Jeremy Bentham - Wikipedia Jeremy Bentham From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search British philosopher, jurist, and social reformer Jeremy Bentham Portrait by Henry William Pickersgill Born (1748-02-15)15 February 1748 London, England, Kingdom of Great Britain Died 6 June 1832(1832-06-06) (aged 84) London, England, United Kingdom Education The Queen's College, Oxford (BA, MA) Era 18th-century philosophy 19th-century philosophy School Utilitarianism Legal positivism Liberalism Epicureanism Main interests Political philosophy, philosophy of law, ethics, economics Notable ideas Greatest happiness principle, Radical Consequentialism[1] Influences Protagoras Epicurus John Locke David Hume Montesquieu Helvétius Hobbes Beccaria Adam Smith Influenced John Stuart Mill Thomas Hodgskin William Thompson Henry Sidgwick Michel Foucault Peter Singer John Austin Robert Owen H. L. A. Hart Francis Y. Edgeworth A. V. Dicey[2] Étienne Dumont Signature Part of a series on Liberalism History Age of Enlightenment List of liberal theorists (contributions to liberal theory) Ideas Civil and political rights Cultural liberalism Democracy Democratic capitalism Economic freedom Economic liberalism Egalitarianism Free market Free trade Freedom of the press Freedom of religion Freedom of speech Gender equality Harm principle Internationalism Laissez-faire Liberty Market economy Natural and legal rights Negative/positive liberty Non-aggression Principle Open society Permissive society Private property Rule of law Secularism Separation of church and state Social contract Welfare state Schools of thought Anarcho-capitalism Classical liberalism Radical liberalism Left-libertarianism Geolibertarianism Right-libertarianism Conservative liberalism Democratic liberalism Green liberalism Liberal autocracy Liberal Catholicism Liberal conservatism Liberal feminism Equity feminism Liberal internationalism Liberal nationalism Liberal socialism Social democracy Muscular liberalism Neoliberalism National liberalism Ordoliberalism Radical centrism Religious liberalism Christian Islamic Jewish Secular liberalism Social liberalism Technoliberalism Third Way Whiggism People Acton Alain Alberdi Alembert Arnold Aron Badawi Barante Bastiat Bentham Berlin Beveridge Bobbio Brentano Bright Broglie Burke Čapek Cassirer Chicherin Chu Chydenius Clinton Cobden Collingdood Condorcet Constant Croce Cuoco Dahrendorf Decy Dewey Dickens Diderot Dongsun Dunoyer Dworkin Einaudi Emerson Eötvös Flach Friedman Galbraith Garrison George Gladstone Gobetti Gomes Gray Green Gu Guizot Hayek Herbert Hobbes Hobhouse Hobson Holbach Hu Humboldt Jefferson Jubani Kant Kelsen Kemal Keynes Korais Korwin-Mikke Kymlicka Lamartine Larra Lecky Li Lincoln Locke Lufti Macaulay Madariaga Madison Martineau Masani Michelet Mill (father) Mill (son) Milton Mises Molteno Mommsen Money Montalembert Montesquieu Mora Mouffe Naoroji Naumann Nozick Nussbaum Obama Ohlin Ortega Paine Paton Popper Price Priestley Prieto Quesnay Qin Ramírez Rathenau Rawls Raz Renan Renouvier Renzi Ricardo Röpke Rorthy Rosmini Rosselli Rousseau Ruggiero Sarmiento Say Sen Earl of Shaftesbury Shklar Sidney Sieyès Şinasi Sismondi Smith Soto Polar Spencer Spinoza Staël Sumner Tahtawi Tao Thierry Thorbecke Thoreau Tocqueville Tracy Troeltsch Turgot Villemain Voltaire Ward Weber Wollstonecraft Zambrano Organizations Africa Liberal Network Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party Arab Liberal Federation Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats European Democratic Party European Liberal Youth European Party for Individual Liberty International Alliance of Libertarian Parties International Federation of Liberal Youth Liberal International Liberal Network for Latin America Liberal parties Liberal South East European Network Regional variants Europe Latin America Albania Armenia Australia Austria Belgium Bolivia Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Chile Colombia Croatia Cuba Cyprus Czech lands Denmark Ecuador Egypt Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Honduras Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India Iran Israel Italy Japan Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Mexico Moldova Montenegro Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Nigeria Norway Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Russia Senegal Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain South Africa South Korea Sweden Switzerland Thailand Tunisia Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom United States Arizona School Classical Modern Uruguay Venezuela Zimbabwe Related topics Bias in academia Bias in the media  Liberalism portal  Politics portal v t e Jeremy Bentham (/ˈbɛnθəm/; 15 February 1748 [O.S. 4 February 1747][3] – 6 June 1832) was an English philosopher, jurist, and social reformer regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianism.[4][5] Bentham defined as the "fundamental axiom" of his philosophy the principle that "it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong."[6][7] He became a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law, and a political radical whose ideas influenced the development of welfarism. He advocated individual and economic freedoms, the separation of church and state, freedom of expression, equal rights for women, the right to divorce, and (in an unpublished essay) the decriminalising of homosexual acts.[8][9] He called for the abolition of slavery, capital punishment and physical punishment, including that of children.[10] He has also become known as an early advocate of animal rights.[11][12][13][14] Though strongly in favour of the extension of individual legal rights, he opposed the idea of natural law and natural rights (both of which are considered "divine" or "God-given" in origin), calling them "nonsense upon stilts."[4][15] Bentham was also a sharp critic of legal fictions. Bentham's students included his secretary and collaborator James Mill, the latter's son, John Stuart Mill, the legal philosopher John Austin, American writer and activist John Neal, as well as Robert Owen, one of the founders of utopian socialism. He "had considerable influence on the reform of prisons, schools, poor laws, law courts, and Parliament itself."[16] On his death in 1832, Bentham left instructions for his body to be first dissected, and then to be permanently preserved as an "auto-icon" (or self-image), which would be his memorial. This was done, and the auto-icon is now on public display in the entrance of the Student Centre at University College London (UCL). Because of his arguments in favour of the general availability of education, he has been described as the "spiritual founder" of UCL. However, he played only a limited direct part in its foundation.[17] Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early life 1.2 Personal life 1.3 Abortive prison project and the Panopticon 1.4 Correspondence and contemporary influences 1.5 South Australian colony proposal 1.6 Westminster Review 1.7 Old age 1.8 Legacy 2 Work 2.1 Utilitarianism 2.1.1 Hedonistic/felicific calculus 2.1.2 Criticisms 2.2 Economics 2.3 Law reform 2.4 Animal rights 2.5 Gender and sexuality 2.6 Privacy 2.7 Fictional entities 3 University College London 4 Bibliography 4.1 Publications 4.2 Posthumous publications 4.2.1 Bowring (1838–1843) 4.2.2 Stark (1952–1954) 4.2.3 Bentham Project (1968–present) 5 Death and the auto-icon 6 See also 7 References 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Sources 8 Further reading 9 External links Biography[edit] Early life[edit] Portrait of Bentham by the studio of Thomas Frye, 1760–1762 Bentham was born on 15 February 1748 in Houndsditch, London,[18] to a wealthy family that supported the Tory party. He was reportedly a child prodigy: he was found as a toddler sitting at his father's desk reading a multi-volume history of England, and he began to study Latin at the age of three.[19] He learnt to play the violin, and at the age of seven Bentham would perform sonatas by Handel during dinner parties.[20][incomplete short citation] He had one surviving sibling, Samuel Bentham (1757–1831), with whom he was close. He attended Westminster School; in 1760, at age 12, his father sent him to The Queen's College, Oxford, where he completed his bachelor's degree in 1763 and his master's degree in 1766. He trained as a lawyer and, though he never practised, was called to the bar in 1769. He became deeply frustrated with the complexity of English law, which he termed the "Demon of Chicane".[21] When the American colonies published their Declaration of Independence in July 1776, the British government did not issue any official response but instead secretly commissioned London lawyer and pamphleteer John Lind to publish a rebuttal.[22] His 130-page tract was distributed in the colonies and contained an essay titled "Short Review of the Declaration" written by Bentham, a friend of Lind, which attacked and mocked the Americans' political philosophy.