Paradigm - Wikipedia Paradigm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Distinct concepts or thought patterns or archetypes For other uses, see Paradigm (disambiguation). This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize its key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (July 2020) In science and philosophy, a paradigm (/ˈpærədaɪm/) is a distinct set of concepts or thought patterns, including theories, research methods, postulates, and standards for what constitutes legitimate contributions to a field. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Scientific paradigm 3 Paradigm shifts 3.1 Paradigm paralysis 4 Incommensurability 5 Subsequent developments 5.1 Imre Lakatos and research programmes 5.2 Larry Laudan: Dormant anomalies, fading credibility, and research traditions 6 In social sciences 7 Other uses 8 See also 9 Footnotes 10 References Etymology[edit] See also: Paradeigma Paradigm comes from Greek παράδειγμα (paradeigma), "pattern, example, sample"[1] from the verb παραδείκνυμι (paradeiknumi), "exhibit, represent, expose"[2] and that from παρά (para), "beside, beyond"[3] and δείκνυμι (deiknumi), "to show, to point out".[4] In rhetoric, the purpose of paradeigma is to provide an audience with an illustration of similar occurrences. This illustration is not meant to take the audience to a conclusion, however it is used to help guide them there. One way of how a paradeigma is meant to guide an audience would be a personal accountant. It is not the job of a personal accountant to tell their client exactly what (and what not) to spend their money on, but to aid in guiding their client as to how money should be spent based on their financial goals. Anaximenes defined paradeigma as "actions that have occurred previously and are similar to, or the opposite of, those which we are now discussing."[5] The original Greek term παράδειγμα (paradeigma) was used in Greek texts such as Plato's Timaeus (28 AD) as the model or the pattern that the demiurge used to create the cosmos.[citation needed] The term had a technical meaning in the field of grammar: the 1900 Merriam-Webster dictionary defines its technical use only in the context of grammar or, in rhetoric, as a term for an illustrative parable or fable. In linguistics, Ferdinand de Saussure used paradigm to refer to a class of elements with similarities. The Merriam-Webster Online dictionary defines this usage as "a philosophical and theoretical framework of a scientific school or discipline within which theories, laws, and generalizations and the experiments performed in support of them are formulated; broadly: a philosophical or theoretical framework of any kind."[6] The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy attributes the following description of the term to Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions: Kuhn suggests that certain scientific works, such as Newton's Principia or John Dalton's New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808), provide an open-ended resource: a framework of concepts, results, and procedures within which subsequent work is structured. Normal science proceeds within such a framework or paradigm. A paradigm does not impose a rigid or mechanical approach, but can be taken more or less creatively and flexibly.[7] Scientific paradigm[edit] Main articles: Paradigm shift, Sociology of knowledge, Systemics, Commensurability (philosophy of science), and Confirmation holism See also: Paradigm (experimental) and Scientific consensus The Oxford English Dictionary defines a paradigm as "a pattern or model, an exemplar; a typical instance of something, an example".[8] The historian of science Thomas Kuhn gave it its contemporary meaning when he adopted the word to refer to the set of concepts and practices that define a scientific discipline at any particular period of time. In his book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (first published in 1962), Kuhn defines a scientific paradigm as: "universally recognized scientific achievements that, for a time, provide model problems and solutions for a community of practitioners,[9] i.e., what is to be observed and scrutinized the kind of questions that are supposed to be asked and probed for answers in relation to this subject how these questions are to be structured what predictions made by the primary theory within the discipline how the results of scientific investigations should be interpreted how an experiment is to be conducted, and what equipment is available to conduct the experiment. In The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Kuhn saw the sciences as going through alternating periods of normal science, when an existing model of reality dominates a protracted period of puzzle-solving, and revolution, when the model of reality itself undergoes sudden drastic change. Paradigms have two aspects. Firstly, within normal science, the term refers to the set of exemplary experiments that are likely to be copied or emulated. Secondly, underpinning this set of exemplars are shared preconceptions, made prior to – and conditioning – the collection of evidence.