Germaine de Staël - Wikipedia





	
	

	
	

	Germaine de Staël

	
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	Germaine de Staël

	"Madame de Staël" by Marie-Éléonore Godefroid (1813)

	Born	Anne-Louise Germaine Necker

(1766-04-22)22 April 1766
Paris, Kingdom of France

	Died	14 July 1817(1817-07-14) (aged 51)
Paris, France

	Notable work
		Delphine (1802)
	Corinne (1807)
	De l'Allemagne (1813)



	Spouse(s)	
	


Erik Magnus Staël von Holstein

   ​
 ​
(m. 1786; died 1802)​

	


Albert Jean Michel de Rocca

   ​
 ​
(m. 1816)​



	
	School	Romanticism
	Main interests
		Cosmopolitanism[1][2]
	representative government
	constitutionalism



	

	Signature
	


Anne Louise Germaine de Staël-Holstein (French: [an lwiz ʒɛʁmɛn də stal ɔlstajn]; née Necker; 22 April 1766 – 14 July 1817), commonly known as Madame de Staël (/də ˈstɑːl/ də STAHL, French: [madam də stal]), was a woman of letters and political theorist of Genevan origin. She was a voice of moderation in the French Revolution and the Napoleonic era up to the French Restoration.[3] She was present at the Estates General of 1789 and at the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.[4]  Her intellectual collaboration with Benjamin Constant between 1794 and 1810 made them one of the most celebrated intellectual couples of their time. She discovered sooner than others the tyrannical character and designs of Napoleon.[5] For many years she lived as an exile – firstly during the Reign of Terror and later due to personal persecution by Napoleon.

In exile she became the centre of the Coppet group with her unrivalled network of contacts across Europe. In 1814 one of her contemporaries observed that "there are three great powers struggling against Napoleon for the soul of Europe: England, Russia, and Madame de Staël".[6] Known as a witty and brilliant conversationalist, and often dressed in daring outfits, she stimulated the political and intellectual life of her times. Her works, whether novels, travel literature or polemics, which emphasised individuality and passion, made a lasting mark on European thought. De Staël spread the notion of Romanticism widely by its repeated use.


Contents


	1 Childhood
	2 Marriage
	3 Revolutionary activities
	4 Salons at Coppet and Paris
	5 Conflict with Napoleon
	6 Years of exile
	6.1 German travels
	6.2 Mistress of Coppet
	6.3 Return to France
	6.4 East European travels



	7 Restoration and death
	8 Offspring
	9 Legacy
	9.1 Precursor of feminism



	10 In popular culture
	11 Works
	11.1 Correspondence in French



	12 See also
	13 References
	14 Sources
	15 Further reading
	16 External links





Childhood[edit]

  
Germaine Necker by Carmontelle



Germaine (or Minette, "kitty") was the only child of  Suzanne Curchod, who hosted in Rue de la Chaussée-d'Antin one of the most popular salons of Paris[7] and prominent banker and statesman Jacques Necker, who was the Director-General of Finance under King Louis XVI of France. Mme Necker wanted her daughter educated according to the principles of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and endow her with the intellectual education and Calvinist discipline instilled in her by her pastor father.[8] On Fridays she regularly brought Germaine as a young child to sit at her feet in her salon, where the guests took pleasure in stimulating the brilliant child.[9] At the age of 13, she read Montesquieu, Shakespeare, Rousseau and Dante.[10] This exposure probably contributed to a nervous breakdown in adolescence, but the seeds of a literary vocation had been sown.

Her father "is remembered today for taking the unprecedented step in 1781 of making public the country’s budget, a novelty in an absolute monarchy where the state of the national finances had always been kept secret, leading to his dismissal in May of that year."[11] The family eventually took up residence in 1784 at Château Coppet, an estate her father purchased on Lake Geneva. The family returned to the Paris region in 1785, and Mlle Necker continued to write miscellaneous works, including the three-act romantic drama Sophie (1786) and the five-act tragedy, Jeanne Grey (1787).


Marriage[edit]

  
The Swedish Embassy, Hôtel de Ségur, later Hôtel de Salm-Dyck



Aged 11, Germaine had suggested to her mother she marry Edward Gibbon, a visitor to her salon, whom she found most attractive. Then, she reasoned, he would always be around for her.[12] In 1783, at seventeen, she was courted by William Pitt the Younger and by the fop Comte de Guibert, whose conversation, she thought, was the most far-ranging, spirited and fertile she had ever known.[13] When she did not accept their offers Germaine's parents became impatient. In the event, a marriage was arranged with Baron Erik Magnus Staël von Holstein, a Protestant and attaché of the Swedish legation to France. It took place on 14 January 1786 in the Swedish embassy at 97, Rue du Bac; Germaine was 20, her husband 37. On the whole, the marriage seems to have been workable for both parties, although neither seems to have had much affection for the other. The baron, also  a gambler, obtained great benefits from the match as he received 80,000 pounds and was confirmed as lifetime ambassador to Paris, although his wife was almost certainly the more effective envoy.[14]


Revolutionary activities[edit]

  
On 4 and 5 May 1789 Germaine de Staël watched the assembly of the Estates-General in Versailles, where she met the young Mathieu de Montmorency.



  
"Dix Août 1792. Siege et prise du Chateau des Tuileries": French soldiers (volunteers) and citizens storming the Tuileries Palace to capture the royal family and end the monarchy.



In 1788, de Staël published Letters on the works and character of J.J. Rousseau.[15] In this panegyric, written initially for a limited number of friends (in which she considered his housekeeper Thérèse Levasseur as unfaithful), she demonstrated evident talent, but little critical discernment. De Staël was at this time enthusiastic about the mixture of Rousseau's ideas about love and Montesquieu's on politics.

In December 1788 her father persuaded the king to double the number of deputies at the Third Estate in order to gain enough support to raise taxes to defray the excessive costs of supporting the revolutionaries in America. This approach had serious repercussions on Necker's reputation; he appeared to consider the Estates-General as a facility designed to help the administration rather than to reform government.[16] In an argument with the king, whose speech on 23 June he didn't attend, Necker was dismissed and exiled on 11 July.  On Sunday, 12 July the news became public and an angry Camille Desmoulins suggested storming the Bastille.[17] On 16 July he was reappointed; Necker entered Versailles in triumph. His efforts to clean up public finances were unsuccessful and his idea of a National Bank failed. Necker was attacked by Jean-Paul Marat and Count Mirabeau in the Constituante, when he did not agree with using assignats as legal tender.[18] He resigned on 4 September 1790. Accompanied by their son-in-law, her parents left for Switzerland, without the two million livres, half of his fortune, loaned as an investment in the public treasury in 1778.[19][20][21]

The increasing disturbances caused by the Revolution made her privileges as the consort of an ambassador an important safeguard. Germaine held a salon in the Swedish embassy, where she gave "coalition dinners", which were frequented by moderates such as Talleyrand and De Narbonne, monarchists (Feuillants) such as Antoine Barnave, Charles Lameth and his brothers Alexandre and Théodore, the Comte de Clermont-Tonnerre, Pierre Victor, baron Malouet, the poet Abbé Delille, Thomas Jefferson, the one-legged Minister Plenipotentiary to France Gouverneur Morris,  Paul Barras, a Jacobin (from the Plain) and the Girondin Condorcets. "The issue of leadership, or rather lack of it, was central to de Staël's preoccupations at this stage of her political reflections.  She experienced the death of Mirabeau, accused of royalism, as a sign of great political disorientation and uncertainty. He was the only man with the necessary charisma, energy, and prestige to keep the revolutionary movement on a path of constitutional reform."[22]


  
Louis-Marie de Narbonne by Herminie Déhérain



Following the 1791 French legislative election, and after the French Constitution of 1791 was announced in the National Assembly, she resigned from a political career and decided not to stand for re-election. "Fine arts and letters will occupy my leisure."[23] She did, however, play an important role in the succession of Comte de Montmorin the Minister of Foreign Affairs, and in the appointment of Narbonne as minister of War and continued to be centre stage behind the scenes.[24] Marie Antoinette wrote to Hans Axel Fersen: "Count Louis de Narbonne is finally Minister of War, since yesterday; what a glory for Mme de Staël and what a joy for her to have the whole army, all to herself."[25]
In 1792 the French Legislative Assembly saw an unprecedented turnover of ministers, six ministers of the interior, seven ministers of foreign affairs, and nine ministers of war.[26] On 10 August 1792 Clermont-Tonnere was thrown out of a window of the Louvre Palace and trampled to death. De Staël offered baron Malouet a plan of escape for the royal family.[27]   As there was no government, militant members of the Insurrectionary Commune were given extensive police powers from the provisional, executive council, " to detain, interrogate and incarcerate suspects without anything resembling due process of law".[28] She helped De Narbonne, dismissed for plotting, to hide under the altar in the chapel in the Swedish embassy, and lectured the sans-culottes from the section in the hall.[29][30][31][10]

On Sunday 2 September, the day the Elections for the National Convention and the September massacres began, she fled herself in the garb of an ambassadress. Her carriage was stopped and the crowd forced her into the Paris town hall, where Robespierre presided.[32]  That same evening she was conveyed home, escorted by the procurator Louis Pierre Manuel. The next day the commissioner to the Commune of Paris Jean-Lambert Tallien arrived with a new passport and accompanied her to the edge of the barricade.[33][34]


Salons at Coppet and Paris[edit]

  
Château de Coppet near Nyon



  
Benjamin Constant by Lina Vallier



  
In 1797 Germaine de Staël and Benjamin Constant lived in the remains of the Abbey of Herivaux.