[23][24] Personal life[edit] Bentham lived a life somewhat distant from common worldly concerns. His daily pattern was to rise at 6am, walk for 2 hours or more, and then work until 4pm.[25] Abortive prison project and the Panopticon[edit] In 1786 and 1787, Bentham travelled to Krichev in White Russia (modern Belarus) to visit his brother, Samuel, who was engaged in managing various industrial and other projects for Prince Potemkin. It was Samuel (as Jeremy later repeatedly acknowledged) who conceived the basic idea of a circular building at the hub of a larger compound as a means of allowing a small number of managers to oversee the activities of a large and unskilled workforce.[26][27] Bentham began to develop this model, particularly as applicable to prisons, and outlined his ideas in a series of letters sent home to his father in England.[28] He supplemented the supervisory principle with the idea of contract management; that is, an administration by contract as opposed to trust, where the director would have a pecuniary interest in lowering the average rate of mortality.[29] The Panopticon was intended to be cheaper than the prisons of his time, as it required fewer staff; "Allow me to construct a prison on this model," Bentham requested to a Committee for the Reform of Criminal Law, "I will be the gaoler. You will see...that the gaoler will have no salary—will cost nothing to the nation." As the watchmen cannot be seen, they need not be on duty at all times, effectively leaving the watching to the watched. According to Bentham's design, the prisoners would also be used as menial labour, walking on wheels to spin looms or run a water wheel. This would decrease the cost of the prison and give a possible source of income.[30] The ultimately abortive proposal for a panopticon prison to be built in England was one among his many proposals for legal and social reform.[31] But Bentham spent some sixteen years of his life developing and refining his ideas for the building and hoped that the government would adopt the plan for a National Penitentiary appointing him as contractor-governor. Although the prison was never built, the concept had an important influence on later generations of thinkers. Twentieth-century French philosopher Michel Foucault argued that the panopticon was paradigmatic of several 19th-century "disciplinary" institutions.[32] Bentham remained bitter throughout his later life about the rejection of the panopticon scheme, convinced that it had been thwarted by the King and an aristocratic elite. It was largely because of his sense of injustice and frustration that he developed his ideas of "sinister interest"—that is, of the vested interests of the powerful conspiring against a wider public interest—which underpinned many of his broader arguments for reform.[33] Elevation, section and plan of Bentham's panopticon prison, drawn by Willey Reveley in 1791. On his return to England from Russia, Bentham had commissioned drawings from an architect, Willey Reveley.[34] In 1791, he published the material he had written as a book, although he continued to refine his proposals for many years to come. He had by now decided that he wanted to see the prison built: when finished, it would be managed by himself as contractor-governor, with the assistance of Samuel. After unsuccessful attempts to interest the authorities in Ireland and revolutionary France,[35] he started trying to persuade the prime minister, William Pitt, to revive an earlier abandoned scheme for a National Penitentiary in England, this time to be built as a panopticon. He was eventually successful in winning over Pitt and his advisors, and in 1794 was paid £2,000 for preliminary work on the project.[36] The intended site was one that had been authorised (under an act of 1779) for the earlier Penitentiary, at Battersea Rise; but the new proposals ran into technical legal problems and objections from the local landowner, Earl Spencer.[37] Other sites were considered, including one at Hanging Wood, near Woolwich, but all proved unsatisfactory.[38] Eventually Bentham turned to a site at Tothill Fields, near Westminster. Although this was common land, with no landowner, there were a number of parties with interests in it, including Earl Grosvenor, who owned a house on an adjacent site and objected to the idea of a prison overlooking it. Again, therefore, the scheme ground to a halt.[39] At this point, however, it became clear that a nearby site at Millbank, adjoining the Thames, was available for sale, and this time things ran more smoothly. Using government money, Bentham bought the land on behalf of the Crown for £12,000 in November 1799.[40] From his point of view, the site was far from ideal, being marshy, unhealthy, and too small. When he asked the government for more land and more money, however, the response was that he should build only a small-scale experimental prison—which he interpreted as meaning that there was little real commitment to the concept of the panopticon as a cornerstone of penal reform.[41] Negotiations continued, but in 1801 Pitt resigned from office, and in 1803 the new Addington administration decided not to proceed with the project.[42] Bentham was devastated: "They have murdered my best days."[43] Nevertheless, a few years later the government revived the idea of a National Penitentiary, and in 1811 and 1812 returned specifically to the idea of a panopticon.[44] Bentham, now aged 63, was still willing to be governor. However, as it became clear that there was still no real commitment to the proposal, he abandoned hope, and instead turned his attentions to extracting financial compensation for his years of fruitless effort. His initial claim was for the enormous sum of nearly £700,000, but he eventually settled for the more modest (but still considerable) sum of £23,000.[45] An Act of Parliament in 1812 transferred his title in the site to the Crown.[46] More successful was his cooperation with Patrick Colquhoun in tackling the corruption in the Pool of London. This resulted in the Thames Police Bill of 1798, which was passed in 1800.[a] The bill created the Thames River Police, which was the first preventive police force in the country and was a precedent for Robert Peel's reforms 30 years later.[48]:67–9 Correspondence and contemporary influences[edit] Bentham was in correspondence with many influential people. In the 1780s, for example, Bentham maintained a correspondence with the aging Adam Smith, in an unsuccessful attempt to convince Smith that interest rates should be allowed to freely float.[49] As a result of his correspondence with Mirabeau and other leaders of the French Revolution, Bentham was declared an honorary citizen of France.[50] He was an outspoken critic of the revolutionary discourse of natural rights and of the violence that arose after the Jacobins took power (1792). Between 1808 and 1810, he held a personal friendship with Latin American revolutionary Francisco de Miranda and paid visits to Miranda's Grafton Way house in London. He also developed links with José Cecilio del Valle.[51][52] South Australian colony proposal[edit] Bentham contributed to a plan to found a new colony in South Australia: in 1831 a "Proposal to His Majesty's Government for founding a colony on the Southern Coast of Australia" was prepared under the auspices of Robert Gouger, Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey, Anthony Bacon and Bentham, but its ideas were considered too radical, and it was unable to attract the required investment.[53] Westminster Review[edit] In 1823, he co-founded The Westminster Review with James Mill as a journal for the "Philosophical Radicals"—a group of younger disciples through whom Bentham exerted considerable influence in British public life.[54][55] One was John Bowring, to whom Bentham became devoted, describing their relationship as "son and father": he appointed Bowring political editor of The Westminster Review and eventually his literary executor.[56] Another was Edwin Chadwick, who wrote on hygiene, sanitation and policing and was a major contributor to the Poor Law Amendment Act: Bentham employed Chadwick as a secretary and bequeathed him a large legacy.[48]:94 Old age[edit] An insight into his character is given in Michael St. John Packe's The Life of John Stuart Mill: During his youthful visits to Bowood House, the country seat of his patron Lord Lansdowne, he had passed his time at falling unsuccessfully in love with all the ladies of the house, whom he courted with a clumsy jocularity, while playing chess with them or giving them lessons on the harpsichord. Hopeful to the last, at the age of eighty he wrote again to one of them, recalling to her memory the far-off days when she had "presented him, in ceremony, with the flower in the green lane" [citing Bentham's memoirs]. To the end of his life he could not hear of Bowood without tears swimming in his eyes, and he was forced to exclaim, "Take me forward, I entreat you, to the future—do not let me go back to the past."