing protective activity for the plants against agricultural fungal pathogens (Tables 9.6 and 9.7).

As human are dependent completely on nature and more particularly natural components of agricultural origin and importance, dependence on agricultural crops is of a known fact. But the problem arises when the crops are affected most by the fungal pathogens leading to huge crop loss, and thus the search for novel antibiotics is on, and the search has shifted to actinobacterial source, and endophyte plays an important role in this respect. There are significant reports of antifungal compounds from bacterial origin, but now the focus has shifted to microbes of endophytic origin (Table 9 .8). Till date, a huge number of antibiotics are already reported and have minimized the crop loss to a notable amount ( Fig. 9.6 ). Antibiotics and other antifungal compounds include munumbicins A, B, C, D, E-4, and E-5, vanillin, saadamycin, 5,7-dimethoxy-4-p-methoxyphenyl coumarin, coronamycin, and fistupyrone isolated from different strains of Streptomyces (Shan et al. 2018; Costa et al. 2013; Igarashi et al. 2002; Tian et al. 2004; Zin et al. 2007 ) and are protecting a large number of cereals and other important cash crops from being affected by these common contaminants. Endophytic actinobacteria directly counteract with fungal plant pathogens not only by producing bioactive compounds but also by enhancing the plant's growth through the production of plant growth promoters and making the plant less susceptible to pathogenic invasion. They are efficient agent of reducing the symptoms that arise due to exposure to environmental stress (Shimizu 2011) . Enhanced production of indole acetic acid (IAA) was mediated by Streptomyces sp. (isolated from Centella asiatica) and Nocardiopsis sp. (Dochhil et al. 2013; Shutsrirung et al. 2014; Gangwar et al. 2014) . Experimental trials on cucumber indicate positive result as the isolates Actinoplanes campanulatus, Micromonospora chalcea, and Streptomyces spiralis enhanced plant growth and improved yield conditions (El-Tarabily et al. 2010) . Other than auxin, auxin-like similarly functioning molecules named as pteridic acids A and B are found to be inducers of adventitious root proliferation in kidney bean plants at very minute concentrations of 1 mM (Igarashi et al. 2002) .

Chitin is a major fungal cell wall polysaccharide (the second most abundant polysaccharide in nature after cellulose) component and is the first line of defense of fungal cells. Actinobacteria antagonize the fungal cell by producing chitinases (an enzyme capable of hydrolyzing fungal cell wall) and break the glycosidic bonds in chitin and lead to the death of the pathogenic cell. Endophytic Kitasatosporia sp. (isolate of Catharanthus roseus) and Kibdelosporangium sp. (isolate of Achillea fragrantissima) are reported to be chitinase producers (El-Shatoury et al. 2009; Mini Priya 2012) . Actinoplanes missouriensis isolated from Lupinus sp., a member of Fabaceae family, produces chitinase causing hyphal cell lysis and reducing the conidial germination rate and protects the plant from pathogenic attack of Plectosporium tabacinum, the causal agent of lupin root rot in Egypt (El-Tarabily 2003; El-Tarabily and Sivasithamparam 2006) . Siderophores are soluble, small, high-affinity iron carriers produced by bacterial or fungal members and are involved in the transportation of iron (Fe 3+ ) across the cell membrane. They have caught sudden attention due to their involvement in plant growth promotion as well as antagonistic ability against phytopathogens (Cao et al. 2005; Tan et al. 2006; Rungin et al. 2012) . Endophytic actinobacteria from Aloe vera, Mentha arvensis, and Ocimum sanctum are known to be producers of hydroxymate type and catechol type of siderophores, and the isolate Saccharopolyspora O9 is known to be the potent inhibitor Howell and Stipanovic (1980) , Homma et al. (1989) , Thomashow et al. (2002) and Smith et al. (1993) Harpin proteins (Erwinia amylovora), trade name: Harpin αβ (ProAct)

Induction of systemic acquired resistance (SAR) and less susceptibility to fungal and bacterial disease Wei et al. (1992) Strobilurin and oudemansin (members of basidiomycete grows on dead wood) Commercial synthetic analogues: azoxystrobin and kresoxim-methyl of Alternaria brassicicola, Botrytis cinerea, and Fusarium oxysporum (Gangwar et al. 2014; El-Shatoury et al. 2009 ).

Endophytic isolates of Cucumis sativus (cucumber), identified as Actinoplanes campanulatus, Micromonospora chalcae, and Streptomyces spiralis, are reported to control the growth and development of damping off, crown rot, and root rot pathogen Pythium aphanidermatum. They are known to promote plant growth and to protect seedlings and mature plants. A novel bioactive compound identified as 6-prenylindole was isolated from endophytic Streptomyces sp. showing strong antifungal activity against a broad range of phytopathogens: Alternaria brassicicola and Fusarium oxysporum (Igarashi 2004) . Another new prenylated indole derivative from endophytic actinobacterial source inhibited the growth of Colletotrichum orbiculare, Phytophthora capsici, Corynespora cassiicola, and Fusarium oxysporum (Zhang et al. 2014) . Naphthomycins A and K isolated from Streptomyces sp. CS have antifungal activity against Penicillium avellaneum Shen 2003, 2007) . Biocontrol ability of fistupyrone has made it a useful tool to minimize the crop loss of Brassica due to black leaf spot disease caused by Alternaria brassicicola (Igarashi 2004) . Interest on actinomycetes of endophytic origin as an alternative tool for antifungal agent is increasing day by day (Table 9 .9).

Since the beginning of human civilization, whenever human race has faced any turbulence in its path of existence, they have rushed to their green friends, trees, for the ultimate solution. Search for bioactive products of medical importance has been a thirst area from time immemorial. Whether it is a concern of human or plant health, trees have given answers in all aspects. In the recent past, phytopathogenic infection has pushed the agricultural productive parameters to a real challenge, and plant extracts in its crude and purified form are applied as biocontrol methods (Table 9 .10). The existing synthetic chemicals are facing problem of immediate or delayed drug resistance and also issues of nephrotoxicity (the gold standard; amphotericin B), biomagnification, or quality assurance of the food products and thus are inconsistent in their business (Goa and Barradell 1995; Cuenca-Estrella et al. 2000) . So green plant extracts are the novel, safest, and the best effective treatment tool in this arena. Plants are mysterious in their chemical nature and in respect to their secondary metabolite production. The faith is consistent on green plants due to the fact that plants protect themselves from fungal or bacterial diseases specially for the taxa that occur in marshy shady or water-logged or stress conditions (Gurgel et al. 2005) . So the search is primarily made on the wild native taxa or invasive species that have higher potential of antimicrobial production. The knowledge of ethnobotany comes in this context, and tribal people are imitated for the gathering of crude knowledge. The problem of fungal pathogenesis is mainly faced by plants of economic importance, that is, cash crops. A single event of pathogenic attack can affect seriously the demand and supply ratio; thus the sustainability is lost, and restoring the good health of crops is a basic need of agricultural sectors but in an efficient way not hampering the soil health, ecosystem characters, and human health and also should be budget friendly. The search is strictly focused on plants of ethnomedicinal importance as history indicates the ability of medicinal plant extracts in human and animal mycoses and antifungal ability (Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle 