[10] These preconceptions embody both hidden assumptions and elements that he describes as quasi-metaphysical;[11] the interpretations of the paradigm may vary among individual scientists.[12] Kuhn was at pains to point out that the rationale for the choice of exemplars is a specific way of viewing reality: that view and the status of "exemplar" are mutually reinforcing. For well-integrated members of a particular discipline, its paradigm is so convincing that it normally renders even the possibility of alternatives unconvincing and counter-intuitive. Such a paradigm is opaque, appearing to be a direct view of the bedrock of reality itself, and obscuring the possibility that there might be other, alternative imageries hidden behind it. The conviction that the current paradigm is reality tends to disqualify evidence that might undermine the paradigm itself; this in turn leads to a build-up of unreconciled anomalies. It is the latter that is responsible for the eventual revolutionary overthrow of the incumbent paradigm, and its replacement by a new one. Kuhn used the expression paradigm shift (see below) for this process, and likened it to the perceptual change that occurs when our interpretation of an ambiguous image "flips over" from one state to another.[13] (The rabbit-duck illusion is an example: it is not possible to see both the rabbit and the duck simultaneously.) This is significant in relation to the issue of incommensurability (see below). An example of a currently accepted paradigm would be the standard model of physics. The scientific method allows for orthodox scientific investigations into phenomena that might contradict or disprove the standard model; however grant funding would be proportionately more difficult to obtain for such experiments, depending on the degree of deviation from the accepted standard model theory the experiment would test for. To illustrate the point, an experiment to test for the mass of neutrinos or the decay of protons (small departures from the model) is more likely to receive money than experiments that look for the violation of the conservation of momentum, or ways to engineer reverse time travel. Mechanisms similar to the original Kuhnian paradigm have been invoked in various disciplines other than the philosophy of science. These include: the idea of major cultural themes,[14][15] worldviews (and see below), ideologies, and mindsets. They have somewhat similar meanings that apply to smaller and larger scale examples of disciplined thought. In addition, Michel Foucault used the terms episteme and discourse, mathesis and taxinomia, for aspects of a "paradigm" in Kuhn's original sense. Paradigm shifts[edit] Main article: Paradigm shift In The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Kuhn wrote that "the successive transition from one paradigm to another via revolution is the usual developmental pattern of mature science" (p. 12). Paradigm shifts tend to appear in response to the accumulation of critical anomalies as well as the proposal of a new theory with the power to encompass both older relevant data and explain relevant anomalies. New paradigms tend to be most dramatic in sciences that appear to be stable and mature, as in physics at the end of the 19th century. At that time, a statement generally attributed to physicist Lord Kelvin famously claimed, "There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now. All that remains is more and more precise measurement."[16] Five years later, Albert Einstein published his paper on special relativity, which challenged the set of rules laid down by Newtonian mechanics, which had been used to describe force and motion for over two hundred years. In this case, the new paradigm reduces the old to a special case in the sense that Newtonian mechanics is still a good model for approximation for speeds that are slow compared to the speed of light. Many philosophers and historians of science, including Kuhn himself, ultimately accepted a modified version of Kuhn's model, which synthesizes his original view with the gradualist model that preceded it. Kuhn's original model is now generally seen as too limited[citation needed]. Some examples of contemporary paradigm shifts include: In medicine, the transition from "clinical judgment" to evidence-based medicine In social psychology, the transition from p-hacking to replication[17] In software engineering, the transition from the Rational Paradigm to the Empirical Paradigm [18] In artificial intelligence, the transition from classical AI to data-driven AI [19] Kuhn's idea was, itself, revolutionary in its time. It caused a major change in the way that academics talk about science; and, so, it may be that it caused (or was part of) a "paradigm shift" in the history and sociology of science. However, Kuhn would not recognize such a paradigm shift. Being in the social sciences, people can still use earlier ideas to discuss the history of science. Paradigm paralysis[edit] Perhaps the greatest barrier to a paradigm shift, in some cases, is the reality of paradigm paralysis: the inability or refusal to see beyond the current models of thinking.