[57] A psychobiographical study by Philip Lucas and Anne Sheeran argues that he may have had Asperger's syndrome.[58] Bentham was an atheist.[59] Legacy[edit] The Faculty of Laws at University College London occupies Bentham House, next to the main UCL campus.[60] Bentham's name was adopted by the Australian litigation funder IMF Limited to become Bentham IMF Limited on 28 November 2013, in recognition of Bentham being "among the first to support the utility of litigation funding".[61] Work[edit] Utilitarianism[edit] Part of a series on Utilitarianism Predecessors Epicurus Śāntideva David Hume Claude Adrien Helvétius William Godwin Francis Hutcheson William Paley Key proponents Jeremy Bentham John Stuart Mill Henry Sidgwick R. M. Hare Peter Singer Types of utilitarianism Negative Rule Act Two-level Total Average Preference Classical Key concepts Pain Suffering Pleasure Utility Happiness Eudaimonia Consequentialism Felicific calculus Problems Demandingness objection Mere addition paradox Paradox of hedonism Utility monster Related topics Rational choice theory Game theory Social choice Neoclassical economics Population ethics Effective altruism Politics portal v t e Bentham's ambition in life was to create a "Pannomion," a complete utilitarian code of law. He not only proposed many legal and social reforms, but also expounded an underlying moral principle on which they should be based. This philosophy of utilitarianism took for its "fundamental axiom" to be the notion that it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong.[62] Bentham claimed to have borrowed this concept from the writings of Joseph Priestley,[63] although the closest that Priestley in fact came to expressing it was in the form "the good and happiness of the members, that is the majority of the members of any state, is the great standard by which every thing [sic] relating to that state must finally be determined."[64] Bentham was a rare major figure in the history of philosophy to endorse psychological egoism.[65] He was also a determined opponent of religion, as Crimmins observes: "Between 1809 and 1823 Jeremy Bentham carried out an exhaustive examination of religion with the declared aim of extirpating religious beliefs, even the idea of religion itself, from the minds of men."[59] Bentham also suggested a procedure for estimating the moral status of any action, which he called the hedonistic or felicific calculus. Principle of utility The principle of utility, or "greatest happiness principle," forms the cornerstone of all Bentham's thought. By "happiness," he understood a predominance of "pleasure" over "pain." He wrote in An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation:[66] Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand the standard of right and wrong, on the other the chain of causes and effects, are fastened to their throne. They govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think.… Bentham's Principles of Morals and Legislation focuses on the principle of utility and how this view of morality ties into legislative practices.[67] His principle of utility regards good as that which produces the greatest amount of pleasure and the minimum amount of pain and evil as that which produces the most pain without the pleasure. This concept of pleasure and pain is defined by Bentham as physical as well as spiritual. Bentham writes about this principle as it manifests itself within the legislation of a society.[67] In order to measure the extent of pain or pleasure that a certain decision will create, he lays down a set of criteria divided into the categories of intensity, duration, certainty, proximity, productiveness, purity, and extent.[67] Using these measurements, he reviews the concept of punishment and when it should be used as far as whether a punishment will create more pleasure or more pain for a society. He calls for legislators to determine whether punishment creates an even more evil offence. Instead of suppressing the evil acts, Bentham argues that certain unnecessary laws and punishments could ultimately lead to new and more dangerous vices than those being punished to begin with, and calls upon legislators to measure the pleasures and pains associated with any legislation and to form laws in order to create the greatest good for the greatest number. He argues that the concept of the individual pursuing his or her own happiness cannot be necessarily declared "right", because often these individual pursuits can lead to greater pain and less pleasure for a society as a whole. Therefore, the legislation of a society is vital to maintain the maximum pleasure and the minimum degree of pain for the greatest number of people.[citation needed] Hedonistic/felicific calculus[edit] In his exposition of the felicific calculus, Bentham proposed a classification of 12 pains and 14 pleasures, by which we might test the "happiness factor" of any action.[68] For Bentham, according to P. J. Kelly, the law "provides the basic framework of social interaction by delimiting spheres of personal inviolability within which individuals can form and pursue their own conceptions of well-being."[69] It provides security, a precondition for the formation of expectations. As the hedonic calculus shows "expectation utilities" to be much higher than natural ones, it follows that Bentham does not favour the sacrifice of a few to the benefit of the many. Law professor Alan Dershowitz has quoted Bentham to argue that torture should sometimes be permitted.[70] Criticisms[edit] Utilitarianism was revised and expanded by Bentham's student John Stuart Mill, who sharply criticized Bentham's view of human nature, which failed to recognize conscience as a human motive. Mill considered Bentham's view "to have done and to be doing very serious evil."[71] In Mill's hands, "Benthamism" became a major element in the liberal conception of state policy objectives. Bentham's critics have claimed that he undermined the foundation of a free society by rejecting natural rights.[72] Historian Gertrude Himmelfarb wrote "The principle of the greatest happiness of the greatest number was as inimical to the idea of liberty as to the idea of rights."[73] Bentham's "hedonistic" theory (a term from J. J. C. Smart) is often criticised for lacking a principle of fairness embodied in a conception of justice. In Bentham and the Common Law Tradition, Gerald J. Postema states: "No moral concept suffers more at Bentham's hand than the concept of justice. There is no sustained, mature analysis of the notion."[74] Thus, some critics[who?] object, it would be acceptable to torture one person if this would produce an amount of happiness in other people outweighing the unhappiness of the tortured individual. However, as P. J. Kelly argued in Utilitarianism and Distributive Justice: Jeremy Bentham and the Civil Law, Bentham had a theory of justice that prevented such consequences. Economics[edit] Defence of Usury, 1788 Part of a series on Hedonism Thinkers Ajita Kesakambali Jeremy Bentham Julien Offray de La Mettrie Aristippus Epicurus Fred Feldman Theodorus the Atheist Michel Onfray Aristippus the Younger Hermarchus Lucretius Pierre Gassendi Metrodorus of Lampsacus David Pearce Zeno of Sidon Yang Zhu Torbjörn Tännsjö Esperanza Guisán Schools of hedonism Cārvāka Cyrenaics Epicureanism Christian hedonism Utilitarianism Yangism Key concepts Aponia Ataraxia Eudaimonia Happiness Hedone Pain Pleasure Sensation Suffering Tetrapharmakos Libertine Related articles Paradox of hedonism Hedonic treadmill v t e Bentham's opinions about monetary economics were completely different from those of David Ricardo; however, they had some similarities to those of Henry Thornton. He focused on monetary expansion as a means of helping to create full employment. He was also aware of the relevance of forced saving, propensity to consume, the saving-investment relationship, and other matters that form the content of modern income and employment analysis. His monetary view was close to the fundamental concepts employed in his model of utilitarian decision making. His work is considered to be an early precursor of modern welfare economics.[citation needed] Bentham stated that pleasures and pains can be ranked according to their value or "dimension" such as intensity, duration, certainty of a pleasure or a pain. He was concerned with maxima and minima of pleasures and pains; and they set a precedent for the future employment of the maximisation principle in the economics of the consumer, the firm and the search for an optimum in welfare economics.[75] Bentham advocated "Pauper Management" which involved the creation of a chain of large workhouses.[76][77] Law reform[edit] Bentham was the first person to be an aggressive advocate for the codification of all of the common law into a coherent set of statutes; he was actually the person who coined the verb "to codify" to refer to the process of drafting a legal code.