After her flight from Paris, Germaine moved to Rolle in Switzerland, where Albert was born.  She was supported by de Montmorency and the Marquis de Jaucourt, whom she had previously supplied with Swedish passports.[35] In January 1793, she made a four-month visit to England to be with her then lover, the Comte de Narbonne at Juniper Hall. (Since 1 February France and Great Britain were at war.) Within a few weeks she was pregnant; it was apparently one of the reasons for the scandal she caused in England. According to Fanny Burney, the result was that her father urged Fanny to avoid the company of de Staël and her circle of French Émigres in Surrey.[4] De Staël met Horace Walpole, James Mackintosh, Lord Sheffield, a friend of Edward Gibbon, and Lord Loughborough, the new Lord Chancellor.[4] She was not impressed with the condition of women in English society.[4] Individual freedom was as important to her as were abstract political liberties.[36]

In the summer of 1793, she returned to Switzerland probably because De Narbonne had cooled towards her. She published a defence of the character of Marie Antoinette, entitled, Réflexions sur le procès de la Reine, 1793 ("Reflections on the Queen's trial"). In de Staël's view France should have adapted from an absolute to a Constitutional monarchy as was the case in England.[37]  Living in Jouxtens-Mézery, farther away from the French border than Coppet, Germaine was visited by Adolph Ribbing.[10][35] Count Ribbing was living in exile, after his conviction for taking part in a conspiracy to assassinate the Swedish king, Gustav III.  In September 1794 the recently divorced Benjamin Constant visited her, wanting to meet her before he committed suicide. 

In May 1795 she moved to Paris, now with Constant in tow, as her protégé and lover.[38] De Staël rejected the idea of the right of resistance – which had been introduced into the never implemented French Constitution of 1793, but was removed from the Constitution of 1795.[39]  In 1796 she published Sur l'influence des passions, in which she praised suicide, a book which attracted the attention of the German writers Schiller and Goethe.[40] 

Still absorbed by French politics, Germaine reopened her salon.[41] It was during these years that Mme de Staël arguably exerted most political influence. For a time she was still visible in the diverse and eccentric society of the mid-1790s. However, on the 13 Vendémiaire the Comité de salut public ordered her to leave Paris after accusations of politicking, and put Constant in detention for one night.[42] Germaine spent that autumn in the spa of Forges-les-Eaux. She was considered a threat to political stability and mistrusted by both sides in the political conflict.[43] The couple moved to Ormesson-sur-Marne where they stayed with Mathieu Montmorency.  In Summer 1796 Constant founded the "Cercle constitutionnel" in Luzarches with de Staël's support.[44] In May 1797 she was back in Paris and eight months pregnant. She succeeded in getting Talleyrand from the list of Émigrés and on his return from the United States to have him appointed   minister of Foreign Affairs in July.[45] From the coup of 18 Fructidor  it was announced that anyone campaigning to restore the monarchy or the French Constitution of 1793 would be shot without trial.[46] Germaine moved to Saint-Ouen, on her father's estate and became a close friend of the beautiful and wealthy Juliette Récamier to whom she sold her parents' house in the Rue de la Chaussée-d'Antin.

De Staël completed the initial part of her first most substantial contribution to political and constitutional theory, "Of present circumstances that can end the Revolution, and of the principles that must found the republic of France".[11] On 6 December 1797 she had a first meeting with Napoleon Bonaparte in Talleyrand's office and again on 3 January 1798 during a ball. She made it clear to him she did not agree with his planned French invasion of Switzerland. He ignored her opinions and would not read her letters.[47] 


Conflict with Napoleon[edit]

  
Napoleon Bonaparte in 1803 by François Gérard



In January 1800 Napoleon appointed Benjamin Constant a member of the Tribunat but, not long after, Constant became the first consul's enemy. Two years later Napoleon forced him into exile on account of his speeches which he took to be actually written by Mme de Staël.[48] In August 1802 Napoleon was elected first consul for life. This put de Staël into opposition to him both for personal and political reasons. In her view Napoleon had begun to resemble Machiavelli; while for Napoleon, Voltaire, J.J. Rousseau and their followers were the cause of the French Revolution.[49] This view was cemented when Jacques Necker published his "Last Views on Politics and Finance" and his daughter, her "De la littérature considérée dans ses rapports avec les institutions sociales". It was her first philosophical treatment of the Europe question: it dealt with such factors as nationality, history and social institutions.[50] Napoleon started a campaign against her latest publication. He did not like her cultural determinism and generalizations, in which she stated that "an artist must be of his own time".[48][51] In his opinion a woman should stick to knitting.[52] He said about her, according to the Memoirs of Madame de Rémusat, that she "teaches people to think who had never thought before, or who had forgotten how to think".[53]  It became clear that the first man of France and de Staël were not likely ever to get along together.[54]

De Staël published a provocative, anti-Catholic novel Delphine,  in which the femme incomprise (misunderstood woman) living in Paris between 1789 and 1792, is confronted with conservative ideas about divorce after the Concordat of 1801. In this tragic novel, influenced by Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther and Rousseau's Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse, she reflects on the legal and practical aspects on divorce, the  arrests and the September Massacres, and the fate of the émigrés. The main characters have traits of the unstable Benjamin Constant, and Talleyrand is depicted as an old woman, herself as the heroine with the liberal view of the Italian aristocrat and politician Melzi d'Eril.[55] 

When Constant moved to Maffliers in September 1803 de Staël went to see him and let Napoleon know she would be wise and cautious. Thereupon her house immediately became popular again among her friends, but Napoleon, informed by Madame de Genlis, suspected a conspiracy. "Her extensive network of connections – which included foreign diplomats and known political opponents, as well as members of the government and of Bonaparte's own family – was in itself a source of suspicion and alarm for the government."[56] Her protection of Jean Gabriel Peltier – who plotted the death of Napoleon – influenced his decision on 13 October 1803 to exile her without trial.[57]


Years of exile[edit]

For ten years de Staël was not allowed to come within 40 leagues (almost 200 km) of Paris. She accused Napoleon of "persecuting a woman and her children".[58] On 23 October she left for Germany "out of pride", in the hope of gaining support and to be able to return home as soon as possible.[59][60]


German travels[edit]

  
Karl August, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach in 1805 by Georg Melchior Kraus



  
Madame de Staël as her character Corinne (posthumously) by François Gérard



  
Château de Chaumont



With her children and Constant she stopped off in Metz and met Kant's French translator Charles de Villers. In mid-December, they arrived in Weimar, where she stayed for two and a half months at the court of the Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach and his mother Anna Amalia. Goethe who had become ill, hesitated about seeing her. After meeting her, Goethe went on to refer to her as an "extraordinary woman" in his private correspondence.[61] Schiller complimented her intelligence and eloquence, but her frequent visits distracted him from completing William Tell.[62][63] De Staël was constantly on the move, talking and asking questions.[64][48] Constant decided to abandon her in Leipzig and return to Switzerland. De Staël travelled on to Berlin,  where she made the acquaintance of August Schlegel who was lecturing there on literature. She appointed him on an enormous salary to tutor her children. On 18 April they all left Berlin when the news of her father's death reached her. 


Mistress of Coppet[edit]

On 19 May she arrived in Coppet and found herself its wealthy and independent mistress, but her sorrow for her father was deep. She spent the summer at the chateau sorting through his writings and published an essay on his private life. In April 1804 Friedrich Schlegel married Dorothea Veit in the Swedish embassy. In July Constant wrote about her, "She exerts over everything around her a kind of inexplicable but real power. If only she could govern herself, she might have governed the world."[65] In December 1804 she travelled to Italy, accompanied by her children, Schlegel and the historian Sismondi. There she met the poet Monti and the painter, Angelica Kauffman. "Her visit to Italy helped her to develop her theory of the difference between northern and southern societies..."[4]

She returned to Coppet in June 1805, moved to Meulan (Château d'Acosta) and spent nearly a year writing her next book on Italy's culture and history. In Corinne, ou L'Italie (1807), her own impressions of a sentimental and intellectual journey, the heroine appears to have been inspired by the Italian poet Diodata Saluzzo Roero.[66][67] She combined romance with travelogue, showed all of Italy's works of art still in place, rather than plundered by Napoleon and taken to France.[68] The book's publication acted as a reminder of her existence, and Napoleon sent her back to Coppet. Her house became, according to Stendhal, "the general headquarters of European thought" and was a debating club hostile to Napoleon, "turning conquered Europe into a parody of a feudal empire, with his own relatives in the roles of vassal states".[69] Madame Récamier, also banned by Napoleon, Prince Augustus of Prussia, Charles Victor de Bonstetten, and Chateaubriand all belonged to the "Coppet group".[70] [71]Each day the table was laid for about thirty guests. Talking seemed to be everybody's chief activity.