[20] This is similar to what psychologists term confirmation bias and the Semmelweis reflex. Examples include rejection of Aristarchus of Samos', Copernicus', and Galileo's theory of a heliocentric solar system, the discovery of electrostatic photography, xerography and the quartz clock.[citation needed] Incommensurability[edit] Kuhn pointed out that it could be difficult to assess whether a particular paradigm shift had actually led to progress, in the sense of explaining more facts, explaining more important facts, or providing better explanations, because the understanding of "more important", "better", etc. changed with the paradigm. The two versions of reality are thus incommensurable. Kuhn's version of incommensurability has an important psychological dimension; this is apparent from his analogy between a paradigm shift and the flip-over involved in some optical illusions.[13] However, he subsequently diluted his commitment to incommensurability considerably, partly in the light of other studies of scientific development that did not involve revolutionary change.[21] One of the examples of incommensurability that Kuhn used was the change in the style of chemical investigations that followed the work of Lavoisier on atomic theory in the late 18th Century.[13] In this change, the focus had shifted from the bulk properties of matter (such as hardness, colour, reactivity, etc.) to studies of atomic weights and quantitative studies of reactions. He suggested that it was impossible to make the comparison needed to judge which body of knowledge was better or more advanced. However, this change in research style (and paradigm) eventually (after more than a century) led to a theory of atomic structure that accounts well for the bulk properties of matter; see, for example, Brady's General Chemistry.[22] According to P J Smith, this ability of science to back off, move sideways, and then advance is characteristic of the natural sciences,[23] but contrasts with the position in some social sciences, notably economics.[24] This apparent ability does not guarantee that the account is veridical at any one time, of course, and most modern philosophers of science are fallibilists. However, members of other disciplines do see the issue of incommensurability as a much greater obstacle to evaluations of "progress"; see, for example, Martin Slattery's Key Ideas in Sociology.[25][26] Subsequent developments[edit] Opaque Kuhnian paradigms and paradigm shifts do exist. A few years after the discovery of the mirror-neurons that provide a hard-wired basis for the human capacity for empathy, the scientists involved were unable to identify the incidents that had directed their attention to the issue. Over the course of the investigation, their language and metaphors had changed so that they themselves could no longer interpret all of their own earlier laboratory notes and records.[27] Imre Lakatos and research programmes[edit] However, many instances exist in which change in a discipline's core model of reality has happened in a more evolutionary manner, with individual scientists exploring the usefulness of alternatives in a way that would not be possible if they were constrained by a paradigm. Imre Lakatos suggested (as an alternative to Kuhn's formulation) that scientists actually work within research programmes.[28] In Lakatos' sense, a research programme is a sequence of problems, placed in order of priority. This set of priorities, and the associated set of preferred techniques, is the positive heuristic of a programme. Each programme also has a negative heuristic; this consists of a set of fundamental assumptions that – temporarily, at least – takes priority over observational evidence when the two appear to conflict. This latter aspect of research programmes is inherited from Kuhn's work on paradigms,[citation needed] and represents an important departure from the elementary account of how science works. According to this, science proceeds through repeated cycles of observation, induction, hypothesis-testing, etc., with the test of consistency with empirical evidence being imposed at each stage. Paradigms and research programmes allow anomalies to be set aside, where there is reason to believe that they arise from incomplete knowledge (about either the substantive topic, or some aspect of the theories implicitly used in making observations. Larry Laudan: Dormant anomalies, fading credibility, and research traditions[edit] Larry Laudan[29] has also made two important contributions to the debate. Laudan believed that something akin to paradigms exist in the social sciences (Kuhn had contested this, see below); he