Secondary metabolites are plants' best weapon against phytopathogenic invasion. Several plant extracts have been assessed for their antifungal activity against a variety of phytopathogens of serious agricultural threats (Table 9 .11). The metabolites are divided into terpenoids, saponins, phenolic compounds, flavones, flavonoids, flavonols, alkaloids, and coumarins (Table 9 .12). Plant extracts are primarily tested for antifungal efficacy and further are purified by solvent extraction and chromatographic procedures leading to discovery of new antifungal agents. Terpenoids, also called as isoprenoids (under the chemical subclass of prenyllipids), are known to be the oldest group of widespread molecular compounds produced by plants. Scher et al. (2004) reported a variety of six sesquiterpenes of antifungal importance against the causal organisms of bunch rot (Botrytis cinerea) on grapes, scab of cucurbits (Cladosporium cucumerinum), potato blight (Phytophthora infestans), rice blast (Pyricularia oryzae), and blotch of wheat (Septoria tritici). Sesquiterpene isolated from Polygonum punctatum (dotted knotweed of knotweed family Polygonaceae) named after the chemical polygodial is an effective control agent of Zygosaccharomyces bailii (a common food spoilage yeast). Scab of cucurbits is a common and devastating fungal pathogenic disease in agricultural fields, and this disease is to some extent prevented by the use of clerodane diterpenes extracted from Detarium microcarpum, a plant of Leguminosae family (Cavin et al. 2006) . Skaltsa (2000) reported fungi inhibitory (Cunninghamella echinulata) activity of costunolide and eudesmane derivatives isolated from Centaurea plants. Other than terpenes, saponins (triterpene ad steroidal saponins) are also effective antifungals reported from plant sources. Tea is one of the most vital cash crops in terms of foreign money earning and the most popular beverage having antioxidative properties. Pathogenic infection by Pestalotia longiseta causes a huge loss of tea production. Nagata et al. in the year 1985 isolated triterpenoid saponins camelids I and II from the leaves of Camellia japonica (Japanese camellia) that inhibited the tea pathogen P. longiseta. Cucurbitacins I, A, B, Q, and E isolated from cucurbitacins (Ecballium elaterium) have antifungal activity against Botrytis cinerea (Har-Nun and Meyer 1990) . Phenolics are odorous compounds having antifungal compounds and are also responsible for the plant pigment production. Phenolics cover a large number of chemical compounds, for example, alkylated phenols, anthraquinones, coumarins, phenolic acid, phenols, phenylpropanoids, quinines, xanthones, hydroxycinnamic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, and chlorogenic acid. Phenol derivatives like crassinervic acid (P. crassinervium), aduncumene (P. aduncum), hostmaniane (P. hostamannianum), and gaudichaudanic acid (P. gaudichaudianum) are effective against strawberry blossom blight pathogen Cladosporium cladosporioides (Lago et al. 2004 ). 3-Acetyl-4-acetoxyacetophenone showed antifungal activity against Spendley et al. (1982) , Potterat et al. (1987) , Martson et al. (1988) , Marston et al. (1993) , Viturro et al. (2004) , Cavin et al. (2006a) , and Dhatwalia et al. (2009) 

Pinocembrin from leaves of Populus deltoides (Salicaceae) Shain and Miller (1982) , Hoof et al. (2008) Cladosporium fruit and leaf rot and bitter root (Cladosporium gloeosporioides)

Long-chain alcohol from peels of young fruit of Persea americana from Lauraceae, methylripariochromene A from roots of Eupatorium riparium (Asteraceae) Prusky et al. (1983) , Ratnayake Bandara et al. (1992) Pine needle pathogen (Dothistroma pini)

Stearic acid from needles of Pinus radiata (Pinaceae) Franich et al. (1983) Pathogen of corn, sorghum, apple (Helminthosporium carbonum)

Luteone and wighteone from leaf surface of Lupinus albus (Leguminosae) Ingham et al. (1983) Black and brown spot of banana (Colletotrichum musae) Dopamine from unripe banana fruit (Musa sp.) Muirhead and Deverall (1984) Powdery mildew of grains (Erysiphe graminis)

Gramine from leaves of Hordeum vulgare (Poaceae) Wippich and Wink (1985) Leaf spot, rots, and blights (Alternaria alternata), disease of cereal (Penicillium verrucosum)

Alizarin and emodin from root of Rubia tinctorum of Rubiaceae, alkylated phenols of peel and pulp of Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae) Cojocaru et al. (1986) , Manojlovic et al. (2005) Maize rot (Fusarium moniliforme), epidemic outbreak of glume and kernel discoloration (Curvularia lunata)

Flavan-4-ols of root bark of Sorghum cultivars of Poaceae Jambunathan et al. (1986) (continued) Kobayashi et al. (1987) , Endo et al. (1990) , Cho et al. (1998) Blue mold of tobacco (Peronospora tabacina)

Diterpenoids from Nicotiana tabacum of Solanaceae Reuveni et al. (1987) Leaf and fruit pathogen (Cladosporium cladosporioides)

Canaliculatol from bark of Stemonoporus canaliculatus and long-chain alcohol from Persea americana, phenylethanone from Euodia lunuankenda, sinharine and methylsinharine from Glycosmis cyanocarpa, Illukumbin from Glycosmis mauritiana (Rutaceae), phenylethanone from Euodia lunuankenda (Lauraceae), benzoquinone from Croton lacciferus (Euphorbiaceae) Bokel et al. (1988) , Ratnayake Bandara and Wimalasiri (1988) , Kumar et al. (1990) , Greger et al. (1992) , Pacher et al. (2001) , Springob and Kutchan (2009) Miles et al. (1991) , Miles et al. (1993) , Lee et al. (2003) , Deng and Nicholson (2005) and Yoganandam et al. (2009) (continued) Sclerotinia sp. Phenolic structures when contain a carbonyl group are known to be flavones, and the addition of an extra 3-hydroxyl group indicates flavonol. Flavonoids are also known to hydroxylated phenolics but occurring as a C6-C3 unit linked to aromatic ring. Not only plant samples directly but also plant derivatives like porpolis (galangin isolated from the bee glue or resinous mixture produced as a result of the mixture of tree buds, sap, botanical extracts, and bee exudates) are shown to be antifungal against green rot or mold of tangerine (pathogens Penicillium digitatum, P. italicum) and also control postharvest disease of cereal grains, legumes, and tree nuts caused by A. flavus (Afolayan and Meyer 1997) . Flavones (6,7,4′-trihydroxy-3,5′dimethoxyflavone, 5,5′-dihydroxy-8,2′,4′-trimethoxyflavone) from Artemisia giraldi are effective against A. flavus infections (Cowan 1999) . Leaf wax of Arrabidaea brachypoda (Brazilian medicinal plant from Bignoniaceae) contains Herger et al. (1988) and Abdu-Allah and Elyousr (2017) Cassia tora (dealcoholized extract of leaves) Mukherjee et al. (1996) Thymol, carvacrol, citronellol, geraniol, citral, perillyl, menthol, eugenol, 1,8- cirsiliol, cirsimaritin, and hispidulin and is showed to be effective against Cladosporium sphaerospermum (Alcerito et al. 2002) . Galeotti et al. (2008) against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. dianthi (Galeotti et al. 2008) . Fusarium culmorum, a serous pathogen of seedling blight, foot rot, ear blight, stalk rot, and common rot of cereals and grasses, is found to be inhibited by six commercial coumarins: bergapten, herniarin, umbelliferone, xanthotoxin, and scopoletin. Tithonia diversifolia, the source of tithoniamarin, is effective against the anther smut fungus Microbotryum violaceum, earlier known as Ustilago violacea (Yemele-Bouberte et al. 2006) . Berberine and jatrorrhizine (alkaloids) are isolated from Mahonia aquifolium (a plant of Berberidaceae family commonly called as Oregon grape and native to western North America) and are effective against human pathogenic Candida species. Pathogens of mango (C. gloeosporioides), anthracnose of lupin species, postbloom fruit drop of citrus, Valencia and navel oranges in Florida (caused by C. acutatum), and strawberry (caused by Colletotrichum fragariae) are inhibited by findersine, anhydroevoxine, and haplamine (Cantrell et al. 2005) . Roots of Cyathobasis fruticulosa are source of beta-carboline, tryptamine, and phenylethylamine-derived alkaloids and are antifungal in nature (Bahceevli et al. 2005 ).