For a time she lived with Constant in Auxerre (1806), Rouen (1807), Aubergenville (1807). Then she met Friedrich Schlegel, whose wife Dorothea had translated Corinne into German.[72] The use of the word Romanticism was invented by Schlegel, but spread more widely across France through its persistent use by Madame de Staël.[73] Late in 1807 she set out for Vienna and visited Maurice O'Donnell.[74] She was accompanied by her children and August Schlegel who gave his famous lectures there. In 1808 Benjamin Constant was afraid to admit to her that he had married Charlotte von Hardenberg in the meanwhile. "If men had the qualities of women", Staël wrote, "love would simply cease to be a problem."[75] De Staël set to work on her book about Germany – in which she presented the idea of a state called "Germany" as a model of ethics and aesthetics and praised German literature and philosophy.[76] The exchange of ideas and literary and philosophical conversations with Goethe, Schiller, and Wieland had inspired de Staël to write one of the most influential books of the nineteenth century on Germany.[77]


Return to France[edit]

Pretending she wanted to emigrate to the United States, de Staël was given permission to re-enter France. She moved first into the Château de Chaumont (1810), then relocated to Fossé and Vendôme. She was determined to publish De l'Allemagne in France, a book in which she called French political structures into question, so indirectly criticizing Napoleon. Constrained by censorship, she wrote to the emperor a letter of complaint.[78] The minister of police Savary had emphatically forbidden her to publish her “un-French" book.[77] In October 1810 de Staël was exiled again and had to leave France within three days. August Schlegel was also ordered to leave the Swiss Confederation as an enemy of French literature. She found consolation in a wounded veteran officer named Albert de Rocca, twenty-three years her junior, to whom she got privately engaged in 1811 but did not marry publicly until 1816.[48]


East European travels[edit]

  
Madame de Staël in 1812 by Vladimir Borovikovsky



The operations of the French imperial police in the case of Mme de Staël are rather obscure. She was at first left undisturbed, but by degrees, the chateau itself became a source of suspicion, and her visitors found themselves heavily persecuted. François-Emmanuel Guignard, De Montmorency and Mme Récamier were exiled for the crime of visiting her. She remained at home during the winter of 1811, planning to escape to England or Sweden with the manuscript. On 23 May 1812 she left Coppet under the pretext of a short outing, but journeyed through Bern, Innsbruck and Salzburg to Vienna, where she met Metternich. There after some trepidation and trouble, she received the necessary passports to go on to Russia.[79]

During Napoleon's invasion of Russia de Staël, her two children and Schlegel, travelled through Galicia in the Habsburg empire from Brno to Łańcut where Rocca, having deserted the French army and having been searched by the French gendarmerie, was waiting for her. The journey continued to Lemberg. On 14 July 1812 they arrived in Volhynia. In the meantime, Napoleon, who took a more northern route, had crossed the Niemen River with his army. In Kiev, she met Miloradovich, governor of the city. De Staël hesitated to travel on to Odessa, Constantinople, and decided instead to go north. Perhaps she was informed of the outbreak of 
plague in the Ottoman Empire. In Moscow, she was invited by the governor Fyodor Rostopchin. According to de Staël, it was Rostopchin who ordered his mansion to be set on fire, which spread to the city with its 1,600 churches.[80] She left only a few weeks before Napoleon arrived there. Until the end of September, her party stayed in Saint Petersburg. She met twice with the tsar Alexander I of Russia who "related to me also the lessons a la Machiavelli which Napoleon had thought proper to give him."[81]


"You see," said he, "I am careful to keep my ministers and generals at variance among themselves, in order that each may reveal to me the faults of the other; I keep up a continual jealousy by the manner I treat those who are about me: one day one thinks himself the favourite, the next day another, so that no one is ever certain of my favour."[82]

 
For de Staël that was a vulgar and vicious theory. General Kutuzov sent her letters from the Battle of Tarutino and before the end of that year he succeeded, aided by the extreme weather, in chasing the Grande Armée out of Russia.[83]


  
August Wilhelm von Schlegel by Adolf Hohneck



After four months of travel, she arrived in Sweden. In Stockholm she began writing her "Ten Years' Exile", detailing her travels and encounters. She did not finish the manuscript and after eight months, she set out for England, without August Schlegel, who meanwhile had been appointed secretary to the Crown Prince Carl Johan, formerly French Marshal Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadotte (She supported Bernadotte as new ruler of France, as she hoped he would introduce a constitutional monarchy).[84] In London she received a great welcome. She met Lord Byron and Sir Humphry Davy, the chemist and inventor. According to Byron, "She preached English politics to the first of our English Whig politicians ... preached politics no less to our Tory politicians the day after."[85] Her stay was severely marred by the death of her son Albert, who as a member of the Swedish army had fallen in a duel with a Cossack officer in Doberan as a result of a gambling dispute. In October John Murray published De l'Allemagne both in French and in English translation, in which she reflected on nationalism and suggested a re-consideration on cultural rather than on natural boundaries.[86] In May 1814, after Louis XVIII had been crowned (Bourbon Restoration) she returned to Paris. She wrote her Considérations sur la révolution française, based on Part One of "Ten Years' Exile". Again her salon became a major attraction both for Parisians and foreigners.


Restoration and death[edit]

  
Lord Byron by Thomas Phillips



When news came of Napoleon's landing on the Côte d'Azur, between Cannes and Antibes, early in March 1815, she fled again to Coppet, and never forgave Constant for approving of Napoleon's return.[87] Although she had no affection for the Bourbons she succeeded in obtaining restitution for the huge loan Necker had made to the French state in 1778 before the Revolution (see above).[88] In October, after the Battle of Waterloo, she set out for Italy, not only for the sake of her own health but for that of her second husband, Rocca, who was suffering from tuberculosis. In May her 19-year-old daughter Albertine married Victor, 3rd duc de Broglie in Livorno.

The whole family returned to Coppet in June. Lord Byron, at that time in debt, left London in great trouble and frequently visited Mme. de Staël during July and August. For Byron, she was Europe's greatest living writer, but "with her pen behind her ears and her mouth full of ink". "Byron was particularly critical of de Staël's self-dramatizing tendencies".[89][90] Byron was a supporter of Napoleon, but for de Staël Bonaparte "was not only a talented man but also one who represented a whole pernicious system of power", a system that "ought to be examined as a great political problem relevant to many generations."[91] "Napoleon imposed standards of homogeneity on Europe that is, French taste in literature, art and the legal systems, all of which de Staël saw as inimical to her cosmopolitan point of view."[90] Byron wrote she was "sometimes right and often wrong about Italy and England – but almost always true in delineating the heart, which is of but one nation of no country, or rather, of all."[92] 

Despite her increasing ill-health, she returned to Paris for the winter of 1816–17, living at 40, rue des Mathurins. Constant argued with de Staël, who had asked him to pay off his debts to her. A warm friendship sprang up between Madame de Staël and the Duke of Wellington, whom she had first met in 1814, and she used her influence with him to have the size of the Army of Occupation greatly reduced.[93]

She had become confined to her house, paralyzed since 21 February 1817. She died on 14 July 1817. Her deathbed conversion to Roman Catholicism, after reading Thomas à Kempis, was reported[citation needed] but is subject to some debate. Wellington remarked that, while he knew that she was greatly afraid of death, he had thought her incapable of believing in the afterlife.[93] Wellington makes no mention of de Stael reading Thomas à Kempis in the quote found in Elizabeth Longford's biography of the Iron Duke. Furthermore, he reports hearsay, which may explain why two modern biographies of de Staël – Herold and Fairweather – discount the conversion entirely. Herold states that "her last deed in life was to reaffirm in her "Considerations, her faith in Enlightenment, freedom, and progress."[94] Fairweather makes no mention of the conversion at all.[95] Rocca survived her by little more than six months.


Offspring[edit]

  
Madame de Staël and her daughter Albertine by Marguerite Gérard



Beside two daughters, Gustava Sofia Magdalena (born July 1787) and Gustava Hedvig (died August 1789), who died in infancy, she had two sons, Ludwig August (1790–1827), Albert (November 1792 – July 1813), and a daughter, Albertine, baroness Staël von Holstein (June 1797 – 1838). It is believed Louis, Comte de Narbonne-Lara was the father of Ludvig August and Albert, and Benjamin Constant the father of red-haired Albertine.[96] With Albert de Rocca, de Staël then aged 46, had one son, the disabled Louis-Alphonse de Rocca (April 1812 – 1842), who would marry Marie-Louise-Antoinette de Rambuteau, daughter of Claude-Philibert Barthelot de Rambuteau,[48] and granddaughter of De Narbonne.[97] Even as she gave birth, there were fifteen people in her bedroom.[98]

After the death of her husband, Mathieu de Montmorency became the legal guardian of her children. Like August Schlegel he was one of her intimates until the end of her life.


Legacy[edit]

Albertine Necker de Saussure, married to her cousin, wrote her biography in 1821, published as part of the collected works. Auguste Comte included Mme de Staël in his 1849 Calendar of Great Men. Her political legacy has been generally identified with a stout defence of "liberal" values: equality, individual freedom and the limitation of state power by constitutional rules.[99] "Yet although she insisted to the Duke of Wellington that she needed politics in order to live, her attitude towards the propriety of female political engagement varied: at times she declared that women should simply be the guardians of domestic space for the opposite sex, while at others, that denying women access to the public sphere of activism and engagement was an abuse of human rights. This paradox partly explains the persona of the “homme-femme” she presented in society, and it remained unresolved throughout her life."[100]

Comte's disciple Frederic Harrison wrote about de Staël that her novels "precede the works of Walter Scott, Byron, Mary Shelley, and partly those of Chateaubriand, their historical importance is great in the development of modern Romanticism, of the romance of the heart, the delight in nature, and in the arts, antiquities, and history of Europe."