referred to these as research traditions. Laudan noted that some anomalies become "dormant", if they survive a long period during which no competing alternative has shown itself capable of resolving the anomaly. He also presented cases in which a dominant paradigm had withered away because its lost credibility when viewed against changes in the wider intellectual milieu. In social sciences[edit] Kuhn himself did not consider the concept of paradigm as appropriate for the social sciences. He explains in his preface to The Structure of Scientific Revolutions that he developed the concept of paradigm precisely to distinguish the social from the natural sciences. While visiting the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences in 1958 and 1959, surrounded by social scientists, he observed that they were never in agreement about the nature of legitimate scientific problems and methods. He explains that he wrote this book precisely to show that there can never be any paradigms in the social sciences. Mattei Dogan, a French sociologist, in his article "Paradigms in the Social Sciences," develops Kuhn's original thesis that there are no paradigms at all in the social sciences since the concepts are polysemic, involving the deliberate mutual ignorance between scholars and the proliferation of schools in these disciplines. Dogan provides many examples of the non-existence of paradigms in the social sciences in his essay, particularly in sociology, political science and political anthropology. However, both Kuhn's original work and Dogan's commentary are directed at disciplines that are defined by conventional labels (such as "sociology"). While it is true that such broad groupings in the social sciences are usually not based on a Kuhnian paradigm, each of the competing sub-disciplines may still be underpinned by a paradigm, research programme, research tradition, and/ or professional imagery. These structures will be motivating research, providing it with an agenda, defining what is and is not anomalous evidence, and inhibiting debate with other groups that fall under the same broad disciplinary label. (A good example is provided by the contrast between Skinnerian radical behaviourism and personal construct theory (PCT) within psychology. The most significant of the many ways these two sub-disciplines of psychology differ concerns meanings and intentions. In PCT, they are seen as the central concern of psychology; in radical behaviourism, they are not scientific evidence at all, as they cannot be directly observed.) Such considerations explain the conflict between the Kuhn/ Dogan view, and the views of others (including Larry Laudan, see above), who do apply these concepts to social sciences. Handa,[30] M.L. (1986) introduced the idea of "social paradigm" in the context of social sciences. He identified the basic components of a social paradigm. Like Kuhn, Handa addressed the issue of changing paradigm; the process popularly known as "paradigm shift". In this respect, he focused on social circumstances that precipitate such a shift and the effects of the shift on social institutions, including the institution of education. This broad shift in the social arena, in turn, changes the way the individual perceives reality. Another use of the word paradigm is in the sense of "worldview". For example, in social science, the term is used to describe the set of experiences, beliefs and values that affect the way an individual perceives reality and responds to that perception. Social scientists have adopted the Kuhnian phrase "paradigm shift" to denote a change in how a given society goes about organizing and understanding reality. A "dominant paradigm" refers to the values, or system of thought, in a society that are most standard and widely held at a given time. Dominant paradigms are shaped both by the community's cultural background and by the context of the historical moment. Hutchin [31] outlines some conditions that facilitate a system of thought to become an accepted dominant paradigm: Professional organizations that give legitimacy to the paradigm Dynamic leaders who introduce and purport the paradigm Journals and editors who write about the system of thought. They both disseminate the information essential to the paradigm and give the paradigm legitimacy Government agencies who give credence to the paradigm Educators who propagate the paradigm's ideas by teaching it to students Conferences conducted that are devoted to discussing ideas central to the paradigm Media coverage Lay groups, or groups based around the concerns of lay persons, that embrace the beliefs central to the paradigm Sources of funding to further research on the paradigm Other uses[edit] The word paradigm is also still used to indicate a pattern or model or an outstandingly clear or typical example or archetype. The term is frequently used in this sense in the design professions. Design Paradigms or archetypes comprise functional precedents for design