Essential oils (EOs) of aromatic and medicinal plant origin are reported to possess antifungal properties and are of wide spectrum in their application for the control of agricultural pathogen (Table 9 .13). EOs are mainly categorized under the plants' secondary metabolites and may fall under the category of terpenes, ketones, esters, aromatic phenols, ethers, alcohols, oxides, etc. (Fig. 9.7) . They act by inhibiting the fungal hyphal growth either by accumulating in the fungal cell membrane or by crossing the cell membrane and entering into the eukaryotic cell. Being lipophilic in their chemical nature, they can easily cross the cell and interrupt in sterol biosynthesis leading to growth retardation and finally cell death. As sterols are the maintenance, compounds of cellular integrity treatment with EO cause fungal cell death. Metabolic processes like respiration, replication, transcription, and translation are inhibited. Membrane permeability is drastically changed as they cause swelling and disruption of protein-lipid-protein membrane. Leakage of useful ions like Ca 2+ and K + causes cell death. Thymol, carvacrol, eugenol, and related phenolic compounds cause H + and K + leakage and water imbalance and deplete intracellular high-energy molecule (ATP). Essential oils are extracted from almost every parts of a plant, for example, roots, fruits, barks, twigs, leaves, seeds, and flowers, by several extraction procedures that include hydro and steam distillation, cold pressing, and Zataria multiflora Lamiaceae fermentation. The antifungal efficacy is checked by direct contact of the essential oil components and fungal hypha and poison food method, following micro or broth dilution techniques, or in vivo fumigation assay is also performed in case of field trials. Essential oils from leaves of Chenopodium ambrosioides, a member of Amaranthaceae family, are effective against storage fungi Aspergillus flavus, A. glaucus, A. niger, A. oryzae, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, C. musae, Fusarium oxysporum, and Fusarium semitectum (Jardim et al. 2008) . Lemongrass oil from Cymbopogon citratus and Cymbopogon martini are potent inhibitors of Botrytis cinerea, Rhizoctonia solani, Aspergillus tamari, A. fumigatus, and A. conicus (Tzortzakis and Economakis 2007; Mishra et al. 2015) . The members of Lamiaceae family are well known for their pungent odor and are tested for their antifungal activity by agar and broth dilution methods (Roby et al. 2013; Omidbeygi et al. 2007 ). Essential oils extracted from Laurus nobilis, Syzygium aromaticum, and Origanum vulgare are effective antifungal compounds against two pathogens of rice, Fusarium culmorum and Fusarium verticillioides (Rosello et al. 2015) . Essential oils from Cymbopogon exhibited antifungal activities against rot molds (Soundharrajan et al. 2003) . Antifungal activities of peppermint and sweet basil were tested against plant pathogenic fungi S. sclerotiorum, Rhizopus stolonifer, and Mucor sp. (Edris and Farrag 2003) . Antifungal activity of β-dolabrin, γ-thujaplicin, and 4-acetyltropolone was tested against Pythium aphanidermatum IFO 32440 (Morita et al. 2004) . Boyraz and Ozcan (2006) tested the antifungal activity of the essential oils isolated from wild Turkish summer savory (Satureja hortensis). Essential oils (carvacrol, thymol, p-cymene) extracted from Origanum acutidens are effective against phytopathogens. Growth of A. humicola, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Rhizoctonia solani, and Phytophthora cactorum was inhibited by the essential oil of Asarum heterotropoides var. mandshuricum (Dan et al. 2010) . Though there are several reports of essential oils being potent anti-phytopathogenic (Penicillium purpurogenum, Rhizopus stolonifer, Spondylocladium austral, Penicillium digitatum, Penicillium luteum, Monilinia laxa, Curvularia lunata, etc.) in nature, still there are some problems regarding their maximum use and optimum effectivity. That includes their volatile natures, requirement of close systems, and degradation of EOs by oxidation due to presence of extreme amount of hydrogenated compounds (Kim et al. 2003 ).

We are nourished by Mother Nature. So it is our prime duty to keep up the normal equilibrium of natural parameters. But in a way to seek solutions, some steps taken toward success may have negative impact on our environment. To fight against the fungal pathogens for the ensuring of better crop productivity, use of chemical fungicide is just another example of that fact. But we must emphasize on products from direct natural origin over the chemically synthesized one. Natural products are the best weapon to fight fungal pathogenic diseases on economically important crop species. They are less toxic, stable, and of no side effects when used in crop fields. The crying need of modern era is obtaining pathogen-free crop species in one hand and assurance of environmental sustainability on the other. Fungal and bacterial products are already used in large scales followed by the plants' secondary metabolites. Phytoalexins as internal molecules are the plants' own defense system. The detailed biochemical analysis of the phytoalexins and study of their regulatory mechanisms are opening up new horizons for universal use of phytoalexin inducing elicitors as plant defense enhancers. Mycorrhizae provide the basic line of physical barrier against pathogenic invasion, and reports include their ability to enhance plant growth, thus making the plant nonsusceptible to fungal attack. Endophyte on the other hand can enhance the plants' defense system by direct incorporation and open up popular angles of green immunization or plant vaccination. Researches on these fields are still scanty, but in the near future, they could lead to the ultimate solution of fungal pathogenic crop loss.

Effect of certain plant extracts and fungicides against powdery mildew disease of Grapevines in Upper Egypt

Antimicrobial activity of compounds isolated from algae

Flavonoid and other constituents of Bauhinia manca

Effects of resveratrol on the ultrastructure of Botrytis cinerea conidia and biological significance in plant/pathogen interactions

Biological activity of resveratrol, a stilbenic compound from grapevines, against Botrytis cinerea, the causal agent for gray mold

The antimicrobial activity of 3, 5, 7-trihydroxyflavone isolated from the shoots of Helichrysum aureonitens

Extraction and identification of bioactive compounds (eicosane and dibutyl phthalate) produced by Streptomyces strain KX852460 for the biological control of Rhizoctonia solani AG-3 strain KX852461 to control target spot disease in tobacco leaf 2-9

Phytoalexins in defense against pathogens

Effect of volatile and non-volatile compounds from Trichoderma spp. against Colletotrichum capsici incitant of anthracnose on bell peppers

In vitro antifungal efficacies of aqueous extract of Dumortiera hirsuta (Swaegr.) Nees against sporulation and growth of postharvest phytopathogenic fungi

Evaluation of Streptomyces griseorubens E44G for the biocontrol of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici: ultrastructural and cytochemical investigations

Interactions between a root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne exigua) and arbuscular mycorrhizae in coffee plant development (Coffea arabica)

Foliar epicuticular wax of Arrabidaea brachypoda: flavonoids and antifungal activity

Metabolites of Helminthosporium monoceras: structures of monocerin and related benzopyrans

Trans-trans-3, 11-tridecadiene5, 7, 9-triyne-1,2-diol, an antifungal polyacetylene from diseased safflower (Carthamus tinctorius)

Mycofumigation by the volatile organic compound-producing fungus Muscodor albus induces bacterial cell death through DNA damage

Mycorrhizal fungi and Trichoderma harzianum as biocontrol agents for suppression of Rhizoctonia solani damping off disease of tomato

Effect of volatile metabolites of Trichoderma species against seven fungal plant pathogens in vitro

Production of gliotoxin on natural substrates by Trichoderma virens

Studies on antagonistic effect against plant pathogenic fungi from endophytic fungi isolated from Houttuynia cordata Thunb. and screening for siderophore and indole-3-acetic acid production

Effect of mushroom extracts in the induction of phytoalexins and in the control of soy oidium in a greenhouse

Impact of mycorrhizal colonisation on root architecture, root longevity and the formation of growth regulators

Isolation and characterization of Muscodor albus I-41.3s, a volatile antibiotic producing fungus

Influence of seed priming on the development of pearl millet downy mildew (Sclerospora graminicola)

Synthesis and incorporation of the first Polyketide synthase free intermediate in Monocerin biosynthesis

Laminarin elicits defense responses in grapevine and induces protection against Botrytis cinerea and Plasmopara viticola

Streptomyces sanglieri which colonised and enhanced the growth of Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Seedlings was antagonistic to Ganoderma boninense in in vitro studies

Current status of biological control of plant diseases using antagonistic organisms in India

Status and prospects for enhancing the uptake of antagonistic organisms for nematode Management in India

Alkaloids and aromatics of Cyathobasis fruticulosa (Bunge) Aellen

Antimicrobial activities of bryophytes a review

Antibiotic activity of bryophytes

An endophytic Myrothecium inundatum producing volatile organic compounds

Muscodor albus strain GBA, an endophytic fungus of Ginkgo biloba from United States of America, produces volatile antimicrobials

Increasing the productivity and product quality of vegetable crops using arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: a review