Precursor of feminism[edit]

Recent studies by historians, including feminists, have been assessing the specifically feminine dimension in de Staël's contributions both as an activist-theorist and as a writer about the tumultuous events of her time.[101][102] She has been called a precursor of feminism.[103][104][105]


In popular culture[edit]

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	e





	Republican activist Victor Gold quoted Madame de Staël when characterizing American Vice President Dick Cheney, "Men do not change, they unmask themselves."
	De Staël is credited in Tolstoy's epilogue to War and Peace as a factor of the 'influential forces' which historians say led to the movement of humanity in that era.[106]
	The popular wrestling compilation series Botchamania has referenced her on several occasions saying One must choose in life, between boredom and suffering which is normally followed by a humorous joke.
	Mme de Staël is used several times to characterize Mme de Grandet in Stendhal's Lucien Leuwen.
	Mme de Staël is mentioned several times, always approvingly, by Russia's national poet, Alexander Pushkin. He described her in 1825 as a woman whose persecution distinguished her and who commanded respect from all of Europe, and gave her a positive portrayal in his unfinished 1836 novel Roslavlev.[107] Her high stature in Russia is attested by Pushkin's warning to a critic: "Mme de Staël is ours, do not touch her!"[108]
	Pushkin's friend Pyotr Vyazemsky was also an admirer of her life and works.[109]
	Mme de Staël is frequently quoted by Ralph Waldo Emerson and she is credited with introducing him to recent German thought.[110]
	Herman Melville considered de Staël among the greatest women of the century and Margaret Fuller consciously adopted de Staël as her role model.[111]
	Danish radical Georg Brandes gave pride of place to de Staël in his survey of Emigrantlitteraturen and highly esteemed her novels, particularly Corinne, which was also admired by Henrik Ibsen and used as a guidebook for his travels through Italy.[112]
	Talleyrand observed with his customary cynicism that Germaine enjoyed throwing people overboard simply to have the pleasure of fishing them out of the water again.[113]
	Sismondi accused De Staël of a lack of tact, when they were travelling through Italy and wrote Mme De Staël was easily bored if she had to pay attention to things.
	For Heinrich Heine she was the "grandmother of doctrines".[114]
	For Byron she was "a good woman at heart and the cleverest at bottom, but spoilt by a wish to be — she knew not what. In her own house she was amiable; in any other person's, you wished her gone, and in her own again".[115]


Works[edit]

  
Delphine, 1803 edition.



  
De l'Allemagne, 1813 edition.



	Journal de Jeunesse, 1785
	Sophie ou les sentiments secrets, 1786 (published anonymously in 1790)
	Jane Gray, 1787 (published in 1790)
	Lettres sur le caractère et les écrits de J.-J. Rousseau, 1788[116]
	Éloge de M. de Guibert
	À quels signes peut-on reconnaître quelle est l'opinion de la majorité de la nation?
	Réflexions sur le procès de la Reine, 1793
	Zulma : fragment d'un ouvrage, 1794
	Réflexions sur la paix adressées à M. Pitt et aux Français, 1795
	Réflexions sur la paix intérieure
	Recueil de morceaux détachés (comprenant : Épître au malheur ou Adèle et Édouard, Essai sur les fictions et trois nouvelles : Mirza ou lettre d'un voyageur, Adélaïde et Théodore et Histoire de Pauline), 1795
	Essai sur les fictions, translated by Goethe into German
	De l'influence des passions sur le bonheur des individus et des nations, 1796[117]
	Des circonstances actuelles qui peuvent terminer la Révolution et des principes qui doivent fonder la République en France
	De la littérature dans ses rapports avec les institutions sociales, 1799
	Delphine, 1802 deals with the question of woman's status in a society hidebound by convention and faced with a Revolutionary new order
	Vie privée de Mr. Necker, 1804
	Épîtres sur Naples
	Corinne, ou l'Italie, 1807 is as much a travelogue as a fictional narrative. It discusses the problems of female artistic creativity in two radically different cultures, England and Italy.
	Agar dans le désert
	Geneviève de Brabant
	La Sunamite
	Le capitaine Kernadec ou sept années en un jour (comédie en deux actes et en prose)
	La signora Fantastici
	Le mannequin (comédie)
	Sapho
	De l'Allemagne, 1813, translated as Germany 1813.[118]
	Réflexions sur le suicide, 1813
	Morgan et trois nouvelles, 1813
	De l'esprit des traductions
	Considérations sur les principaux événements de la révolution française, depuis son origine jusques et compris le 8 juillet 1815, 1818 (posthumously)[119]
	Dix Années d'Exil (1818), posthumously published in France by Mdm Necker de Saussure. In 1821 translated and published as Ten Years' Exile. Memoirs of That Interesting Period of the Life of the Baroness De Stael-Holstein, Written by Herself, during the Years 1810, 1811, 1812, and 1813, and Now First Published from the Original Manuscript, by Her Son.[120]
	Essais dramatiques, 1821
	Oeuvres complètes 17 t., 1820–21
	Oeuvres complètes de Madame la Baronne de Staël-Holstein [Complete works of Madame Baron de Staël-Holstein]. Paris: Firmin Didot frères. 1836. Volume 1  ·  Volume 2


Correspondence in French[edit]

	Lettres de Madame de Staël à Madame de Récamier, première édition intégrale, présentées et annotées par Emmanuel Beau de Loménie, éditions Domat, Paris, 1952.
	Lettres sur les écrits et le caractère de J.-J. Rousseau. – De l'influence des passions sur le bonheur des individus et des nations. – De l'éducation de l'âme par la vie./Réflexions sur le suicide.  – Sous la direction de Florence Lotterie. Textes établis et présentés par Florence Lotterie. Annotation par Anne Amend Söchting, Anne Brousteau, Florence Lotterie, Laurence Vanoflen. 2008. 
ISBN 978-2-7453-1642-4.
	Correspondance générale. Texte établi et présenté par Béatrice W. Jasinski et Othenin d'Haussonville. Slatkine (Réimpression), 2008–2009.
	Volume I. 1777–1791. 
ISBN 978-2-05-102081-7.
	Volume II. 1792–1794. 
ISBN 978-2-05-102082-4.
	Volume III. 1794–1796. 
ISBN 978-2-05-102083-1.
	Volume IV. 1796–1803. 
ISBN 978-2-05-102084-8.
	Volume V. 1803–1805. 
ISBN 978-2-05-102085-5.
	Volume VI. 1805–1809. 
ISBN 978-2-05-102086-2.
	Volume VII. date:15 May 1809–23 May 1812. 
ISBN 978-2-05-102087-9.


	Madame de Staël ou l'intelligence politique. Sa pensée, ses amis, ses amants, ses ennemis…, textes de présentation et de liaison de Michel Aubouin, Omnibus, 2017. 
ISBN 978-2-258-14267-1 commentaire biblio, Lettres de Mme de Staël, extraits de ses textes politiques et de ses romans, textes et extraits de lettres de Chateaubriand, Talleyrand, Napoléon, Benjamin Constant. This edition contains extracts from her political writings and from letters addressed to her by Chateaubriand, Talleyrand, Napoleon and Benjamin Constant.


See also[edit]


	History portal
	France portal



		Wikimedia Commons has media related to Madame de Staël.


	Contributions to liberal theory
	Coppet group
	Liberalism
	Salon (gathering)
	Women in the French Revolution


References[edit]


	^ 
Wilkinson, L. R. (2017).  Hibbitt, Richard (ed.). Other Capitals of the Nineteenth Century An Alternative Mapping of Literary and Cultural Space. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 51–67.

	^ 
Simon, Sherry (2003). Gender in Translation. Routledge. pp. 61–62. ISBN 9781134820863.

	^ Staël, Germaine de, in the Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.

	^ a b c d e Bordoni, Silvia (2005) Lord Byron and Germaine de Staël, The University of Nottingham

	^ 
Madame de Staël (Anne-Louise-Germaine) (1818). Considerations on the Principal Events of the French Revolution: Posthumous Work of the Baroness de Stael. James Eastburn and Company at the literary rooms, Broadway. Clayton & Kingsland, Printers. p. 46.

	^ Mémoires de Madame de Chastenay, 1771–1815

	^ Saintsbury 1911, p. 750.

	^ 
Casillo, R. (2006). The Empire of Stereotypes: Germaine de Staël and the Idea of Italy. Springer. ISBN 9781403983213.

	^ Celebrities such as the Comte de Buffon, Jean-François Marmontel, Melchior Grimm, Edward Gibbon, the Abbé Raynal, Jean-François de la Harpe, Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, Denis Diderot, and Jean d'Alembert were frequent visitors.

	^ a b c 
"Vaud: Le château de Mezery a Jouxtens-Mezery".

	^ a b Stael and the French Revolution Introduction by Aurelian Craiutu

	^ 
Niebuhr, Barthold Georg; Michaelis, Johann David (1836). The Life of Carsten Niebuhr, the Oriental Traveller. T. Clark. p. 6.

	^ Schama, p. 257

	^ Napoleon's nemesis

	^ 
Grimm, Friedrich Melchior; Diderot, Denis (1815). Historical & literary memoirs and anecdotes. Printed for H. Colburn. p. 353.

	^ Schama, pp. 345–46.