solutions. The best known references on design paradigms are Design Paradigms: A Sourcebook for Creative Visualization, by Wake, and Design Paradigms by Petroski. This term is also used in cybernetics. Here it means (in a very wide sense) a (conceptual) protoprogram for reducing the chaotic mass to some form of order. Note the similarities to the concept of entropy in chemistry and physics. A paradigm there would be a sort of prohibition to proceed with any action that would increase the total entropy of the system. To create a paradigm requires a closed system that accepts changes. Thus a paradigm can only apply to a system that is not in its final stage. Beyond its use in the physical and social sciences, Kuhn's paradigm concept has been analysed in relation to its applicability in identifying 'paradigms' with respect to worldviews at specific points in history. One example is Matthew Edward Harris' book The Notion of Papal Monarchy in the Thirteenth Century: The Idea of Paradigm in Church History.[32] Harris stresses the primarily sociological importance of paradigms, pointing towards Kuhn's second edition of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Although obedience to popes such as Innocent III and Boniface VIII was widespread, even written testimony from the time showing loyalty to the pope does not demonstrate that the writer had the same worldview as the Church, and therefore pope, at the centre. The difference between paradigms in the physical sciences and in historical organisations such as the Church is that the former, unlike the latter, requires technical expertise rather than repeating statements. In other words, after scientific training through what Kuhn calls 'exemplars', one could not genuinely believe that, to take a trivial example, the earth is flat, whereas thinkers such as Giles of Rome in the thirteenth century wrote in favour of the pope, then could easily write similarly glowing things about the king. A writer such as Giles would have wanted a good job from the pope; he was a papal publicist. However, Harris writes that 'scientific group membership is not concerned with desire, emotions, gain, loss and any idealistic notions concerning the nature and destiny of humankind...but simply to do with aptitude, explanation, [and] cold description of the facts of the world and the universe from within a paradigm'.[33] See also[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Paradigm Look up paradigm in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Paradigm. Basic beliefs Concept Conceptual framework Conceptual model Conceptual schema Contextualism Dogma Flying geese paradigm Heuristic Ideology Mental model Mental representation Metanarrative Methodology Mindset Perspectivism Poststructuralism Programming paradigm Schema (psychology) School of thought Set (psychology) Triune continuum paradigm World view The history of the various paradigms in evolutionary biology (Wikiversity) Footnotes[edit] ^ παράδειγμα, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library ^ παραδείκνυμι, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library ^ παρά, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library ^ δείκνυμι, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library ^ Sampley, J. Paul (2003). Paul in the Greco-Roman World: A Handbook. Trinity Press International. pp. 228–229. ISBN 9781563382666. ^ paradigm - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary ^ Blackburn, Simon, 1994, 2005, 2008, rev. 2nd ed. The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-283134-8. Description Archived 2012-03-29 at the Wayback Machine & 1994 letter-preview links. ^ "paradigm". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) ^ "The Structure of Scientific Revolution, Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 3rd edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. page 10 ^ Kuhn, T S (1970) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (2nd Edition) University of Chicago Press. Section V, pages 43-51. ISBN 0-226-45804-0. ^ Kuhn, T S (1970) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. (2nd Edition) University of Chicago Press. Pages 88 and 41, respectively. ^ Kuhn, T S (1970) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. (2nd Edition) University of Chicago Press. Page 44. ^ a b c Kuhn, T S (1970) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. (2nd Edition) University of Chicago Press. Page 85. ^ Benedict, Ruth (2005). Patterns of Culture. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 9780618619559. ^ Spradley, James P. (1979). The Ethnographic Interview. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 9780030444968. ^ The attribution of this statement to Lord Kelvin is given in a number of sources, but without citation. It is reputed to be Kelvin's remark made in an address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1900. See the article on Lord Kelvin for additional details and references. ^ Resnick, Brian (2016-03-14). "What psychology's crisis means for the future of science". Vox. ^ Ralph, Paul (January 2018). "The two paradigms of software development research". Science of Computer Programming. 