[78] He lobbied hard for the formation of codification commissions in both England and the United States, and went so far as to write to President James Madison in 1811 to volunteer to write a complete legal code for the young country. After he learned more about American law and realised that most of it was state-based, he promptly wrote to the governors of every single state with the same offer. During his lifetime, Bentham's codification efforts were completely unsuccessful. Even today, they have been completely rejected by almost every common law jurisdiction, including England. However, his writings on the subject laid the foundation for the moderately successful codification work of David Dudley Field II in the United States a generation later.[78] Animal rights[edit] Bentham is widely regarded as one of the earliest proponents of animal rights.[14] He argued and believed that the ability to suffer, not the ability to reason, should be the benchmark, or what he called the "insuperable line". If reason alone were the criterion by which we judge who ought to have rights, human infants and adults with certain forms of disability might fall short, too.[79] In 1780, alluding to the limited degree of legal protection afforded to slaves in the French West Indies by the Code Noir, he wrote:[79]:309n The day has been, I am sad to say in many places it is not yet past, in which the greater part of the species, under the denomination of slaves, have been treated by the law exactly upon the same footing, as, in England for example, the inferior races of animals are still. The day may come when the rest of the animal creation may acquire those rights which never could have been witholden from them but by the hand of tyranny. The French have already discovered that the blackness of the skin is no reason a human being should be abandoned without redress to the caprice of a tormentor. It may one day come to be recognised that the number of the legs, the villosity of the skin, or the termination of the os sacrum are reasons equally insufficient for abandoning a sensitive being to the same fate. What else is it that should trace the insuperable line? Is it the faculty of reason or perhaps the faculty of discourse? But a full-grown horse or dog, is beyond comparison a more rational, as well as a more conversable animal, than an infant of a day or a week or even a month, old. But suppose the case were otherwise, what would it avail? The question is not, Can they reason? nor, Can they talk? but, Can they suffer? Earlier in the paragraph, Bentham makes clear that he accepted that animals could be killed for food, or in defence of human life, provided that the animal was not made to suffer unnecessarily. Bentham did not object to medical experiments on animals, providing that the experiments had in mind a particular goal of benefit to humanity, and had a reasonable chance of achieving that goal. He wrote that otherwise he had a "decided and insuperable objection" to causing pain to animals, in part because of the harmful effects such practices might have on human beings. In a letter to the editor of the Morning Chronicle in March 1825, he wrote: I never have seen, nor ever can see, any objection to the putting of dogs and other inferior animals to pain, in the way of medical experiment, when that experiment has a determinate object, beneficial to mankind, accompanied with a fair prospect of the accomplishment of it. But I have a decided and insuperable objection to the putting of them to pain without any such view. To my apprehension, every act by which, without prospect of preponderant good, pain is knowingly and willingly produced in any being whatsoever, is an act of cruelty; and, like other bad habits, the more the correspondent habit is indulged in, the stronger it grows, and the more frequently productive of its bad fruit. I am unable to comprehend how it should be, that to him to whom it is a matter of amusement to see a dog or a horse suffer, it should not be matter of like amusement to see a man suffer; seeing, as I do, how much more morality as well as intelligence, an adult quadruped of those and many other species has in him, than any biped has for some months after he has been brought into existence; nor does it appear to me how it should be, that a person to whom the production of pain, either in the one or in the other instance, is a source of amusement, would scruple to give himself that amusement when he could do so under an assurance of impunity.[80] Gender and sexuality[edit] Bentham said that it was the placing of women in a legally inferior position that made him choose in 1759, at the age of eleven, the career of a reformist,[81] though American critic John Neal claimed to have convinced him to take up women's rights issues during their association between 1825 and 1827.[82][83] Bentham spoke for a complete equality between the sexes, arguing in favour of women's suffrage, a woman's right to obtain a divorce, and a woman's right to hold political office. Bentham (1780) nevertheless thought women inferior to men regarding such qualities as "strength of intellectual powers" and "firmness of mind."[84] The c. 1785 essay "Paederasty (Offences Against One's Self)"[8] argued for the liberalisation of laws prohibiting homosexual sex.[85] The essay remained unpublished during his lifetime for fear of offending public morality. Some of Bentham's writings on 'sexual non-conformity' were published for the first time in 1931,[9] but Paederasty was not published until 1978.[86] Bentham does not believe homosexual acts to be unnatural, describing them merely as "irregularities of the venereal appetite". The essay chastises the society of the time for making a disproportionate response to what Bentham appears to consider a largely private offence—public displays or forced acts being dealt with rightly by other laws. When the essay was published in the Journal of Homosexuality in 1978, the "Abstract" stated that Bentham's essay was the "first known argument for homosexual law reform in England."[8] Privacy[edit] For Bentham, transparency had moral value. For example, journalism puts power-holders under moral scrutiny. However, Bentham wanted such transparency to apply to everyone. This he describes by picturing the world as a gymnasium in which each "gesture, every turn of limb or feature, in those whose motions have a visible impact on the general happiness, will be noticed and marked down."[87] He considered both surveillance and transparency to be useful ways of generating understanding and improvements for people's lives.[88] Fictional entities[edit] Bentham distinguished among fictional entities what he called "fabulous entities" like Prince Hamlet or a centaur, from what he termed "fictitious entities", or necessary objects of discourse, similar to Kant's categories,[89] such as nature, custom, or the social contract.[90] University College London[edit] Bentham is widely associated with the foundation in 1826 of London University (the institution that, in 1836, became University College London), though he was 78 years old when the University opened and played only an indirect role in its establishment. His direct involvement was limited to his buying a single £100 share in the new University, making him just one of over a thousand shareholders.[91] Henry Tonks' imaginary scene of Bentham approving the building plans of London University Bentham and his ideas can nonetheless be seen as having inspired several of the actual founders of the University. He strongly believed that education should be more widely available, particularly to those who were not wealthy or who did not belong to the established church; in Bentham's time, membership of the Church of England and the capacity to bear considerable expenses were required of students entering the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. As the University of London was the first in England to admit all, regardless of race, creed or political belief, it was largely consistent with Bentham's vision. There is some evidence that, from the sidelines, he played a "more than passive part" in the planning discussions for the new institution, although it is also apparent that "his interest was greater than his influence".[91] He failed in his efforts to see his disciple John Bowring appointed professor of English or History, but he did oversee the appointment of another pupil, John Austin, as the first professor of Jurisprudence in 1829. The more direct associations between Bentham and UCL—the College's custody of his Auto-icon (see above) and of the majority of his surviving papers—postdate his death by some years: the papers were donated in 1849, and the Auto-icon in 1850. A large painting by Henry Tonks hanging in UCL's Flaxman Gallery depicts Bentham approving the plans of the new university, but it was executed in 1922 and the scene is entirely imaginary. Since 1959 (when the Bentham Committee was first established) UCL has hosted the Bentham Project, which is progressively publishing a definitive edition of Bentham's writings. UCL now endeavours to acknowledge Bentham's influence on its foundation, while avoiding any suggestion of direct involvement, by describing him as its "spiritual founder".[17] Bibliography[edit] The back of No. 19, York Street (1848). In 1651 John Milton moved into a "pretty garden-house" in Petty France. He lived there until the Restoration. Later it became No. 19 York Street, belonged to Jeremy Bentham (who for a time lived next door), was occupied successively by James Mill and William Hazlitt, and finally demolished in 1877.[92][93] Jeremy Bentham House in Bethnal Green, East London; a modernist apartment block named after the philosopher Bentham was an obsessive writer and reviser, but was constitutionally incapable, except on rare occasions, of bringing his work to completion and publication.[58] Most of what appeared in print in his lifetime[94] was prepared for publication by others. Several of his works first appeared in French translation, prepared for the press by Étienne Dumont, for example, Theory of Legislation, Volume 2 (Principles of the Penal Code) 1840, Weeks, Jordan, & Company. Boston. Some made their first appearance in English in the 1820s as a result of back-translation from Dumont's 1802 collection (and redaction) of Bentham's writing on civil and penal legislation. Publications[edit] 1787. Panopticon or the Inspection-House  – via Wikisource. 1787. Defence of Usury.[95] A series of thirteen "Letters" addressed to Adam Smith. 1776. A fragment on government. This was an unsparing criticism of some introductory passages relating to political theory in William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England. The book, published anonymously, was well received and credited to some of the greatest minds of the time. Bentham disagreed with Blackstone's defence of judge-made law, his defence of legal fictions, his theological formulation of the doctrine of mixed government, his appeal to a social contract and his use of the vocabulary of natural law. Bentham's "Fragment" was only a small part of a Commentary on the Commentaries, which remained unpublished until the twentieth century. 1780. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. London: T. Payne and Sons.[96] 1785 (publ. 1978). "Offences Against One's Self," edited by L. Crompton. Journal of Homosexuality 3(4)389–405. Continued in vol. 4(1). doi:10.1300/J082v03n04_07. ISSN 0091-8369. PMID 353189.[97] 1776. Short Review of the Declaration  – via Wikisource. An attack on the United States Declaration of Independence. 1791. "Essay on Political Tactics" (1st ed.). London: T. Payne.[98] 1796. Anarchical Fallacies; Being an examination of the Declaration of Rights issued during the French Revolution.[99] An attack on the Declaration of the Rights of Man decreed by the French Revolution, and critique of the natural rights philosophy underlying it.[100] 1802. Traités de législation civile et pénale, 3 vols, edited by Étienne Dumont. 1811. Punishments and Rewards. 1812. Panopticon versus New South Wales: or, the Panopticon Penitentiary System, Compared. Includes: Two Letters to Lord Pelham, Secretary of State, Comparing the two Systems on the Ground of Expediency. "Plea for the Constitution: Representing the Illegalities involved in the Penal Colonization System (1803, first publ. 1812) 1816. Defence of Usury; shewing the impolicy of the present legal restraints on the terms of pecuniary bargains in a letters to a friend to which is added a letter to Adam Smith, Esq. LL.D. on the discouragement opposed by the above restraints to the progress of inventive industry (3rd ed.). London: Payne & Foss. Bentham wrote a series of thirteen "Letters" addressed to Adam Smith, published in 1787 as Defence of Usury. Bentham's main argument against the restriction is that "projectors" generate positive externalities. G. K. Chesterton identified Bentham's essay on usury as the very beginning of the "modern world." Bentham's arguments were very influential. "Writers of eminence" moved to abolish the restriction, and repeal was achieved in stages and fully achieved in England in 1854. There is little evidence as to Smith's reaction. He did not revise the offending passages in The Wealth of Nations (1776), but Smith made little or no substantial revisions after the third edition of 1784. 1817. A Table of the Springs of Action. London: sold by R. Hunter. 1817. "Swear Not At All" 1817. Plan of Parliamentary Reform, in the form of Catechism with Reasons for Each Article, with An Introduction shewing the Necessity and the Inadequacy of Moderate Reform. London: R. Hunter. 1818. Church-of-Englandism and its Catechism Examined. London: Effingham Wilson.[101] 1821. The Elements of the Art of Packing, as applied to special juries particularly in cases of libel law. London: Effingham Wilson. 1821. On the Liberty of the Press, and Public Discussion. London: Hone. 1822. The Influence of Natural Religion upon the Temporal Happiness of Mankind, written with George Grote Published under the pseudonym Philip Beauchamp. 1823. Not Paul But Jesus Published under the pseudonym Gamaliel Smith. 1824. The Book of Fallacies from Unfinished Papers of Jeremy Bentham (1st ed.). London: John and H. L. Hunt. 1825. A Treatise on Judicial Evidence Extracted from the Manuscripts of Jeremy Bentham, Esq (1st ed.), edited by M. Dumont. London: Baldwin, Cradock, & Joy. 1827. Rationale of Judicial Evidence, specially applied to English Practice, Extracted from the Manuscripts of Jeremy Bentham, Esq. I (1st ed.). London: Hunt & Clarke. 1830. Emancipate Your Colonies! Addressed to the National Convention of France A° 1793, shewing the uselessness and mischievousness of distant dependencies to an European state . London: Robert Heward – via Wikisource. 1834. Deontology or, The science of morality 1, edited by J. Bowring. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green and Longman. Posthumous publications[edit] On his death, Bentham left manuscripts amounting to an estimated 30 million words, which are now largely held by University College London's Special Collections (c. 60,000 manuscript folios) and the British Library (c. 15,000 folios). Bowring (1838–1843)[edit] John Bowring, the young radical writer who had been Bentham's intimate friend and disciple, was appointed his literary executor and charged with the task of preparing a collected edition of his works. This appeared in 11 volumes in 1838–1843. Bowring based much of his edition on previously published texts (including those of Dumont) rather than Bentham's own manuscripts, and elected not to publish Bentham's works on religion at all. The edition was described by the Edinburgh Review on first publication as "incomplete, incorrect and ill-arranged", and has since been repeatedly criticised both for its omissions and for errors of detail; while Bowring's memoir of Bentham's life included in volumes 10 and 11 was described by Sir Leslie Stephen as "one of the worst biographies in the language".[102] Nevertheless, Bowring's remained the standard edition of most of Bentham's writings for over a century, and is still only partially superseded: it includes such interesting writings on international[b] relations as Bentham's A Plan for an Universal and Perpetual Peace written 1786–89, which forms part IV of the Principles of International Law. Stark (1952–1954)[edit] In 1952–1954, Werner Stark published a three-volume set, Jeremy Bentham's Economic Writings, in which he attempted to bring together all of Bentham's writings on economic matters, including both published and unpublished material. Although a significant achievement, the work is considered by scholars to be flawed in many points of detail,[103] and a new edition of the economic writings is currently in preparation by the Bentham Project. Bentham Project (1968–present)[edit] Further information: Transcribe Bentham In 1959, the Bentham Committee was established under the auspices of University College London with the aim of producing a definitive edition of Bentham's writings. It set up the Bentham Project[104] to undertake the task, and the first volume in The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham was published in 1968. The Collected Works are providing many unpublished works, as well as much-improved texts of works already published. To date, 31 volumes have appeared; the complete edition is projected to run to around seventy. The volume Of Laws in General (1970) was found to contain many errors and has been replaced by Of the Limits of the Penal Branch of Jurisprudence (2010)[105] In June 2017, Volumes 1–5 were re-published in open access by UCL Press.[citation needed] To assist in this task, the Bentham papers at UCL are being digitised by crowdsourcing their transcription. Transcribe Bentham is an award-winning crowdsourced manuscript transcription project, run by University College London's Bentham Project,[106] in partnership with UCL's UCL Centre for Digital Humanities, UCL Library Services, UCL Learning and Media Services, the University of London Computer Centre, and the online community. The project was launched in September 2010 and is making freely available, via a specially designed transcription interface, digital images of UCL's vast Bentham Papers collection—which runs to some 60,000 manuscript folios—to engage the public and recruit volunteers to help transcribe the material. Volunteer-produced transcripts will contribute to the Bentham Project's production of the new edition of The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham, and will be uploaded to UCL's digital Bentham Papers repository,[107] widening access to the collection for all and ensuring its long-term preservation. Manuscripts can be viewed and transcribed by signing-up for a transcriber account at the Transcription Desk,[108] via the Transcribe Bentham website.[109] Free, flexible textual search of the full collection of Bentham Papers is now possible through an experimental handwritten text image indexing and search system,[110] developed by the PRHLT research center in the framework of the READ project. Death and the auto-icon[edit] Bentham's Public dissection Bentham's auto-icon in a new display case at the Student Centre in 2020. Bentham's auto-icon in 2003 Jeremy Bentham's severed head, on temporary display at UCL Bentham died on 6 June 1832 aged 84 at his residence in Queen Square Place in Westminster, London, England. He had continued to write up to a month before his death, and had made careful preparations for the dissection of his body after death and its preservation as an auto-icon. As early as 1769, when Bentham was 21 years old, he made a will leaving his body for dissection to a family friend, the physician and chemist George Fordyce, whose daughter, Maria Sophia (1765–1858), married Jeremy's brother Samuel Bentham.[18] A paper written in 1830, instructing Thomas Southwood Smith to create the auto-icon, was attached to his last will, dated 30 May 1832.[18] On 8 June 1832, two days after his death, invitations were distributed to a select group of friends, and on the following day at 3 p.m., Southwood Smith delivered a lengthy oration over Bentham's remains in the Webb Street School of Anatomy & Medicine in Southwark, London. The printed oration contains a frontispiece with an engraving of Bentham's body partly covered by a sheet.[18] Afterward, the skeleton and head were preserved and stored in a wooden cabinet called the "Auto-icon", with the skeleton padded out with hay and dressed in Bentham's clothes. Originally kept by Bentham's disciple, Thomas Southwood Smith,[111] it was acquired by University College London (UCL) in 1850. It is kept on public display at the main entrance of the UCL Student Centre. It was previously displayed at the end of the South Cloisters in the main building of the college until it was moved in 2020. Upon the retirement of Sir Malcolm Grant as provost of the College in 2013, however, the body was present at Grant's final council meeting. As of 2013, this was the only time that the body of Bentham has been taken to a UCL council meeting.[112][113] (There is a persistent myth that the body of Bentham is present at all council meetings.)[112][114] Bentham had intended the auto-icon to incorporate his actual head, mummified to resemble its appearance in life. Southwood Smith's experimental efforts at mummification, based on practices of the indigenous people of New Zealand and involving placing the head under an air pump over sulfuric acid and drawing off the fluids, although technically successful, left the head looking distastefully macabre, with dried and darkened skin stretched tautly over the skull.[18] The auto-icon was therefore given a wax head, fitted with some of Bentham's own hair. The real head was displayed in the same case as the auto-icon for many years, but became the target of repeated student pranks. It was later locked away.[114] In 2017, plans were announced to re-exhibit the head and at the same time obtain a DNA sample for sequencing with the goal of identifying genetic evidence of autism.[115] In 2020 the auto-icon was put into a new glass display case and moved to the entrance of UCL's new Student Centre on Gordon Square.[116] See also[edit] List of civil rights leaders – Wikipedia list article List of liberal theorists – Wikipedia list article Philosophy of happiness Rule according to higher law – Belief that universal principles of morality override unjust laws Rule of law – Political situation where every citizen is subject to the law References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ An Act for the More Effectual Prevention of Depredations on the River Thames (39 & 40 Geo 3 c 87)[47] ^ a word Bentham himself coined Citations[edit] ^ An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation: Chapter I: OF THE PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY ^ Follett 2000, p. 7. ^ Johnson, Will (2012). "Ancestry of Jeremy Bentham". countyhistorian. Retrieved 11 June 2018. ^ a b Sweet, William (n.d.). "Bentham, Jeremy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 11 June 2018. ^ "Jeremy Bentham". utilitarianphilosophy.com. n.d. Retrieved 11 June 2018. ^ Betham, Jeremy. A Comment on the Commentaries and a Fragment on Government, edited by J. H. Burns and H. L. A. Hart. London: The Athlone Press. 1977. p. 393. ^ Burns 2005, pp. 46–61. ^ a b c Bentham 2008, pp. 389–406. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBentham2008 (help) ^ a b Campos Boralevi 2012, p. 37. ^ Bedau 1983, pp. 1033–1065. ^ Sunstein 2004, pp. 3–4. ^ Francione 2004, p. 139: footnote 78 ^ Gruen 2003. ^ a b Benthall 2007, p. 1. ^ Harrison 1995, pp. 85–88. ^ Roberts, Roberts & Bisson 2016, p. 307. ^ a b "UCL Academic Figures". Archived from the original on 18 December 2010. ^ a b c d e Rosen, F. (2014) [2004]. "Bentham, Jeremy". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/2153. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ "Jeremy Bentham". University College London. Archived from the original on 1 January 2007. Retrieved 4 January 2007. ^ Warren 1969. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWarren1969 (help) ^ Stephen 2011, pp. 174–5. ^ Dupont & Onuf 2008, pp. 32–33. ^ Armitage 2007. ^ Anonymous 1776, p. 3. ^ https://www.utilitarianism.com/jeremy-bentham/life.html ^ Semple 1993, pp. 99–100. ^ Roth, Mitchel P (2006), Prisons and prison systems: a global encyclopedia, Greenwood, p. 33, ISBN 9780313328565 ^ Semple 1993, pp. 99–101. ^ Semple 1993, pp. 134–40. ^ Bentham, Jeremy. [1797] 1995. "The Panopticon Letters." Pp. 29–95 in The Panopticon Writings, edited by M. Božovič. London: Verso Books. ^ Bentham 1787. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBentham1787 (help) ^ Foucault 1977, pp. 200, 249–256. ^ Schofield, Philip (2009). Bentham: a guide for the perplexed. London: Continuum. pp. 90–93. ISBN 978-0-8264-9589-1. ^ Semple 1993, p. 118. ^ Semple 1993, pp. 102–4, 107–8. ^ Semple 1993, pp. 108–10, 262. ^ Semple 1993, pp. 169–89. ^ Semple 1993, pp. 194–7. ^ Semple 1993, pp. 197–217. ^ Semple 1993, pp. 217–22. ^ Semple 1993, pp. 226–31. ^ Semple 1993, pp. 236–9. ^ Semple 1993, p. 244. ^ Semple 1993, pp. 265–79. ^ Semple 1993, pp. 279–81. ^ Penitentiary House, etc. Act: 52 Geo. III, c. 44 (1812). ^ French, Stanley (n.d.). "The Early History of Thames Magistrates' Court". Thames Police Museum. Retrieved 14 June 2018. ^ a b Everett, Charles Warren. 1969. Jeremy Bentham. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0297179845. OCLC 157781. ^ Persky 2007, p. 228. ^ Bentham 2002, p. 291. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBentham2002 (help) ^ Darío, Rubén (1887). "La Literatura en Centro-América". Revista de artes y letras (in Spanish). Biblioteca Nacional de Chile. XI: 591. MC0060418. Retrieved 25 March 2019. In Guatemala there was Valle, a man of vast intellect, friend of Jeremías Bentham, with whom he corresponded frequently. Bentham sent him shortly before dying a lock of his hair and a golden ring, shiny as José Cecilio's style. ^ Laura Geggel (11 September 2018). "Oddball Philosopher Had His Mummified Body Put on Display … and Now His Rings Are Missing". Live Science. Retrieved 26 March 2019. We can safely assume that [Guatemalan philosopher and politician] José del Valle received one, as he is featured wearing it in a portrait," Causer said. "Interestingly, on the bookshelf of that portrait is one of Bentham’s works, as well as a Spanish translation of Say’s 'Traité d’économie politique.' It’s a neat, tangible link between Bentham, Say and del Valle. ^ "Foundation of the Province". SA Memory. State Library of South Australia. 5 February 2015. Retrieved 19 November 2019. ^ Hamburger 1965. ^ Thomas 1979. ^ Bartle 1963. ^ Packe 1954, p. 16. ^ a b Lucas & Sheeran 2006, pp. 26–27. ^ a b Crimmins 1986, p. 95. ^ "About UCL Laws". University College London. 2009. Retrieved 11 April 2014. ^ "About us". Bentham IMF Limited. 2013. Retrieved 11 April 2014. ^ Bentham 1776, Preface (2nd para.). sfn error: no target: CITEREFBentham1776 (help) ^ Bentham 1821, p. 24. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBentham1821 (help) ^ Priestley 1771, p. 17. ^ May, Joshua (n.d.). "Psychological Egoism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 11 June 2018. ^ Bentham, Jeremy. 1780. "Of The Principle of Utility." Pp. 1–6 in An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. London: T. Payne and Sons. eText. p. 1. ^ a b c Bentham, Jeremy, 1748-1832. (2005). An introduction to the principles of morals and legislation. [Chestnut Hill, Mass.?]: Elibron Classics. ISBN 1-4212-9048-0. OCLC 64578728.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Bentham, Jeremy. 1780. "Value of a Lot of Pleasure or Pain, How to be Measured." Pp. 26–29 in An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. London: T. Payne and Sons. eText. ^ Kelly 1990, p. 81. ^ Dershowitz, Alan M. (18 September 2014). "A choice of evils: Should democracies use torture to protect against terrorism?". The Boston Globe. Retrieved 11 June 2018. ^ Mill, John Stuart. 1897. Early Essays of John Stuart Mill. London. pp. 401–04. ^ Smith, George H. (26 June 2012). "Jeremy Bentham's Attack on Natural Rights". Libertarianism.org. Retrieved 11 June 2018. ^ Himmelfarb 1968, p. 77. ^ Postema 1986, p. 148. ^ Spiegel 1991, pp. 341–343. ^ Bentham, Jeremy (1843). "Tracts on Poor Laws and Pauper Management" (PDF). bev.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 27 March 2019. ^ Himmelfarb 1968, pp. 74–75. ^ a b Morriss 1999. ^ a b Bentham, Jeremy. 1780. "Of the Limits of the Penal Branch of Jurisprudence." Pp. 307–35 in An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. London: T. Payne and Sons. ^ Bentham, Jeremy (9 March 1825). "To the Editor of the Morning Chronicle". Morning Chronicle. London. p. 2.(subscription required) ^ Williford 1975, p. 167. ^ Lease 1978, p. 192. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLease1978 (help) ^ Daggett 1920, p. 32. ^ Bentham, Jeremy. 1780. "Of Circumstances Influencing Sensibility." Pp. 40–56 in An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. eText. London: T. Payne and Sons. p. 48. ^ Campos Boralevi 2012, p. 40. ^ Journal of Homosexuality, v.3:4(1978), p.389-405; continued in v.4:1(1978) ^ Bentham 1834, p. 101. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBentham1834 (help) ^ McStay, Andrew (8 November 2013). "Why too much privacy is bad for the economy". The Conversation. Retrieved 25 August 2014. ^ Cutrofello 2014, p. 115. ^ Murphy 2014, p. 61–62. ^ a b Harte 1998, pp. 5–8. ^ Stephen 1894, p. 32. ^ Grayling 2013, "19 York Street". ^ Anon (n.d.). "Published Works of Jeremy Bentham". socialsciences.mcmaster.ca. Retrieved 12 June 2018. ^ Bentham, Jeremy. [1787] 2008. "Gulphs in Mankind's Career of Prosperity: A Critique of Adam Smith on Interest Rate Restrictions." Econ Journal Watch 5(1):66–77. Abstract. ^ Bentham, Jeremy. 1780. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. London: T. Payne and Sons. eText. Wikisource. ^ Bentham, Jeremy. [1785] 2008. "Offences Against One's Self," edited by L. Crompton. Stonewall and Beyond: Lesbian and Gay Culture. doi:10.1300/J082v03n04_07. ISSN 0091-8369. PMID 353189. ^ Bentham, Jeremy. 1791. Essay on Political Tactics: containing six of the Principal Rules proper to be observed by a Political Assembly In the process of a Forming a Decision: with the Reasons on Which They Are Grounded; and a comparative application of them to British and French Practice: Being a Fragment of a larger Work, a sketch of which is subjoined (1st ed.). London: T. Payne. ^ Bowring, John, ed. 1838–1843. The Works of Jeremy Bentham 2. Edinburgh: William Tait. Retrieved 5 July 2020. ^ Rights, Representation, and Reform: Nonsense upon Stilts and Other Writings on the French Revolution, edited by P. Schofield, C. Pease-Watkin, and C. Blamires, eds. Oxford: University Press. 2002. ISBN 978-0-19-924863-6. ^ Bentham, Jeremy. 1818. Church-of-Englandism and its Catechism Examined. London: Effingham Wilson. ^ Bartle 1963, p. 27. ^ Schofield 2009a, pp. 475–494. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSchofield2009a (help) ^ "Bentham Project". Archived from the original on 24 May 2017. Retrieved 8 June 2002. ^ Schofield 2013, pp. 51–70. ^ "The Bentham Project". Ucl.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2012. ^ "UCL digital Bentham collection". Ucl.ac.uk. 20 August 1996. Retrieved 26 April 2012. ^ "Transcribe Bentham: Transcription Desk". Transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk. Retrieved 26 April 2012. ^ "Transcribe Bentham". Ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 26 April 2012. ^ "PRHLT text indexing and search interface for Bentham Papers". prhlt.upv.es. ^ Marmoy, C.F.A. (1958). "The 'Auto-Icon' of Jeremy Bentham at University College, London". Medical History. University College London. 2 (2): 77–86. doi:10.1017/s0025727300023486. PMC 1034365. PMID 13526538. Archived from the original on 10 February 2007. Retrieved 3 March 2007. It seems that the case with Bentham's body now rested in New Broad Street; Southwood Smith did not remove to 38 Finsbury Square until several years later. Bentham must have been seen by many visitors, including Charles Dickens. ^ a b Smallman, Etan (12 July 2013). "Bentham's corpse attends UCL board meeting". Metro. Retrieved 12 June 2018. ^ Das, Subhadra (curator) (19 November 2018). The Boring Talks [#25 Jeremy Bentham's 'Auto-Icon'] (podcast). BBC. ^ a b "UCL Bentham Project". University College London. Archived from the original on 12 November 2010. Retrieved 22 July 2011. ^ Sarah Knapton (2 October 2017). "Severed head of eccentric Jeremy Bentham to go on display as scientists test DNA to see if he was autistic". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 9 October 2017. ^ "Jeremy Bentham's Body Gets A Contentious New Box At UCL". Londonist. 24 February 2020. Retrieved 27 February 2020. Sources[edit] Armitage, David (2007). The Declaration of Independence: A Global History. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02282-9. Bartle, G. F. (1963). "Jeremy Bentham and John Bowring: a study of the relationship between Bentham and the editor of his Collected Works". Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research. 36 (93): 27–35. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2281.1963.tb00620.x. Bedau, Hugo Adam (1983). "Bentham's Utilitarian Critique of the Death Penalty". The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. 74 (3): 1033–65. doi:10.2307/1143143. JSTOR 1143143. Benthall, Jonathan (2007). "Animal liberation and rights". Anthropology Today. 23 (2): 1–3. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8322.2007.00494.x. ISSN 0268-540X. Burns, J. H. (2005). "Happiness and Utility: Jeremy Bentham's Equation". Utilitas. 17 (1): 46–61. doi:10.1017/S0953820804001396. ISSN 0953-8208. S2CID 146209080. Burns, J. H. (1989). "Bentham and Blackstone: A Lifetime's Dialectic". Utilitas. 1: 22. doi:10.1017/S0953820800000042. Campos Boralevi, Lea (2012). Bentham and the Oppressed. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-086983-5. Crimmins, James E. (1986). "Bentham on Religion: Atheism and the Secular Society". Journal of the History of Ideas. University of Pennsylvania Press. 47 (1): 95–110. doi:10.2307/2709597. JSTOR 2709597. Crimmins, James E. (1990). Secular Utilitarianism: Social Science and the Critique of Religion in the Thought of Jeremy Bentham. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-827741-5. Cutrofello, Andrew (2014). All for Nothing: Hamlet's Negativity. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-52634-0. Daggett, Windsor (1920). A Down-East Yankee From the District of Maine. Portland, Maine: A.J. Huston. Dinwiddy, John (2004). Bentham: selected writings of John Dinwiddy. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-4520-8. Dupont, Christian Y.; Onuf, Peter S., eds. (2008). Declaring Independence: The Origin and Influence of America's Founding Document : Featuring the Albert H. Small Declaration of Independence Collection. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Library. ISBN 978-0-9799997-0-3. Everett, Charles Warren (1969). Jeremy Bentham. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0297179845. OCLC 157781. Follett, R. (2000). Evangelicalism, Penal Theory and the Politics of Criminal Law: Reform in England, 1808-30. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-3276-1. Foucault, Michel (1977). Discipline and Punish: the Birth of the Prison. Translated by Alan Sheridan. Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN 9780140137224. Francione, Gary (2004). "Animals: Property or Persons". In Sunstein, Cass R.; Nussbaum, Martha C. (eds.). Animal Rights: Current Debates and New Directions. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-515217-3. González, Ana Marta (2012). Contemporary Perspectives on Natural Law: Natural Law as a Limiting Concept. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4094-8566-7. Grayling, A. C. (2013). "19 York Street". The Quarrel of the Age: The Life and Times Of William Hazlitt. ISBN 9781780226798. Gruen, Lori (1 July 2003). "The Moral Status of Animals". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Gunn, J. A. W. (1989). "Jeremy Bentham and the Public Interest". In Lively, J.; Reeve, A. (eds.). Modern Political Theory from Hobbes to Marx: Key Debates. London. pp. 199–219. Hamburger, Joseph (1965). Intellectuals in Politics: John Stuart Mill and the Philosophic Radicals. Yale University Press. Harris, Jonathan (1998). "Bernardino Rivadavia and Benthamite 'discipleship'". Latin American Research Review. 33: 129–49. Harrison, Ross (1983). Bentham. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7100-9526-0. Harrison, Ross (1995). "Jeremy Bentham". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. pp. 85–88. Hart, Jenifer (July 1965). "Nineteenth-Century Social Reform: A Tory Interpretation of History". Past & Present. 31 (31): 39–61. doi:10.1093/past/31.1.39. JSTOR 650101. Harte, Negley (1998). "The owner of share no. 633: Jeremy Bentham and University College London". In Fuller, Catherine (ed.). The Old Radical: representations of Jeremy Bentham. London: University College London. Himmelfarb, Gertrude (1968). Victorian Minds. New York: Knopf. Kelly, Paul J. (1990). Utilitarianism and distributive justice: Jeremy Bentham and the civil law. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-825418-8. Anonymous (1776). An Answer to the Declaration of the American Congress. London: T. Cadell. Lease, Benjamin (1972). That Wild Fellow John Neal and the American Literary Revolution. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-46969-7. Lucas, Philip; Sheeran, Anne (2006). "Asperger's Syndrome and the Eccentricity and Genius of Jeremy Bentham" (PDF). Journal of Bentham Studies. 8. Morriss, Andrew P. (1999). "Codification and Right Answers". Chic.-Kent L. Rev. 74: 355. McStay, Andrew (2014). Privacy and Philosophy: New Media and Affective Protocol. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-1-4331-1898-2. Murphy, James Bernard (2014). The Philosophy of Customary Law. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-937062-7. Packe, Michael St. John (1954). The Life of John Stuart Mill. London: Secker and Warburg. Persky, Joseph (1 January 2007). "Retrospectives: From Usury to Interest". The Journal of Economic Perspectives. 21 (1): 228. doi:10.1257/jep.21.1.227. JSTOR 30033709. Postema, Gerald J. (1986). Bentham and the Common Law Tradition. Oxford U. P. ISBN 978-0-19-825505-5. Priestley, Joseph (1771). An Essay on the First Principles of Government: And on the Nature of Political, Civil, and Religious Liberty. London: J. Johnson. Roberts, Clayton; Roberts, David F.; Bisson, Douglas (2016). A History of England. Volume II: 1688 to the Present (6th ed.). London and New York: Routledge. p. 307. ISBN 978-1-315-50960-0. Robinson, Dave; Groves, Judy (2003). Introducing Political Philosophy. Cambridge: Icon Books. ISBN 1-84046-450-X. Rosen, F. (1983). Jeremy Bentham and Representative Democracy: A Study of the "Constitutional Code". Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-822656-X. Rosen, Frederick (1990). "The Origins of Liberal Utilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham and Liberty". In Bellamy, R. (ed.). Victorian Liberalism: Nineteenth-century Political Thought and Practice. London. p. 5870. Rosen, Frederick (1992). Bentham, Byron, and Greece: constitutionalism, nationalism, and early liberal political thought. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-820078-1. Rosen, Frederick, ed. (2007). Jeremy Bentham. Aldershot: Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-2566-7. Schofield, Philip (2006). Utility and Democracy: The Political Thought of Jeremy Bentham. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820856-3. Schofield, Philip (2009). Bentham: a guide for the perplexed. London: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-9589-1. Schofield, Philip (2009). "Werner Stark and Jeremy Bentham's Economic Writings". History of European Ideas. 35 (4): 475–94. doi:10.1016/j.histeuroideas.2009.05.003. S2CID 144165469. Schofield, Philip (2013). "The Legal and Political Legacy of Jeremy Bentham". Annual Review of Law and Social Science. 9 (1): 51–70. doi:10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-102612-134101. Semple, Janet (1993). Bentham's Prison: a Study of the Panopticon Penitentiary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-827387-8. Spiegel, Henry William (1991). The Growth of Economic Thought (3rd ed.). Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-0973-4. Stephen, Leslie (1894). "Milton, John (1608–1674)" . In Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. 38. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 32.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Stephen, Leslie (2011). The English Utilitarians. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108041003. Sunstein, Cass R. (2004). "Animal Rights". In Sunstein, Cass R.; Nussbaum, Martha C. (eds.). Animal Rights: Current Debates and New Directions. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-515217-3. Thomas, William (1979). The Philosophic Radicals: Nine Studies in Theory and Practice, 1817-1841. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822490-7. Twining, William (1985). Theories of Evidence: Bentham and Wigmore. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-1285-9. Vergara, Francisco (1998). "A Critique of Elie Halévy; refutation of an important distortion of British moral philosophy" (PDF). Philosophy. London: Royal Institute of Philosophy. 73 (1): 97–111. doi:10.1017/s0031819197000144. Vergara, Francisco (2011). "Bentham and Mill on the "Quality" of Pleasures". Revue d'études benthamiennes. Paris (9). doi:10.4000/etudes-benthamiennes.422. ISSN 1760-7507. Williford, Miriam (1975). "Bentham on the Rights of Women". Journal of the History of Ideas. 36 (1): 167–176. doi:10.2307/2709019. ISSN 0022-5037. JSTOR 2709019. Further reading[edit]   Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Benthamism". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bentham, Jeremy" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Macdonell, John (1885). "Bentham, Jeremy" . In Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. 4. London: Smith, Elder & Co. Jeremy Bentham, "Critique of the Doctrine of Inalienable, Natural Rights", in Anarchical Fallacies, vol. 2 of Bowring (ed.), Works, 1843. Jeremy Bentham, "Offences Against One's Self: Paederasty", c. 1785, free audiobook from LibriVox. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jeremy Bentham. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Jeremy Bentham Wikisource has original works written by or about: Jeremy Bentham Portraits of Jeremy Bentham at the National Portrait Gallery, London Works by Jeremy Bentham at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Jeremy Bentham at Internet Archive Works by Jeremy Bentham at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Transcribe Bentham, initiative run by the Bentham Project that has its own website with useful links. The curious case of Jeremy Bentham at Random-Times.com Jeremy Bentham, categorised links The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy has an extensive biographical reference of Bentham. "Jeremy Bentham at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe 2007" A play-reading of the life and legacy of Jeremy Bentham. 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Beyond Anthropocentrism Magazines Arkangel Bite Back Muutoksen kevät No Compromise Satya Albums Animal Liberation (1987) Tame Yourself (1991) Manifesto (2008) Salvation of Innocents (2014) Onward to Freedom (2014) Category ( 85 ) Authority control BIBSYS: 90086941 BNC: 000042262 BNE: XX837533 BNF: cb11891300m (data) CANTIC: a11736161 CiNii: DA0020353X GND: 118509187 ISNI: 0000 0001 2280 5406 LCCN: n79040051 LNB: 000030272 NDL: 00432936 NKC: jn20000700153 NLA: 35017525 NLG: 93950 NLI: 000603986 NLK: KAC199602226 NLP: A12091388 NSK: 000401821 NTA: 068416091 PLWABN: 9810622158205606 RERO: 02-A002991604 SELIBR: 177417 SNAC: w6g165zd SUDOC: 027476847 Trove: 792072 VcBA: 495/129112 VIAF: 59078842 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79040051 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jeremy_Bentham&oldid=998375124" Categories: Jeremy Bentham 1748 births 1832 deaths 18th-century atheists 18th-century British philosophers 18th-century English non-fiction writers 18th century in LGBT 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