	^ Schama, p. 382

	^ Schama, pp. 499, 536

	^ Craiutu, Aurelian A Voice of Moderation in the Age of Revolutions: Jacques Necker’s Reflections on Executive Power in Modern Society. p. 4]

	^ The Works of John Moore, M.D.: With Memoirs of His Life and Writings, Band 4 by John Moore (1820)

	^ d’Haussonville, Othénin (2004) “La liquidation du ‘dépôt’ de Necker: entre concept et idée-force”, pp. 156–158 Cahiers staëliens, 55

	^ Fontana, p. 30

	^ Fontana, p. 33

	^ Fontana, pp. 37, 41, 44

	^ Correspondance (1770–1793). Published by Évelyne Lever. Paris 2005, p. 660, 724

	^ Fontana, p. 49

	^ "Mémoires de Malouet", p. 221

	^ Schama, pp. 624, 631

	^ Fontana, p. 61

	^ Moore, p. 138

	^ Herold, p. 272

	^ 
Madame de Staël (Anne-Louise-Germaine) (1818). Considerations on the Principal Events of the French Revolution. Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy. p. 75.

	^ 
Ballard, Richard (2011). A New Dictionary of the French Revolution. I.B.Tauris. p. 341. ISBN 978-0-85772-090-0.

	^ It was Tallien who announced the September Massacres and sent off the famous circular of 3 September to the French provinces, recommending them to take similar action.

	^ a b 
Anne Louise Germaine de Staël (2012). Selected Correspondence. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 110. ISBN 978-94-011-4283-0.

	^ Moore, p. 15

	^ Fontana, p. 113

	^ The fall of Maximilien Robespierre had opened the way back to Paris.

	^ Fontana, p. 125

	^ Müller, p. 29.

	^ Moore, p. 332

	^ Fontana, p. 178; Moore, p. 335

	^ Moore, p. 345, 349

	^ Fontana, p.159

	^ Fontana, p. 159

	^ Moore, p. 348

	^ Moore, pp. 350–352

	^ a b c d e Anne-Louise-Germaine Necker, Baroness de Staël-Holstein (1766–1817) by Petri Liukkonen

	^ 
Madame de Staël (Anne-Louise-Germaine) (1818). Considerations on the Principal Events of the French Revolution: Posthumous Work of the Baroness de Stael. James Eastburn and Company at the literary rooms, Broadway. Clayton & Kingsland, Printers. pp. 90, 95–96.

	^ 
Madame de Staël (1818). Considerations on the Principal Events of the French Revolution: Posthumous Work of the Baroness de Stael. James Eastburn and Company at the literary rooms, Broadway. Clayton & Kingsland, Printers. p. 42.

	^ Goodden, p. 18

	^ Moore, p. 379

	^ Memoirs of Madame de Remusat, trans. Cashel Hoey and John Lillie, p. 407. Books.Google.com

	^ Saintsbury 1911, p. 751.

	^ From the Introduction to Madame de Staël (1987) Delphine. Edition critique par S. Balayé & L. Omacini. Librairie Droz S.A. Génève

	^ Fontana, p. 204

	^ 
"Un journaliste contre-révolutionnaire, Jean-Gabriel Peltier (1760–1825) – Etudes Révolutionnaires". Etudes-revolutionnaires.org. 7 October 2011. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 17 September 2013.

	^ Fontana, p. 263, note 47

	^ Fontana, p. 205

	^ Müller, p. 292

	^ 
Sainte-Beuve, Charles Augustin (1891). Portraits of Women. A. C. M'Clurg. p. 107.

	^ 
Jonas, Fritz, ed. (1892). Schillers Briefe. Kritische Gesamtausgabe. Vol VII. Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt. p. 109.

	^ 
Graf, Hans Gerhard; Leitzmann, Albert, eds. (1955). Der Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe. Leipzig. pp. 474–485.

	^ Madame de Staël von Klaus-Werner Haupt

	^ Herold, p. 304

	^ 
Panizza, Letizia; Wood, Sharon. A History of Women's Writing in Italy. p. 144.

	^ The novel prompted, none too inspiringly, The Corinna of England, and a Heroine in the Shade (1809) by E. M. Foster, in which retribution is wreaked on a shallowly portrayed version of the French author's heroine.

	^ Goodden, p. 61

	^ Fontana, p. 230

	^ Herold, p. 290

	^ 
Stevens, A. (1881). Madame de Stael: A Study of her Life and Times, the First Revolution and the First Empire. London: John Murray. pp. 15–23.

	^ Schlegel and Madame de Staël have endeavored to reduce poetry to two systems, classical and romantic.

	^ Ferber, Michael (2010) Romanticism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 
ISBN 978-0-19-956891-8.

	^ Madame de Staël et Maurice O’Donnell (1805–1817), d’apres des letters inedites, by Jean Mistler, published by Calmann-Levy, Editeurs, 3 rue Auber, Paris, 1926.

	^ Goodden, p. 73

	^ Müller

	^ a b Fontana, p. 206

	^ 
Staël (Anne-Louise-Germaine, Madame de); Auguste Louis Staël-Holstein (baron de) (1821). Ten years' exile: or, Memoirs of that interesting period of the life of the Baroness de Stael-Holstein. Printed for Treuttel and Würtz. pp. 101–110.

	^ Ten Years' After, p. 219, 224, 264, 268, 271

	^ Ten Years' Exile, p. 350-352

	^ Ten Years' Exile, p. 421

	^ Ten Years' Exile, p. 380

	^ 
Tolstoy, Leo (2017). The Complete Works of Leo Tolstoy. Musaicum Books. pp. 2583–. ISBN 978-80-7583-455-3.

	^ Zamoyski, Adam. (2007) Rites of Peace. The fall of Napoleon & the Congress of Vienna. Harper Perennial. p. 105. 
ISBN 978-0060775193

	^ Nicholson, pp. 184-185

	^ Lord Byron and Germaine de Staël by Silvia Bordoni, p. 4

	^ Fontana, p. 227.

	^ Fontana, p. 208.

	^ BLJ, January 8, 1814; 4:19.

	^ a b 
Wilkes, Joanne (1999). Lord Byron and Madame de Staël: Born for Opposition. London: Ashgate. ISBN 1-84014699-0.

	^ 
de Staël, Germaine (2008).  Craiutu, Aurelian (ed.). Considerations on the Principal Events of the French Revolution: Newly Revised Translation of the 1818 English Edition (PDF). Indianapolis: Liberty Fund. p. xvii. ISBN 978-0-86597-731-0.

	^ Nicholson, pp. 223–224

	^ a b 
Longford, Elizabeth (1972). Wellington: Pillar of State. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 38.

	^ Herold, p. 392

	^ 
Fairweather, Maria (2005). Madame de Stäel. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0786713394.

	^ Goodden, p. 31

	^ Moore, p. 390

	^ Moore, p. 8

	^ Fontana, p. 234.

	^ 
Goodden, Angelica (2007). "The Man-Woman and the Idiot: Madame de Staël's Public/Private Life". Forum for Modern Language Studies. 43 (1): 34–45. doi:10.1093/fmls/cql117.

	^ 
Marso, Lori J. (2002). "Defending the Queen: Wollstonecraft and Staël on the Politics of Sensibility and Feminine Difference". The Eighteenth Century. University of Pennsylvania Press. 43 (1): 43–60. JSTOR 41468201.

	^ 
Moore, L. (2007). Liberty: The Lives and Times of Six Women in Revolutionary France.

	^ 
Popowicz, Kamil (2013). Madame de Staël (in Polish). 4. Warsaw: Collegium Civitas.

	^ 
Casillo, R. (2006). The Empire of Stereotypes: Germaine de Staël and the Idea of Italy. Springer. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-4039-8321-3.

	^ 
Powell, Sara (1994). "Women Writers in Revolution: Feminism in Germaine de Staël and Ding Ling". WKU, Masters Theses & Specialist Projects. Paper 948. Retrieved 15 February 2020.

	^ 
Abramowitz, Michael (2 April 2007). "Rightist Indignation". Washington Post. Retrieved 30 June 2007.

	^ 
Hasty, Olga Peters (1999). Pushkin's Tatiana. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 245. ISBN 9780299164041.

	^ 
Vincent, Patrick H. (2004). The Romantic Poetess: European Culture, Politics, and Gender, 1820–1840. UPNE. pp. 79–80. ISBN 978-1584654308.

	^ 
Rossettini, Olga (1963). "Madame de Staël et la Russie". Rivista de Letterature Moderne e Comparate. 16 (1): 50–67.

	^ 
"Emerson – Roots – Madame DeStael". transcendentalism-legacy.tamu.edu.

	^ 
Porte, Joel (1991). In Respect to Egotism: Studies in American Romantic Writing. Cambridge University Press. p. 23.

	^ 
Moi, Toril (2006). Henrik Ibsen and the Birth of Modernism: Art, Theater, Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p. 83.

	^ Moore, p. 350

	^ Sämtliche Schriften (Anm. 2), Bd. 3, S. 882 f.

	^ Nicholson, p. 222

	^ LETTRES SUR LE CARACTÈRE ET LES ÉCRITS DE JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU

	^ A Treatise on the influence of Passions on the Happiness of indivuals and of nations

	^ 
Madame de Staël (Anne-Louise-Germaine) (1813). Germany. John Murray. pp. 1–.

	^ Considérations sur les principaux événements de la révolution française

	^ Ten Years' Exile by Madame de Staël





Sources[edit]

	
Fontana, Biancamaria (2016). Germaine de Staël: A Political Portrait. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691169040.
	
Goodden, Angelica (2008). Madame de Staël : the dangerous exile. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199238095.
	
Herold, J. Christopher (2002). Mistress to an Age: A Life of Madame de Staël. Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-3837-8.
	
Moore, L. (2007). Liberty. The Lives and Times of Six Women in Revolutionary France.
	
Müller, Olaf (2008). "Madame de Staël und Weimar. Europäische Dimensionen einer Begegnung" (PDF).  In Hellmut Th. Seemann (ed.). Europa in Weimar. Visionen eines Kontinents. Jahrbuch der Klassik Stiftung Weimar. Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag.
	
Nicholson, Andrew, ed. (1991). Lord Byron: The Complete Miscellaneous Prose. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0198185437.
	
Schama, Simon (1989). Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution. Random House. ISBN 0-679-72610-1.
	 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: 
Saintsbury, George (1911). "Staël, Madame de".  In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 750–752.


Further reading[edit]

	Fairweather, Maria. Madame de Staël. New York: Carroll & Graf, 2005 (hardcover, 
ISBN 0-7867-1339-9); 2006 (paperback, 
ISBN 0-7867-1705-X); London: Constable & Robinson, 2005 (hardcover, 
ISBN 1-84119-816-1); 2006 (paperback, 
ISBN 1-84529-227-8).
	Hilt, Douglas. "Madame De Staël: Emotion and Emancipation" History Today (Dec 1972), Vol. 22 Issue 12, pp 833-842 online.
	
Sluga, Glenda (2014). "Madame de Staël and the Transformation of European Politics, 1812–17". The International History Review. 37: 142–166. doi:10.1080/07075332.2013.852607. S2CID 144713712.
	Winegarten, Renee. Germaine de Staël & Benjamin Constant: a Dual Biography. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008 (
ISBN 9780300119251).
	Winegarten, Renee. Mme. de Staël. Dover, NH : Berg, 1985 (
ISBN 0907582877).
	(in French) Bredin, Jean-Denis. Une singulière famille: Jacques Necker, Suzanne Necker et Germaine de Staël. Paris: Fayard, 1999 (
ISBN 2213602808).
	
Garonna, Paolo (2010). L'Europe de Coppet – Essai sur l'Europe de demain (in French). Le Mont-sur-Lausanne: LEP Éditions Loisirs et Pėdagogie. ISBN 978-2-606-01369-1.
	
Hofmann, Étienne, ed. (1982). Benjamin Constant, Madame de Staël et le Groupe de Coppet: Actes du Deuxième Congrès de Lausanne à l'occasion du 150e anniversaire de la mort de Benjamin Constant Et Du Troisième Colloque de Coppet, 15-19 juilliet 1980 (in French). Oxford, The Voltaire Foundation and Lausanne, Institut Benjamin Constant. ISBN 0-7294-0280-0.


External links[edit]

		Wikiquote has quotations related to: Germaine de Staël


	Library resources about 
 Germaine de Staël 

	
	Online books
	Resources in your library
	Resources in other libraries


	
By Germaine de Staël
	
	Online books
	Resources in your library
	Resources in other libraries




	Stael and the French Revolution Introduction by Aurelian Craiutu
	BBC4 In Our Time on Germaine de Staël
	Madame de Staël and the Transformation of European Politics, 1812–17 by Glenda Sluga. In: The International history review 37(1):142–166 · November 2014
	(in French) Stael.org, with detailed chronology
	(in French) BNF.fr (Searching "stael").
	Works by Germaine de Staël at Project Gutenberg
	Works by or about Germaine de Staël at Internet Archive
	"Staël, Germaine de" in The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition: 2001–05.
	The Great de Staël by Richard Holmes from The New York Review of Books
	http://www.dieterwunderlich.de/madame_Germaine_de_Stael.htm


	
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French Revolution

	
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	Significant civil and political events by year

	1788	
	Day of the Tiles (7 Jun 1788)
	Assembly of Vizille (21 Jul 1788)




	1789	
	What Is the Third Estate? (Jan 1789)
	Réveillon riots (28 Apr 1789)
	Convocation of the Estates General (5 May 1789)
	Death of the Dauphin (4 June 1789)
	National Assembly (17 Jun – 9 Jul 1790)
	Tennis Court Oath (20 Jun 1789)
	National Constituent Assembly (9 Jul – 30 Sep 1791)
	Storming of the Bastille (14 Jul 1789)
	Great Fear (20 Jul – 5 Aug 1789)
	Abolition of Feudalism (4-11 Aug 1789)
	Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (27 Aug 1789)
	Women's March on Versailles (5 Oct 1789)




	1790	
	Abolition of the Parlements (Feb–Jul 1790)
	Abolition of the Nobility (19 Jun 1790)
	Civil Constitution of the Clergy (12 Jul 1790)
	Fête de la Fédération (14 Jul 1790)




	1791	
	Flight to Varennes (20–21 Jun 1791)
	Champ de Mars massacre (17 Jul 1791)
	Declaration of Pillnitz (27 Aug 1791)
	The Constitution of 1791 (3 Sep 1791)
	National Legislative Assembly (1 Oct 1791 – Sep 1792)




	1792	
	France declares war (20 Apr 1792)
	Brunswick Manifesto (25 Jul 1792)
	Paris Commune becomes insurrectionary (Jun 1792)
	10th of August (10 Aug 1792)
	September Massacres (Sep 1792)
	National Convention (20 Sep 1792 – 26 Oct 1795)
	First republic declared (22 Sep 1792)




	1793	
	Execution of Louis XVI (21 Jan 1793)
	Revolutionary Tribunal (9 Mar 1793 – 31 May 1795)
	Reign of Terror (27 Jun 1793 – 27 Jul 1794)
	Committee of Public Safety
	Committee of General Security


	Fall of the Girondists (2 Jun 1793)
	Assassination of Marat (13 Jul 1793)
	Levée en masse (23 Aug 1793)
	The Death of Marat (painting)
	Law of Suspects (17 Sep 1793)
	Marie Antoinette is guillotined (16 Oct 1793)
	Anti-clerical laws (throughout the year)




	1794	
	Danton and Desmoulins guillotined (5 Apr 1794)
	Law of 22 Prairial (10 Jun 1794)
	Thermidorian Reaction (27 Jul 1794)
	Robespierre guillotined (28 Jul 1794)
	White Terror (Fall 1794)
	Closing of the Jacobin Club (11 Nov 1794)




	1795–6	
	Constitution of the Year III (22 Aug 1795)
	Directoire (1795–99)
	Council of Five Hundred
	Council of Ancients


	13 Vendémiaire 5 Oct 1795
	Conspiracy of the Equals (May 1796)




	1797	
	Coup of 18 Fructidor (4 Sep 1797)
	Second Congress of Rastatt (Dec 1797)




	1799	
	Coup of 30 Prairial VII (18 Jun 1799)
	Coup of 18 Brumaire (9 Nov 1799)
	Constitution of the Year VIII (24 Dec 1799)
	Consulate







	
	Revolutionary campaigns

	1792	
	Verdun
	Thionville
	Valmy
	Royalist Revolts
	Chouannerie
	Vendée
	Dauphiné


	Lille
	Siege of Mainz
	Jemappes
	Namur [fr]




	1793	
	First Coalition
	War in the Vendée
	Battle of Neerwinden)
	Battle of Famars (23 May 1793)
	Expedition to Sardinia (21 Dec 1792 - 25 May 1793)
	Battle of Kaiserslautern
	Siege of Mainz
	Battle of Wattignies
	Battle of Hondschoote
	Siege of Bellegarde
	Battle of Peyrestortes (Pyrenees)
	Siege of Toulon (18 Sep – 18 Dec 1793)
	First Battle of Wissembourg (13 Oct 1793)
	Battle of Truillas (Pyrenees)
	Second Battle of Wissembourg (26–27 Dec 1793)




	1794	
	Battle of Villers-en-Cauchies (24 Apr 1794)
	Second Battle of Boulou (Pyrenees) (30 Apr – 1 May 1794)
	Battle of Tourcoing (18 May 1794)
	Battle of Tournay (22 May 1794)
	Battle of Fleurus (26 Jun 1794)
	Chouannerie
	Battle of Aldenhoven (2 Oct 1794)




	1795	
	Peace of Basel




	1796	
	Battle of Lonato (3–4 Aug 1796)
	Battle of Castiglione (5 Aug 1796)
	Battle of Theiningen
	Battle of Neresheim (11 Aug 1796)
	Battle of Amberg (24 Aug 1796)
	Battle of Würzburg (3 Sep 1796)
	Battle of Rovereto (4 Sep 1796)
	First Battle of Bassano (8 Sep 1796)
	Battle of Emmendingen (19 Oct 1796)
	Battle of Schliengen (26 Oct 1796)
	Second Battle of Bassano (6 Nov 1796)
	Battle of Calliano (6–7 Nov 1796)
	Battle of Arcole (15–17 Nov 1796)
	Ireland expedition (Dec 1796)




	1797	
	Naval Engagement off Brittany (13 Jan 1797)
	Battle of Rivoli (14–15 Jan 1797)
	Battle of the Bay of Cádiz (25 Jan 1797)
	Treaty of Leoben (17 Apr 1797)
	Battle of Neuwied (18 Apr 1797)
	Treaty of Campo Formio (17 Oct 1797)