156: 68–89. doi:10.1016/j.scico.2018.01.002. ^ Cristianini, Nello (2014). "On the Current Paradigm in Artificial Intelligence". AI Communications. 27 (1): 37–43. doi:10.3233/AIC-130582. ^ Do you suffer from paradigm paralysis? ^ Haack, S (2003) Defending Science – within reason: between scientism and cynicism. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-59102-458-3. ^ Brady, J E (1990). General Chemistry: Principles and Structure. (5th Edition.) John Wiley and Sons. ^ Smith, P J (2011) The Reform of Economics. Taw Books. ISBN 978-0-9570697-0-1. Page 129. ^ Smith, P J (2011) The Reform of Economics. Taw Books. Chapter 7. ^ Slattery, Martin (2003). Key ideas in sociology. OCLC Number: 52531237. Cheltenham : Nelson Thornes. pp. 151, 152, 153, 155. ISBN 978-0-7487-6565-2. ^ Nickles, Thomas (December 2002). Thomas Kuhn. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1, 2, 3, 4. doi:10.2277/0521792061. ISBN 978-0-521-79206-6. Thomas Kuhn (1922–1996), the author of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, is probably the best-known and most influential historian and philosopher of science of the last 25 years, and has become something of a cultural icon. His concepts of paradigm, paradigm change and incommensurability have changed the way we think about science. ^ Iacoboni, M. (2008), Mirroring People: The New Science of How We Connect with Others. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Page 17. ^ [16] Lakatos, I. (1970), "Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes," in Lakatos, I. and Musgrave, A. (eds.) (1990), Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge. Cambridge. ^ Laudan, L. (1977), Progress and Its Problems: Towards a Theory of Scientific Growth. University of California Press, Berkeley. ^ Handa, M. L. (1986) "Peace Paradigm: Transcending Liberal and Marxian Paradigms". Paper presented in "International Symposium on Science, Technology and Development, New Delhi, India, March 20–25, 1987, Mimeographed at O.I.S.E., University of Toronto, Canada (1986) ^ Hutchin, Ted (2013) The Right Choice : Using Theory of Constraints for Effective Leadership, Taylor and Francis, Hoboken, p. 124 ISBN 978-1-4398-8625-0 ^ Harris, Matthew (2010). The notion of papal monarchy in the thirteenth century : the idea of paradigm in church history. Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-7734-1441-9. ^ Harris, Matthew (2010). The notion of papal monarchy in the thirteenth century : the idea of paradigm in church history. Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-7734-1441-9. References[edit] Clarke, Thomas and Clegg, Stewart (eds). Changing Paradigms. London: HarperCollins, 2000. ISBN 0-00-638731-4 Dogan, Mattei., "Paradigms in the Social Sciences," in International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, Volume 16, 2001) Hammersley, Martyn (1992). "The Paradigm Wars: Reports from the Front". British Journal of Sociology of Education. 13 (1): 131–143. doi:10.1080/0142569920130110. JSTOR 1392863. Handa, M. L. (1986) "Peace Paradigm: Transcending Liberal and Marxian Paradigms" Paper presented in "International Symposium on Science, Technology and Development, New Delhi, India, March 20–25, 1987, Mimeographed at O.I.S.E., University of Toronto, Canada (1986) Harris, Matthew Edward. The Notion of Papal Monarchy in the Thirteenth Century: The Idea of Paradigm in Church History. Lampeter and Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-7734-1441-9 Hutchin, Ted. The Right Choice : Using Theory of Constraints for Effective Leadership, Hoboken : Taylor and Francis, 2013. ISBN 978-1-4398-8625-0 Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 3rd Ed. Chicago and London: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1996. ISBN 0-226-45808-3 - Google Books Aug. 2011 Masterman, Margaret, "The Nature of a Paradigm," pp. 59–89 in Imre Lakatos and Alan Musgrave. Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1970. ISBN 0-521-09623-5 Popper, Karl. The Logic of Scientific Discovery, 1934 (as Logik der Forschung, English translation 1959), ISBN 0-415-27844-9. The Fourth Paradigm: Data-Intensive Scientific Discovery, Microsoft Research, 2009, ISBN 978-0-9825442-0-4 http://fourthparadigm.org Encyclopædia Britannica, Univ. of Chicago, 2003, ISBN 0-85229-961-3 Cristianini, Nello, “On the Current Paradigm in Artificial Intelligence”; AI Communications 27 (1): 37–43. 