Seaweed polysaccharides as bio-elicitors of natural defenses in olive trees against Verticillium wilt of olive

Thoughts and facts about antibiotics: where we are now and where we are heading

In vitro screening of bryophytes for antimicrobial activity

Effect of phosphate and the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices on disease severity of root rot of peas (Pisum sativum) caused by Aphanomyces euteiches

Canaliculatol, an antifungal resveratrol trimer from Stemonoporous canaliculatus

Induction and identification of sativan and vestitol as two phytoalexins from Lotus corniculatus

The cytosporones, new octaketide antibiotics isolated from an endophytic fungus

Phytoalexins induction in Rubiaceae

The camalexins: new phytoalexins produced in the leaves of Camelina sativa (Cruciferae)

Anti-fungal effects of cocoa tannin on the witches' broom pathogen Crinipellis pernicious

Applied and environmental microbiology

The chemical composition, antifungal, antioxidant and antimutagenicity properties of bioactive compounds from fungal endophytes associated with Thai orchids

Isolation and identification of antifungal and antialgal alkaloids from Haplophyllum sieversii

Isolation and characterization of endophytic Streptomyces antagonists of Fusarium wilt pathogen from surface sterilized banana roots

Isolation and characterization of two phytoalexins from rice as momilactones A and B

Munumbicins, wide-spectrum antibiotics produced by Streptomyces NRRL 30562, endophytic on Kennedia nigriscans

Munumbicins E-4 and E-5: novel broad-spectrum antibiotics from Streptomyces NRRL 3052

Aspectos bioquímicos e moleculares da resistência induzida

Bioactive diterpenes from the fruits of Detarium microcarpum

In vitro evaluation of fungicides, plant extracts and biocontrol agents against brown leaf spot of paddy

Bioactive diterpenes from the fruits of Detarium microcarpum

Crop diseases and their management. PHI Learning Private Limited

Antifungal activity and action mechanism of ginger oleoresin against Pestalotiopsis microspora isolated from Chinese olive fruits

Studies on a chlorogenic acid-producing endophytic fungi isolated from Eucommia ulmoides Oliver

Antifungal activity of cinnamaldehyde and eugenol congeners against wood-rot fungi

Antifungal and antiviral products of marine organisms

Cytotoxic and antifungal triterpene glycosides from the Patagonian Sea cucumber Hemoiedema spectabilis

Antimicrobial activity of 4-Hydroxybenzoic acid and trans 4-hydroxycinnamic acid isolated and identified from rice hull

Diversity and antifungal activity of fungal endophytes of Asparagus racemosus Willd

Insecticidal secondary metabolic products from the entomogenous fungus Fusarium larvarum

12-Heptadecenyl)-resorcinol, the major component of the antifungal activity in the peel of mango fruit

Antifungal activity of neo-clerodane diterpenoids from Scutellaria

The manual of biocontrol agents

Effect of water activity on the production of volatile organic compounds by Muscodor albus and their effect on three pathogens in stored potato

Biological and molecular comparison between localized and systemic acquired resistance induced in tobacco by Phytophthora megasperma glycoprotein elicitin

Biological control of phytopathogenic fungi by endophytic actinomycetes isolated from maize (Zea mays L)

Plant products as antimicrobial agents

Identification of three hydroxyflavan phytoalexins from daffodil bulbs

Phytoalexins from other plant families

Isolation and characterization of actinomycete antagonists of a fungal root pathogen

Susceptibility of fluconazole-resistant clinical isolates of Candida spp. to echinocandin LY303366, itraconazole and amphotericin B

Biochemical defense mechanisms in cotton plants against Ramularia leaf spot mediated by silicon

In vitro antifungal activity of 2-(3,4-dimethyl-2,5-dihydro-1H-pyrrol-2-yl)-1-methylethyl pentanoate, a dihydro -pyrrole derivative

Phytoalexin accumulation in tissues of Brassica napus inoculated with Leptosphaeria maculans

Naphthalene, an insect repellent, is produced by Muscodor vitigenus, a novel endophytic fungus

Activities of essential oils from Asarum heterotropoides var. mandshuricum against five phytopathogens

Antagonist actinomycetes metabolites against plant pathogens fungi of agricultural importance

Induction of phytoalexins and proteins related to pathogenesis in plants treated with extracts of cutaneous secretions of southern Amazonian Bufonidae amphibians

Natural products in crop protection

Bioassay-guided isolation of allelochemicals from Avena sativa L.: allelopathic potential of flavone C-glycosides

Antifungal activity of crude extracts from brown and red seaweeds by a supercritical carbon dioxide technique against fruit postharvest fungal diseases

Rhizospheric streptomycetes as potential biocontrol agents of Fusarium and Armillaria pine rot and as PGPR for Pinus taeda

Geldanamycin, a new antibiotic

Induction of Fusarium solani mutants insensitive to tomatine, their pathogenicity and aggressiveness to tomato fruits and pea plants

Molecular engineering of resveratrol in plants

Antifungal properties of surangin B, a coumarin from Mammea longifolia

Phytochemical analysis and antifungal activity of moss Bryum cellulare against some phytopathological fungi

Studies on antifungal potential of Bryum cellulare against spore germination of fungus Curvularia lunata

In vitro antifungal activity of Plagiochasma appendiculatum against Alternaria solani

Evaluation of bryophyte for green fungicides as alternative treatment to control plant pathogen

Oxidative ring contraction of the phytoalexin cyclobrassinin: a way to brassilexin

Brassilexin, a novel sulphur-containing phytoalexin from Brassica juncea L., (cruciferae)

Secondary metabolites production by actinomycetes and their antifungal activity

Antifungal bryophytes: a possible role against human pathogens and in plant protection

Isolation, characterization and antimicrobial activity at diverse dilution of wheat puroindoline protein

Free fatty acid accumulation and quality loss of stored soybean seeds invaded by Aspergillus ruber

Molecular communication in interactions between plants and microbial pathogens

Seed germination enhancing activity of endophytic Streptomyces isolated from indigenous ethno-medicinal plant Centella asiatica

Interactions between an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (Scutellospora heterogama) and the root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) on sweet passion fruit (Passiflora alata)

Application of plant extracts as inducers to challenge leaf rust of wheat

Inhibitory effect and mechanism of Tagetes erecta L. fungicide on Fusarium oxysporum f

Evaluating novel microbe amended composts as biocontrol agents in tomato

Biological activity summary for cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.)

Effect of salicylic acid and structurally related compounds in the accumulation of phytoalexins in cotyledons of common bean

Phenylphenalenone phytoalexins, will they be a new type of fungicide?

Antifungal activity of peppermint and sweet basil essential oils and their major aroma constituents on some plant pathogenic fungi from the vapor phase

Production and genetic improvement of a novel antimycotic agent, saadamycin, against dermatophytes and other clinical fungi from endophytic Streptomyces sp. Hedaya48

Antimicrobial activities of Actinomycetes inhabiting Achillea Fragrantissima (Family: Compositae)

An endophytic chitinase-producing isolate of Actinoplanes missouriensis, with potential for biological control of root rot of lupine caused by Plectosporium tabacinum

Performance of three endophytic actinomycetes in relation to plant growth promotion and biological control of Pythium aphanidermatum, a pathogen of cucumber under commercial field production conditions in the United Arab Emirates

Nonstreptomycete actinomycetes as biocontrol agents of soil-borne fungal plant pathogens and as plant growth promoters

Structures of antifungal diarylheptenones, gingerenones A, B, C and isogingerenone B, isolated from the rhizomes of Zingiber officinale

Coronamycins, peptide antibiotics produced by a verticillate Streptomyces sp. (MSU-2110) endophytic on Monstera sp

Antifungal, anti-oomycete and phytotoxic effects of volatile organic compounds from the endophytic fungus Xylaria sp. strain PB3f3 isolated from Haematoxylum brasiletto

New endophytic isolates of Muscodor albus, a volatileantibiotic-producing fungus

Effect of substrate on the bioactivity of volatile antimicrobials produced by Muscodor albus

Antifungal volatile organic compounds from the Endophyte Nodulisporium sp. strain GS4d2II1a: a qualitative change in the intraspecific and interspecific interactions with Pythium aphanidermatum