	1798	
	French invasion of Switzerland (28 January – 17 May 1798)
	French Invasion of Egypt (1798–1801)
	Irish Rebellion of 1798 (23 May – 23 Sep 1798)
	Quasi-War (1798–1800)
	Peasants' War (12 Oct – 5 Dec 1798)




	1799	
	Second Coalition (1798–1802)
	Siege of Acre (20 Mar – 21 May 1799)
	Battle of Ostrach (20–21 Mar 1799)
	Battle of Stockach (25 Mar 1799)
	Battle of Magnano (5 Apr 1799)
	Battle of Cassano (27 Apr 1799)
	First Battle of Zurich (4–7 Jun 1799)
	Battle of Trebbia (19 Jun 1799)
	Battle of Novi (15 Aug 1799)
	Second Battle of Zurich (25–26 Sep 1799)




	1800	
	Battle of Marengo (14 Jun 1800)
	Convention of Alessandria (15 Jun 1800)
	Battle of Hohenlinden (3 Dec 1800)
	League of Armed Neutrality (1800–02)




	1801	
	Treaty of Lunéville (9 Feb 1801)
	Treaty of Florence (18 Mar 1801)
	Algeciras campaign (8 Jul 1801)




	1802	
	Treaty of Amiens (25 Mar 1802)







	
	Military leaders

	 France	
	French Army	
	Eustache Charles d'Aoust
	Pierre Augereau
	Alexandre de Beauharnais
	Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte
	Louis-Alexandre Berthier
	Jean-Baptiste Bessières
	Guillaume Brune
	Jean François Carteaux
	Jean-Étienne Championnet
	Chapuis de Tourville
	Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine
	Louis-Nicolas Davout
	Louis Desaix
	Jacques François Dugommier
	Thomas-Alexandre Dumas
	Charles François Dumouriez
	Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino
	Louis-Charles de Flers
	Paul Grenier
	Emmanuel de Grouchy
	Jacques Maurice Hatry
	Lazare Hoche
	Jean-Baptiste Jourdan
	François Christophe de Kellermann
	Jean-Baptiste Kléber
	Pierre Choderlos de Laclos
	Jean Lannes
	Charles Leclerc
	Claude Lecourbe
	François Joseph Lefebvre
	Jacques MacDonald
	Jean-Antoine Marbot
	Marcellin Marbot
	François Séverin Marceau
	Auguste de Marmont
	André Masséna
	Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey
	Jean Victor Marie Moreau
	Édouard Mortier, Duke of Trévise
	Joachim Murat
	Michel Ney
	Pierre-Jacques Osten [fr]
	Nicolas Oudinot
	Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon
	Jean-Charles Pichegru
	Józef Poniatowski
	Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr
	Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer
	Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier
	Joseph Souham
	Jean-de-Dieu Soult
	Louis-Gabriel Suchet
	Belgrand de Vaubois
	Claude Victor-Perrin, Duc de Belluno




	French Navy	
	Charles-Alexandre Linois







	Opposition	
	 Austria	
	József Alvinczi
	Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen
	Count of Clerfayt (Walloon)
	Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg
	Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze (Swiss)
	Friedrich Adolf, Count von Kalckreuth
	Pál Kray (Hungarian)
	Charles Eugene, Prince of Lambesc (French)
	Maximilian Baillet de Latour (Walloon)
	Karl Mack von Leiberich
	Rudolf Ritter von Otto (Saxon)
	Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld
	Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich
	Prince Heinrich XV of Reuss-Plauen
	Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló (Hungarian)
	Karl Philipp Sebottendorf
	Dagobert von Wurmser




	 Britain	
	Sir Ralph Abercromby
	James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez
	Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth
	Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany




	 Netherlands	
	William V, Prince of Orange




	 Prussia	
	Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick
	Frederick Louis, Prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen




	 Russia	
	Alexander Korsakov
	Alexander Suvorov




	 Spain	
	Luis Firmin de Carvajal
	Antonio Ricardos










	
	Other significant figures and factions

	Patriotic Society of 1789	
	Jean Sylvain Bailly
	Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette
	François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt
	Isaac René Guy le Chapelier
	Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau
	Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès
	Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord
	Nicolas de Condorcet




	Feuillants
and monarchiens
	
	Madame de Lamballe
	Madame du Barry
	Louis de Breteuil
	Loménie de Brienne
	Charles Alexandre de Calonne
	de Chateaubriand
	Jean Chouan
	Grace Elliott
	Arnaud de La Porte
	Jean-Sifrein Maury
	Jacques Necker
	François-Marie, marquis de Barthélemy
	Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas
	Antoine Barnave
	Lafayette
	Alexandre-Théodore-Victor, comte de Lameth
	Charles Malo François Lameth
	André Chénier
	Jean-François Rewbell
	Camille Jordan
	Madame de Staël
	Boissy d'Anglas
	Jean-Charles Pichegru
	Pierre Paul Royer-Collard
	Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac




	Girondins	
	Jacques Pierre Brissot
	Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière
	Madame Roland
	Father Henri Grégoire
	Étienne Clavière
	Marquis de Condorcet
	Charlotte Corday
	Marie Jean Hérault
	Jean Baptiste Treilhard
	Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud
	Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve
	Jean Debry
	Jean-Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil
	Olympe de Gouges
	Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet
	Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux




	The Plain	
	Abbé Sieyès
	de Cambacérès
	Charles-François Lebrun
	Pierre-Joseph Cambon
	Bertrand Barère
	Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot
	Philippe Égalité
	Louis Philippe I
	Mirabeau
	Antoine Christophe Merlin de Thionville
	Jean Joseph Mounier
	Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours
	François de Neufchâteau




	Montagnards	
	Maximilien Robespierre
	Georges Danton
	Jean-Paul Marat
	Camille Desmoulins
	Louis Antoine de Saint-Just
	Paul Barras
	Louis Philippe I
	Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau
	Jacques-Louis David
	Marquis de Sade
	Georges Couthon
	Roger Ducos
	Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois
	Jean-Henri Voulland
	Philippe-Antoine Merlin de Douai
	Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville
	Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas
	Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier
	Jean-Pierre-André Amar
	Prieur de la Côte-d'Or
	Prieur de la Marne
	Gilbert Romme
	Jean Bon Saint-André
	Jean-Lambert Tallien
	Pierre Louis Prieur
	Antoine Christophe Saliceti




	Hébertists
and Enragés	
	Jacques Hébert
	Jacques-Nicolas Billaud-Varenne
	Pierre Gaspard Chaumette
	Charles-Philippe Ronsin
	Antoine-François Momoro
	François-Nicolas Vincent
	François Chabot
	Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte
	Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel
	François Hanriot
	Jacques Roux
	Stanislas-Marie Maillard
	Charles-Philippe Ronsin
	Jean-François Varlet
	Theophile Leclerc
	Claire Lacombe
	Pauline Léon
	Gracchus Babeuf
	Sylvain Maréchal




	Others	
	Charles X
	Louis XVI
	Louis XVII
	Louis XVIII
	Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien
	Louis Henri, Prince of Condé
	Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé
	Marie Antoinette
	Napoléon Bonaparte
	Lucien Bonaparte
	Joseph Bonaparte
	Joseph Fesch
	Empress Joséphine
	Joachim Murat
	Jean Sylvain Bailly
	Jacques-Donatien Le Ray
	Guillaume-Chrétien de Malesherbes
	Talleyrand
	Thérésa Tallien
	Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target
	Catherine Théot
	List of people associated with the French Revolution







	
	Influential thinkers

	
	Les Lumières
	Beaumarchais
	Edmund Burke
	Anacharsis Cloots
	Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
	Pierre Claude François Daunou
	Diderot
	Benjamin Franklin
	Thomas Jefferson
	Antoine Lavoisier
	Montesquieu
	Thomas Paine
	Jean-Jacques Rousseau
	Abbé Sieyès
	Voltaire
	Mary Wollstonecraft







	
	Cultural impact

	
	La Marseillaise
	Cockade of France
	Flag of France
	Liberté, égalité, fraternité
	Marianne
	Bastille Day
	Panthéon
	French Republican calendar
	Metric system
	Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
	Cult of the Supreme Being
	Cult of Reason
	Temple of Reason


	Sans-culottes
	Phrygian cap
	Women in the French Revolution
	Incroyables and merveilleuses
	Symbolism in the French Revolution
	Historiography of the French Revolution
	Influence of the French Revolution










	
	v
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	e


Social and political philosophy

	Ancient
philosophers	
	Aristotle
	Chanakya
	Cicero
	Confucius
	Han Fei
	Lactantius
	Laozi
	Mencius
	Mozi
	Origen
	Plato
	Polybius
	Shang
	Socrates
	Sun Tzu
	Tertullian
	Thucydides
	Valluvar
	Xenophon
	Xunzi




	Medieval
philosophers	
	Alpharabius
	Augustine
	Averroes
	Baldus
	Bartolus
	Bruni
	Dante
	Gelasius
	al-Ghazali
	Giles
	Hostiensis
	Ibn Khaldun
	John of Paris
	John of Salisbury
	Latini
	Maimonides
	Marsilius
	Nizam al-Mulk
	Photios
	Thomas Aquinas
	Wang
	William of Ockham