2014 v t e Philosophy of science Concepts Analysis Analytic–synthetic distinction A priori and a posteriori Causality Commensurability Consilience Construct Creative synthesis Demarcation problem Empirical evidence Explanatory power Fact Falsifiability Feminist method Functional contextualism Ignoramus et ignorabimus Inductive reasoning Intertheoretic reduction Inquiry Nature Objectivity Observation Paradigm Problem of induction Scientific law Scientific method Scientific revolution Scientific theory Testability Theory choice Theory-ladenness Underdetermination Unity of science Metatheory of science Coherentism Confirmation holism Constructive empiricism Constructive realism Constructivist epistemology Contextualism Conventionalism Deductive-nomological model Hypothetico-deductive model Inductionism Epistemological anarchism Evolutionism Fallibilism Foundationalism Instrumentalism Pragmatism Model-dependent realism Naturalism Physicalism Positivism / Reductionism / Determinism Rationalism / Empiricism Received view / Semantic view of theories Scientific realism / Anti-realism Scientific essentialism Scientific formalism Scientific skepticism Scientism Structuralism Uniformitarianism Vitalism Philosophy of Physics thermal and statistical Motion Chemistry Biology Geography Social science Technology Engineering Artificial intelligence Computer science Information Mind Psychiatry Psychology Perception Space and time Related topics Alchemy Criticism of science Descriptive science Epistemology Faith and rationality Hard and soft science History and philosophy of science History of science History of evolutionary thought Logic Metaphysics Normative science Pseudoscience Relationship between religion and science Rhetoric of science Science studies Sociology of scientific knowledge Sociology of scientific ignorance Philosophers of science by era Ancient Plato Aristotle Stoicism Epicureans Medieval Averroes Avicenna Roger Bacon William of Ockham Hugh of Saint Victor Dominicus Gundissalinus Robert Kilwardby Early modern Francis Bacon Thomas Hobbes René Descartes Galileo Galilei Pierre Gassendi Isaac Newton David Hume Late modern Immanuel Kant Friedrich Schelling William Whewell Auguste Comte John Stuart Mill Herbert Spencer Wilhelm Wundt Charles Sanders Peirce Wilhelm Windelband Henri Poincaré Pierre Duhem Rudolf Steiner Karl Pearson Contemporary Alfred North Whitehead Bertrand Russell Albert Einstein Otto Neurath C. D. Broad Michael Polanyi Hans Reichenbach Rudolf Carnap Karl Popper Carl Gustav Hempel W. V. O. Quine Thomas Kuhn Imre Lakatos Paul Feyerabend Jürgen Habermas Ian Hacking Bas van Fraassen Larry Laudan Daniel Dennett Category  Philosophy portal  Science portal v t e Worldview Related terms Basic beliefs/Beliefs Collective consciousness/Collective unconscious Conceptual system Context Conventions Cultural movement Epic poetry/National epics Facts and factoids Framing Ideology Life stance Lifestyle Memes/Memeplex Mental model Metanarrative Mindset Norms Paradigm Philosophical theory Point of view Presuppositions Reality tunnel Received view Schemata School of thought Set Social reality Theory of everything Umwelt Value system Aspects Biases Academic Attentional Attitude polarization Belief Cognitive (list) Collective narcissism Confirmation Congruence Cryptomnesia Cultural Ethnocentrism Filter bubble Homophily In-group favoritism Magical thinking Media Observer-expectancy Observational error Selective exposure Selective perception Self-deception Self-fulfilling prophecy (Clever Hans effect, placebo effect, wishful thinking) Status quo Stereotyping Change and maintenance Activism Argument Argumentum ad populum Attitude change Censorship Charisma Circular reporting Cognitive dissonance Critical thinking Crowd manipulation Cultural dissonance Deprogramming Echo chamber Education (religious, values) Euphemism Excommunication Fearmongering Historical revisionism Ideological repression Indoctrination Media manipulation Media regulation Mind control Missionaries Moral entrepreneurship Persuasion Polite fiction Political engineering Propaganda Propaganda model Proselytism Psychological manipulation Psychological warfare Religious conversion (forced) Religious persecution Religious uniformity Revolutions Rhetoric Self-censorship Social change Social control Social engineering Social influence Social progress Suppression of dissent Systemic bias Woozle effect Culture Anthropology (cultural, social) Calendars Ceremonies Coronations Cross-cultural psychology Cultural psychology Doctrine Employment/Serfdom/Slavery Families Funerals/Burial Games Holidays Hygiene (ritual) Identity (philosophy) (cultural) Institutions Liminality Liturgy Marriage Myth and ritual Oaths Pilgrimages Play Rites of passage (secular) Rituals Social class/Social status/Caste Symbols Symbolic boundaries Worship Groupthink Abilene paradox Bandwagon effect Collectives Collective behavior (animal) Collective effervescence Collective intelligence Conformity Consensus theory Crowd psychology Cults Culture-bound syndromes Deindividuation Democracy Emergence Emotional contagion Entitativity False-consensus effect Folie à deux Group action Group dynamics Group emotion Group polarization Groupshift Herd behavior Holism Hysterical contagion Information cascade Invisible hand Lynching Majoritarianism/Ochlocracy Mass action Mass hysteria