Preharvest treatments with chitosan and other alternatives to conventional fungicides to control postharvest decay of strawberry

Fungistatic effects of Pinus radiata needle epicuticular fatty and resin acids on Dothistroma pini

Blue-green alga Anabaena laxa. I isolation and biological properties

Plant Phenolics, lignification

Arbuscular mycorrhiza reduces susceptibility of tomato to Alternaria solani

Antifungal metabolites from Phomopsis sp. By254, an endophytic fungus in Gossypium hirsutum

Comparative efficacies in vitro of antibacterial, fungicidal, antioxidant, and herbicidal activities of momilactones a and B

Antifungal and antibacterial potential of methanol and chloroform extracts of Marchantia polymorpha L

Flavonoids from carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus) and their antifungal activity

Interactions between a fluorescent pseudomonad, an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus and a hypo virulent isolate of Rhizoctonia solani affect plant growth and root architecture of tomato plants

Diversity and biopotential of endophytic actinomycetes from three medicinal plants in India

The diversity, plant growth promoting and antimicrobial activities of endophytic actinomycetes isolated from Emblica officinalis Gaertn

Agriculture and bioactives: achieving both crop yield and phytochemicals

Isolation and characterization of Endophytic Actinomycetes from mangrove plant for antimicrobial activity

Two phytoalexins from sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) leaves

Lass-Florl C (2013) The Mediterranean red alga Asparagopsis taxiformis has antifungal activity against Aspergillus species

Introduction of some new endophytic bacteria from Bacillus and Streptomyces genera as successful biocontrol agents against Sclerotium rolfsii

Fluconazole: an update of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic use in major superficial and systemic mycoses in immunocompromised patients

Plant-fungal interactions: the search for phytoalexins and other antifungal compounds from higher plants

Sulfur containing cinnamides with antifungal activity from Glycosmis cyanocarpa

Phytoalexin emit Indolstruktur aus kohlrabi (Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes)

Cytokinins mediate resistance against pseudomonas syringae in tobacco through increased antimicrobial phytoalexin synthesis independent of salicylic acid signaling

Metabolic products of Fusarium larvarum fuckel. The fusarentins and the absolute configuration of monocerin

Potential of horsetail (Equisetum sp.) preparations in the synthesis of defense metabolites in soy (Glycine max L.) cotyledons and the effect on the growth of Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn, in vitro

Comparative transcriptomics of rice reveals an ancient pattern of response to microbial colonization

Chemical composition, antifungal and antitumor properties of ether extracts of Scapania verrucosa Heeg. and its endophytic fungus Chaetomium fusiformis

In vitro antifungal activity of dragon's blood from Croton urucurana against dermatophytes

Multiple control levels of root system remodelling in arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis

Antifungal effect of five aqueous plant extracts on Mycelial growth of Penicillium Expansum isolated from rotted yam tubers in storage

Alterations in root exudation of intercropped tomato mediated by the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae and the soil borne pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici

Host-pathogen interactions: XIX. The endogenous elicitor, a fragment of a plant cell wall polysaccharide that elicits phytoalexin accumulation in soybeans

Tit for tat? A mycorrhizal fungus accumulates phosphorus under low plant carbon availability

The accumulation of inhibitory compounds in the induced resistance response of carrot root slices to Botrytis cinerea

Cucurbitacins protect cucumber tissue against infection by Botrytis cinerea

Pestacin: a 1,3-dihydro isobenzofuran from Pestalotiopsis microspora possessing antioxidant and antimycotic activities

The effect of post-infectional potato tuber metabolites and surfactants on zoospores of Oomycetes

The isolation of xanthoxylin from the bark of Phytophthora and Hendersonula-infected Citrus lemon and its fungitoxic effect

Analysis on blast fungus-responsive characters of a flavonoid phytoalexin sakuranetin; accumulation in infected rice leaves, antifungal activity and detoxification by fungus

The fungal dimension of biodiversity: magnitude, significance, and conservation

The magnitude of fungal diversity: the 1±5 million species estimate revisited

Efficacy of artificial humic acid is a selective nutrient in HV agar used for the isolation of actinomycetes

Genetic manipulation of isoflavone 7-O-methyltransferase enhances biosynthesis of 4′-O-methylated isoflavonoid phytoalexins and disease resistance in alfalfa

Die Wirkung von Auszigen aus dem Sachalin-Staudenknoterich Reynoutria sachalinensis (F. Schmidt) Nakai gegen Plizkrankheiten, insbesondere Echte Mehltauplize

Production of antibiotics by Pseudomonas cepacia as an agent for biological control of soilborne plant pathogens

Screening of poplar trees for antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral activity

Suppression of Pythium ultimum induced damping -off of cotton seedlings by Pseudomonas fluorescens and its antibiotic, pyoluterin

Effects of Fusarium species on defence mechanisms in sorghum seedlings

Control of post harvest botrytis fruit rot of strawberry by volatile organic compounds of Candida intermedia

Biodiversity of endophytic fungi associated with 29 traditional Chinese medicinal plants

Novel acidic sesquiterpenoids constitute a dominant class of pathogeninduced phytoalexins in maize

Antimicrobial activities of some brown macroalgae against some soil borne plant pathogens and in vivo management of Solanum melongena root diseases

Antifungal and antiproliferative activities of endophytic fungi isolated from the leaves of Markhamia tomentosa

Screening of novel bioactive compounds from plant-associated actinomycetes

Isolation of actinomycetes from live plants and evaluation of anti phytopathogenic activity of their metabolites

Isolation and Identification of Endophytic Actinomycetes and their Antifungal Activity

Phytoalexins from the Leguminosae

Fungitoxic isoflavones from Lupinus albus and other Lupinus species

The polyoxins: pyrimidine nucleoside peptide antibiotics inhibiting fungal cell wall biosynthesis

Validoxylamines as trehalase inhibitors

Suppression of damping-off disease in host plants by the rhizoplane bacterium Lysobacter sp. strain SB-K88 is linked to plant colonization and antibiosis against soilborne peronosporomycetes

Antibacterial and antifungal activities of brown alga Zonaria tournefortii (JV Lamouroux)

Direct isolation of Micromonospora on selective media with gentamicin

Polyphenol concentrations in grain, leaf and callus tissues of mold-susceptible and mold-resistant sorghum cultivars

Composition and antifungal activity of the essential oil of the Brazilian Chenopodium ambrosioides L

Ulvan, a sulfated polysaccharide from green algae, activates plant immunity through the jasmonic acid signaling pathway

Modulation of phytoalexin biosynthesis in engineered plants for disease resistance

Metabolic engineering of yeast and plants for the production of the biologically active hydroxystilbene, resveratrol

Biosynthesis, metabolism, molecular engineering and biological functions of stilbene phytoalexins in plants

Deciphering the role of phytoalexins in plant-microorganism interactions and human health

Phytoalexins produced in the leaves of Capsella bursapastoris (shepherd's purse)

Xanthotoxin: a phytoalexin of Pastinaca sativa root

Mycorrhiza-induced resistance and priming of plant defenses

Isolation of endophytic actinomycetes from Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don leaves and their antimicrobial activity. Iranian

Effect of Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae Kleb.) and mycorrhiza (Glomus mosseae) on root colonization, growth and nutrient uptake in tomato and eggplant seedlings

The possible association of phytoalexins with resistant gene expression in flax to Melampsora lini

Antifungal potential in crude extracts of five selected brown seaweeds collected from the western Libya coast

In vitro antifungal, anti-elastase and anti-keratinase activity of essential oils of Cinnamomum-, Syzygium-and Cymbopogon-species against Aspergillus fumigatus and Trichophyton rubrum

Insecticidal activities of aromatic plant extracts and essential oils against Sitophilus Oryzae and Callosobruchus chinensis

Anthraquinones isolated from Cassia tora (Leguminosae) seed show an antifungal property against phytopathogenic fungi

Recent development in the use of Blasticidin S, a microbial fungicide, as a useful reagent in molecular biology

Linear b-1,3 glucans are elicitors of defense responses in tobacco-France

Induce systemic resistance and promotion of plant growth by Bacillus spp

Antifungal activity of pisiferic acid derivatives against the rice blast fungus

Functional moiety for the antifungal activity of phytocassane E, a diterpene phytoalexin from rice

Phytoalexin induction in the sapwood of plants of the Maloideae (Rosaceae): biphenyls or dibenzofurans

Structural and functional characterization of gene clusters directing non-ribosomal synthesis of bioactive lipopeptides in Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain FZB42

Evaluation of essential oils and their components for broad-spectrum antifungal activity and control of late leaf spot and crown rot diseases in peanut

Bryophytes, a potent source of drugs for tomorrow's medicine?

A plant extract acts both as a resistance inducer and an oomycide against grapevine downy mildew

Outline of a comparative study of criteria used in characterization of the actinomycetes

Selection of media for isolation of Streptomycetes

Phytoalexins from the Solanaceae

Muscodor sutura, a novel endophytic fungus with volatile antibiotic activities

Endophytic fungi isolated from oil-seed crop Jatropha curcas produces oil and exhibit antifungal activity

Identification of antifungal principle in the solvent extract of an endophytic fungus Chaetomium globosum from Withania somnifera

Isolation, characterization, and bioactivity of endophytic fungi of Tylophora indica

An endophytic Nodulisporium sp. producing volatile organic compounds having bioactivity and fuel potential

Two fungicidal phenylethanones from Euodia lunu-ankenda root bark

Antifungal and insect antifeedant 2-phenylethanol esters from the liverwort Balantiopsis cancellata from Chile

Efficacy of the biofumigant fungus Muscodor albus (Ascomycota: Xylariales) for control of codling moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in simulated storage conditions

The potential of the fungus, Muscodor albus, as a microbial control agent of potato tuber moth (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) in stored potatoes

Benzoic acid derivatives from piper species and their fungitoxic activity against Cladosporium cladosporioides and C. sphaerospermum

The production of resveratrol by Vitis vinifera and other members of the Vitaceae as a response to infection or injury

Interactions between pea root-inhabiting fungi examined using signature fatty acids

Mycosubtilin overproduction by Bacillus subtilis BBG100 enhances the organism's antagonistic and biocontrol activities

Momilactones a and B in rice straw harvested at different growth stages

Antibacterial activity of oriental medicinal plant extracts toward Helicobacter pylori

Mycofumigation with Oxyporus latemarginatus EF069 for control of postharvest apple decay and Rhizoctonia root rot on moth orchid

Screening for endophytic fungi with antitumour and antifungal activities from Chinese medicinal plants

Cryptocin, a potent tetramic acid antimycotic from the endophytic fungus Cryptosporiopsis cf. quercina

Antifungal activity of camptothecin, trifolin, and hyperoside isolated from Camptotheca acuminata

Effect of laminarin on Aspergillus Flavus growth and aflatoxin production

Use of the endophytic fungus Daldinia cf. concentrica and its volatiles as bio-control agents

Mycorrhizae and plan health

Isoquinoline alkaloids from Macleaya cordata active against plant microbial pathogens

Pestalofones A-E, bioactive cyclohexanone derivatives from the plant endophytic fungus Pestalotiopsis fici

Bis(2,3-dibromo-4,5-dihydroxybenzyl) ether, a marine algae derived bromophenol, inhibits the growth of Botrytis cinerea and interacts with DNA molecules

Screening of a marine algal extract for antifungal activities

A new macrolide antibiotic with antitumor activity produced by Streptomyces sp. CS, a commensal microbe of Maytenus hookeri

A novel ansamycin, naphthomycin k from Streptomyces sp

New bioactive metabolites produced by Colletotrichum sp., an endophytic fungus in Artemisia annua

Overview: a phylogenetic backbone and taxonomic framework for prokaryotic systematics

Inhibitory activities of some marine algae on aflatoxin accumulation

Naphthoquinone spiroketal with allelochemical activity from the newly discovered endophytic fungus Edenia gomezpompae

Plant disease control: understanding the roles of toxins and phytoalexins in host-pathogen interaction

Plant extracts, BAU-biofungicide and fungicides in controlling some important diseases of Rice cv. BRRI Dhan40

Biocontrol potential of cyanobacterial metabolites against damping off disease caused by Pythium aphanidermatum in solanaceous vegetables

Bioprospecting for endophytes from Australian flora with mycofumigation potential

Antifungal activity of Rubia tinctorum, Rhamnus frangula and Caloplaca cerina

Antimicrobial compounds and resistance: the role of phytoalexins and antianticipins

Fungicidal and molluscicidal saponins from Dolichos kilimandscharicus

Xanthones from Polygala nyikensis

Ethnoveterinary medicine and development: a review of the literature

Elicitor activity of phytoalexins in soy and sorghum by extracts and tinctures of medicinal plant species

Synthesis of phytoalexins in soy and sorghum by extracts and tinctures from three forest species

Structures of ent-herbertane sesquiterpenoids displaying antifungal properties from the liverwort Herberta adunca

Endophytic fungi associated with Monarda citriodora, an aromatic and medicinal plant and their biocontrol potential

Bioactivity of bryophyte extracts against Botrytis cinerea, Alternaria solani and Phytophthora infestans

Control of fungal decay of apples and peaches by the biofumigant fungus Muscodor albus

The algal polysaccharide carrageenans can act as an elicitor of plant defense

Laboratoires Goëmar. Parc Technopolitain atalante

Muscodor ghoomensis and Muscodor indica: new endophytic species based on morphological features, molecular and volatile organic analysis from Northeast India

Muscodor camphora, a new record from Cinnamomum camphora

Muscodor kashayum sp. nov. -a new volatile antimicrobial producing endophytic fungus

Muscodor strobelii, a new endophytic species from South India

Response of subterranean clover to dual inoculation with vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and a plant growth-promoting bacterium

Modulation oh CYP79 genes and glucosilate profiles in Arabidopsis by defense pathways

Potential agrochemicals from leaves of Wedelia biflora

60-trihydroxydihydrochalcone from Psidium acutangulum

Fungi and mycotoxins in grain: implications for stored product research

Endophytic actinomycetes from Indian medicinal plants as antagonists to some phytopathogenic fungi

Chemically characterized Cymbopogon martinii

essential oil for shelf life enhancer of herbal raw materials based on antifungal, antiaflatoxigenic, antioxidant activity and favorable safety profile

Volatile antimicrobials from Muscodor crispans, a novel endophytic fungus

Volatile plant metabolites for postharvest crop protection

4-Methoxybrassinin, a sulphur-containing phytoalexin from Brassica oleracea

Brassicanal C and two dioxindoles from cabbage

Brassicanal A and B, novel sulfur-containing phytoalexins from the Chinese cabbage Brassica campestris L. ssp pekinensis

Dehydro-4-methoxycyclobrassinin, a sulfur-containing phytoalexin isolated from turnip Brassica campestris L. ssp. rapa

Calophycin, a fungicidal cyclic decapeptide from the terrestrial blue-green alga Calothrix fusca

Biological activity of β-dolabrin, γ-thujaplicin, and 4-acetyltropolone, hinokitiol-related compounds

Bacillomycin D: an iturin with antifungal activity against Aspergillus flavus

Chemical composition and fungitoxic properties to phytopathogenic fungi of essential oils of selected aromatic plants growing wild in Turkey

Evaluation of 3, 4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde, dopamine and its oxidation products as inhibitors of Colletotrichum musae (Berk. and Curt.) arx in green banana fruits

Antifungal activities of the leaf extract of Cassia tora Linn

Experimentelle Untersuchungen über die Phytophthora Resistenz der Kartoffel

Camellidins, antifungal saponins isolated from Camellia japonica

Different mechanisms for phytoalexin induction by pathogen and wound signals in Medicago truncatula

Glyceollin, a soybean phytoalexin with medicinal properties

An Endophytic Actinomycete, Streptomyces sp. AOK-30, isolated from mountain laurel and its antifungal activity

Antimicrobial activities of Vernonia tenoreana

Streptomyces: implications and interactions in plant growth promotion

Dihydro isocoumarins produced by Xylaria sp. and Penicillium sp., endophytic fungi associated with Piper aduncum and Alibertia macrophylla

Activation of biochemical defense mechanisms in bean plants for homeopathic preparations

Inhibition of protein biosynthesis by mildiomycin, an antimildew substance

Antifungal activity of thyme, summer savory and clove essential oils against Aspergillus flavus in liquid medium and tomato paste

Activity of fungal endophytes against four maize wilt pathogens

Efficacy of some agricultural wastes in controlling root rot of Glycine max L. induced by Rhizoctonia solani

Effect of seed inoculation with Bacillus subtilis and Streptomyces griseus on the growth of cereals and carrots

Stress induced carbazole phytoalexins in Glycosmis species

Seasonal variation of antibacterial and antifungal activities of the extracts of marine algae from southern coasts of India

Griseofulvin from Xylaria sp. Strain F0010, and endophytic fungus of Abies holophylla and its antifungal activity against plant pathogenic fungi

Arbuscular mycorrhiza: the mother of plant root endosymbiosis

Potential of the volatile producing fungus Nodulisporium sp. CF016 for the control of postharvest diseases of apple

Isolation, abundance and phylogenetic affiliation of endophytic actinomycetes associated with medicinal plants and screening for their in vitro antimicrobial biosynthetic potential

Distribution and identification of Endophytic Streptomyces species from Schima wallichii as potential biocontrol agents against fungal plant pathogens

Mutualism and parasitism: the yin and yang of plant symbioses

Effects of sulfated polysaccharide and alcoholic extracts from green seaweed Ulva fasciata on anthracnose severity and growth of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Biological control in greenhouse systems

A new working definition of the term "phytoalexin

Biotransformation of the Brassica phytoalexin brassicanal A by blackleg fungus

Phytoalexins from Brassicas: overcoming plants' defenses

Phytoalexin accumulation and antifungal compounds from the crucifer wasabi

Pathogen inactivation of cruciferous phytoalexins: detoxification reactions, enzymes and inhibitors

Antimicrobial activity of Rhodobryum ontariense. Hemijska industrija

The discovery of enfumafungin, a novel antifungal compound produced by an endophytic Hormonema species biological activity and taxonomy of the producing organisms

Ultrastructural observations of pterostilbene fungitoxicity in dormant conidia of Botrytis cinerea Pers

Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in foods and feeds -an update review

Relation between the chemical structure and biological activity of hydroxystilbenes against Botrytis cinerea

Two new antifungal naphthoxirene derivatives and their glucosides from Sesamum angolense WELW

Potential of plant extracts and fungicides for managing Fusarium oxysporum f. Sp lycopersici

Further evidence for the involvement of a pre-formed antifungal compound in the latency of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides on unripe avocado fruits

Progress in phytoalexin research during the past 50 years

Antifungal potential and defense gene induction in maize against Rhizoctonia root rot by seed extract of Ammi visnaga (L.) Lam

Diterpene alcohols from Croton lacciferus

An antifungal chromene from Eupatorium riparium

Outbreaks of aflatoxicoses in India

Removal of duvatrienediols from the surface of tobacco leaves increases their susceptibility to blue mold

Jasmonate and salicylate as global signals for defense gene expression

Use of algae in strawberry management

Antimicrobial activity of essential oils and ethanol natural products from plants and Fungi as fungicides 227 extract of Phlomis fruticosa L. (Lamiaceae)

Growth activities of the sugar beet pathogens Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. Rhizoctonia solani Kühn. and Fusarium verticillioides Sacc. Under cyanobacterial filtrates stress

Induction of defense responses in zucchini (Cucurbita pepo) by Anabaena sp. water extract

Activity of seaweed and cyanobacteria water extracts against Podosphaera xanthii on zucchini

Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of essential oil and extracts of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare L.) and chamomile

Elicitation of foliar resistance mechanisms transiently impairs root association with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

Antifungal activity and potential use of essential oils against Fusarium culmorum and Fusarium verticillioides

Plant growth enhancing effects by a siderophore producing endophytic streptomycete isolated from a Thai jasmine rice plant (Oryza sativa L. cv. KDML105)

Bioactivities of extracts from some axenically farmed and naturally grown bryophytes

Antimicrobial activity of Bryum argenteum

Screening of antimicrobial and antioxidant secondary metabolites from endophytic fungi isolated from wheat (Triticum durum)

Structure biological activity relationships in triterpenic saponins: the relative activity of protobassic acid and its derivatives against plant pathogenic fungi

Pantoea agglomerans strain EH318 produces two antibiotics that inhibit Erwinia amylovora in vitro

Effectiveness of phenolic compounds against citrus green mould

Control of Penicillium expansum and patulin accumulation on apples by quercetin and umbelliferone

Determination of antimicrobial and antiproliferative activities of the aquatic moss Fontinalis antipyretica Hedw

Muscodor tigerii sp. nov.-volatile antibiotic producing endophytic fungus from the Northeastern Himalayas

Muscodor darjeelingensis, a new endophytic fungus of Cinnamomum camphora collected from northeastern Himalayas

Bioactivity guided isolation of antifungal compounds from the liverwort Bazzania trilobata

Biosynthesis, elicitation and roles of monocot terpenoid phytoalexins

Biologically active secondary metabolites of endophytic Pezicula sp

Pinocembrin: an antifungal compound secreted by leaf glands of eastern cottonwood

Endophytic actinomycetes from tea plants (Camellia sinensis): isolation, abundance, antimicrobial, and plant-growth-promoting activities

Isolation of 2,4-Diacetylphloroglucinol from a fluorescent pseudomonad and investigation of physiological parameters influencing its production

Plant bio-stimulants: a review on the processing of macroalgae and use of extracts for crop management to reduce abiotic and biotic stresses

Purification and partial characterization of a b-glucan fragment that elicits phytoalexin accumulation in soybean

Diversity and antimicrobial activity of Culturable Endophytic Fungi isolated from Moso bamboo seeds

In: Maheshwari DK (ed) Bacteria in agrobiology: plant growth responses

Studies on endophytic actinomycetes (I) Streptomyces sp. isolated from rhododendron and its antifungal activity

Introduction study of antifungal activities of bryophyte extracts

Anti-apoptotic machinery protects the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea from host-induced apoptotic-like cell death during plant infection

Diversity of endophytic actinomycetes in mandarin grown in northern Thailand, their phytohormone production potential and plant growth promoting activity

Diversity and antifungal activity of the endophytic fungi associated with the native medicinal cactus Opuntia humifusa (Cactaceae) from the United States

Antifungal activity of securinine against some plant pathogenic fungi

Antimicrobial activity of some Indian mosses

An Endophytic Phomopsis sp. possessing bioactivity and fuel potential with its volatile organic compounds

Existence of Muscodor vitigenus, M. equiseti and M. heveae sp. nov. in leaves of the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis Müll. Arg.), and their biocontrol potential

Casbene: an antifungal diterpene produced in cell-free extracts of Ricinus communis seedlings

Sesquiterpene lactones from Centaurea thessala and Centaurea attica: antifungal activity

Mechanisms of resistance to plant diseases

What is the significance of the arbuscular mycorrhizal colonisation of many economically important crop plants?

The role of phosphorous nutrition in interactions of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi with soil borne nematodes and fungi

Suppression of cottony leak of cucumber with Bacillus cereus strain UW85

Management of Mycorrhiza in agriculture, horticulture and forestry

Endophytic naphthopyrone metabolites are co-inhibitors of xanthine oxidase, SW1116 cell and some microbial growths

A record of Muscodor albus, an endophyte from Myristica fragrans in Thailand

Antifungal activity of some essential oils

Two novel antifungal alka-2,4-dienals from Triticum aestivum

Plant-derived natural products synthesis, function, and application

Streptomyces sp. 9p as effective biocontrol against chilli soilborne fungal phytopathogens

Algal polysaccharides as source of plant resistance inducers

Mycorrhizae in crop production

An endophytic Gliocladium sp. of Eucryphia cordifolia producing selective volatile antimicrobial compounds

Seasonal variation in antifungal, antibacterial and acetyl cholinesterase activity in seven south African seaweeds

Phytoalexins -a biogenetic perspective

The role of phytoalexins in the seedling resistance to Leptosphaeria maculans in some crucifers

Synergism among volatile organic compounds resulting in increased antibiosis in Oidium sp

An endophytic/ pathogenic Phoma sp. from creosote bush producing biologically active volatile compounds having fuel potential

An Endophytic Nodulisporium sp. from Central America producing volatile organic compounds with both biological and fuel potential

The production of mycodiesel hydrocarbons and their derivatives by the endophytic fungus Gliocladium roseum (NRRL 50072)

Muscodor albus E-6, an endophyte of Guazuma ulmifolia making volatile antibiotics: isolation, characterization and experimental establishment in the host plant

Antifungal activities of a steroid from Pallavicinia lyellii, a liverwort

Engineering cottonseed for use in human nutrition by tissue-specific reduction of toxic gossypol

Muscodor cinnamomi, a new endophytic species from Cinnamomum bejolghota

Evaluation of Muscodor suthepensis strain CMU-Cib462 as a postharvest biofumigant for tangerine fruit rot caused by Penicillium digitatum

Molecular and morphological evidence support four new species in the genus Muscodor from northern Thailand

Biocontrol of Rhizoctonia solani AG-2, the causal agent of damping-off by Muscodor cinnamomi CMU-Cib 461

Antitumor activity of 4-arylcoumarins from endophytic Streptomyces aureofaciens CMUAc130

Identification of Streptomyces sp. Tc022, an endophyte in Alpinia galanga, and the isolation of actinomycin D

Structures of moracins E, F, G and H, new phytoalexins from diseased mulberry

Isolation of three novel sulphur-containing phytoalexins from the Chinese cabbage Brassica campestris L. ssp. pekinensis (Cruciferae)

Novel sulfur-containing phytoalexins from the Chinese cabbage Brassica campestris L. ssp. pekinensis (Cruciferae)

Mechanism of kasugamycin action on polypeptide synthesis

Isolation of endophytic actinomycetes from different cultivars of tomato and their activities against Ralstonia solanacearum in vitro

Isolation, purification and characterization of Trichothecinol-A produced by endophytic fungus Trichothecium sp. and its antifungal, anticancer and antimetastatic activities

Antibacterial activity and induction of phytoalexins in bean plants by homeopathic preparations of essential oil of Eucalyptus globulus

Antibiotic production by soil and rhizosphere microbes in situ

Study on the communities of endophytic fungi and endophytic actinomycetes from rice and their antipathogenic activities in vitro

Identification of volatile metabolites from fungal endophytes with biocontrol potential towards Fusarium Oxysporum F. sp. cubense race 4

Influence of arbuscular mycorrhizal mycelial exudates on soil bacterial growth and community structure

Antifungal activity of Lipopeptides from Bacillus XT1 CECT 8661 against Botrytis cinerea

Hypoxylon sp., an Endophyte of Persea indica, producing 1,8-cineole and other bioactive volatiles with fuel potential

Diterpene phytoalexins are biosynthesized in and exuded from the roots of rice seedlings

Antifungal activity of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus L.) essential oil against key postharvest pathogens

Antifungal drug resistance in pathogenic fungi

Phytotoxic and antimicrobial activity of volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds from the endophyte Hypoxylon anthochroum strain Blaci isolated from Bursera lancifolia (Burseraceae)

Volatile organic compounds from endophytic fungi as innovative postharvest control of Fusarium oxysporum in cherry tomato fruits

Studies on the mode of action of the phytoalexin phaseolin

Characterization of the early response of Arabidopsis to Alternaria brassicicola infection using expression profiling

Antimicrobial activity of methanol extracts of Fontinalis Antipyretica, Hypnum Cupressiforme and Ctenidium molluscum

Sea weed polysaccharides and derived oligosaccharides stimulate defense responses and protection against pathogens in plants

Endophytic Actinomycetes from Azadirachta indica a. Juss.: Isolation, Diversity, and anti-microbial activity

The biocontrol effect of mycorrhization on soil borne fungal pathogens and the autoregulation of the AM symbiosis: one mechanism, two effects?

Biocontrol of the pathogen Phytophthora parasitica by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi is a consequence of effects on infection loci

5-Methylcoumaranones from Mutisia friesiana and their bioactivity

A vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungus (Glomus intraradix) induces a Defense response in alfalfa roots

Suppression of an Isoflavonoid Phytoalexin Defense response in Mycorrhizal alfalfa roots

Fungal (−like) biocontrol organisms in tomato disease control

Controlling crop diseases using induced resistance: challenges for the future

Antifungal activities of essential oils and their constituents from indigenous cinnamon (Cinnamomum osmophloeum) leaves against wood decay fungi

Antifungal activity screening of soil actinobacteria isolated from Inner Mongolia

Isolation and identification of an endophytic fungus of Polygonatum cyrtonema and its antifungal metabolites

Loroglossol: an orchid phytoalexin

Evaluation of fungicides, bio-agents and plant extracts against Pyricularia oryzae

Temporal synthesis and radiolabelling of the sorghum 3-deoxyanthocyanidin phytoalexins and the anthocyanin, cyanidin 3-dimalonyl glucoside

Peptide synthetase gene in Trichoderma virens

Use of antibiotics for selective isolation and enumeration of actinomycetes in soil

Biological properties of alkaloids. Influence of quinolizidine alkaloids and gramine on the germination and development of Powderly mildew, Erysiphe graminis f. sp. hordei

Die Verbreitung antifungaler Eigenschaften bei Moosen

The role of stilbenes in resistance of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (bong) Carr) to entry of fungal pathogens

Muscodor roseus anam. Sp. nov., an endophyte from Grevillea pteridifolia

Muscodor albus anam. Sp. Nov., an endophyte from Cinnamomum zeylanicum

Chemical constituents from the Chinese bryophytes and their reversal of fungal resistance

Metabolites from mangrove endophytic fungus Dothiorella sp

Tetran or triterpenoids from Chisocheton paniculatus

Effects of pre-and post-harvest application of salicylic acid or methyl jasmonate on inducing disease resistance of sweet cherry fruit in storage

Endophytic fungi harbored in the root of Sophora tonkinensis Gapnep: diversity and biocontrol potential against phytopathogens

Tithoniamarin and tithoniamide: a structurally unique isocoumarin dimer and a new ceramide from Tithonia diversifolia

Evaluation of Wedelia Biflora (Linn) D.C for anthelmintic and antimicrobial activity

Recent trends in studies on botanical fungicides in agriculture

Effect of polyacetylenic acids from Prunella vulgaris on various plant pathogens

Potent in vivo antifungal activity against powdery mildews of pregnane glycosides from the roots of Cynanchum wilfordii

Fungitoxic non-glycosidic iridoids from Alibertia macrophylla

Diversity and antifungal activity of endophytic fungi associated with Camellia oleifera

Potential of Endophytic Fungi isolated from cotton roots for biological control against Verticillium wilt disease

Natural plant products as eco-friendly fungicides for plant diseases control-a review

Regulation of plant immunity through modulation of phytoalexin synthesis

A new prenylated indole derivative from endophytic actinobacteria Streptomyces sp. neau-D50

Studies on chemical constituents in root tuber of Cynanchum auriculatum

Muscodor fengyangensis sp. nov. from Southeast China: morphology, physiology and production of volatile compounds

Bioactive isocoumarins isolated from the endophytic fungus Microdochium bolleyi

Effects of yeast polysaccharide on growth and flavonoid accumulation in Fagopyrum tataricum sprout cultures

Actinobacteria associated with chinaberry tree are diverse and show antimicrobial activity

The diversity and anti-microbial activity of endophytic actinomycetes isolated from medicinal plants in Panxi plateau China

Preharvest l -arginine treatment induced postharvest disease resistance to Botrytis cinerea in tomato fruits

Neoverataline a and B, two antifungal alkaloids with a novel carbon skeleton from Veratrum taliense

Bioactive endophytic streptomycetes from the Malay peninsula

Camalexin accumulation in Arabis lyrata

Metabolites of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, an endophytic fungus in Artemisia mongolica