	Early modern
philosophers	
	Beza
	Bodin
	Bossuet
	Botero
	Buchanan
	Calvin
	Cumberland
	Duplessis-Mornay
	Erasmus
	Filmer
	Grotius
	Guicciardini
	Harrington
	Hayashi
	Hobbes
	Hotman
	Huang
	Leibniz
	Locke
	Luther
	Machiavelli
	Malebranche
	Mariana
	Milton
	Montaigne
	More
	Müntzer
	Naudé
	Pufendorf
	Rohan
	Sansovino
	Sidney
	Spinoza
	Suárez




	18th–19th-century
philosophers	
	Bakunin
	Bentham
	Bonald
	Bosanquet
	Burke
	Comte
	Constant
	Emerson
	Engels
	Fichte
	Fourier
	Franklin
	Godwin
	Hamann
	Hegel
	Herder
	Hume
	Jefferson
	Justi
	Kant
	political philosophy


	Kierkegaard
	Le Bon
	Le Play
	Madison
	Maistre
	Marx
	Mazzini
	Mill
	Montesquieu
	Möser
	Nietzsche
	Novalis
	Paine
	Renan
	Rousseau
	Royce
	Sade
	Schiller
	Smith
	Spencer
	Stirner
	Taine
	Thoreau
	Tocqueville
	Vico
	Vivekananda
	Voltaire




	20th–21st-century
philosophers	
	Adorno
	Ambedkar
	Arendt
	Aurobindo
	Aron
	Azurmendi
	Badiou
	Baudrillard
	Bauman
	Benoist
	Berlin
	Bernstein
	Butler
	Camus
	Chomsky
	De Beauvoir
	Debord
	Du Bois
	Durkheim
	Dworkin
	Foucault
	Gandhi
	Gauthier
	Gehlen
	Gentile
	Gramsci
	Habermas
	Hayek
	Heidegger
	Irigaray
	Kautsky
	Kirk
	Kropotkin
	Laclau
	Lenin
	Luxemburg
	Mao
	Mansfield
	Marcuse
	Maritain
	Michels
	Mises
	Mou
	Mouffe
	Negri
	Niebuhr
	Nozick
	Nursî
	Oakeshott
	Ortega
	Pareto
	Pettit
	Plamenatz
	Polanyi
	Popper
	Qutb
	Radhakrishnan
	Rand
	Rawls
	Rothbard
	Russell
	Santayana
	Sartre
	Scanlon
	Schmitt
	Searle
	Shariati
	Simmel
	Simonović
	Skinner
	Sombart
	Sorel
	Spann
	Spirito
	Strauss
	Sun
	Taylor
	Walzer
	Weber
	Žižek




	Social theories	
	Anarchism
	Authoritarianism
	Collectivism
	Communism
	Communitarianism
	Conflict theories
	Confucianism
	Consensus theory
	Conservatism
	Contractualism
	Cosmopolitanism
	Culturalism
	Fascism
	Feminist political theory
	Gandhism
	Individualism
	Islam
	Islamism
	Legalism
	Liberalism
	Libertarianism
	Mohism
	National liberalism
	Republicanism
	Social constructionism
	Social constructivism
	Social Darwinism
	Social determinism
	Socialism
	Utilitarianism




	Concepts	
	Civil disobedience
	Democracy
	Four occupations
	Justice
	Law
	Mandate of Heaven
	Peace
	Property
	Revolution
	Rights
	Social contract
	Society
	War
	more...




	Related articles	
	Jurisprudence
	Philosophy and economics
	Philosophy of education
	Philosophy of history
	Philosophy of love
	Philosophy of sex
	Philosophy of social science
	Political ethics
	Social epistemology




	
	Category







	
	v
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	e


Romanticism

	Countries	
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	Movements	
	Bohemianism
	Coppet group
	Counter-Enlightenment
	Dark romanticism
	Düsseldorf School
	Gesamtkunstwerk
	Gothic fiction
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	Ossian
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	Romanticism and Bacon
	Romanticism in science
	Romantic nationalism
	Romantic poetry
	Opium and Romanticism
	Transcendentalism
	Ultra-Romanticism
	Wallenrodism




	Writers	
	Abovian
	Abreu
	Alencar
	Alfieri
	Alves
	Andersen
	A. v. Arnim
	B. v. Arnim
	Azevedo
	Baratashvili
	Baratynsky
	Barbauld (Aikin)
	Batyushkov
	Baudelaire
	Bécquer
	Beer
	Bertrand
	Blake
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	Burns
	Byron
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	Castilho
	Chateaubriand
	Chavchavadze
	Clare
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	Cooper
	De Quincey
	Dias
	Dumas
	Eichendorff
	Emerson
	Eminescu
	Espronceda
	Fouqué
	Foscolo
	Frashëri
	Fredro
	Freire
	Garrett
	Gautier
	Goethe
	Grimm Brothers
	Günderrode
	Gutiérrez
	Gutzkow
	Hauff
	Hawthorne
	Heine
	Heliade
	Herculano
	Hoffmann
	Hölderlin
	Hugo
	Kostić
	Irving
	Isaacs
	Jakšić
	Jean Paul
	Karamzin
	Keats
	Kleist
	Krasiński
	Küchelbecker
	Lamartine
	Landor
	Lenau
	Leopardi
	Lermontov
	Longfellow
	Lowell
	Macedonski
	Macedo
	Mácha
	Magalhães
	Malczewski
	Manzoni
	Maturin
	Mérimée
	Mickiewicz
	Mörike
	Musset
	Nalbandian
	Nerval
	Njegoš
	Nodier
	Norwid
	Novalis
	Oehlenschläger
	O'Neddy
	Orbeliani
	Poe
	Polidori
	Potocki
	Prešeren
	Pushkin
	Raffi
	Saavedra
	Sand
	Schiller
	Schwab
	Scott
	Seward
	M. Shelley
	P. B. Shelley
	Shevchenko
	Słowacki
	Southey
	De Staël
	Stendhal
	Tieck
	Tyutchev
	Uhland
	Varela
	Vörösmarty
	Vyazemsky
	Wordsworth
	Zhukovsky
	Zorrilla




	Music	
	Adam
	Alkan
	Auber
	Beethoven
	Bellini
	Bennett
	Berlioz
	Bertin
	Berwald
	Busoni
	Brahms
	Bruch
	Bruckner
	Cherubini
	Chopin
	Czerny
	Félicien David
	Ferdinand David
	Donizetti
	Dvořák
	Elgar
	Fauré
	Field
	Franck
	Franz
	Glinka
	Grieg
	Gomis
	Halévy
	Hummel
	Joachim
	Kalkbrenner
	Liszt
	Loewe
	Mahler
	Marschner
	Masarnau
	Medtner
	Méhul
	Fanny Mendelssohn
	Felix Mendelssohn
	Méreaux
	Meyerbeer
	Moniuszko
	Moscheles
	Moszkowski
	Mussorgsky
	Niedermeyer
	Onslow
	Paganini
	Paderewski
	Prudent
	Rachmaninoff
	Reicha
	Rimsky-Korsakov
	Rossini
	Rubinstein
	Saint-Saëns
	Schubert
	Clara Schumann
	Robert Schumann
	Scriabin
	Sibelius
	Smetana
	Sor
	Spohr
	Spontini
	Richard Strauss
	Tchaikovsky
	Thalberg
	Verdi
	Voříšek
	Wagner
	Weber
	Wolf




	Theologians and
philosophers
	
	Barante
	Belinsky
	Berchet
	Chaadayev
	Coleridge
	Constant
	Díaz
	Emerson
	Feuerbach
	Fichte
	Goethe
	Hazlitt
	Hegel
	Hunt
	Khomyakov
	Lamennais
	Larra
	Mazzini
	Michelet
	Müller
	Pellico
	Quinet
	Ritschl
	Rousseau
	Schiller
	A. Schlegel
	F. Schlegel
	Schleiermacher
	Senancour
	De Staël
	Tieck
	Wackenroder




	Visual artists	
	Aivazovsky
	Bierstadt
	Blake
	Bonington
	Bryullov
	Chassériau
	Church
	Constable
	Cole
	Corot
	Dahl
	David d'Angers
	Delacroix
	Friedrich
	Fuseli
	Géricault
	Girodet
	Głowacki
	Goya
	Gude
	Hayez
	Janmot
	Jones
	Kiprensky
	Koch
	Lampi
	Leutze
	Loutherbourg
	Maison
	Martin
	Michałowski
	Palmer
	Porto-Alegre
	Préault
	Révoil
	Richard
	Rude
	Runge
	Saleh
	Scheffer
	Stattler
	Stroj
	Tidemand
	Todorović
	Tropinin
	Turner
	Veit
	Ward
	Wiertz




	Related topics	
	German idealism
	Historical fiction
	Mal du siècle
	Medievalism
	Neo-romanticism
	Preromanticism
	Post-romanticism
	Sturm und Drang




	 « Age of Enlightenment 
 Realism » 





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	BIBSYS: 90095224
	BNE: XX1134693
	BNF: cb11925397h (data)
	CANTIC: a10458104
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	GND: 118616617
	HDS: 016051
	ICCU: IT\ICCU\RAVV\062478
	ISNI: 0000 0001 2259 1946
	LCCN: n78089038
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	MBA: 3c9d6d2a-4507-4f1e-a94a-60221739020b
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	 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n78089038














Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germaine_de_Staël&oldid=998492491"


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		 This page was last edited on 5 January 2021, at 16:48 (UTC).
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