Mass psychogenic illness Milieu control Mobbing Moral panic Organizations Peer pressure Pluralistic ignorance Political correctness Pseudoconsensus Scapegoating Self-organization Social action Social behavior Social emotions Social exclusion Social facilitation (animal) Social group Social proof Social psychology Sociology Spontaneous order Status quo Stigmergy Swarm behaviour System justification Viral phenomena Knowledge Axioms (tacit assumptions) Conceptual framework Epistemology (outline) Evidence (anecdotal, scientific) Explanations Faith (fideism) Gnosis Intuition Meaning-making Memory Metaknowledge Methodology Observation Observational learning Perception Reasoning (fallacious, logic) Revelation Testimony Tradition (folklore) Truth (consensus theory, criteria) World disclosure Metaphysics Ætiology Afterlife Anima mundi Being Causality Concepts Consciousness (mind–body problem) Cosmogony Cosmology (religious) Creation myth Deities (existence) Destiny Eschatology Everything/Nothing Evolution Existence Fiction/Non-fiction Free will Future History Ideas Idios kosmos Illusions Incarnation Information Intelligence Magic Matter Miracles Mythology (comparative) National mythoi Nature (philosophical) Ontology Origin myths (political myths) Otherworlds (axes mundi) Problem of evil Physics (natural philosophy) Reality Souls Spirit Supernature Teleology Theology Time Unobservables Value Æsthetics Almsgiving/Charity Altruism Autonomy Beauty Codes of conduct Comedy Common good Conscience Consent Creativity Disgust Duty Economics Ecstasy (emotional, religious) Elegance Emotions (æsthetic) Entertainment Eroticism Ethics Étiquette Family values Food and drink prohibitions (unclean animals) Golden Rule Guilt/Culpability Happiness Harmony Honour Human rights Judgement Justice Laws (jurisprudence, religious) Liberty (political freedom) Love Magnificence Maxims Meaning of life Morality (public) Obligations Peace Piety Praxeology Principles Punishment Qualities Repentance Reverence Rights Sexuality (ethics) Sin Social stigma Stewardship Styles Sublime, The Suffering Sympathy Taboo Taste Theodicy Trust Unspoken rules Virtues and Vices Works of art Wrongdoing Examples Attitudes Optimism Pessimism Reclusion Weltschmerz Economic and political ideologies Authoritarianism Anarchism Capitalism Christian democracy Collectivism Colonialism Communalism Communism Communitarianism Conservatism Constitutionalism Distributism Environmentalism Extremism Fanaticism Fascism Feminism Fundamentalism Globalism Green politics Imperialism Individualism Industrialism Intellectualism Islamism Liberalism Libertarianism Masculism Militarism Monarchism Nationalism Pacifism Progressivism Radicalism Reformism Republicanism Sentientism Social democracy Socialism Utilitarianism Veganism Religions African traditional religions Baháʼí Buddhism Cao Dai Cheondoism Chinese traditional religions Christianity Ethnic religions Hòa Hảo Hinduism Islam Jainism Judaism Korean shamanism Neo-Paganism Rastafarianism Secular/Nonreligious/Agnostic/Atheist Shinto Sikhism Spiritism Taoism Tenrikyo Tenriism Unitarian Universalism Zoroastrianism Schools of philosophy Agriculturalism Aristotelianism Atomism Averroism Cartesianism Cārvāka Collectivism Confucianism/New Confucianism Critical theory Cynicism Cyrenaics Determinism Dualism Eleatics Empiricism Eretrian school Epicureanism Existentialism Foundationalism Hedonism Hegelianism Hermeneutics Historicism/New Historicism Holism Humanism/Renaissance humanism Illuminationism ʿIlm al-Kalām Idealism Individualism Ionian Kantianism/Neo-Kantianism Kokugaku Legalism Logicians Materialism Mohism Megarian school Modernism/Postmodernism Monism Natural Law Naturalism (Chinese) Naturalism (western) Nihilism Peripatetic Phenomenology Platonism/Neoplatonism Pluralism Positivism Pragmatism Presocratic Pyrrhonism Pythagoreanism/Neopythagoreanism Rationalism Reductionism Scholasticism/Neo-Scholasticism Sentientism Social constructionism Sophism Spinozism Stoicism Structuralism/Post-structuralism Thomism Transcendentalism Utilitarianism Yangism Authority control BNF: cb11946100d (data) GND: 4044590-2 LCCN: sh85097744 SUDOC: 02741437X Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paradigm&oldid=995660666" Categories: Aesthetics Consensus reality Epistemology of science Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia introduction cleanup from July 2020 All pages needing cleanup Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from July 2020 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2012 Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikiquote Languages العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego Gĩkũyũ 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Кыргызча Latina Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Shqip Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Türkmençe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 05:35 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement