i THE INFLUENCE OF FRENCH IMPRESSIONISM ON CANADIAN PAINTING by MERVYN JOHN ARTHUR CROOKER B.A., U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1963 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n the Department of FINE ARTS We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the r e q u i r e d standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA A p r i l , 1965 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make i t freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by his representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of Fine Arts The University of British Columbia. Vancouver 8, Canada Date April, 1965 ABSTRACT F r e n c h Impressionism, the e a r l i e s t v i t a l and p r o g r e s s i v e modern a r t movement, was developed i n France between 1870 and 1890. I t was soon r e c o g n i z e d as r e v o l u t i o n a r y , and the number of i t s f o l l o w e r s grew as the s t y l e developed and became known. P a r i s , then the a r t c e n t e r of the w o r l d , a t t r a c t e d many s t u d e n t s , among whom were Canadian a r t i s t s . In!1878 W i l l i a m Brymner s a i l e d f o r Europe, to r e t u r n i n 1882, the year of the seventh I m p r e s s i o n i s t E x h i b i t i o n and the year t h a t J . M . B a r n s l e y and H o r a t i o Walker a r r i v e d i n P a r i s . Homer Watson, a l r e a d y an e s t a b l i s h e d a r t i s t , f i r s t t r a v e l l e d i n Europe i n 1887. A growing f a c i l i t y i n the use of c o l o r marked the e v o l u t i o n i n the a r t of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . The p a i n t e r s John C o n s t a b l e , and Eugene D e l a c r o i x , the s c i e n t i f i c c o l o r t e c h n i c i a n s M.E. C h e v r e u l , James M a x w e l l , Ogden Rood, and Robert H e n r i , opened up new f i e l d s of i n t e r e s t . The p r o g r e s s i o n from l a t e Baroque and e a r l y E n g l i s h landscapes to the F r e n c h experiments w i t h c o l o r , c u l m i n a t e d i n I m p r e s s i o n i s t landscapes f i l l e d w i t h sun and atmosphere. The major I m p r e s s i o n i s t masters P i s s a r r o , Monet, R e n o i r , and S i s l e y concerned themselves w i t h the v i s u a l e f f e c t s of l i g h t r e f l e c t i n g from the s u r f a c e s of o b j e c t s . Newly i n v e n t e d pigments s u p p l i e d t h e i r p a l e t t e s w i t h almost u n l i m i t e d c o l o r , which they a p p l i e d e m p i r i c a l l y , s e a r c h i n g f o r the most b r i l l i a n t e f f e c t The decade from 1880 to 1890 marked the p e r i o d when the e s t a b l i s h e d Canadian a r t i s t s came i n c o n t a c t w i t h French I m p r e s s i o n i s m . They r e t u r n e d home to t e a c h and to p a i n t , and became the P r e - I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t e r s i n i i i Canada. Their work exhibited an intermediary style corresponding to that of the Pre-Impressionist painters in Europe. A survey of the growing Impressionist tendencies in their art led to the first consistent Impressionist style of Maurice Cullen and Marc Suzor-Cote after 1895. By 1900 the influence of Impressionist color technique had reached a l l art forms. Impressionism was an historically established style which had fostered other newer art forms, and many artists in Canada painted "Impressionist" pictures. Impressionism continued to be seen in Canadian painting together with Post-Impressionism, Fauvism, Art Nouveau, Cubism, Expressionism, and finally Abstraction. The term Abstract Impressionism is applied to some recent paintings to indicate the presence of a style which freed art from formulas by introducing individuality, expression, and color, and then became almost a formula itself. v i ACKNOWLEDGMENT I w i s h to thank P r o f e s s o r B.C. B i n n i n g , Mr. W i l l i a m S. H a r t , and Mr. Ian McNairn f o r t h e i r i n t e r e s t , a s s i s t a n c e and encouragement throughout t h i s p r o j e c t . I am i n d e b t e d to the F i n e A r t s L i b r a r i a n s a t the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, Miss Melva Dwyer and s t a f f ; to the A r t I n s t i t u t e of Chicago f o r the use of t h e i r l i b r a r i e s ; to Mr. Brydon Smith a t the Toronto A r t G a l l e r y who a i d e d me i n f i n d i n g I m p r e s s i o n i s t works and a l l o w e d me f r e e a c c e s s to the p i c t u r e s , and to M i s s S y b i l l e P a n t a z z i , head L i b r a r i a n at La Grange. In M o n t r e a l the L i b r a r i a n and Mr. W i l l i a m Johnson; i n the N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y , Ottawa, Mr. R.H. Hubbard, Miss Dorothea C o a t e s , and Miss H a m i l t o n ; and i n Quebec M. Gerard M o r i s s e t , a i d e d my r e s e a r c h . F o r p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w s w i t h Mr. R u s s e l l H a r p e r , Mr. A r t h u r L i s m e r , M i s s Grace Brymner, Mrs. Robert B. M c M i c h a e l , Mrs. Donald McKay, and Dr. F r e d e r i c k V a r l e y , I am most g r a t e f u l . My i l l u s t r a t i o n s chosen from more than f i v e hundred photographs c o l l e c t e d on my r e s e a r c h t r a v e l s a r e i n t i m a t e l y r e - l a t e d to the t e x t . i v CONTENTS Page CHAPTER I 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n The V a r i e d I n f l u e n c e s i n Canadian A r t CHAPTER II 5 F r e n c h Impressionism I t s Development, The I m p r e s s i o n i s t ' s T h e o r i e s , And Impressionism i n The U n i t e d S t a t e s of America CHAPTER III 34 P r e - I m p r e s s i o n i s m i n Canada Homer Watson H o r a t i o Walker James B a r n s l e y W i l l i a m Brymner CHAPTER IV 53 Canadian I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t e r s M a u r i c e C u l l e n A u r e l e S u z o r - C $ t e CHAPTER V 77 Other Canadian A r t i s t s P a i n t i n g I m p r e s s i o n i s t P i c t u r e s And I m p r e s s i o n i s m i n the Group of Seven BIOGRAPHIES 103 The P r e - I m p r e s s i o n i s t s and I m p r e s s i o n i s t s i n Canada APPENDIX 114 BIBLIOGRAPHY 154 V LIST OF FIGURES IN APPENDIX v i i FOREWORD " A r t does not grow w i d e r , i t r e c a p i t u l a t e s , f o r good f r u i t s grow e s p a l i e r f a s h i o n ; one hoards and then p r o j e c t s " . John Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m . At the t e r c e n t e n a r y c e l e b r a t i o n of the R o y a l S o c i e t y i n London, J u l y , 1964, S i r C y r i l Hinshelwood s a i d , " T h e r e a r e communities i n time as w e l l as i n s p a c e . The most o r i g i n a l minds f i n d t h e i r t r u e a f f i n i t i e s i n c o n t i n u i n g the sequence of t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s and t h e i r f u l f i l m e n t o n l y i n t h e i r s u c c e s s o r s " . INTRODUCTION The i n f l u e n c e of F r e n c h Impressionism on Canadian a r t r e l a t e s to the o r i g i n a l F r e n c h movement which was dominant i n France from 1870 to 1890. I m p r e s s i o n i s m , as s u c h , was v e r y s h o r t l i v e d , and the p r o f o u n d i n f l u e n c e t h i s s t y l e had on the a r t which f o l l o w e d o f f e r s a c h a l l e n g e to t r a c e the i n f l u e n c e of Impressionism on Canadian a r t . Canadian a r t s t u d e n t s , i n the main c o n s e r v a t i v e , v a l u e d t h e i r academic t r a i n i n g . The o f f i c i a l l y r e c o g n i z e d academic work was based on a t r a i n i n g i n t e c h n i q u e and c r a f t s m a n s h i p t h a t they r e v e r e d and t h i s was u n d e r s t a n d a b l y t h e i r t a r g e t of e x c e l l e n c e . In F r a n c e , the a r t i s t s who became I m p r e s s i o n i s t s began t h e i r a r t t r a i n i n g i n the academies but t h i s t r a i n i n g d i s s a t i s f i e d them and they broke away to f o l l o w t h e i r own i n c l i n a t i o n s . Canadians went to the academies i n France a t a time when the aims of I m p r e s s i o n i s m , developed o u t s i d e the academies by an a v a n t - garde few, were b e i n g f e l t by the academic s t u d e n t s . Canadians were not o n l y c o n f r o n t e d w i t h F r e n c h I m p r e s s i o n i s m , but w i t h the E n g l i s h s c h o o l of C o n s t a b l e and T u r n e r , the Dutch landscape s c h o o l , the F r e n c h B a r b i z o n landscape s c h o o l , the i n f l u e n c e of the American l u m i n i s t s and the American I m p r e s s i o n i s t s of P h i l a d e l p h i a . The i n f l u e n c e of these s c h o o l s was not o n l y to a f f e c t the c o u r s e of A r t i n Europe but was to spread to America and i n f l u e n c e Canadian a r t as w e l l . I t i s then not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Canadian a r t i s t s combined w i t h t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the Canadian s c e n e , elements t h a t may be t r a c e d to the many s t y l e s of p a i n t i n g c u r r e n t a t t h a t t i m e . I t may be t h a t many Canadian a r t i s t s never f u l l y understood I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g , and yet we f i n d them u s i n g the s u p e r f i c i a l a s p e c t s of Impressionism, mixed not o n l y w i t h an academic approach but a l s o w i t h o t h e r European t e c h n i q u e s . - 2 ~~ We find in their work a heightening and a lightening of the palette, a freer technique of applying paint in more obvious painterly ways, out- door subject matter, and the recording of special light effects. These were inheritances from Impressionist painters, but only a few Canadians painted totally Impressionist canvases. To fully understand this inheritance i t is necessary to look back to the many schools leading up to Impressionism in France. In Canada, the wilds of North America were not of interest as subjects to painters since i t was not a "lived-in", cleared, and tamed land as was a l l of Europe. The untamed rawness of the Canadian landscape was too intimate a reminder of unremitting toil to the early pioneers. Thus the love of rusticity here only slowly developed over the years and culminated in the Group of Seven. The French Impressionists were not concerned with painting to a formula as were the academicians; in fact quite the opposite. They were part of a growing school always seeking innovations, new subjects, and new techniques, which were not taken up by Canadians until they had be- come historically established. Revolutionary non-academic schools of painting were accepted in Canada only after they were accepted in Europe, and even then were imperfectly emulated. Painters from North America going to Europe would only know of these revolutionaries and their theories by talking to the artists, or by carefully studying their work. Even then, the aspects of Impressionism are so various that its complete understanding would be difficult. There never was an Impressionist formula. None of the Impressionists set down rules, which i f followed would produce Impressionism. • Each of the Impressionists had a different empirical approach for presenting the new - 3 - ideas which the group held in common. Therefore, "Canadian Impressionism" coming after French Impressionism exhibited only a few of the traits of the original French movement. Often these traits are superficial, and frequently relate only to the type of subject which the French Impression- ists most favored, and often entirely ignore the technical means used to achieve the "effect". In 1886, J.E. Hodgson, R.A., made the following observation in his report on the Colonial and Indian Exhibition held in London, "It has been rather a shock to me to observe evident traces of French influence - not the influence of the great French painters but the rank and f i l e of mediocrity."^ This statement refers to the influence of the French Impressionists on Canadian and other Colonial painters. It indicates as well the current official disfavor in which the French Impressionists were held, but perhaps most significant, i t is the first recorded acknowledg- ment of the appearance of French Impressionism in Canadian art. "By the turn of the century, the discoveries of the Impressionists had been brought back from Europe by students and younger painters, and had begun to seep in from other sources." "During the two decades before the first world war, Maurice Cullen, and Suzor-C&te began to explore the possibilities of the snowscape .... showing that Canada contained inexhaustible stores of subject matter, by applying the Impressionist palette to broad design and by painting from intimate contact with their surroundings."-^ In Canadian art we will often find a French Impressionist subject treated with a Barbizon technique, Barbizon subjects treated with Impressionist techniques and academic subjects treated with mixed tech- niques . Therefore the object of this Thesis will not be to present an unqualified "Canadian Impressionism" because there never was one. Instead i t will try to find many diverse manifestations of Impressionism and its effect on Canadian painting and i t will not hesitate to point out many isolated manifestations of French Impressionism in Canadian art which will not appear Impressionist in the all-over aspect. In the next chapter, I will try to trace the elements leading up to the Impressionist movement in France, and show some of the predominant techniques or practices that have become known as French Impressionism. When this is established i t will become possible to find many of these same elements in Canadian painting. CHAPTER II One o f the most obvious i n f l u e n c e s a f f e c t i n g Canadian p a i n t i n g was the growing i n t e r e s t i n Europe o f the non-academic landscape s c h o o l o f the B a r b i z o n s . The B a r b i z o n s c h o o l of p a i n t e r s had been founded i n 1836 by Theodore Rousseau, a t the v i l l a g e of C h a l l e y on the edge of the f o r e s t of F o n t a i n e b l e a u . P a i n t e r s l i k e Diaz de l a Pena, J u l e s Dupre, J e a n F r a n c o i s M i l l e t , Jean B a p t i s t e C o r o t , C h a r l e s F r a n c o i s Daubigny and C o n s t a n t Tryon j o i n e d Theodore Rousseau to get away from s t u d i o p a i n t i n g , to p a i n t landscapes out o f d o o r s , and to p a i n t scenes l i k e the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y Dutch m a s t e r s , M e i n d e r t Hobbema and Jacob van R u i s d a e l . These p a i n t e r s wished to make a s c i e n t i f i c study of the n a t u r a l e f f e c t s of s k y , w a t e r , weather, meadows and l i g h t . They used the same meadow a r e a s , the same a n i m a l s , oak t r e e s , cows and herdsmen as the Dutch s c h o o l but they looked w i t h t h e i r eyes and t r i e d to make a p o r t r a i t of a l a n d s c a p e . The o u t - o f - d o o r s was f a i t h f u l l y r e c o r d e d w i t h p u r p l e h i l l s and a p i n k s k y . Using a c h r o m a t i c p a l e t t e they t r i e d to r e p r o d u c e the a c t u a l c o l o r s s e e n , o f t e n m i x i n g the c o l o r on the canvas. Brush s t r o k e s were e v i d e n t and they sought l i g h t e f f e c t s . The sky was to reproduce exact m e t e r o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s . P l a n t s were to be b o t a n i c a l l y c o r r e c t and the animals exact z o o l o g i c a l specimens. They p a i n t e d s k y , water and l a n d c o m p o s i t i o n s w i t h no p e o p l e . These were p a s t o r a l scenes and i f p e o p l e were i n c l u d e d they were the peasant workers of the s o i l . In E n g l a n d , the H a r t f o r d H u n t i n g t o n w a t e r - c o l o r s c h o o l w i t h a r t i s t s Joseph T u r n e r , John Crome, John Cotman and John C o n s t a b l e was working i n the same manner. In America as i n no o t h e r c o u n t r y t h e r e . h a d been an i n h e r e n t l o v e of trompe l ' o e i l e f f e c t s , l o v e of d e t a i l e d s u p e r f i n e i l l u s i o n i s m , suggested by the camera and which appeared throughout North - 5 - - 6 - American art to be culminated in the work of William Harnett. In Canada Homer Watson and Horatio Walker were to follow. The Barbizons were not illusionistic even when they painted accurately visual effects observed out-of-doors. In their work there is a psychic distance between the actual scene and the artistic execution which leaves room for the appreciation of a distinct and painterly technique. Jean Francois Millet, 1814 - 1875, was a French peasant who became a celebrated Barbizon painter and who studied under Mauchell a former pupil of Jacques Louis David. It was in 1868 that Millet became famous, for his peasant subjects. "The quiet design of Millet's paintings accents his scrupulous truth of detail and contributes to the dignity with which he invests even the simplest rural t a s k s . T h e s e peasant subjects were to be copied by Vincent van Gogh, 1880 - 1883. Millet's subjects, The Sower, The Digger, and Old Man Grieving are typical. In his painting of The Potato Eaters ,1884, van Gogh used Barbizon color based on the color theory of Delacroix; where the pure complimentary colors were used with grays, made by mixing these same complimentary colors. Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot was educated in the neoclassic tradition. He did not belong to any school but was important in the development of modern art. His work can be divided into three stages. First his early work which followed nature and tried to present the actual rural scene. Secondly his middle period when his style changed dramatically and he began to use analogous colors. He told Pissarro to paint in the open air. To observe the lightest part of a scene and put that color down on the canvas. Then observe the darkest part and paint that area. Then use from three to five values of these colors mixed on the palette ready to compose - 7 - abstractly, with these values and gray.5 He liked to paint in an out- of-focus haze which dissolved the forms as the Impressionists were to do. He used white for highlights. People could be silhouetted against the darks but subordinated to the landscape. This device was used by the Impressionists. A few spots of yellow, red or pure blue were used for accent to a single color nuance. He painted what he saw, and used an empirical perspective space relationship. Another Barbizon painter who influenced the Impressionists was Johan-Barthold Jongkind who studied in The Hague and later in Paris. He was influenced by Corot and Bonington who were contemporaries of Eugene Delacroix. Jongkind's studio pictures were not too successful. His watercolors, however, done on the spot, caught the "most fleeting of sensations".^ He had that rapidity of execution and sureness of touch which the Impressionists in turn strove to attain. He painted nature as he found i t , as in the gray and pink charm of old Paris streets, factories or Dutch seafaring scenes. He had an intimate detailed knowledge of his subject and an acute ability to see. "I love this fellow Jongkind", Castagnary wrote, "He is an artist to his finger tips ... with him every- thing lies in the impression".? Jongkind tried to be faithful to his impressions and to represent what he knew of his subject under specific atmospheric conditions. Like Constable and Boudin he made atmospheric effects the real subject of his picture. In France, the Impressionist Camile Pissarro, after the great Exposition of 1855, went to Corot for advice and help. Corot said, "the first two things to study are form and values... color and execution give charm to the work".^ The young students disliked Thomas Couture's pre- occupation with idealization. He was at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and - 8 - c o u l d i n f l u e n c e the young group, many of whom were s t u d e n t s from A m e r i c a . The younger a r t i s t s were t i r e d of s t u d i o p a i n t i n g and o f c o p y i n g the g r e a t masters i n the L o u v r e , as an end i n i t s e l f . Edmond Duranty p u b l i s h e d an a r t i c l e Notes sur l ' a r t , i n Re*alisme, J u l y 10, 1856, s t a t i n g , " G r e e k v i s i o n s , Roman v i s i o n s , m e d i e v a l v i s i o n s , v i s i o n s o f the s i x t e e n t h , s e v e n t e e n t h , e i g h t e e n t h , c e n t u r i e s , w i t h the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y f o r b i d d e n . The man o f a n t i q u i t y p a i n t e d what he saw. C r e a t e what you s e e . " ^ In 1855, the j u r y had r e f u s e d two of C o u r b e t ' s important canvasses so he e x h i b i t e d a t h i s own expense i n the P a v i l l i o n du Re'alisme, f i f t y p a i n t i n g s i n the f i r s t one-man show ever to be g i v e n i n P a r i s . H i s L ' A t e l i e r du P e i n t r e , A l l g g o r i e Re'ele, Determinant une Phase de Sept Annees de ma V i e A r t i s t i q u e , broke many academic r u l e s . There was a new format w i t h a r e a l i s t i c panoramic view of l o w - c l a s s p e o p l e . L o c a l c o l o r was used and the b r u s h s t r o k e s i n s e p a r a t e areas matched the t e x t u r e o f those a r e a s . Here was i n d i v i d u a l i s m t h a t was a n t i - a c a d e m i c . The I l l u s t r a t e d London News, S e p t . 1, 1855, p u b l i s h e d a wood e n g r a v i n g of the C e n t r a l H a l l o f the P a l a i s des Beaux-Arts a t the P a r i s W o r l d ' s F a i r . Here were e x h i b i t e d f o r the f i r s t time s i g n i f i c a n t works by l i v i n g p a i n t e r s from a l l over E u r o p e . D e l a c r o i x chose to e x h i b i t a T u r k i s h Bather among f o r t y o t h e r c a n v a s s e s . Corot showed o n l y s i x , w h i l e Daubigny, J o n g k i n d and M i l l e t were h a r d l y r e p r e s e n t e d . Landscapes were c o n s i d e r e d the lowest form o f a r t . The medals went to the f o l l o w e r s of I n g r e s , and Ingres a d v i s e d young Edgar Degas, (who had j u s t g i v e n up Law S c h o o l , to become a p a i n t e r , ) and who v i s i t e d the e x h i b i t i o n w i t h h i s f a t h e r , to "Draw l i n e s , young man, many l i n e s ; from memory or from n a t u r e ; i t i s i n t h i s way t h a t you w i l l be- come a good a r t i s t " . ^ Eugene Boudin was encouraged by M i l l e t and spent t h r e e y e a r s i n P a r i s - 9 - from 1850 - 1853. The p e r i o d of gray p a i n t i n g i n seascapes was o v e r , they began to p a i n t i n c o l o r . He r e t u r n e d to Le Havre to work w i t h J o n g k i n d . He l o v e d the s e a b r e e z e s , b i g c l o u d s and s i l v e r y beaches a l o n g the S e i n e . " I t i s now twenty years s i n c e I f i r s t began to seek t h a t d e l i c a c y , t h a t a l l - p e r v a d i n g charm of l i g h t . How f r e s h i t i s ; i t i s s o f t , f a d e d , s l i g h t l y r o s e - t i n t e d . The o b j e c t s d i s s o l v e . There i s n o t h i n g but c o l o r v a l u e s everywhere. The sea was s u p e r b , the sky s o f t and v e l v e t y ; i t l a t e r t u r n e d to y e l l o w ; i t became warm and then the s e t t i n g sun imbued e v e r y t h i n g w i t h b e a u t i f u l nuances o f b l u i s h - p u r p l e . ..7 L i k e C o n s t a b l e he d i s l i k e d the o l d smoky d i r t y c a n v a s s e s , and saw w i t h the eye o f an I m p r e s s i o n i s t . He d i d e v e r y t h i n g w i t h l i g h t n e s s and elegance w i t h exact t o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . He wrote "we must seek out the s i m p l e b e a u t i e s of n a t u r e " . - ^ He a d v i s e d Monet " S t u d y , l e a r n to see and p a i n t , draw, do l a n d s c a p e s . The ocean and the sky, a n i m a l s , p e o p l e and t r e e s - - j u s t as n a t u r e c r e a t e d t h e m — a r e so b e a u t i f u l i n t h e i r own s e t t i n g of l i g h t and a i r , j u s t as t h e y a r e . . . . A l l t h a t i s p a i n t e d d i r e c t l y , a t a g i v e n moment, has a f o r c e , power, and v i t a l i t y which can never be d u p l i - c a t e d i n the s t u d i o " . ^ In the n o i s y atmosphere of the c a f e s of P a r i s , young p a i n t e r s l i k e P i s s a r r o and Degas d i s c u s s e d t h e i r i d e a s w i t h F a n t i n l a T o u r , Gustave F l a u b e r t , p u p i l s of D e l a c r o i x , Couture and I n g r e s . In the c a f e Taranne, c r i t i c s and w r i t e r s , B a u d e l a i r e and Duranty, m e d i c a l s t u d e n t s l i k e Dr. Gachet, a l l from d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l s ; " r e a l i s t s " , " f a n t a s i s t s " , " I n g r i s t s " and " c o l o r i s t s " as they were c a l l e d , met and d i s c u s s e d a r t . ^ Many o f the young a r t i s t s l e f t P a r i s to p a i n t on t h e i r own. L a t e r i n the y e a r , P i s s a r r o was to have a landscape a c c e p t e d a t the S a l o n of 1859. P i e r r e C h a r l e s B a u d e l a i r e , i n h i s S a l o n of 1859, c h a p t e r " L e P u b l i c - 10 - Moderne et l a p h o t o g r a p h i e " Variete's C r i t i q u e s , P a r i s , s t a t e d , "From day to day a r t d i m i n i s h e s i t s s e l f - r e s p e c t , p r o s t r a t e s i t s e l f b e f o r e e x t e r i o r r e a l i t y and the a r t i s t becomes more and more i n c l i n e d to p a i n t not what he dreams but what he sees." 1 --' In the s p r i n g of 1874, a group of young p a i n t e r s i n P a r i s , d e f i e d the o f f i c i a l s a l o n and o r g a n i z e d an e x h i b i t i o n o f t h e i r own. These I m p r e s s i o n i s t s r e p r e s e n t e d a c o n t i n u a t i o n of the b a s i c t h e o r i e s of t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s , s i n c e g r e a t a r t i s t s of the past had c o n t r i b u t e d to the development o f I m p r e s s i o n i s t p r i n c i p l e s . F o r twenty y e a r s , I n g r e s , D e l a c r o i x , C o r o t and Courbet had dominated the scene and i t was men l i k e Monet, R e n o i r and P i s s a r r o who s e t out to i n c o r p o r a t e w i t h t h e i r own o l d e r b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s , new ways which l e d to I m p r e s s i o n i s m . These men were the p r e c u r s o r s of Modern P a i n t i n g . These were i n d i v i d u a l a r t i s t s and I m p r e s s i o n i s m was due to t h e i r v a r i e d and c o l l e c t i v e e f f o r t s . Boudin s a i d , " P e r f e c t i o n i s a c o l l e c t i v e work and w i t h o u t t h a t p e r s o n , t h i s one 16 would never have a c h i e v e d the p e r f e c t i o n he d i d " . In E n g l a n d , an important r o o t o f F r e n c h Impressionism had been d e v e l o p e d . John C o n s t a b l e was one of the f i r s t landscape p a i n t e r s i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y to p a i n t what he a c t u a l l y observed o u t - o f - d o o r s . H i s c o l l e a g u e s were s t i l l p a i n t i n g a c c o r d i n g to s e v e n t e e n t h and e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y formulas which r e s u l t e d i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y d a r k , brown and y e l l o w , s e p i a - c a s t works. They s a i d t h a t C o n s t a b l e ' s p a i n t i n g s were not p a i n t e d a c c o r d i n g to t r a d i t i o n , as t r e e s s h o u l d be the c o l o r o f an o l d v i o l i n . C o n s t a b l e defended h i s n a t u r a l i s t i c green t r e e s by p u t t i n g a v i o l i n i n a t r e e and a s k i n g h i s f r i e n d s i f the t r e e r e a l l y d i d match the v i o l i n . I t d i d n o t , and C o n s t a b l e became the i n v e n t o r of a new way o f c o l o r r e n d i t i o n which had not been used b e f o r e . - 11 - He was i n t r i g u e d with the luminous e f f e c t s achieved by seventeenth century masters and by the combination of golden-yellow sepia tones with blue, complementary c o l o r s . The baroque t r a d i t i o n which favored blue and gold combinations with white also achieved a l i v e l y , and powerfully r i c h e f f e c t . This led Constable to explore the e f f e c t s created by the action of complementary colors on one another taking blue and yellow as complementary and formulating other complementaries on t h i s foundation. As early as Leonardo Da V i n c i ' s remarkable s c i e n t i f i c a l l y correct observation of the world, i t had been discovered that the shadow of an object was tinged by a color complementary to the one of the object,''"'7 and Constable adopted t h i s phenomenon i n an attempt to paint more c o l o r - f u l and v i s u a l l y truer p i c t u r e s . Constable, l i k e Copley before him, went outside, observed nature, and sought the pure pigment color most c l o s e l y equivalent to the actual color of the object he was depicting. The technique he used to apply these newer, b r i g h t e r , pure colors was also new. His brushstrokes were small and calculated i n s i z e to match the actual pigmented brush. He presented on canvas the same value as he had chosen as correct on the brush. Thus the surface of h i s canvases be- came a mass of small brushstrokes, each helping to define the general form of the object and each presenting a purer color, nearer to nature than had been seen before. Constable also used what has become known as a "divided color*" technique, which was a d i r e c t influence on Delacroix and on the Impressionists. This consisted of h i s method for reproducing a b r i g h t natural e f f e c t by p l a c i n g brushstrokes of d i s t i n c t colors side by side. At a distance, these colors blended producing a more b r i l l i a n t color than a s i n g l e area of blended color. On green, f o r instance, he would modify a green by adding yellow to the green for a h i g h l i g h t , beside t h i s - 12 - he would p l a c e an o r d i n a r y pure green f o r a d i f f u s e d l i g h t , then add a b l u e to the green i n the shadow, thus p r o d u c i n g an analogous range o f g r e e n s , from y e l l o w green, through g r e e n , to b l u e g r e e n . T h i s r e q u i r e d a v e r y c a r e f u l e m p i r i c a l study of the v i s u a l e f f e c t s of c o l o r s j u x t a p o s e d on the canvas as seen from a d i s t a n c e to a c h i e v e a n a t u r a l e f f e c t . C o n s t a b l e ' s Haywain, a p i c t u r e t y p i c a l of h i s developed s t y l e and showing a l l of these remarkable c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , was e x h i b i t e d i n P a r i s i n 1824, where i t was seen by D e l a c r o i x . T h i s p i c t u r e was such a r e v e l a t i o n to him t h a t he s t u d i e d i t v e r y c a r e f u l l y f o r days and then proceeded to r e - p a i n t one o f h i s own p i c t u r e s to c o r r e s p o n d w i t h C o n s t a b l e ' s t e c h n i q u e and to t r y to a c h i e v e the same e f f e c t s of l i g h t and c o l o r . ^ D e l a c r o i x m o d i f i e d C o n s t a b l e ' s c o l o r t h e o r y and i n h i s j o u r n a l s r e c o r d s h i s own i d e a s about how he p a i n t e d a p i c t u r e to a c h i e v e the optimum c o l o r e f f e c t . H i s i d e a was to use t h r e e or f o u r pure l o c a l c o l o r s as main a c c e n t s i n h i s p i c t u r e . In the background he would use c h r o m a t i c g r e y s , made up of a m i x t u r e of the main pure c o l o r s of the major o b j e c t s i n the p i c t u r e . The main areas o f pure c o l o r i n the f o r e g r o u n d r e a c t e d w i t h the r e l a t e d greys of the background to c r e a t e a p l a y of c o l o r back and f o r t h i n the p i c t u r e , and t h i s gave a more l i v e l y e f f e c t than c o l o r a g a i n s t an u n r e l a t e d background. D e l a c r o i x j o u r n e y e d to N o r t h A f r i c a where the more d i r e c t sun and b r i l l i a n t c o l o r s brought out much s t r o n g e r complementaries i n the shadows, and r e s u l t e d i n a wider range of complementaries i n h i s p a l e t t e and a g e n e r a l l y g r e a t e r c o l o r f a c i l i t y on h i s p a r t . Today we f i n d i t h a r d to imagine the works of C o n s t a b l e or D e l a c r o i x as p a r t i c u l a r l y b r i g h t or r e v o l u t i o n a r y but i n t h e i r own time they p r e s e n t - ed a c o n t r a s t to " a c a d e m i c " work as taught i n the a c a d e m i e s } Where - 13 - academic work had to look like sculpture for figure compositions. It had to be historical, or morally allegorical. It had to show heroes at the height of their power doing great deeds to elevate the mind and approach the ideals of Greek art. The brushstrokes were to be blended to present a uniformly textured surface. This removed a l l trace of the painter's personality. The color was applied achromatically with highlights in white, and shadows in black. The light part of the picture was not to occupy more than one third of the picture format. Convention required a shading through grey, from light to dark areas, in order that light and dark were never juxtaposed and this avoided silhouette effects. The composition had to be laid out on a Renaissance grid system to make every part rationally controlled. The composition was usually symmetrically placed about an axis. Academic art was only concerned with figure representations in- volving l i f e size figures and landscape was an unimportant part of the picture, as a mere background. Landscape art, therefore, before the Barbizons of France, was only accepted as an art form in English water-colors, and indeed the Barbizons took much from the English water-color school. The Barbizons bridged the gap between the English landscape school and the French Impressionists. Diaz de la Peffa, the Barbizon painter, advised Renoir to discard earth colors and black, and to lighten his 1 9 palette. A brief resume of the tenets held by some of the French Impressionists will set the elements of Impressionism before us. These same elements appeared much later in Canadian painting. Impressionism in France was a non-academic bourgeois art which concentrated on land- - 14 - scapes presented with vibrant f u l l colors and apparent light. The fore- most concern, the depiction of visual light on painted canvas, was partly solved by the scientific color researches of the previous half century. Sir Isaac Newton in 1766 had passed a beam of sunlight through a prism and charted the spectral colors on a screen. These colors he spaced around to form a circle. He chose seven distinct hues red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet to agree with certain mystical notions about the seven notes of the diatonic scale in music, and the ori seven planets of classical tradition. In 1802 Young did his work on color theory. Hermann Helmholtz was writing extensively from 1856 to 1866 on the subject of Physiological Optics. The Young - Helmholtz theory stated that in optics any color may be matched visually by adding together various amounts of the three primary colors. It is interesting to note that the three primary colors to which this theory referred were red, green and violet. In 1856, James Clark Maxwell developed the color wheel, which illustrated the principle that the spectral colors equally spaced on a spinning top or wheel pro- duce white light. As early as 1839"̂-'- Chevreul stated that since light was the source of color, i t was necessary to examine the composition of light. His prismatic spectrum was made up of six colors. Three simple ones: red, blue and yellow, and three compound colors produced by mixing the simple ones giving green, violet and orange. Chevreul found that the juxta- position of two complementary colors heighten their intensity and that every object brightens i f placed against something dark and conversely, an object appears darker placed against something light. In 1839 his book on color theory was written, although i t was not published until - 15 - after 1875. His law of simultaneous contrasts especially interested painters. The Impressionists knew of these theories, but they preferred to use a variety of pure colors spread more or less evenly throughout their whole picture, so that by their optical mixture, the eye would form a vibrating, changing, and very brilliant impression of light. The Impressionists generally restricted their palette to pure hues of yellow, red and blue. Photographic reproductions later used these same three colors as the basis for their color prints. The Impressionists had to follow their own instinctive feeling for light. In translating the purity and brilliance of their vision they eliminated earth colors, burnt sienna and black from their palettes. Ingres in showing a blue dress would add white to the blue for a highlight giving a washed out effect^- plain blue for an area in indirect light, and would add black to the blue for the shadows using a mono- chromatic scale. Fragonard and Delacroix produced new luminosity by using different colors for half tones instead of adding black or white. Thus the Impressionists took over an already established formula. Edward Duranty, publisher of Realism wrote "They discovered that light robs tones of colorj that the purity of sunlight reflected from objects reimbues the objects with a luminous unity which blends the seven spectral rays of the prism into one colorless beam which is light. Intuitive step by intuitive step they succeeded in dissolving sunlight into individual rays, into its elements, and then in reinvesting i t with unity through the 23 harmony of the spectral colors which they applied to their canvasses." This perception led the Impressionists to a shift in emphasis, from the - 16 - i observation of the elements of light, to capturing the changing appearance of the subject under various light conditions; to the dissolution of form, in the creation of a world which was the reflection of a reflection. This approach became more and more limited as i t chose to confine itself to representing a fleeting instant. This was coming toward the objective of the scientific analysis of optical effects, which, when i t was finally achieved, distinguished the highly formulated work of the Neo Impressionists by Seurat, Signac, and Cross. Pierre Baudelaire's critique on the 1846 Salon puts forward the idea that color expresses harmony, melody and counterpoint and that color in art is analogous to melody in music.^ It is easy to exaggerate the influence of scientific formulas. These theories may have influenced the Impressionists but painters continued to use their eyes first, rather than learning any precise formulae. However, i t was the growing scientific interest in color that suggested this way of seeing and painting. The roots of Impressionism are found in many places. . Claude Lorraine's luminism, Honore Daumier's common people, John Constable's color, Gustave Courbet's realism, Eugene Delacroix's color, Jean Corot's landscapes, the Barbizon School painting out-of-doors at Fontainebleau, Johan Jongkind and Eugene Boudin at Le Havre, and Charles Daubigny's water, sky and low horizon canvasses. Edouard Manet, one of the precursors of French Impressionism, began a more modern way of painting. His works echoed the Spanish master-works by Velasquez and Goya, but they also were indebted to Japanese prints which were coming into vogue in Paris about 1870. He eliminated half tones and highlights and strengthened his colors. The effectiveness of his s i m p l i f i e d images depended upon the s e l e c t i o n o f a few elements. Manet s i m p l i f i e d the image w i t h o u t weakening i t . H i s o b j e c t i v e was to work out a way o f p a i n t i n g t h a t l o o k e d spontaneous. T h i s i n s t a n t a n e o u s e f f e c t was to appear so e x p e r t t h a t h i s work seemed to be the i m p r o v i s a t i o n o f a moment. T h i s appearance was v a l u e d and sought a f t e r by the men who were then b e g i n n i n g the I m p r e s s i o n i s t way of p a i n t i n g ; Claude Monet and C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o . The b o l d f l a t c o l o r areas of Manet were a g a i n s t the academic r u l e s . There was l i t t l e m i d d l e t o n e . The l i g h t s and darks were massed t o g e t h e r . There were s t r o n g v a l u e c o n t r a s t s and l i t t l e i n t e r m e d i a r y s h a d i n g . A s i l h o u e t t e appearance was the r e s u l t and h i s r e s t r i c t e d p a l e t t e was reduced to t h r e e pure c o l o r s . Manet i n t r o d u c e d p i c t u r e s t h a t were more important than the s u b j e c t s he d e p i c t e d ; where the c o l o r was new and d i f f e r e n t , and where f l a t a r e a s , w i t h no shadows were u s e d . The new concept t h a t a work of a r t may f i n d i t s r e a s o n f o r b e i n g i n i t s e l f , r a t h e r than i n what i t says o r i s about, was a d e p a r t u r e from the a n e c d o t a l i d e a t h a t dominated s a l o n p a i n t i n g i n 1863. In 1874 the f i r s t I m p r e s s i o n i s t showing was a t N a d a r ' s s t u d i o . Because of Claude M o n e t ' s canvas e n t i t l e d I m p r e s s i o n , S u n r i s e , the p a i n t e r s i n t h a t e x - 25 h i b i t i o n were c a l l e d I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , by the c r i t i c L. L e r o y , as a j o k e . But even the a r t i s t s r e c o g n i z e d the a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s of the term and c a l l e d themselves I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . Claude Monet was an e a r l y I m p r e s s i o n i s t and h i s seascapes are based on those o f J o n g k i n d and B o u d i n . J o n g k i n d and Boudin p a i n t e d a t Le H a v r e , which was M o n e t ' s home, and emulated Daubigny's water and sky themes. In Monet's e a r l i e s t work he uses a v e r y reduced p a l e t t e of b l u e and y e l l o w , - 18 - complementary c o l o r s , mixed w i t h w h i t e to form a l i g h t b r i g h t t i n t . The b r u s h s t r o k e changes from p a r t to p a r t of the p i c t u r e , i n d i c a t i n g d i f f e r e n t t e x t u r e s c o n t r a r y to the academic r u l e , t h a t b r u s h s t r o k e s be u n i f i e d throughout the whole p i c t u r e . Monet wanted the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the o b j e c t to be caught by the b r u s h s t r o k e . He was concerned w i t h the e f f e c t s o f s u n l i g h t when o b s e r v i n g r e f l e c t i o n s and r e f r a c t i o n s . " I t i s p r e c i s e l y these sudden gleams, the m a g i c a l l i g h t t h a t p l a y s on the s u r f a c e s of t h i n g s t h a t I am t r y i n g to c a p t u r e , l i g h t t h a t has the d o v e ' s b r e a s t hues of shot s i l k or the b l u e g l i n t s o f f l a m i n g p u n c h . " M.E. C h e v r e u l ' s simultaneous c o n t r a s t t h e o r y had p o s s i b l y i n d i c a t e d to Monet t h a t the o p t i c a l e f f e c t of showing white l i g h t , c o u l d be a c h i e v e d by j u x t a p o s i n g complementaries of the same v a l u e to produce luminous e f f e c t s . I t was as though l i g h t o r i g i n a t e d i n the p i c t u r e i t - s e l f . The immediate e f f e c t o f n a t u r e was taken by the I m p r e s s i o n i s t l a n d - scape s c h o o l from an a c t u a l v i s u a l s c e n e . T h e i r o u t l o o k r e f l e c t e d a H e r a c l i t i a n p h i l o s o p h y i n c l u d i n g the element of time i n a w o r l d of change, t r a n s i t i o n and f l u x . They t r i e d to c a p t u r e b o d i e s p r o d u c i n g l i g h t , f i r e s , and the sun. They t r i e d to c a p t u r e b o d i e s a b s o r b i n g l i g h t , the e a r t h , m i s t s and atmosphere. They t r i e d to c a p t u r e b o d i e s r e f l e c t i n g l i g h t , steam, w a t e r , c l o u d s and g l a s s . They took the c h a o t i c shapes of n a t u r e and r e c o r d e d the chance movements of men w i t h ' a n i n n o c e n t e y e ' , and w i t h no comment on the s c e n e . They were the f i r s t p a i n t e r s to t r a n s c r i b e the o p t i c a l image d i r e c t l y as you saw i t w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r i n g any superimposed o r d e r ; and p a i n t e d the a c t u a l scene o u t - o f - d o o r s . They chose s u b j e c t s not f o r t h e i r importance as s u b j e c t m a t t e r , but as a study to show the l i g h t e f f e c t s . The i n t e r e s t i n showing l i g h t - 19 - effects occurred after Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, and Alfred Sisley went to England in 1870 and saw the work of Joseph Turner. On their return to France, Mallerme's literary interest in a subtle nuance in the use of words influenced the Impressionists to experiment with nuances in light dark, warm cool, complementary and rainbow pallettes pigments. At the time of the 1855 International Exhibition in Paris, Camille Pissarro arrived in Paris to study art. He was very impressed by the works of Ingres, Delacroix, Courbet, and Corot. Pissarro always acknow- ledged his debt to Corot and like Corot he painted a series of country roads. In 1859 he met Monet at the Academie Suisse. He was in Pontoise in 1866, and in Louveciennes in 1869. In 1870 he spent two years in London, England with Monet during the Franco-Prussian War. On his return from England he settled again in Pontoise, 1872 - 1884, where he was in close communication With Paul Clzanne, Armand Guillaumin and Victor Vignon. It was Pissarro who introduced Cezanne to the Impressionist technique and helped to clear away his former somber manner. In 1902 Gauguin wrote; "If you examine Pissarro"s art in its entirety, you find, despite its unevenness, not only an intense instinct for art which never contradicts itself, but also an art which is essentially intuitive in the best tradition. He copied everyone, you say? Why not? Everyone copied him, but denied him. He was one of my masters and I do not deny him."^ In his townscapes and country road-type scenes there are often strong perspective lines such as a road merging with a horizon and a composition which recalls Corot's works; but the principal element in his pictures is the light, soft and atmospheric which Pissarfohad mastered. Pissarro joined the Impressionists because of his great regard for Manet's work. He showed at every Impressionist exhibition from 1874 to - 20 - 1886. Theodore Duret, i n h i s account of the S a l o n of 1870 wrote " I n one a s p e c t of h i s work P i s s a r r o i s a r e a l i s t . He would never r e a r r a n g e n a t u r e to s u i t h i s c o m p o s i t i o n . F o r him, a landscape on canvas must be an exact r e p r o d u c t i o n o f a n a t u r a l s c e n e . " 2 ^ A f t e r the F r a n c o - P r u s s i a n War the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s reassembled i n P a r i s . Durand-Ruel moved to New Bond S t . i n P a r i s . In London, Daubigny had i n - t r o d u c e d Durand-Ruel to Monet and P i s s a r r o . These men were s t r e n g t h e n e d by h i s support even though they had been i g n o r e d i n London a r t c i r c l e s . They had been c a p t i v a t e d by the c o u n t r y s i d e and the suburbs of London and had p a i n t e d the e f f e c t s o f f o g , snow and s p r i n g s u n s h i n e . They v i s i t e d museums and saw o i l s and w a t e r c o l o r s by T u r n e r and C o n s t a b l e which were a new r e v e l a t i o n to them. I t was the landscape p a i n t e r s , the masters of l i g h t and f l e e t i n g i m p r e s s i o n s , which a f f e c t e d them most; Turner e s p e c i a l l y . The b r i l l i a n c e of h i s pure c o l o r s caught t h e i r eye. They a n a l y z e d h i s t e c h n i q u e . H i s snow and i c e scenes impressed them. S i g n a c , i n h i s "From D e l a c r o i x to Neo I m p r e s s i o n i s m " , wrote of T u r n e r : "They were a s t o n i s h e d a t h i s a b i l i t y to r e c r e a t e the whiteness of snow, something they themselves w i t h t h e i r broad b r u s h s t r o k e s had not been a b l e to a c h i e v e . And they r e a l i z e d t h a t t h i s w o n d e r f u l e f f e c t c o u l d not be a c h i e v e d w i t h a u n i f o r m w h i t e , but o n l y through numerous c l o s e l y a p p l i e d dots i n a v a r i e t y of c o l o r s w h i c h , seen from a d i s t a n c e , merged to g i v e the d e - s i r e d e f f e c t . " " ^ T u r n e r , e s p e c i a l l y i n h i s l a t e r works, p o r t r a y e d n a t u r e i n h e r most t u r b u l e n t moods w i t h r o l l i n g seas and f l y i n g s p r a y . H i s b a t t l e s h i p s and t r a i n s a r e l i k e m i s t y a b s t r a c t i o n s r a t h e r than l i k e s o l i d form. He and C o n s t a b l e c e r t a i n l y i n f l u e n c e d the s u b j e c t m a t t e r of Monet and P i s s a r r o . A l e t t e r from P i s s a r r o to Dewhurst, Nov. 1902 s a y s ; "Monet and I were - 21 - v e r y e n t h u s i a s t i c over the London l a n d s c a p e s . Monet worked i n the p a r k s , ' w h i l s t I, l i v i n g a t Lower Norwood, a t t h a t time a charming suburb, s t u d i e d the e f f e c t of f o g , snow and s p r i n g t i m e . We worked from n a t u r e . . . We a l s o v i s i t e d museums. The w a t e r c o l o r s and p a i n t i n g s of Turner and of C o n s t a b l e , the canvases of O l d Crome have c e r t a i n l y had i n f l u e n c e upon u s . We admired G a i n s b o r o u g h , Lawrence, and R e y n o l d s ; but we were s t r u c k c h i e f l y by the landscape p a i n t e r s , who shared more i n our aim w i t h r e g a r d 31 to ' p l e i n a i r ' , l i g h t , and f u g i t i v e e f f e c t s . " . . . . " T u r n e r and C o n s t a b l e w h i l e they taught us something, showed us i n t h e i r works t h a t they had no u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the a n a l y s i s of shadow, which i n T u r n e r ' s p a i n t i n g i s s i m p l y used as an e f f e c t , a mere absence of l i g h t . As f a r as tone d i v i s i o n i s c o n c e r n e d , Turner proved the v a l u e of t h i s as a method 32 among methods, a l t h o u g h he d i d not a p p l y i t c o r r e c t l y and n a t u r a l l y . " Monet s t a t e d i n l a t e r y e a r s t h a t T u r n e r ' s a r t had had a l i m i t e d b e a r i n g on h i s e v o l u t i o n . Both he and P i s s a r r o , through d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n , had i n 1870, come c l o s e r to n a t u r e than T u r n e r , whose work was a n t i p a t h e t i c to him because of the exuberant r o m a n t i c i s m of f a n c y . While i n London i n 1870, Monet and P i s s a r r o met James M c N e i l l W h i s t l e r . W h i s t l e r ' s O l d B a t t e r s e a B r i d g e , 1865, p r o b a b l y based on a Japanese wood b l o c k p r i n t f o r i t s c o m p o s i t i o n , i s a v e r y s u b t l e harmony i n greys and b l u e green. W h i s t e r ' s s u b t i t l e f o r i t Nocturne - B l u e and G o l d , r e v e a l s h i s i n t e r e s t i n c r e a t i n g d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t s . I t i s h i s t e c h n i c a l r e f i n e m e n t and h i s s u b t l e c o l o r nuances, m a i n l y i n shades o f grey but w i t h luminous e f f e c t s of y e l l o w and p i n k , t h a t must have f a s c i n a t e d Monet. In 1871 Monet d i d a number of works i n and around London such as Waterloo B r i d g e and Westminster, i n the L o r d A s t o r C o l l e c t i o n , London, which uses a much more d i v i d e d b r u s h s t r o k e than - 22 - Whistler's blended works, but which shows an obvious debt to Whistler in its emulation of Whistler's light effects and general mood. From then on Monet became more and more interested in a light which dissolved form in a high- keyed foggy luminosity. Alfred Sisley, 1839 - 1899, studied at Gleyre's Studio with Monet, Renoir and Bazille. In his first work, accepted by the Salon in 1867, he described himself as a pupil of Corot. Sisley painted only landscapes centered in the Ile-de-France area. His delicate feeling for nature is very suited to the snow scenes which he did so well. After 1885 he was more and more influenced by Monet. He adopted the Impressionist tech- nique and colors, and was surprised at Renoir's light palette and colorful painting. Sisley's The Road Through Marly, Seen from the Road to Sevres is a tree-bordered road disappearing into space, influenced by Corot. Sisley always began with the sky, the major depth producing part of his land- scapes. Snow at Louveciennes shows the influence of Monet on Sisley. The picture has taken on a flatter brighter scene showing the multiple re- flections to be found in the snow. Again the road goes straight back into the picture plane giving a feeling of depth but the world seems buried in a great white silence and only the women and the tree trunk break the over- a l l decoration. Sisley and Pissarro often painted very similar subjects in and around Louveciennes and Honfleur. Sisley contributed to four of the eight Impressionist exhibitions between 1874 and 1886. One of the greatest colorists of the Impressionist School was Auguste Renoir who began his artistic career at fourteen as a porcelain painter at Limoges. The precision and delicacy needed in porcelain painting and the technique of painting on a transparent white ground seems to have influenced - 23 - h i s whole l i f e ' s work. In 1864 R e n o i r accompanied Monet, S i s l e y and B a z i l l e when they went to s k e t c h a t C h a i l l y i n the f o r e s t o f F o n t a i n e b l e a u . R e n o i r used a rainbow p a l e t t e a p p l i e d i n t h i n l a y e r s over a pure white r e f l e c t i n g b a s e . T h i s was a new t e c h n i c a l p r o c e d u r e . There was no u n d e r p a i n t i n g to e s t a b l i s h l i g h t , dark a r e a s . F o r the f i r s t time shading was n o t c o n s i d e r e d i n terms of d a r k n e s s . The o n l y c o n s i d e r a t i o n was i n b r i g h t pure c o l o r s . The j e w e l - l i k e l i v e l i n e s s of the c o l o r he a c h i e v e d by t h i s t e c h n i q u e i s u n i q u e . R e n o i r expresses the happy b o u r g o i s e a t t i t u d e behind the I m p r e s s i o n i s t approach to a r t i n h i s statement, "What I l i k e i s s k i n , a young g i r l ' s s k i n t h a t i s p i n k and shows t h a t s h e has a good c i r c u l a t i o n . But what I l i k e 33 above a l l i s s e r e n i t y . " T h i s q u o t a t i o n r e v e a l s how the a r t i s t d e l i g h t e d i n the dappled l i g h t e f f e c t s to be seen i n h i s Nude i n the S u n l i g h t and g i v e s us an i d e a about what he was t r y i n g to r e p r e s e n t i n the p i c t u r e . R e n o i r s a i d , " F o r me a p i c t u r e must be l o v a b l e , c h e e r f u l , and p r e t t y , yes p r e t t y . . . . T h e r e a r e enough t i r e s o m e t h i n g s i n l i f e a l r e a d y w i t h o u t our 34 t a k i n g the t r o u b l e to produce m o r e . " When Claude Monet l e f t G l e y r e ' s s t u d i o i n 1863 he took R e n o i r and S i s l e y w i t h him to p a i n t i n the f o r e s t of F o n t a i n e b l e a u . Monet and Boudin were the f i r s t to p a i n t s e a - b a t h i n g . In 1886 Manet s a i d o f Monet: " J u s t look a t t h i s young man who attempts to do p l a i n a i r ; as i f the a n c i e n t s had 35 ever thought o f such a t h i n g ! " A f t e r 1870 Monet gave up p l a c i n g people i n n a t u r a l s e t t i n g s and r e - s t r i c t e d h i m s e l f to s t u d y i n g problems of l i g h t and c o l o r . H i s a r t became the study of ever more s u b t l e e x p r e s s i o n s o f v i s u a l phenomena. The man who had dreamt of huge f i g u r e c o m p o s i t i o n s , p a i n t e d e a s e l p i c t u r e s . I t - 24 - was only at the end of his l i f e that he again took up works of great size and these are his huge waterlily studies, Les Nympheas, in the Orangerie. From 1872 to 1876 Monet lived near his friend, Gustave Caillebottt^ in Argenteuil on the Petite Genevelieres. There he did his freshest and freest work. The light reflected from the rippling water, prompted his most Impressionistic work. Monet lived on his houseboat and Renoir and Manet were frequent visitors. These three painted the same sub jects, each in his own way. Manet painted an Impressionist study of Monet in his canoe called The Canoer where blue and yellow are present in such an arrangement that they mix optically to give the impression of white light, the most intense, forceful, brilliant, white light of the open air, and its reflection from the water. There are large and monumental areas of dark and light without semi-tint transitions. The most limited palette is used and there is no horizon line. A wall of blue sea forms the background, while the simpli- fied sweeping line of the boat encloses the two figures in a composition reminiscent of a Japanese print. Claude Monet's Gare Saint-Lazare, 1877, is one of a series of railway views shown at the Third Impressionist Exhibition. Altogether he made seven variations on this theme. There were forerunners of this type of theme. Turner had painted Rain, Steam, and Speed in 1844. Monet and Pissarro may have seen these works in England in 1870. The railway was a great novelty at that time and was used as a subject by Pissarro and Sisley as well as. by Monet. These artists often travelled to the suburbs of Paris by train and naturally were interested in the effects of light filtered through glass and steam and touched by the pink colors of early morning. Like the clouds and reflections in water this - 25 - was a l l a part of that ephemeral universe which they chose to paint. Monet also painted many views of haystacks in a field at Givern^y. These were shown in a l l weather conditions. He painted a series of poplars on the banks of the Epte at different times of the day. In February, 1892 he went to live above a shop called "Au Caprice" in Rouen from which he could see the facade of the Cathedral. He reproduced its various aspects in several pictures, going from one to another according to the time of day and the weather. His technique was changing. His paint became a sort of stippled cement as i f to imitate the grain and carvings of the old stones. Clemenceau classified the series of facades into four 36 groups, the greys, the whites, the blues, and the rainbow hued. Monet continued the project into 1893. He wrote, "I work as hard as I can but what I have undertaken is enormously difficult...My stay here is drawing near its close. This does not mean that I am ready to finish my cathedrals. Alas, the more I go on, the more difficult I find i t to put down what I 3 7 feel. It is forced labor, searching, testing, not achieving very much." By 1894 he finished the series and had a highly successful showing of a l l the paintings at Durand-Ruel1s in 1895. The cathedral series was a programmed demonstration of Monet's theory about the painting of light. He painted the structure in morning light, f u l l daylight, evening light, on dull days, rainy days and sunny days. But we may say that he never really painted the cathedral at a l l . The stones became cotton fluff bathed in pink, blue, and lavender irridescence. There is no formal composition and the abstract pattern of color has an unexpect- ed relationship to contemporary art. As early as 18905Monet wrote to his friend, the critic Geffroy, about his attempting the subject of water with its reflections and depths. He - 26 - r e t u r n e d to t h i s problem a g a i n and a g a i n . He t u r n e d to h i s own garden a t G i v e r n y w i t h i t s water l i l i e s r i s i n g to the s u r f a c e of a pond t h a t r e f l e c t e d t r a i l i n g w i l l o w s and cascades o f p u r p l e w i s t a r i a , t a l l p o p l a r s , and beds of b r i l l i a n t and e x o t i c f l o w e r s f o r h i s l a s t works. "The water l i l y s e r i e s , Les Nympheas, r e p r e s e n t e d the crowning achievement of Monet's l o n g c a r e e r . F o r these l a s t works o f an o l d man, t h i s c u l t i v a t i o n of h i s own garden, as i t were, r e p r e s e n t s one of the most p e r s o n a l moments o f Monet's a r t , when he brought t o g e t h e r , on a s u b j e c t t h a t was d i s t i n c t l y h i s own, the themes and t e c h n i q u e s of a l i f e t i m e of s e e i n g . " In Monet's l a t e r p a i n t i n g t h e r e i s a h i g h degree of apparent a b s t r a c t - i o n , the l a c k of r e c o g n i z a b l e l i m i t s and d e f i n i t i o n s , the r e f l e c t i o n s o f t r e e s , the hazy c l o u d s , a l l p r o c e e d i n g a c r o s s the canvas i n seemingly a b s t r a c t rhythms. Roger F r y o b j e c t e d to the l a r g e element of a b s t r a c t i o n and complained t h a t the d i s s o l u t i o n of the f o r m a l elements had f o l l o w e d d i r e c t l y from M o n e t ' s o b s e s s i o n w i t h c a t c h i n g the most f u g i t i v e a s p e c t s of v i s u a l 39 s e n s a t i o n . Monet's admirers on the o t h e r hand, p r a i s e d j u s t t h i s same f o r m l e s s p o e t i c vagueness. " M o n e t ' s c o n c e r n was f o r the immediate v i s u a l a s p e c t of t h i n g s , and then he sought the unusual s e n s a t i o n s of c o l o r and l i g h t t h a t f l a s h upon the eye, i r r e s p e c t i v e of o n e ' s h a b i t u a l knowledge of the s u b j e c t . I t was the apparent s e n s a t i o n t h a t he put on the c a n v a s . We know t h a t the i n n e r p e t a l s of a y e l l o w sunflower a r e n o t , i n f a c t , s t r e a k e d w i t h orange, but when Monet looked - he saw t h a t s t r o k e o f orange l y i n g a l o n g the p e t a l s and t h a t was what he p a i n t e d . The Neo I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , u s i n g o p t i c a l t h e o r i e s , saw t h a t a s t r o k e of r e d and an a d j a c e n t y e l l o w , would merge i n the r e t i n a o f the v i e w e r ' s e y e , p r o d u c i n g an orange more - 27 - brilliant than could be achieved by the conventional method of mixing pigments. If you look carefully at paintings from a l l of Monet's work i t is difficult to find a single example of his using exactly this method. A red placed beside a yellow, or a purple next to a blue, is intended to have the value which Monet put down. What he had discovered was a method for making each individual stroke more brilliant in itself. Sometimes this was a sort of descriptive shorthand for bits of sky reflected in water or flecks of poppy in a field of yellow and green grass. Clemenceau observed that Monet mixed his colors on his palette as other artists did. ^Another attribute accredited to Monet as a novel characteristic of his was his insistence upon paint and upon visible brush- work. When viewed close-up his subjects tended to disappear into a skein of brilliant brushwork. This was quite obviously one of the distinguishing features of Impressionist painting but i t is an enlargement upon that same tendency as seen in Rembrandt or especially Velasquez, except that in Impressionism the brushstrokes remain as brushstrokes when viewed from a 41 distance and do not resolve themselves into a photographic precision." One of the most important aspects of Monet's work, as a leading ex- ample of the whole "Impressionist" style, is his conformity to the actual scene and his dependence upon his subject, no matter how far removed his final "impression" seemed. If one compares photographs of his l i l y pond garden with his paintings of i t , one is struck by his close adherence to visual fact. Monet took his composition from nature and moved himself to get the view that he wanted, rather than ordering the composition on the canvas. He was in the habit of working on several paintings at one time, painting each day on one after another only so long as a given light re- mained the same. We recall that Renoir did this too for his Moulin de la - 28 - Galette scene. Monet did not want a composite picture which incorporated the light of morning and afternoon as well. His dependence on the actual conditions of his subject shows up in his letters complaining in despair about a change in the weather or in the light, or about a river that flooded before he could finish a painting he had begun. He even had to buy the stand of poplars along the Epte River so they would not be cut down before he had completed his famous "poplar series". He depended on 42 the visual scene and upon the visual brushwork. Monet had always been fascinated by water and reflections and his water garden was a perfect subject. He tended to choose a morning mist or afternoon shadow when the forms along the banks of his pond seemed to merge with their reflections, creating a kind of flat double image lying close to the picture's surface. Gradually he discarded clear definitions of edges of the pond or bank and gradually pushed the horizon line further and further to the top of his canvas until i t disappears and there is no definitive boundary left to worry about. Then you see only pond surface. In his water l i l y pond picture Monet captures the impression of the evening light and air, the weedy depths below the water, and the glassy reflecting surface of the pond. "Even in this most 'abstract' manner, Monet's art is s t i l l fixed upon the external world." Degas said that Monet's art was "that of a skilful but not very 44 profound decorator", and i t is true that Monet never touched upon the spiritual, the psychological, or the sociological. His work is much more impersonal. Valiry said that i t represented "the advent of pure sensibil- ity in Painting."^^ Impressionism had a very far reaching influence on a l l art forms. After the last of the group exhibitions in 1886, the impact of outdoor p a i n t i n g , b r i g h t c o l o r s , an a r t f r e e of commentary, a s i m p l e r e p o r t i n g o f a s c e n e , an a r t f o r a r t ' s sake type o f e x p r e s s i o n , f r e e d o t h e r a r t forms from d u l l c o l o r e d , a n e c d o t a l , n a r r a t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n s . P a i n t i n g i n terms o f t o n e , r a t h e r than i n terms of the d e p i c t e d o b j e c t i t s e l f , i s I m p r e s s i o n i s m . I t i s the e f f e c t of l i g h t r e f l e c t e d on the r e t i n a o f the eye from an o b j e c t , r a t h e r than the reproduced form of the o b j e c t s t h e m s e l v e s . Impressionism a l s o i n c l u d e s a t h e o r y of C o l o r found i n Monet, he wanted to p a i n t i n terms of pure l i g h t w i t h o u t any p r e v i o u s knowledge of the form. Trees appear not as t r e e forms but as b i t s o f b l u i s h and g r e e n i s h c o l o r . He a p p l i e s h i s c o l o r i n dots and dabs, a p p r o x i m a t i n g the t o n a l i t y and g e n e r a l shape as seen through i n t e r v e n i n g d i s t a n c e w i t h i t s s p e c i f i c k i n d and degree of l i g h t and atmosphere. In Germain B a z i n ' s I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g s i n the L o u v r e , we f i n d : " T h e f i r s t c o n t a c t o f Americans w i t h Impressionism took p l a c e i n 1883 a t the F o r e i g n E x h i b i t i o n i n Boston, to which Durand-Ruel had s e n t p i c t u r e s by Manet, Monet, S i s l e y and B o u d i n . " ^ "Durand-Ruel had the next l a r g e e x h i b i t i o n c o n t a i n i n g more than 300 works i n t r o d u c i n g I m p r e s s i o n i s m to New York i n one overwhelming g e s t u r e . The e x h i b i t i o n opened on A p r i l 20, 1886, w i t h 23 Degas, 14 M a n e t ' s , 48 M o n e t ' s , 42 P i s s a r j o ' s , 38 R e n o i r ' s , 3 S e u r a t ' s ( i n c l u d e d a t the r e q u e s t of P i s s a r p ) , 14 S i s l e y ' s , and p i c t u r e s by Boudin, C a s s a t t , C a i l l e b © M ; t e , F o r a i n , G u i l l e m i n , Berthe M o r i s o t , John Lewis Brown, R o l l , and s e v e r a l o t h e r s . On May 25, i t was t r a n s p o r t e d to the N a t i o n a l Academy where i t s success was even g r e a t e r . " ^ 7 " A t C h i c a g o , Impressionism p e n e t r a t e d to the h e a r t of the World F a i r of 1 8 9 3 . . . A p r i v a t e e x h i b i t i o n , e n t i r e l y from American c o l l e c t i o n s , showed e i g h t e e n 4 8 I m p r e s s i o n i s t p i c t u r e s o n l y , which had a g r e a t s u c c e s s . " American a r t i s t s f a c e d w i t h even g r e a t e r o b s t a c l e s than European - 30 - artists have given us a painting tradition of which we may well be proud. They wanted to express a new world, wild and strange by European standards. They welded together their own culture with that of other lands, and used every influence, wherever i t originated, to help them express, as pro- foundly as they could, l i f e in America. Canadian artists were to do the same but with the added advantage of having easy access to the developments in the United States. Art publica- tions came to Canada from the United States. Artists visited back and forth across the border. Canadian and American artists worked side by side in the Academies of France and visited the same cafes and lived in the same quarters. Therefore the influence of Impressionism through American sources is almost as strong as the direct influence from France. James McNeil Whistler, 1834 - 1903, was to satisfy that craving in America for the exotically beautiful and the decorative. Like Henry James and T.S. Eliot he was adopted by England when he moved to London. The French Impressionists were lovers of the sun, while Whistler, influenced by Velasquez and the Japanese prints, developed his passion for twilight and night. His Symphony in White, 1862, is however a light-filled canvas where broad areas of color form a white surface; with one area reflecting from the other. An artist who worked in Paris and had a great influence in introduc- ing Modern French Art movements to America was John Singer Sargent, a society painter. He did not follow Impressionism in his work but he admired Manet and Monet. He was their publicity agent across the 49 Atlantic. Mary Cassatt, 1844 - 1926, after studying in the Pennsylvania Academy went abroad in 1866 to Madrid, Amsterdam, Antwerp and Paris to - 31 - study the old Masters. The works of Correggio at Parma were of special interest to her, but she joined the Impressionists in 1877 and exhibited four times with that group. She was encouraged in her work by Degas, but her importance to Americans and Canadians was the fact that she was responsible for advising her friends, the Havemeyers, the Whittemores, Mrs. J. Montgomery Sears and James Stillman to take an interest in French Impressionism and not only bring Impressionist exhibitions to America, but to purchase the work of the Impressionist painters. Benjamin Constant, who taught Mary Cassatt in Paris was the teacher of Theodore Robinson, 1852 - 1896. Robinson also studied with Carolus- Duran and Gerome. In 1888 in his late thirties, Robinson discovered Claude Monet at Giverny and was one of the first Americans to follow the Impressionists and recognize Monet as the most powerful figure of the movement. He championed the cause in an article, "Claude Monet", published in 1892.51 His diary from 1892 to 1896 is in the Frick Library, New York. He always used strong contrasts of light and shadow. His new technique of high keyed, broken color as seen in Willows, 1891, may have been an influence on William Brymner. Like the Canadian artists who worked in Europe and returned to Canada, the Americans found the light in America different. The white New England farm houses were not the old stone villages of Normandy and Brittany. It was only in rural Quebec that peasants in smocks, driving oxen could be found. Childe Hassam, 1859 - 1935, was trained in Boston as a luminist, and in 1883 he visited Great Britain, Holland, Italy and Spain. In 1886 he v settled in Montmartre studying with Boulanger and Lefebre. In 1899 he returned to New York. He painted Fifth Avenue, 1916 - 1918, then called - 32 - "Avenue of the A l l i e s " , and d e c o r a t e d w i t h the many f l a g s of the American a l l i e s , i n a s e r i e s of p a i n t i n g s under changing l i g h t s and c o l o r schemes as the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s had done. In 1878, Monet p a i n t e d N a t i o n a l H o l i d a y , Rue S t . Denis P a r i s , and Manet i n the same year p a i n t e d Rue M o s n i e r , P a r i s , d e c o r a t e d w i t h f l a g s . He was a p a i n t e r of g r e a t v i t a l i t y and o r i g i n a l i t y whose experiments i n l i g h t and c o l o r c o n t r i b u t e d immeasurably to the development of p a i n t i n g i n A m e r i c a . H i s Union Square i n S p r i n g , i n y e l l o w s , p i n k s and g r e e n s , i s l i k e a P i s s a r r o P a r i s s t r e e t scene P l a c e du T h e a t r e - F r a n c a i s , 1 8 9 8 . 5 3 M6wrice C u l l e n and James W i l s o n M o r r i c e d i d s i m i l a r scenes i n Canada. M o r r i c e ' s S t r e e t Scene i n W i n t e r , 1901, may have i n f l u e n c e d C u l l e n ' s W i n t e r S t r e e t Scene, 1906. M o r r i c e ' s South West Wind, 1905, i s a s i m p l e row of p o p l a r t r e e s w i t h the wind r u f f l i n g t h e i r l e a v e s and t u r n i n g up the s i l v e r u n d e r s i d e s through which glimpses o f white b u i l d i n g s and the sea can be s e e n . F l o o d e d w i t h c l e a r white noonday l i g h t , t h i s scene o f summer wind, sun and f r e s h n e s s i s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a r t . A r t h u r L i s m e r was to c a p t u r e such a scene i n The Guides Home, 1914. John H. Twatchman, 1853 - 1902, l i k e Theodore R o b i n s o n , began w i t h the warm dark tones of Duvenech, whom he accompanied i n 1876 to Munich, but h i s y e a r s i n France changed h i s s t y l e . "The eye of Twatchman c o u l d p e r c e i v e s u b t l e t i e s i n a bank of snow o r an i c e - b o u n d r i v e r which were beyond Hassam. He d e l i g h t e d i n w i n t e r s c e n e s . H i s canvas Snow-Bound, 1885, shows n o t o n l y a d e l i c a t e r e n d e r i n g o f snow, but g i v e s a p o w e r f u l t h r u s t to the r o c k s as they stand out a g a i n s t the s w i r l i n g shapes of water and i c e . " ^ S u z o r - C o t e i n Canada was to p a i n t s i m i l a r scenes a l o n g r- the Athabaska R i v e r . A J . A l d e n Weir, 1852 - 1919, a p u p i l of G^rome i n h i s I m p r e s s i o n i s t - 33 - canvas V i s i t i n g N e i g h b o r s , shows the i n f l u e n c e of R e n o i r who d i e d i n the same year as Weir. There i s a f r e s h n e s s i n the summer sunshine t h a t dapples the l i t t l e g i r l and her donkey. H o r a t i o Walker, a t t i m e s , p a i n t e d t h a t same f r e s h n e s s u s i n g f l e c k e d b r u s h s t r o k e s and I m p r e s s i o n i s t c o l o r s as seen i n h i s The F i r s t Snow, ( F i g . 106) now i n the Beaverbrook A r t G a l l e r y of F r e d e r i c t o n , N.B.* E r n e s t Lawson, 1873 - 1939,. a Canadian b o r n near H a l i f a x , Nova S c o t i a , had l e a r n e d a l l t h a t h i s t e a c h e r s , Twachtman and W e i r , c o u l d t e a c h him o f t h e i r I m p r e s s i o n i s t p r o c e d u r e s . He was a t the J u l i a n Academy i n 1893 and e x h i b i t e d w i t h the Canadian A r t C l u b , T o r o n t o , 1911 - 1915. Through h i s love of the s o l i d i t y of t h i n g s he b u i l t up a form o f Impressionism where the p a i n t was t h i c k and r e v e a l e d the l i g h t r e - f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e s of o l d r i v e r c a b i n s , boat houses and w i n t e r snow scenes a l o n g the Harlem and the Hudson R i v e r s . ^ 5 His Boat House Winter Harlem R i v e r i s v e r y l i k e a S u z o r - C o t e . H a v i n g reviewed the main elements of P r e - I m p r e s s i o n i s m and the Impressionism of the major F r e n c h m a s t e r s , the next c h a p t e r w i l l d e a l w i t h the work of Canadian P r e - I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , whose p a i n t i n g formed an important r o o t to Canadian I m p r e s s i o n i s m . CHAPTER I I I One of Canada's e a r l y P r e - I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t e r s was Homer R a n s f o r d Watson, 1855 - 1936, who l i v e d d u r i n g a time when the i n f l u e n c e s of C o n s t a b l e and T u r n e r from E n g l a n d , of the B a r b i z o n s and Impressionism from France and of the Hudson R i v e r School from A m e r i c a , were a l l c o n - t r i b u t i n g to a r t development i n Canada. Watson began by p r a c t i c i n g drawing a t home, c o p y i n g H o g a r t h ' s T r e a t i s e and GustaveDore^ i l l u s t r a t i o n s from D a n t e ' s I n f e r n o . He j o i n e d Notman's P h o t o g r a p h i c S t u d i o i n Toronto where he met s u c c e s s f u l a r t i s t s l i k e John A. F r a s e r , Henry Sandham, L u c i u s J . O ' B r i e n and H e n r i P e r r e . From A r t p e r i o d i c a l s Watson became f a m i l i a r w i t h the work of Thomas C o l e and Asher B. Durand of the Hudson R i v e r S c h o o l . He p a i n t e d as a r o m a n t i c poet p a i n t e r and i t was o n l y i n the l a s t y e a r s of h i s l i f e t h a t he responded to the c o l o r of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . He wrote i n a l e t t e r to A r t h u r L i s m e r , Sept. 30, 1930, "Why c a n ' t a f e l l o w p a i n t away w i t h o u t anyone wanting to know why and how he p a i n t s i n f a c t the why of h i s e x i s t e n c e " . He goes on to s a y , "I grew from these e a r l y drawings i n t o t r y i n g to c o l o r them". H i s debt to drawing, the c l a s s i c a l mastery of l i n e , the p r o d u c t i o n of s e v e r a l hundreds of p e n c i l and pen s k e t c h e s , are a l l based on the then academic approach to p a i n t i n g as seen i n the p a i n t i n g s and p e r i o d i c a l s of t h a t t i m e . "I never thought of c o l o r : my l o v e p r e f e r r e d to take the form of s t r u c t u r e and d e s i g n , a mood of n a t u r e to be l i v e d on canvas, i n f a c t some s t o r y of the elements. M o s t l y gray days and stormy w e a t h e r . " In Coming Storm i n the A d i r o n d a c s , 1879, ( F i g . 1) Watson d e p i c t s A the moods of weather and the c h a r a c t e r of l i g h t and luminous t o n a l q u a l i of changing l i g h t s on sky and w a t e r . These q u a l i t i e s and the s u b j e c t - 34 - - 35 - matter he had seen in the work of George Innes of the Hudson River School, whom he had met in New York, 1876 - 77. Outlines were dissolved in atmosphere and color. Homer Watson's early choice of subject was obviously influenced by early photographs, which gave great detail throughout the whole picture. What he chose to represent in his painting was exactly the picture the early camera reproduced. His colors were correspondingly reduced. "In 1839 the Daguerreotypes were shown at the Chamber of Deputies in Paris. In one, representing the Pont Marie, a l l the minutest indentations and divisions of the ground or the building, the goods lying on the wharf, even the small stones under the water at the edge of the stream and the different degrees of transparancy given to the water were a l l shown with the most incredible accuracy".^ This type of depiction became a part of the photographic realist tradition which affected academic art. Ruisdael was an artist Watson admired. In 1886 Watson painted The Old Mill, (Fig. 2) where there is the sharp delineation of his early work. There in an all-over harmony of a Turner sky, a Barbizon meadow and a turbulent stream and trees. It is a typical landscape near Watson's home. 58 His best known canvas, The Flood Gate, 1900, is the one in which he admits being influenced by Constable. He portrays the "dignity and beauty of Waterloo County in a manner which parallels John Constable's love of Suffolk county". Watson states, "After I saw the 'Lock' of Constable, I said, fHang i t , I will paint a subject Constable would have delighted to paint, and this is my grandfather's Mill Pond', so the Flood Gate came into being. This is a deliberate attempt to get the spirit of Constable into Canada." He states, however, "I was born - 36 - amid the hardwood t r e e s and noted the b e e c h , oak, and elm, as n a t i v e as a j a c k p i n e . " - ^ A l t h o u g h the t r e e s mentioned are found i n E n g l a n d , t h e r e i s a profound d i f f e r e n c e i n o r g a n i z a t i o n and e c o l o g y . A f t e r h i s s o j o u r n i n Europe and England i n 1887, where he saw B a r b i z o n p a i n t i n g s , was taught by w h i s t l e r , and was a c l o s e f r i e n d of S i r George C l a u s e n ; he p a i n t s L o g - C u t t i n g i n the Woods, 1894 ( F i g . 3 ) . Here f o r the f i r s t time an a l l - o v e r d e s i g n i s e v i d e n t . There are s i m i l a r areas of c o l o r i n meadowland, t r e e - t r u n k s and f o l i a g e , and more l i g h t n e s s and l i g h t f i l l e d a r e a s . He s t a t e s t h a t he l o v e d c o l o r but he f e l t t h a t c o l o r d i d not make a p i c t u r e . In the Sand P i t , 1903, we see T u r n e r ' s v i s i o n a r y i m p r e s s i o n s , o f c o l o r , l i g h t and atmosphere, a t t e m p t e d . Here was a complete break w i t h 61 t r a d i t i o n and we f i n d i n h i s l a t e r work The C a b i n i n the L a n e , 1930, and Near T w i l i g h t , ^ 1934, a " l o s i n g and f i n d i n g the l i n e i n l i g h t and a i r " and an e f f o r t to " f o r m u l a t e a new h i g h l y c o l o r e d i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c landscape t e c h n i q u e " . He wanted more time to p a i n t , more time to develop h i s new t h e o r i e s o f p a i n t i n g and c o l o r . He had g i v e n u n i t y and o r d e r to Canadian landscape p a i n t i n g and now l i g h t and c o l o r were to be added. The i n f l u e n c e from France on Canadian p a i n t e r s came through d i v e r s e r o u t e s . H o r a t i o Walker was c a l l e d the Canadian M i l l e t , perhaps because 64 h i s t e a c h e r Wyatt Eaton was a p u p i l of M i l l e t . E a r l y i n 1845 Jean F r a n c o i s M i l l e t was v i s i t i n g a t B o u d i n ' s shop i n Le Havre to buy h i s 6 S s u p p l i e s f o r p a i n t i n g . Constant T r o y o n , another customer of B o u d i n ' s , p a i n t e d landscapes w i t h cows and sheep and H o r a t i o Walker may be c l o s e r to Troyon i n h i s work, than he i s to M i l l e t . Monet, i n a l e t t e r to B o u d i n , says he admires T r o y o n ' s huge canvases of animals yet t h i n k s them a l i t t l e bit too black in the shadows. In Paris, 1861, Troyon asked Boudin to paint the skies for his animal pictures since the demand 6 7 for his canvases was so great he had difficulty keeping up a supply, and Boudin was famous for his sea and sky compositions. In 1873 Duret wrote to Manet, "Boston has some very beautiful Troyons". By 1879 when the fourth Exposition of the "Artistes Independants" was held in Paris the pictures of Millet and Troyon were popular in America. How- ever, the New York dealers informed Durand-Ruel with regard to the French 69 Impressionist works, "These paintings will never be good for our markets". Horatio Walker visited England and France in 1882. In Paris the great Exhibition of the Independants opened on March 1, 1882, and Manet wrote to Berthe Morisot, "I found the whole brilliant crowd of Impressionists at work hanging a great many pictures in an enormous room....Duret, who knows what he is talking about, says that this year's exhibition is the best your group ever had....Pissarro has two or three figures of peasant women in landscapes, vastly superior to Millet in the veracity of drafts- 70 manship and coloration." After eight years of struggle the Impressionists had an exhibition which truly represented their art; Monet, Pissarro, Renoir, Sisley, Berthe Morisot, Gauguin, Caillebotte, Vignon, and Guillaumin a l l were represented. With a l l the controversy in Paris at that time and knowing the keen interest this would arouse in a visitor like Horatio Walker, i t is not surprising that his art appears to be a synthesis of the many forces at work at that time. In 1883 Boston had a Foreign Exhibition of painting where Manet, Monet, Sisley and Boudin were represented.^ It was not until 1886 that Durand-Ruel had his first success in America with Impressionist painting. The American exhibit was prepared - 38 - f o r 1887. Three hundred works were e x h i b i t e d . There were t w e n t y - t h r e e D e g a s ' , f o u r t e e n M a n e t ' s , f o y t r t y - e i g h t M o n e t ' s , f o U r t y - t w o P i s s a r r o 1 s , t h i r t y - e i g h t R e n o i r s , t h r e e S e u r a t ' s , t h i r t e e n S i s l e y ' s , and Boudin, Mary C a s s a t t , C a i l l e b o t t e , G u i l l a u m i n , and Berthe M o r i s o t were r e p r e s e n t e d . In 1887 H o r a t i o Walker belonged to the S o c i e t y of American A r t i s t s , and w i n n i n g the Bronze Medal i n the P a r i s E x p o s i t i o n , 1889, he would be f a m i l i a r w i t h not o n l y the work of Tioyon and M i l l e t but of the I m p r e s s i o n - i s t s as w e l l . L i k e V i n c e n t van Gogh i t may be t h a t H o r a t i o Walker was i n f l u e n c e d by M i l l e t . Van Gogh who made sketches of the miners i n the B o r i n a g e i n 1880 and who made c o p i e s a f t e r M i l l e t ' s peasant l a b o r e r s , wrote to h i s b r o t h e r Theo, " M i l l e t i s the one modern p a i n t e r who opens up a h o r i z o n f o r many". " E a c h a r t i s t has a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c set of c o l o r s , a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t e c h - 72 n i q u e and some remind me o f sounds. M i l l e t i s perhaps a s t a t e l y o r g a n " . When V i n c e n t van Gogh was i n the h o s p i t a l a t S a i n t Remy, Theo sent him l i t h o g r a p h s of M i l l e t . "Now t h a t I am i l l , I l e t the b l a c k and white by M i l l e t pose f o r me as a s u b j e c t . I i m p r o v i s e c o l o r on i t not you understand a l t o g e t h e r m y s e l f but s e a r c h i n g f o r memories of t h e i r p i c t u r e s , but from memory... The vague consonants of c o l o r which are at l e a s t r i g h t i n f e e l i n g , t h a t i s my own i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I d o n ' t l i k e my own p i c t u r e s i n my bedroom so I c o p i e d one by D e l a c r o i x and one by M i l l e t . I have now made seven c o p i e s of M i l l e t ' s l a b o r e r s i n the f i e l d s . I can a s s u r e you t h a t c o p y i n g i n t e r e s t s me i n t e n s e l y and I l e a r n a g r e a t d e a l by i t w i t h o u t l o s i n g the power of drawing f i g u r e s . I want to t e l l you what I look f o r i n t h i s work and why i t seems to me so good to copy. People do expect us p a i n t e r s always to make our own c o m p o s i t i o n s and to be n o t h i n g but composers. In music i t i s not so, and i f somebody p l a y s - 39 - Beethoven he adds to i t h i s own p e r s o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . In music and e s p e c i a l l y i n s i n g i n g , the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the c o m p o s i t i o n means some- t h i n g . I f t h i s were not so, o n l y composers who p l a y t h e i r own works would be worth l i s t e n i n g t o . I p l a c e the works of D e l a c r o i x or M i l l e t b e f o r e my eyes as models and then I i m p r o v i s e o t h e r c o l o r s on top of t h e i r s but n a t u r a l l y i n d o i n g t h i s I am not c o m p l e t e l y m y s e l f but t r y to reproduce memories of t h e i r p i c t u r e s . But memories, the vague echoes o f c o l o r which I have i n my mind, w i t h o u t b o t h e r i n g i f they a r e e x a c t , t h a t i s my i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . A l o t of p e o p l e do not copy, o t h e r s do. I h i t on t h i s method by chance and f i n d i t teaches me t h i n g s and above a l l i t c o n s o l e s me. My brushes r u n so q u i c k l y through my f i n g e r s l i k e the bow on a v i o l i n that I t h o r o u g h l y enjoy i t . Today I have been t r y i n g to i n t e r p r e t 73 the Sheep S h e a r i n g by M i l l e t i n c o l o r s r a n g i n g from l i l a c to y e l l o w . " H o r a t i o Walker a l s o does a sheep s h e a r i n g p i c t u r e . H o r a t i o Walker i s not c a l l e d an I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t e r but many i n - f l u e n c e s of Impressionism are seen i n h i s work. In an e a r l y work, Oxen D r i n k i n g , 1899, ( F i g . 4) we see the v e r t i c a l for^mat and peasant l a b o r e r of a M i l l e t and the luminous atmospheric sky e f f e c t of a Turner but the a p p l i c a t i o n o f p a i n t i s P i s s a r r o . In some p l a c e s the c o l o r i s heavy and g r a y e d , but i n o t h e r p l a c e s a l o n g the backs of the oxen, on the s u r f a c e water i n the t r o u g h , and i n the p o o l s of water on the ground, Walker has used the h a t c h i n g of s m a l l brush s t r o k e s o f pure b l u e - g r e e n and r e d - orange to g i v e l i g h t r e f l e c t i o n s and t h a t i n s t a n t a n e o u s f e e l i n g so d e - 74 l i g h t f u l i n I m p r e s s i o n i s t work. By 1904 i n I c e - C u t t e r s , ( F i g . 7) Walker has caught an i n s t a n t a n e o u s a c t i o n and has s i m p l i f i e d b o t h h i s p a l e t t e and h i s c o m p o s i t i o n . " F i r s t he p r e p a r e s h i s canvas soaking i t i n water and a p p l i e s white l e a d w i t h a - 40 - p a l e t t e k n i f e . . . n o s i z e or g l u e . The water p r e v e n t s the o i l from e n t e r i n g i n t o the l i n e n , and the r e s u l t a n t s u r f a c e i s the f i n e s t ground t h e r e i s . He t e s t s pure c o l o r s and pure c o l o r s mixed w i t h w h i t e , the fewer p a i n t s the b e t t e r . " 7 - ' The b l u e - g r e e n shadows of the i c e , the p u r p l e shadows on the h o r s e ' s f a c e and neck complimented by the r e d - o r a n g e of the b l a n k e t a r e the two c o m p l i m e n t a r i e s he uses i n h i s canvas. P u r p l e and b l u e are a l s o found i n the c l o u d s and i n the shadows of the i c e . W a l k e r ' s i n t e r e s t i n the r e f l e c t i o n s and r e f r a c t i o n s of c o l o r on the snow and i n the i c e and / 76 water i s seen i n the work of Monet, The Break-Up of the I c e New V e t h e u i l , 1880, and was used l a t e r by M a u r i c e C u l l e n i n I c e H a r v e s t , 1906, ( F i g . 40) I t i s o n l y i n the o r i g i n a l canvas t h a t the I m p r e s s i o n i s t q u a l i t i e s of Horses a t the Trough, ( F i g . 6) and Evening l i e d ' O r l e a n s 1909, ( F i g . 5) can be a p p r e c i a t e d . Here a g a i n the under s u r f a c e i s pure w h i t e . The two c o l o r s used a r e chromium ( v i r i d i a n ) g r e e n , the green of our postage stamps and paper money;, and cadmium s c a r l e t . The hatched b r u s h s t r o k e , the p a i n t e r l y q u a l i t y i n the a p p l i c a t i o n of the pigment, the use of pure c o l o r i n many a r e a s , the b l u e and p u r p l e shadows, the unposed o u t - d o o r s e t t i n g , the s i m p l e j o y o f the scene a l l a r e I m p r e s s i o n i s t i n s p i r e d . L i t t l e White P i g s and M o t h e r , 7 7 1911, may be compared to a P i s s a r r o . There i s a h e a v i e r f r e e r e r b r u s h s t r o k e than i n a P i s s a r r o , P i s s a r r o ' s a d v i c e to the p a i n t e r L o u i s Le B a i l might a p p l y to H o r a t i o Walker, "Look f o r the k i n d of n a t u r e t h a t s u i t s your temperament. The m o t i f should be observed more f o r shape and c o l o r than f o r d r a w i n g . . . P r e c i s e drawing i s dry and hampers the i m p r e s s i o n . . . i t i s the b r u s h s t r o k e w i t h the r i g h t v a l u e and c o l o r . . . P a i n t the e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r of t h i n g s , work on e v e r y - t h i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . . . u s e s m a l l b r u s h s t r o k e s and put down your s e n - 7 8 s a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y . " W a l k e r ' s a l l - o v e r f r e e b r u s h s t r o k e i s r e m i n i s c e n t - 41 - 79 of Lowpath at P o n t o i s e , 1882, by Camile P i s s a r r o which Walker may have seen i n the Durand-Ruel c o l l e c t i o n of t h a t y e a r . Rewald s t a t e s t h a t the B a r b i z o n s i n t e r p r e t e d what they saw, I m p r e s s i o n i s t s l i k e Monet and R e n o i r p a i n t e d pure s e n s a t i o n s . They b o t h adopted a comma-like b r u s h s t r o k e , a brush s t r o k e which p e r m i t t e d them to r e c o r d every nuance they o b s e r v e d . The s u r f a c e s of t h e i r canvases were thus covered w i t h a v i b r a t i n g t i s s u e o f s m a l l dots and s t r o k e s , none of which by i t s e l f d e f i n e d form, y e t a l l of which h e l p e d to c r e a t e not o n l y the p a r t i c u l a r f e a t u r e s of the chosen m o t i f but moreover the sunny a i r which bathed i t and marked t r e e s , g r a s s , houses or water w i t h the s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r of the day. Nature became the d i r e c t source o f pure s e n s a t i o n s and these s e n s a t i o n s c o u l d b e s t be r e p r o d u c e d by the t e c h n i q u e of s m a l l dots and s t r o k e s w h i c h , i n s t e a d of i n s i s t i n g on d e t a i l s , r e t a i n e d the g e n e r a l i m p r e s s i o n i n a l l i t s r i c h n e s s of c o l o r and l i f e . 80 Monet p a i n t s a f i e l d w i t h white Turkeys i n 1880 t h a t has a d e l i g h t - f u l a p l a y of dark and l i g h t i m p r e s s i o n s . Walker a l s o uses t h i s t e x t u r e d 81 s u r f a c e i n h i s w a t e r - c o l o r s k e t c h and o i l p a i n t i n g of White Turkeys . H o r a t i o Walker uses I m p r e s s i o n i s t c o l o r i n a snow scene The F i r s t Snow, ( F i g . 106). L i k e Claude M o n e t ' s Snow E f f e c t a t V e t h e u i l ^ n the L o u v r e ^ W a l k e r ' s p i c t u r e has a rough r u r a l atmosphere. The scene i s a l - most t r a d i t i o n a l but the b r u s h s t r o k e s make the s u r f a c e v i b r a t e as a u n i t e d whole i n a s o f t muted atmosphere o f f r o s t and snow. 82 Walker, i n h i s The Sugar Bush, 1922, shows a m a s t e r f u l a l l - o v e r p a t t e r n of wide b r u s h s t r o k e s of pure c o l o r put on w i t h the sure d e f t s k i l l of a master. Steam r i s e s from the c a u l d r o n , l i g h t f i l t e r s through the t r e e s on the snow, and e v e r y t h i n g i s reduced to an a l t e r n a t i n g p a t t e r n o f l i g h t and dark. - 42 - M a u r i c e C u l l e n by t h i s time was d o i n g Canadian snow scenes i n the manner o f the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s and the t r e e s i n W a l k e r ' s The Sugar Bush, a r e s i m i l a r to C u l l e n ' s Winter Near M o n t r e a l , ( F i g . 3 3 ) . An American c r i t i c s t a t e s t h a t Walker o u t - B a r b i z o n e d the B a r b i z o n s by e x a g g e r a t i n g the c o n t r a s t s of l i g h t and shade. H i s s y n t h e s i s of B a r b i z o n 83 and Impressionism gave h i s work i t s a p p e a l i n g b e a u t y . The R o y a l M a i l over the Ice B r i d g e , ^ 1914, has a r i c h c o l o r and the unusual e f f e c t s of l i g h t a £ e a g a i n a m i x t u r e of T u r n e r ' s luminism and the l i g h t of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . James M. B a r n s l e y , 1861 - 1929, i s the o u t s t a n d i n g marine p a i n t e r among Canadian a r t i s t s . J . B a r r y L o r d p l a c e s him between the B a r b i z o n p a i n t e r , H o r a t i o Walker, and the I m p r e s s i o n i s t M a u r i c e C u l l e n . A c a r e f u l study of h i s p a i n t i n g s show, as i n the work of Winslow Homer, many c o n t r a d i c t o r y t e n d e n c i e s . " T h e b o l d d i r e c t n e s s of h i s b r u s h work equals that o f the Munich S c h o o l , the s i m p l e b r e a d t h of h i s c o m p o s i t i o n s r i v a l s t h a t of the B a r b i z o n p a i n t e r s , and h i s c l a r i t y o f v i s u a l a n a l y s i s matches t h a t of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s " . ^ C l o s e examination of h i s canvases show 8( j u x t a p o s e d areas of pure c o l o r . The B a r b i z o n p a i n t i n g R i v e r Bank, F r a n c e 1886, i s the t r a d i t i o n a l a e r i a l p e r s p e c t i v e of C o r o t , the c a r e f u l d e t a i l i n the type of t r e e s ; w h i l e i n Study f o r L a Jete'e du P o l l e t , Dieppe, 1884, ( F i g . 8 ) , we see the l i g h t r e f l e c t i o n s from the sky on the w a t e r , i n broad d i r e c t s t r o k e s of c o l o r , the b r i g h t b l u e shadow a l o n g the quai and the orange l o g ends a g a i n s t the heavy b l u e b r u s h s t r o k e s of the walk, s u g g e s t i n g the i n f l u e n c e of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . •This canvas b r i n g s to mind the The Harbor of L o r i e n t , 1869, t h a t Manet p a r t i c u l a r l y admired and which Berthe M o r i s o t had j u s t p a i n t e d i n L o r i e n t . I t r e p r e s e n t s h e r s i s t e r Edma a g a i n s t a view o f the h a r b o r , - 43 - " a work o f e x q u i s i t e f r e s h n e s s and s u b t l e harmonies i n which she had t r i e d what B a z i l l e had attempted i n h i s S a l o n p i c t u r e , to reproduce a f i g u r e i n " p l e i n a i r " . ^ B e g i n n i n g h i s s t u d i e s under H a l s e y C. I v e s , James B a r n s l e y l e a r n e d to draw and model f i g u r e s . H i s i n t e r e s t i n Landscape may be a t t r i b u t e d to h i s t e a c h e r Joseph Meeker who p a i n t e d the bayous of the lower M i s s i s s i p p i . These landscape scenes B a r n s l e y c o u l d p a i n t near h i s home i n M i s s o u r i , and i n O n t a r i o and M o n t r e a l where he v i s i t e d . He s k e t c h e d Marine p a i n t i n g s , s t u d i e d a Turner w a t e r c o l o r and a Daubigny o i l , but i t was n o t u n t i l 1883 when he was i n P a r i s t h a t he would e x p e r i e n c e a change to o u t - d o o r p a i n t i n g and l i g h t e r e f f e c t s . In h i s On the S e i n e , C o u r b e v o i e , ( F i g . 9) the c a s u a l way the f i g u r e s a r e caught i n m o t i o n , the s u g g e s t i v e treatment of the t r e e s , the a n g l e a l o n g the r i v e r bank, remind one of a Degas. J . B a r r y L o r d i n h i s I n t r o d u c t i o n to the J . M . B a r n s l e y c a t a l o g u e , 1964- 1965, s t a t e s t h a t " T h e r e i s no documentary evidence t h a t B a r n s l e y knew E u g \ n e - L o u i s Boudin 1824 - 1 8 9 8 . . . A number of drawings i n The N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y Scrapbook demonstrate that the s i m i l a r i t y of h i s marines to the famous F r e n c h sea p a i n t e r i s more than c o i n c i d e n t a l . Durand-Ruel p r e s e n t e d the f i r s t comprehensive Boudin e x h i b i t i o n to P a r i s i n 1833, and he was r e p r e s e n t e d i n every S a l o n i n which B a r n s l e y f i g u r e d . Indeed L ' E n t r e e du O Q P o r t a Dieppe , 1886, may w e l l have been d i r e c t l y i n s p i r e d by B o u d i n ' s L ' E n t r e e , ( S a l o n 1 8 8 3 ) . " 8 9 We can say t h e r e i s a s i m i l a r l i g h t n e s s and elegance and a l o v e of the s i m p l e b e a u t i e s of n a t u r e . "The S a i n t - S i m e o n farm s i t u a t e d on a c l i f f a l i t t l e above H o n f l e u r was famous among a r t i s t s a l o n g the c o a s t . The r u r a l Inn and the Seine e s t u a r y had been c a l l e d the " B a r b i z o n of Normandy". D i a z , 90 T r o y o n , C a l s , Daubigny and Corot a l l p a i n t e d t h e r e . " .- 44 - Eugene Boudin was the p a i n t e r of seascapes at L e Havre t h a t Monet a t 91 f i r s t thought " d i s g u s t i n g " , but i t was Boudin who came to Monet and t o l d him, " S t u d y , l e a r n to see and to p a i n t , draw, make l a n d s c a p e s . The sea and the sky, the a n i m a l s , the p e o p l e , the t r e e s are so b e a u t i f u l , j u s t as n a t u r e made them, w i t h t h e i r c h a r a c t e r , t h e i r genuineness, i n the l i g h t , 92 i n the a i r , j u s t as they a r e . " Monet admired Boudin and l e a r n e d from the m a s t e r . " E v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s p a i n t e d d i r e c t l y on the spot has always a s t r e n g t h , a power, a v i v i d n e s s of touch t h a t one d o e s n ' t f i n d a g a i n i n the s t u d i o . . . r e t a i n o n e ' s f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n , which i s the good o n e . . . i t i s 9 3 not one p a r t which s h o u l d s t r i k e one i n a p i c t u r e but indeed the w h o l e " . J At t h i s time B a r n s l e y was s t u d y i n g and p a i n t i n g near P a r i s . Courbet was a d m i r i n g B o u d i n ' s s k i e s and h i s f i s h i n g b o a t s . V i c t o r Hugo had pub- l i s h e d h i s e p i c and romantic volume of poems, La legende des S i e c l e s , which were a t t a c k e d and Hugo's name was coupled w i t h t h a t of D e l a c r o i x as b e i n g " d e v o t e d to the c u l t o f i m a g i n a t i o n and c o l o r , s a c r i f i c i n g e v e r y t h i n g to the e f f e c t . " 9 4 What was s a i d o f Monet p o s s i b l y by A s t r u c under the pseudonym P i g a l l e i n L ' A u t o g r a p h e au S a l o n , w i l l a p p l y e q u a l l y w e l l to B a r n s l e y ' s p a i n t i n g of Le J e t e e du P o l l e t Dieppe, 1884, ( F i g . 10). Speaking o f Monet's The Seine 9 5 E s t u a r y a t H o n f l e u r , 1865, A s t r u c s a y s , "Monet i s the a u t h o r o f a seascape the most o r i g i n a l and s u p p l e , the most s t r o n g l y and h a r m o n i o u s l y p a i n t e d . . . what r i c h n e s s , what s i m p l i c i t y of v i e w . . . t h e t a s t e f o r harmonious schemes of c o l o r i n the p l a y of analogous t o n e s , the f e e l i n g f o r v a l u e s , the 96 s t r i k i n g p o i n t o f v i e w . . . t h i s s i n c e r e marine p a i n t e r " . The o b l i q u e a n g l e of a Degas, the l i g h t - f i l l e d canvas and the broad c l e a r brush s t r o k e s of pure c o l o r i n the w a t e r , the b l u e shadows a l o n g the q u a i and the b l u e and s e p i a y e l l o w c o l o r s were used and developed by the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s to make - 45 - t h e i r l i g h t - f i l l e d canvases. 97 Daubigney's canvas The F e r r y , 1860, which w i l l be d i s c u s s e d more f u l l y i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Maurice C u l l e n ' s work, may be compared w i t h B a r n s l e y ' s F r e n c h Paddle Steamer, 1888, ( F i g . 11). The same f e r r y , the same h i g h t i d e , the same smoke e f f e c t s and clouded sky, but Daubigny has used a h e a v i e r b r u s h s t r o k e on a more two d i m e n s i o n a l canvas and has used some s t r o k e s of pure c o l o r . B a r n s l e y has a l i g h t f i l l e d canvas which would be sketched out o f d o o r s . The movement of w a t e r , boat and c l o u d s , and the l i g h t r e f l e c t i o n s from the w a t e r , w h i l e s t i l l academic, remind one of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . T h i s l a t e r work shows a much more f l o w i n g b r u s h s t r o k e than h i s e a r l i e r work, and has t h a t c l e a r f r e s h o u t - d o o r f e e l i n g t h a t i s l i g h t e r than t h a t of h i s contemporary F r e n c h p a i n t e r s . In High T i d e a t Dieppe, 1886, ( F i g . 12) we see a f i n i s h e d work f o r which t h e r e a r e numerous s k e t c h e s . B a r n s l e y was a b l e to c a p t u r e the s i g h t s of the h a r b o r . The grayed s a i l s on the b l a c k and orange h u l l of the boat a t anchor stand out a g a i n s t the b l u e of the sky and the w a t e r . The s i n g l e s i m p l e tones of the f i g u r e s d e p i c t t y p i c a l genre f i s h e r women. R e f l e c t i o n s from the p o o l s of water on t h e . q u a i and the smoke from the steam boat suggest the weather c o n d i t i o n s o f the day. I t i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y b r i g h t and l i g h t B a r b i z o n h a r b o r s c e n e . In The L a s t Rays, 1887, ( F i g . 13) we see h i s s u b t l e h a n d l i n g of many tones o f green. H i s v e r y r e s t r i c t e d p a l e t t e was the mark of the e a r l y I m p r e s s i o n i s t . I t i s n e c e s s a r y to l o o k c a r e f u l l y a t the development i n the work o f an a r t i s t t e a c h e r l i k e W i l l i a m Brymner to a p p r e c i a t e one of the many i n f l u e n c e s of Impressionism on Canadian a r t . W i l l i a m Brymner i s a f a c i l e p a i n t e r who, i n h i s e a r l y work;, conforms to the academic f o r m u l a taught by h i s t e a c h e r s Bouguereau and R o b e r t - F l e u r y - 46 - at the Atelier Julian in Paris where he studied from 1878 to 1885. He also shows the influence of other schools of painting and of Impressionism which over the years made its impact on his work and which he was able to pass on to his students. "In the same province, painting at the same time, and helping to develop a Canadian school of painting, were William Brymner, Suzor-Cote, James Wilson Morrice, G. Horne Russell, Maurice Cullen and 98 later Clarence Gagnon". The Art Gallery of Toronto Catalogue of October, 1949, "50 Years of Painting in Canada" states: "1900 - 1912 - The New Century opened with the Royal Canadian Academy of Art and the Ontario Society of Artists firmly established in the minds of student and public alike, as the founts of knowledge in Canada. Both had organized schools, and both were ex- hibiting societies. Most of the leading painters, especially the more senior, represented the British tradition, but this tradition had been touched by developments in Holland and France, which also had their ex- ponents here. Within a short time a few Canadian students returning from abroad brought with them, whether consciously or not, the direct impact of Impressionism (already thirty years old), introducing this third factor on the scene. Art magazines with their new facilities for color reproduction began to play their part at the turn of the century, and along with exhibitions have tended to lessen the time lag between originating and receptive centers like Paris and Toronto respectively." Robert Pilot states "I remember that in 1912 he gave me sixty copies 99 of the Studio magazine to study from. A great boon to me". A visit with Miss Grace Brymner of Lawrence Avenue East, Toronto, a niece of William Brymner, was most rewarding. Many of Brymner's paintings, - 47 - c a t a l o g u e s , l e t t e r s , medals and awards a r e i n her p o s s e s s i o n . M i s s Brymner has f a m i l y p i c t u r e s p a i n t e d by Brymner of her g r a n d f a t h e r , Doug'las Brymner, 1886, ( F i g . 14) her f a t h e r Robert Brymner, 1890, ( F i g . 15) a t age 15, and a c a s t of W i l l i a m Brymner ( F i g . 16) from the o r i g i n a l bronze e x h i b i t e d i n Ottawa 1918, and done by the s c u l p t o r George W. H i l l . H i l l s t u d i e d i n P a r i s , was made ARCA i n 1905, RCA i n 1915 and was the S c u l p t o r f o r the D ' A r c y McGee monument, Ottawa, and the South A f r i c a n War M e m o r i a l , Dominion Square, M o n t r e a l , 1908. The Robert Brymners were bankers i n New Westminster, B.C., and t h e i r f i n e o l d home i s now the M e l r o s e Park P r i v a t e H o s p i t a l o v e r l o o k i n g the F r a s e r R i v e r . Miss Brymner's f a t h e r was twenty y e a r s younger than h i s b r o t h e r W i l l i a m , and one of the f a m i l y p a i n t i n g s i s of Robert Brymner, then e l e v e n y e a r s o l d , i n the f a m i l y boat a t B a i e S t . P a u l near M o n t r e a l , p a i n t e d i n 1886 ( F i g . 1 7 ) . Brymner's Sad Memories, ( F i g . 18) about 1885, i s a genre p i c t u r e of the f a m i l y housekeeper i n F r a n c e , now i n the c o l l e c t i o n of Miss Grace Brymner. I t r e p r e s e n t s an e a r l y i n t e r e s t i n s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y Dutch p i c t u r e s where the i n t e r i o r view l i t by a window, shows an i n t e r e s t i n r e a l i s t i c s p a c e - c r e a t i n g d e t a i l . Brymner's f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y work i s a l s o r e f l e c t e d i n the p i c t u r e of h i s b r o t h e r Robert where the name of the a r t i s t , the name of the s i t t e r , and the date a r e a l l w r i t t e n i n L a t i n c a p i t a l l e t t e r s around the edges o f the canvas l i k e an e a r l y H o l b e i n . In 1886 under the a u s p i c e s of the R o y a l Canadian Academy, an e x - h i b i t i o n of Canadian p a i n t i n g was sent to the C o l o n i a l and I n d i a n E x - h i b i t i o n a t South K e n s i n g t o n , London. Brymner's E a r l y Moonrise i n September, 1886, ( F i g . 19) was e x h i b i t e d . T h i s was the f i r s t a l l - Canadian e x h i b i t i o n to be sent out of Canada and the e x h i b i t was shown - 48 - i n Ottawa b e f o r e b e i n g sent to London. The London c r i t i c s were generous w i t h t h e i r p r a i s e . L o r d Lansdowne was i n t e r e s t e d i n the Canadian e x h i b i t and asked Mr. J . E . Hodgson, R.A. p r o f e s s o r o f p a i n t i n g a t the R o y a l Academy to comment. "Hodgson p r e d i c t e d great t h i n g s f o r p a i n t e r s l i k e B e l l - S m i t h , Paul P e e l , Homer Watson, Wickson, Brymner, H a r r i s , Fowler and o t h e r s ; but h i s v i e w p o i n t was one of a m i d - V i c t o r i a n E n g l i s h c r i t i c and he was a g a i n s t the i n f l u e n c e of the F r e n c h I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , of which he d e t e c t e d some s l i g h t s i g n s i n the E x h i b i t i o n " . A r t i s t s were l e a v i n g out a l l d e t a i l and a v o i d i n g some p a r t s a l t o g e t h e r . In the c l o s i n g remarks of h i s r e p o r t , Hodgson s t a t e s , "I would l i k e to see Canadian A r t Canadian to the b a c k - 100 bone; a t h i n g developed by n a t u r e i n a s p e c i a l s o i l and c l i m a t e " . However, new i n f l u e n c e s were a t work i n Canadian P a i n t i n g and from then on a " g r e a t f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d of Canadian p a i n t i n g " had begun. W i l l i a m Brymner who was d i r e c t o r of the c l a s s e s f o r the A r t A s s o c i a t i o n of M o n t r e a l f o r t h i r t y f i v e y e a r s , was to i n f l u e n c e t h i s development and l i k e the g r e a t F r e n c h t e a c h e r , Gustave Moreau, who, when he found h i m s e l f i n c o n t a c t w i t h young s t u d e n t s , devoted h i m s e l f to the task of t e a c h i n g w i t h wisdom and h e a r t f e l t warmth. He developed the i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of each p u p i l and though c o n s c i o u s l y o l d - f a s h i o n e d , urged h i s p u p i l s to experiment and be modern, to be i n t e r e s t e d i n c o l o r , to l e a v e the s t u d i o and to p a i n t o u t - o f - d o o r s . ' ^ ' ' " Brymner i n Champ de Mars W i n t e r , 1892, ( F i g . 20) shows a f a s c i n a t i n g I m p r e s s i o n i s t s t y l e w i t h f i g u r e s c r o s s i n g an expanse of i c e and snow w i t h the town i n t h e background. There are o v e r l a p p i n g planes of l i g h t and dark a r e a s . The dark b l u e shadow f o r e g r o u n d , c o n t r a s t s w i t h the s u n l i t path i n the m i d d l e ground. I t i s l i k e a Monet snow scene a t - 49 - L o u v e c i e n n e s , w i t h f i g u r e s , houses, p o p l a r t r e e s and luminous sky e f f e c t s . The d a t e , 1892, marks t h i s work an e a r l y Canadian snow s c e n e , i n f l u e n c e d by the F r e n c h I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . Snow scenes were t y p i c a l l y I m p r e s s i o n i s t s u b j e c t s because they a f f o r d e d the o p p o r t u n i t y to show s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t s of l i g h t r e f l e c t e d from the snow. Brymner\s landscape E a r l y Moonrise i n September, 1899, ( F i g . 21) i n the N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y , Ottawa, i s a l a t e r p i c t u r e of h i s 1886 t r a d i t i o n a l io: B a r b i z o n p a s t o r a l s c e n e . Compared w i t h C a m i l l e C o r o t ' s The Gust of Wind, i n the G. Renand C o l l e c t i o n , P a r i s , we see the same wind-swept t r e e s , and the same a l l - o v e r haze o b s c u r i n g d e t a i l . Corot had t o l d P i s s a r r o to e s t a b l i s h h i s l i g h t e s t t o n e , then h i s d a r k e s t tone and to grade between the two w i t h two o r t h r e e r e l a t e d h u e s . I n t h i s p i c t u r e Brymner a l s o uses a r e s t r i c t e d p a l e t t e . Brymner was i n P a r i s from 1875 to 1885 and would no doubt meet the a r t i s t Theodore Robinson, 1852 - 1896, who was a l i n k between F r e n c h and American I m p r e s s i o n i s m . Robinson was b o r n i n Vermont and went to F r a n c e i n 1876 to study p a i n t i n g . In 1886, a t the age of t h i r t y - f o u r , he met 103 Claude Monet a t G i v e r n y . Robinson then adopted the new t e c h n i q u e of u s i n g h i g h - k e y e d , broken c o l o r to convey the shimmer of l i g h t and the 104 c o o l tones of shadows. In h i s W i l l o w s , 1891, we see the i n f o r m a l f l a t p a t t e r n e d c o m p o s i t i o n and c o l o r r e n d e r i n g of I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g . I t i s more than c o i n c i d e n t a l t h a t Brymner p a i n t e d h i s f i r s t p i c t u r e E a r l y M o o n r i s e , 1886, l i k e R o b i n s o n ' s W i l l o w s . Brymner had j u s t won the I n t e r n a t i o n a l J u r y of Awards S i l v e r M e d a l , at S t . L o u i s , f o r h i s Bord de F o r e t , 1889. He a g a i n p a i n t s E a r l y Moonrise i n September, u s i n g l i g h t e r c o l o r s , more b l u e i n the shadows and a l i g h t e r brush s t r o k e . In 1891 Robinson a l s o p a i n t s an I m p r e s s i o n i s t i c p i c t u r e S p r i n g a t G i v e r n y . - 50 - Mary C a s s a t t who j o i n e d the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s a t Degas' i n v i t a t i o n employs sharp drawing and a D e g a s - l i k e c o m p o s i t i o n . In her Young Woman Sewing}1"^ 1886, she uses the Japanese i n f l u e n c e of a d i a g o n a l background. Blue and y e l l o w d e p i c t the w h i t e dress as R e n o i r would have done. Brymner's Woman Sewing r e l a t e s to t h i s theme. The Woman Sewing, 1900, ( F i g . 22) i n the M o n t r e a l Museum o f F i n e A r t s , i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of an advance i n t e c h n i q u e from Brymner's e a r l y work, to a f r e e r brush s t r o k e and to d i v i d e d c o l o r . T h i s I m p r e s s i o n i s t s u b j e c t i s p a i n t e d i n d o o r s . The areas are s i m p l i f i e d . The f i l m y c u r t a i n s a r e o f d e l i c a t e b l u e and y e l l o w c o l o r s . T h i s g i v e s l i g h t and movement to the a r e a w h i l e dappled r e f l e c t i o n s from the window f a l l a c r o s s the s h o u l d e r s and the needlework of the woman. Complementing the b l u e o f the s k i r t i s the orange c o v e r l e t , and the deep shadows o f p u r p l e , and p u r p l e p a t t e r n s on the f l o o r , c o n t r a s t s t r o n g l y w i t h the y e l l o w l i g h t of the window. F o l l o w i n g the l e a d of V e l a s q u e z , R e n o i r p a i n t e d two canvases of women 106 sewing. Mary C a s s a t t ' s canvas The B a t h , 1891, has a s i m i l a r f l o o r p a t t e r n but shows a s t r o n g l i n e a r q u a l i t y . W i l l i a m Brymner p a i n t e d C a r i t a , 1910, ( F i g . 24) i n the Spanish s t y l e . He had s t u d i e d w i t h C a r o l u s - D u r a n i n P a r i s from 1878 to 1886. John S i n g e r S a r g e n t , l i k e W h i s t l e r b e f o r e him, was a l s o a student o f C a r o l u s - D u r a n from 1874 to 1879. Duran was a f r i e n d of Manet and an exponent o f the Spanish s t y l e . He a l s o urged h i s students to go out and study n a t u r e i n the f i e l d s . A f t e r 1879 Sargent p a i n t e d a number of s p i r i t e d c o p i e s a f t e r S p a n i s h masters and i t i s t h e r e f o r e not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Brymner, as a c l a s s mate of Sargent i n P a r i s , should a l s o p a i n t a Spanish type p i c t u r e . L a t e r , i n 1910, Brymner p a i n t e d The Vaughan S i s t e r s ( F i g . 2 3 ) . Here the background t e c h n i q u e reminds one of F a n t i n L a t o u r , where an orange has - 51 - been o v e r p a i n t e d w i t h a b l u e wash. The f l o w e r vase i s a Japanese touch r e m i n i s c e n t o f w h i s t l e r . The pose i s s i m i l a r to the one i n John S i n g e r S a r g e n t ' s The Wyndham S i s t e r y 1 0 ^ , 1900. Sargent and Monet o f t e n p a i n t e d t o g e t h e r i n Monet's garden a t G i v e r n y . In 1889 Sargent d e p i c t e d Monet 108 p a i n t i n g i n h i s garden, and i t may be t h a t t h e r e was a mutual i n f l u e n c e d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . The d e l i c a t e p a l e b l u e and p i n k d r e s s e s a r e v e r y near I m p r e s s i o n i s m . The b l a c k bows i n the orange h a i r , the r e n d e r i n g of the p i n k blossoms a d j a c e n t to the d e l i c a t e i c e - b l u e of the gown a r e r e m i n i s c e n t 109 110 of Auguste R e n o i r ' s La Loge, 1874, and G l a c k e n ' s Chez Mouquin, 1905. In 1915 Brymner p a i n t e d h i s R e c l i n i n g Nude ( F i g . 25). I t was e x h i b i t e d i n the t h i r t y - s e v e n t h Annual E x h i b i t i o n o f the Royal Canadian Academy i n 111 M o n t r e a l . The c r i t i c s found t h a t "sound c r a f t s m a n s h i p was w e l l e x e m p l i f i e d " . T h i s e x h i b i t i o n had pure landscapes as a theme and i n c o n t r a s t to the academic work of Brymner we f i n d The Y e l l o w Tree by J.W. B e a t t y ; Maples E a r l y S p r i n g , by A . Y . J a c k s o n ; S o l i t u d e ( p a s t e l ) , North R i v e r ( p a s t e l ) , M o n t r e a l Harbour ( o i l ) , by Maurice C u l l e n ; and M e l o d i e s and Golden Glow by A. Suzor-Co'te which w i l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r . By 1915 the c r i t i c s noted t h a t "The l a s t two or t h r e e years have a f f o r d e d v e r y c o n c l u s i v e evidence of p r o g r e s s i n the e v o l u t i o n o f Canadian a r t toward the a t t a i n m e n t o f a p o s i t i o n of g r e a t e r independence and s e l f 113 c o n f i d e n c e " . Robert P i l o t says o f Brymner, " H i s s t u d i o on B l e u r y S t r e e t , M o n t r e a l , was l i n e d w i t h books. He was an o m n i f a r i o u s r e a d e r and a g r e a t s t u d e n t . In the summer of 1919 I spent s e v e r a l months p a i n t i n g a t S t . Eustache and l i v e d i n the s m a l l s t u d i o t h a t C u l l e n and Brymner had b u i l t t h e r e many y e a r s b e f o r e . S e v e r a l years l a t e r , due to h i s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h C u l l e n and the f a c t t h a t they p a i n t e d t o g e t h e r i n the c o u n t r y s i d e so o f t e n , he changed h i s v i s i o n of the o u t - o f - d o o r s f o l l o w i n g C u l l e n ' s ' p l e i n a i r ' - 52 - painting. On his retirement the class presented him with the complete works of George Borrow. This gave him great pleasure and he often discuss- ed the merits and color of "Lavengro", "Romany Rye", and "The Bible in 114 Spain". There is a great development in Brymner's style from the early Barbizon work to his later facile lyric qualities. Throughout his career he allowed his students to follow wherever their inclinations led them and his later use of Impressionist techniques led many of his students - Mable May, Frederick Hutchison, William Clapp, Randolph Hewton, Prudence Heward, Ozias Leduc, and others, to Impressionism. CHAPTER IV Maurice G a l b r a i t h C u l l e n was born a t S t . J o h n ' s , Newfoundland i n 1866. In 1870 h i s f a m i l y moved to M o n t r e a l . At the age of f o u r t e e n he was a p p r e n t i c e d to the f i r m o f G a u l t B r o t h e r s to l e a r n Commerce, but at some time between 1884 and 1888 he began n i g h t c l a s s e s w i t h the Abbe Joseph C h a l b e r t ' s N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e of The F i n e A r t s and S c i e n c e s , t a k i n g d e s i g n , e s t h e t i c s , and t e c h n i q u e . A f t e r f o u r years w i t h G a u l t , C u l l e n s a i d , "No, 115 I was not b o r n f o r a commercial c a r e e r . " He then l e f t h i s job and devoted h i m s e l f e n t i r e l y to s c u l p t u r e . C h a l b e r t ' s I n s t i t u t e was p a t t e r n e d a f t e r the Sorbonne i n P a r i s . He had brought back from Europe a r a r e and v e r y complete c o l l e c t i o n o f p l a s t e r c a s t s , which s e r v e d to t e a c h h i s p u p i l s from A n t i q u e models. In 1886 C u l l e n e n r o l l e d i n the s c h o o l of the s c u l p t o r P h i l i p p e Hebert, where he s t u d i e d f o r t h r e e y e a r s . He h e l p e d Hubert c a r v e the s t a t u e s on the r o o f o f S t . James' C a t h e d r a l . These s t a t u e s were c a r v e d i n wood and encased i n c o p p e r . In the meantime h i s mother d i e d l e a v i n g him p r o p e r t y v a l u e d a t two thousand d o l l a r s which he s o l d . The money enabled him to go to Europe to c o n t i n u e h i s s t u d i e s and he a r r i v e d i n P a r i s about 1889, accompanied by h i s Uncle Dr. Ward. There he s t u d i e d a t the s t u d i o of Gerome f o r a s h o r t w h i l e , a t the Academy of F i n e A r t s , and a t the C o l a r o s s i A t e l i e r under the d i r e c t i o n o f C o u r t o i s and R i x e n . On f i r s t a r r i v i n g i n P a r i s , C u l l e n met F r i t z Thalow, a Norwegian a r t i s t , who persuaded him to study p a i n t i n g . His f i r s t i n s t r u c t o r s were Delaunay and L a t o u c h e . £ s i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t around 1870 the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s s o l d t h e i r work through Latouche who had a s m a l l shop a t the c o r n e r of the Rue L a f i t t e . Latouche showed w i t h the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s 118 i n 1874 a t N a d a r ' s and i t was a t t h i s E x h i b i t i o n t h a t L o u i s L e r o y - 53 - - 54 - named the movement Impressionism because of Monet's canvas I m p r e s s i o n , S u n r i s e . The p o s s i b i l i t i e s of c o l o r f a s c i n a t e d C u l l e n . F r e n c h a r t was i n a c o l o r f u l epoch, so he began p a i n t i n g f u l l time l a t e i n 1890. He r e - turned to the Beaux A r t s Academy and r e j o i n e d h i s Canadian c o m p a t r i o t s G i l l , Lamarche, Alphonse J o n g e r s , Ludger L a r o s e , F r a n c h ^ r e , Joseph S t . C h a r l e s , and D u b i . In P a r i s the work of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s had a marked a p p e a l f o r C u l l e n , e s p e c i a l l y the s t u d y o f atmospheric e f f e c t s . He took i n s t r u c t i o n from Emile Delaunay, the C l a s s i c a l p a i n t e r , who had won the P r i x de Rome and who was a member of the I n s t i t u t e . James W i l s o n M o r r i c e and Maurice C u l l e n became f r i e n d s , and both saw H a r p i g n i e s f o r c o r r e c t i o n s each week. They a l s o v a c a t i o n e d t o g e t h e r on the B r e t o n c o a s t 1894. Another a s s o c i a t e of C u l l e n was P h i l i p p e R o l l , a well-know p a s t e l l i s t , who taught C u l l e n the p a s t e l t e c h n i q u e . In 1895 C u l l e n was e l e c t e d an a s s o c i a t e of the N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y of F i n e A r t s . In 1896 he became a f u l l member w i t h Fromuth and M a t i s s e . Among the e a r l i e s t works o f M a u r i c e C u l l e n i n Canada i s The M i l l Stream a t M o r e t , 1894, ( F i g . 2 6 ) . T h i s p i c t u r e was p a i n t e d i n the v i c i n i t y of S i s l e y ' s home, and i s done i n S i s l e y ' s s t y l e . There a r e broken tones of w h i t e , b l u e , and p i n k , to be found i n the water and i n the s k y . The m i s t y sky e f f e c t s a r e v e r y r e m i n i s c e n t of C o n s t a b l e ' s and T u r n e r ' s e f f e c t s , and 119 i t must be remembered that b o t h S i s l e y and C u l l e n were admirers of the e a r l i e r E n g l i s h a r t i s t s ' luminous e f f e c t s . Moret i n Summer, ( F i g . 27) and M o r e t , W i n t e r , ( F i g . 28) of about 1895, when compared w i t h the R e n o i r c a l l e d La S e i n e a Chatou, ( F i g . 29)shows a s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t y of c o m p o s i t i o n , h a n d l i n g of l i g h t and pigment, and g e n e r a l I m p r e s s i o n i s t theme. Both o f these C u l l e n s were done i n h i s f i r s t - 55 - trip to Europe and the proximity of Sisley1s and Pissarro's homes, where these subjects were painted, may suggest some very close connection between the Impressionist masters and the work of Maurice Cullen. However, Cullen's work shows a more conservative regard for natural appearances. The treatment of the foreground foliage in Cullen's work is so close to the same parallel strokes and deft application of colors found in Sisley's and Renoir's works, that the similarity is intriguing. Sisley's lyrical interpretation is also found in the work of Pissarro. His limited palette with green, yellow, and blue, a l l with much white added, is adopted in Cullen's early work both in France and in Canada. In 1895 Cullen returned to Canada. He was working for the winter of 1895 - 1896 with J.W. Morrice of Beaupre where he painted Logging in Winter Beaupre (Fig. 31). In the summer of 1896 Cullen and Morrice went to Venice. They spent the winter of 1896 - 1897 in Algiers, and then travelled to Giverny, Le Pouldu, and the Breton coast. Cullen's f u l l Impressionist expression is seen in Environs of Paris, 1895, (Fig. 30). The heavy impasto type of painting with a palette re- duced to blue, yellow and green has the Impressionist technique. It is very close to works done by Pissarro and Sisley, and the addition of black with green, suggests Chevreul as a source for this color scheme. Cezanne and Pissarro were both using black with green in their Impression- ist works dating after their stay together at Pontoise in 1877. Chevreul's theories, which were so important in establishing Seurat's scientific application of Impressionist color, had a renewed influence there- after on continuing Impressionists. Chevreul's book on The Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colors, although written about 1839 was not widely known until its first f u l l scale publication in 1875. The "Art Nouveau" - 56 - sinuous curve of the pathway, used as a gracefully decorative feature to lead the eye into the picture depth, was beginning to be noticed in French art at that time. Cullen's first painting done on his return to Canada Logging in Winter Beaupre, 1896, (Fig. 31) retains its Impressionist inspiration and uses black in conjunction with green. In this canvas Cullen turns his attent- ion to a Canadian subject while keeping the reduced Impressionist palette he adopted in France of blue and yellow with green, and much white. The snow has blue shadows beneath the trees, and sunlight breaks through the branches to show up in white patches in the snow, or as bright yellow spots on the tree trunks. The effect is a very luminous one where the composition is composed with three overlapping planes of foreground h i l l , distant h i l l , and back-drop of sky. The effect of light in this canvas is indicative of Cullen's association with Impressionist painters in France. There is a thorough and completely new departure from previous Barbizon influences seen in Canada to a newer lighter way of painting. Robert Pilot in his address to the Arts Club of Montreal in 1937 states that "when Cullen first showed these snow pictures he was con- sidered a radical, 'Blue Snow forsoothe'. 1 Snow painting then, with Kipling's 'Lady of the Snow', was looked at askance as bad for immigra- t i o n . " 1 2 0 Another remarkable early picture also from the Hamilton Art Gallery collection and dated 1896, carries the Impressionist title Winter Sunlight Beaupre, (Fig. 32*4) This is a panoramic vista, looking across fields and river to distant h i l l s . The progression of horizontal planes from the foreground done in blue shadow, to the bright white snow in the middle plane, to another blue river plane, then to dark banks and purple h i l l s - 57 - i n the d i s t a n c e ; i s covered by an o v e r c a s t d u l l b l u e s k y . A s m a l l u n - dated s k e t c h i n o i l on c a r d b o a r d c a l l e d Winter near M o n t r e a l ( f i g . 33) i s v e r y s i m i l a r i n c o l o r , c o m p o s i t i o n and h a n d l i n g to the works Logging i n Winter Beaupre, ( F i g . 31) and Winter S u n l i g h t Beaupre, ( F i g . 3 2 ) . C u l l e n t r a v e l e d from P a r i s to G i v e r n y , M o r e t , Pont Aven, Venice and A l g i e r s . He had a s t u d i o i n P a r i s and i n Pont Aven. He was a f r i e n d of Fromuth i n Concarneau and a c l o s e f r i e n d o f A l b e r t . These t h r e e p a i n t e r s m u t u a l l y i n f l u e n c e d one a n o t h e r . A l b e r t was a F r e n c h p a i n t e r of S c a n d i n a v i a n b i r t h , whose c a r e e r was cut s h o r t by h i s e a r l y d e a t h . Fromuth was a F r e n c h p a i n t e r of American b i r t h who l i v e d a r e t i r e d l i f e a t Concarneau i n B r i t t a n y , where he p a i n t e d and d i d b r i l l i a n t p a s t e l s . I n 1900 C u l l e n won a bronze medal a t the P a r i s I n t e r n a t i o n a l E x h i b i t i o n . In 1901 he r e c e i v e d an h o n o r a b l e mention a t the P a r i s S a l o n and was e l e c t e d O f f i c e r of the Academy. In 1902 he a g a i n went to V e n i c e and F r a n c e . In a l e t t e r to Edmond M o r r i s , a M o n t r e a l newspaperman, W i l l i a m Brymner w r i t e s on the 28th of August, 1902, from G i v e r n y par Vernon, Eure F r a n c e : " M o r r i c e and C u l l e n were b o t h a t V e n i c e and they came w i t h me to F l o r e n c e . M o r r i c e and I went a l o n e to F l o r e n c e and S i e n a and now I have s e t t l e d here f o r a few weeks and am t r y i n g to do some work. I s a i l on the 30th o f September from L i v e r p o o l " . . . " C u l l e n i s h e r e , so i s C o l l i n s - t h i s i s the p l a c e Monet l i v e s a t . He has a house, garden, and automobile - 121 They have a l l got a u t o m o b i l e s . " The c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n between Canadian p a i n t e r s was c a r r i e d on overseas as w e l l as a t home. I t i s a l s o r e c o r d e d t h a t on November 17, 1909, Brymner, C u l l e n and Watson a l l went to H a m i l t o n t o g e t h e r to o r g a n i z e an O n t a r i o S o c i e t y of A r t show. "From 1902 to 1908 C u l l e n worked a t Beaupre and Quebec, f o l l o w i n g the - 58 - seasons round - the green s m i l i n g summer, the wondrous c o l o u r of the October t r e e s and the gleaming beauty of the w i n t e r . J u s t as he f o l l o w e d the seasons, so too he f o l l o w e d the hours of the day to r e c o r d the t r a n s i t o r y e f f e c t of l i g h t , which b e a u t i f i e s t h i n g s f o r a moment and then i s gone. " A t some time of the d a y , " he used to remark, " t h e commonest 122 s u b j e c t i s b e a u t i f u l " . Sometimes i n the w i n t e r , he p a i n t e d w i t h M o r r i c e at Beaupre', and he spent the summers w i t h Brymner and Dyonnet a t S t . Eustadje. There was a v e r y c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n between these a r t i s t s . In 1906 M o r r i c e d i d The F e r r y a t Quebec which was shown i n the 1907 P a r i s S a l o n , the year t h a t C u l l e n d i d The O l d F e r r y Boat, ( F i g . 4 1 ) . As Robert P i l o t p o i n t s o u t , " p r a c t i c a l l y no one d i d snow p i c t u r e s i n Canada b e f o r e C u l l e n 1 s r e t u r n , a p a r t from K r i e g h o f f " . C u l l e n ' s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h modern European p a i n t e r s l e d h i m , on h i s r e t u r n from Europe to " a s e a r c h i n g and p r o l o n g e d study of the l i g h t on snow, and he worked w i n t e r a f t e r w i n t e r out of d o o r s . Sometimes f i n i s h i n g h i s canvases i n the " p l e i n a i r " . . . " H e b u i l t up from these years of s i n c e r e study a knowledge o f the l i g h t on snow, w i t h i t s i n t r i c a t e laws of complementary c o l o r and of r e f l e c t e d tone which i s v e r y v e r y good. In the p i c t u r e of W o l f ' s Cove, a t Quebec, t h e r e a r e perhaps twenty d e c i d e d l y d i f f e r e n t snow tones i n the p i c t u r e , produced by r e f l e c t e d c o l o r , and by the d i f f e r e n t angles c a t c h i n g the sun. I t i s s c i e n t i f i c i n i t s a n a l y s i s and s p l e n d i d i n the sureness of i t s knowledge."123 Winter E v e n i n g , Quebec, 1905, ( F i g . 34) and L e v i s from Quebec, 1906, ( F i g . 35) r e p r e s e n t the t y p i c a l b i r d ' s eye view of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . I t encompasses the near and d i s t a n t shores of a r i v e r where houses and b o a t s a r e a l l seen w i t h an i n t e r e s t i n l i g h t e f f e c t s . There a r e dark b l u e shadows i n the f o r e g r o u n d and background p l a n e s , and a s u n f i l l e d m i d d l e - 59 - p l a n e . Newton MacTavish r e c o g n i z e s i n C u l l e n 1 s L e v i s from Quebec ( F i g . 35) the ephemeral e f f e c t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of I m p r e s s i o n i s t works. "Everyone who has v i s i t e d Quebec and c r o s s e d the r i v e r to L e v i s remembers the im- p o s i n g s p e c t a c l e from t h a t p o i n t even i n summer. But l o o k a t Mr. C u l l e n 1 s r e n d i t i o n of the same p l a c e i n w i n t e r , i t i s imposing i n summer; now i t i s b e a u t i f u l , and the s m a l l F e r r y boat c r o s s i n g amongst the broken i c e l e a v i n g i t s t r a i l of smoke i s an e x q u i s i t e s i g h t " . " L ' A c t i o n C a t h o l i q u e " newspaper of Quebec, dated J a n u a r y 11, 1957, r e a d s ; " C u l l e n shows us M o n t r e a l , Quebec, and L e v i s i n w i n t e r ; the d a z z l i n g l i g h t of the snow i n t e r e s t s him v e r y much i f one i s to judge by the c a r e which he takes to c a p t u r e the luminous r e f l e c t i o n s . Most of h i s canvases show i c e - e n v e l o p e d scenes on the S t . Lawrence, a t L o n g u e u i e l , a t Beaupre; these scenes a r e , i t seems, a p r e t e x t to make f e l t the power which i s r e l e a s e d from the r e d d i s h sky making the p a l e sun glow; the d i f f u s e d l i g h t which i l l u m i n a t e s the scene g i v e s a charm to the w i n t e r sky. C u l l e n draws out these e f f e c t s s e i z i n g upon even the t w i l i g h t , as i s proven i n h i s D u f f e r i n T e r r a c e , covered i n shades of dusk. In the canvas t i t l e d The Cache R i v e r i n March, the a r t i s t d e p i c t s n a t u r e h a l f a s l e e p under an a l r e a d y d i s s o l v i n g snow and g i v e s a magic to the canvas, where a p a r t of the scene r e f l e c t s i n the water of a r i v e r , banks covered • • ,,125 in i c e . These e a r l y 1900 - 1910 p i c t u r e s done i n and around Quebec seem to l o o s e the f r e s h n e s s and b r i l l i a n c y of h i s f i r s t works done i n Canada d i r e c t l y a f t e r r e t u r n i n g from F r a n c e . L i k e Plamondon b e f o r e him, on r e t u r n i n g to Canada t h e r e i s a p e r i o d i n h i s work which s t a y s v e r y c l o s e to the European i n f l u e n c e , and then a g r a d u a l t u r n i n g away from the - 60 - European i n f l u e n c e to a l e s s advanced, more somber home s t y l e . The i n f l u e n c e of J.W. M o r r i c e may be s u b s t a n t i a l a t t h i s t i m e , s i n c e M o r r i c e r e t a i n e d f o r some time the d u l l p a l e c o l o r s of the Nabis b e f o r e h i s r e v o l u t i o n a r y change to emulate M a t i s s e , 1911 - 1912. T h i s e a r l y M o r r i c e p e r i o d 1900 - 1910 i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y g r e y e d . I t has heavy m i s t y atmospheric e f f e c t s . C u l l e n ' s views of Quebec, e x h i b i t the heavy leaden m i s t s of w i n t e r . These may be c o n s i d e r e d as " e f f e c t s " much l i k e those sought by the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s but the h a n d l i n g of them, l a c k s the l i g h t n e s s and b r i l l i a n c e t h a t the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s would have d e p i c t e d . Winter S t r e e t Scene, ( F i g . 36) and Snowstorm E v e n i n g , ( F i g . 37) c o u l d almost be e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y M o r r i c e s . Maurice C u l l e n ' s more somber p a l e t t e may a l s o have been caused by h i s c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h E. Dyonnet, and W i l l i a m Brymner. These com- p a t r i o t s p a i n t e d i n an a c c o m p l i s h e d academic way which was more r e l a t e d to the work of W h i s t l e r , S a r g e n t , and e a r l y Manet, than to the I m p r e s s i o n i s t t e c h n i q u e . A l t h o u g h C u l l e n kept P i s s a r r o ' s p a l e t t e of b l u e , y e l l o w , g r e e n , and white he does not choose to show the b r i g h t e r a s p e c t s of Impressionism which made the F r e n c h s c h o o l famous. P a c k i n g I c e , 1906, ( F i g . 38) i s C u l l e n 1 s e a r l i e s t " I c e p i c t u r e " . I t may have been i n s p i r e d by H o r a t i o W a l k e r ' s e a r l i e r p i c t u r e The Ice C u t t e r s , 1904, ( F i g . 7 ) . Here b l u e shadows, d i s t a n t m i s t e f f e c t s , broad brush s t r o k e s , a panoramic b i r d ' s eye view, and the luminous e f f e c t s i n the sky a l l suggest an I m p r e s s i o n i s t i n f l u e n c e . The sky e f f e c t s i n P a c k i n g I c e , 1906, ( F i g . 3 8 ) , The L a s t Loads, 1907, ( F i g . 39) and Ice H a r v e s t , 1914, ( F i g . 40) are v e r y r e l a t e d 126 to G u i l l a u m i n ' s treatment of sky i n Sunset a t I v r y , 1873, and S i s l e y s 127 The F l o o d a t P o r t - M a r l y , 1876. The luminous e f f e c t a c h i e v e d by u s i n g - 61 - two c o l o r s , one d a r k , and one l i g h t , and by m o d e l l i n g s m a l l patches o f darks and l i g h t s i n an a l l - o v e r p a t t e r n a c r o s s the whole sky, a l l w i t h a greyed down o r whitened appearance, g i v e the m o t t l e d luminescence which appealed to C u l l e n i n the e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , and which i s seen i n h i s sky s t u d i e s between 1902 - 1910. Maurice C u l l e n ' s The Old F e r r y Boat, 1907, ( F i g . 41) i s i t s e l f d e r i v e d from the F r e n c h and E n g l i s h m i d - c e n t u r y p a i n t e r s who were i n t r i g u e d w i t h the new steam-powered water c r a f t . T u r n e r d i d boats to get e f f e c t s of steam and the glow of c o a l - f i r e d b o i l e r s i n h i s works. Daubigny who v i s i t e d England i n 1855 would see these e a r l i e r works and i n c o r p o r a t e the s u b j e c t i n t o h i s own p i c t u r e s t y l e . 128 In The F e r r y , 1860, Daubigny shows h i s i n t e r e s t i n water and boat s c e n e s . He was the f i r s t p a i n t e r to have a " b o t i n " , a f l o a t i n g boat s t u d i o , on which he. s a i l e d up and down the O i s e R i v e r . Monet c o p i e s t h i s i d e a l a t e r . Daubigny p l a c e s the h o r i z o n l i n e h a l f way up the p i c t u r e p l a n e and shows sky and water e f f e c t s and i n c l u d e s the sun b r e a k i n g through the s k y . C u l l e n was v e r y fond of showing the sun or the moon i n h i s works as were a l l the B a r b i z o n s . To c a l l C u l l e n ' s O l d F e r r y , ( F i g . 4 1 ) , an I m p r e s s i o n i s t p i c t u r e i s a f a r s t r e t c h of the i m a g i n a t i o n . I t l a c k s the b i r d ' s eye view of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . I n s t e a d , i t has the s t r a i g h t - o n view of Daubigny and i t has a c o m p o s i t i o n i n b l a c k , white and greys t h a t was a p a r t of C u l l e n ' s t e c h n i q u e and was r e l a t e d to the work of w h i s t l e r , V e l a s q u e z , and C a r o l u s - D u r a n . The use o f greys as seen i n C u l l e n ' s F e r r y Boat, ( F i g . 4 1 ) , he l e a r n e d from h i s t e a c h i n g master C a r o l u s - D u r a n . C a r o l u s - D u r a n was a f r i e n d of Manet and an exponent of t h a t Spanish s t y l e which r e i g n e d 129 i n upper c l a s s P a r i s i a n c i r c l e s . Manet p a i n t e d h i s f i r s t p i c t u r e s i n - 62 - 130 t h i s s t y l e as seen i n . h i s Spanish G u i t a r i s t , 1863. C a r o l u s - D u r a n m o d e l l e d h i s work a f t e r Velasquez and encouraged h i s p u p i l s to do the same. Among h i s p u p i l s were James M c N e i l W h i s t l e r , John S i n g e r S a r g e n t , W i l l i a m Brymner, and M a u r i c e C u l l e n . C u l l e n ' s O l d F e r r y , ( F i g . 4 1 ) , i s a ' t o u r - d e - f o r c e ' i n the use of g r e y s , but i n i t he has the l a t e r n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n t e r e s t i n f o g , m i s t , and steam e f f e c t s , and the p a s s i o n f o r the i n d i s t i n c t . The depth c r e a t - i n g d e v i c e s i n h i s p i c t u r e are not r e l a t e d to l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e but a r e those o f the m i s t pervaded a i e r i a l p e r s p e c t i v e s of Turner and Monet. As a snow scene i t takes i t s i n s p i r a t i o n from the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s S i s l e y , P i s s a r r o , and Monet. The s u b j e c t i s p e r f e c t l y s t i l l , a d e r e l i c t boat perched upon some i c e . There i s g r e a t i n t e r e s t i n the t e c h n i c a l means by which t h i s canvas i s a c h i e v e d . The s t y l e of the brushwork i s between t h a t of the R e a l i s t s , Courbet and Daubigny, and the i n d i s t i n c t d i v i d e d s i n g l e s t r o k e s of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . A l t h o u g h the g e n e r a l c o l o r a t i o n i s as c o r r e c t l y observed as t h a t of the b e s t B a r b i z o n t r a d i t i o n , t h e r e i s an extremely s u b t l e p l a y between the b l u e s of sky and water h e i g h t e n e d w i t h w h i t e , and the golden ochre c o l o r a t i o n of the b o a t , brought out by the g o l d of the frame. C u l l e n ' s Summer N i g h t , 1907, ( F i g . 42) i s r e l a t e d to Monet's s e r i e s of H a y s t a c k s . C u l l e n d i d o n l y one p i c t u r e of the hay c a r t and he makes i t a more B a r b i z o n work by i n c l u d i n g a c a r t , a d r i v e r , and two oxen. L i k e the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s C u l l e n ' s p i c t u r e s a r e based on the a c t u a l s c e n e , p a i n t e d on the s p o t , or done from s t u d i e s sketched out o f d o o r s . In h i s Summer Night C u l l e n has aimed a t the l i g h t e f f e c t s of a s e t t i n g sun b e - g i n n i n g to t i n g e the h o r i z o n w i t h a r e d d i s h glow as i t l e a v e s the sky a d a r k e n i n g b l u e . P u r p l e shadows a r e c a s t on d i s t a n t h i l l s and r e f l e c t i n - 63 - the shining water. In this picture separate brushstrokes are used to color the sky. Separate strokes of blue mixed with white give the pastel Impressionist appearance. Cullen's picture, though obviously influenced by Monet's Impressionism in the background, is curiously Barbizon in the foreground. The subject of oxen pulling a hay cart, done in sepias and brown, even though applied in separated brushstrokes, is not strictly Impressionistic. Robert Pilot, in describing Cullen's method of preparing canvases says he covered his canvas with white lead mixed with a l i t t l e raw umber which gave a warm neutral tone foundation. This warm pale buff can be seen in this picture beneath the blue sky strokes, and beneath the darker foreground browns. This gives an early Impressionist blue and yellow luminist quality 131 reminiscent of a Boudin or a Jongkind. Like the Impressionists, Cullen does not use a system of linear perspective as earlier landscape artists including Constable and Turner did; rather he uses the misty aerial perspective to suggest great back- ground depth, and disposes his subject empirically on a foreground plane which is one of a series of planes running horizontally across the picture format. The inclusion of the sun is a very Barbizon element which is not 132 133 found in Seurat's Haystack of 1882 or in Monet's Haystack series of 1884 done in Giverny. It was a feature which Cullen particularly liked, because i t afforded the opportunity for more light effects. This is Cullen's diploma picture. The calm atmosphere and the slow moving Oxen bring to mind Borleau's verses: "Quatre boeufs atteles d'un pas 134 tranquille et lent, Promenaient dans Paris un monarque indolent" A part of an address by Arthur Lismer is recorded in the Hamilton - 64 - S p e c t a t o r , Nov. 10, 1956, and i t i n d i c a t e s what other p a i n t e r s saw i n C u l l e n ' s work, and i t a l s o suggests i t s d e r i v a t i v e n a t u r e . " C u l l e n s t u d i e d p a i n t i n g i n France a t the end of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t and a t the b e g i n n i n g of the P o s t - I m p r e s s i o n i s t p e r i o d , but he d i d not become an e x p a t r i a t e . He came home and s e t up h i s e a s e l on the i c e . He combined the I m p r e s s i o n i s t i c mood w i t h a Canadian s p i r i t . The Viewer cannot f a i l to be s t r u c k by the u n d e r l y i n g theme of almost a l l the p i c t u r e s . C u l l e n ' s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h l i g h t , and more p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h the e f f e c t of l i g h t on snow. C u l l e n ' s i n t e r e s t i n fogs and m i s t s a r e r e m i n i s c e n t a l s o of the 135 E n g l i s h p a i n t e r T u r n e r . " C u l l e n ' s I c e H a r v e s t , ( F i g . 4 0 ) , 1914, h i s l a s t ' I c e ' p i c t u r e , f o l l o w s v e r y c l o s e l y the e f f e c t s sought i n P a c k i n g I c e , ( F i g . 3 8 ) , and Summer N i g h t , ( F i g . 4 2 ) . C o n f i d i n g to h i s f r i e n d Wm. R. Watson Ghat what he needed to be happy was "A s t u d i o o f my own, a shack i n the mountains, a garden f o r an a c r e of 1 o/r f l o w e r s and a heavy s n o w f a l l every w i n t e r . " Watson says "He made a l o n g and s p e c i a l study of i c e f o r m a t i o n and i c e c o l o r under v a r i e d l i g h t s and c o n d i t i o n s . There i s the s t e e l b l u e of m i d - w i n t e r i c e , vn ' r i d i a n , jade and even golden-amber o f the f l o o d e d i c e a l o n g the marge of mountain streams."-'- 3 His s t u d i e s i n 1912 and a f t e r , made a t Lac T r e m b l a n t , on the i n v i t a t i o n of R i c k s o n O u t h e t , show the o u t - o f - d o o r s o f the L a u r e n t i a n s . H i s p i c t u r e s of t h i s p e r i o d b e g i n a landscape phase where the w i l d s are shown i n much the same way t h a t the Group of Seven, as they l a t e r became known, p a i n t e d . Landscape, ( F i g . 43) of about 1915 i n the N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y , Ottawa, i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h i s phase which l a s t e d f o r the r e s t of h i s l i f e . Landscape, ( F i g . 43) shown i n the M o n t r e a l S p r i n g E x h i b i t i o n of 1921, has an i n t e r e s t i n g m i s t e f f e c t which may have i n s p i r e d James Edward Hervey - 65 - MacDonald's Mist Fantasy, dated 1922. During the war, Cullen was asked by the Government of Canada, along with other Canadian artists, to paint war scenes for the Armed Services Records. In 1918 he was elected to the R.C.A. Two remarkably Impression- istic war pictures, Our Guns at Bonn University, (Fig. 44) and Bombing Area Seaford, (Fig. 45), both of 1918, show the blue and yellow reduced palette of the Impressionists. On his return to Canada after the war, Cullen continued painting in the Laurentian area. 138 "Cullen not only got to the guts of things but to the soul of them as well. He was mentally and physically robust and loved to tramp on snow shoes through the northern woods for his subjects. He said 'nature is a book with most of the leaves uncut.1 He gloried in the Laurentians and to become familiar with mountains built himself a shack at the edge of Lac Tremblant and lived and worked alone for three months of each year. Here he painted some of his finest works....He experimented with the light colors of the Impressionists and achieved the creation of an atmosphere without 139 the loss of form." "He rendered snow on canvas studiously and consist- ently, until now we regard him as the interpreter par excellence of what is pre-eminently a glorious contribution to the Canadian winter."l^O A March Evening, 1923, (Fig. 46) is typical of this outdoor period and i t leads directly to The Valley of the Devil River, 1927, (Fig. 47). This is a most interesting Cullen to consider. In i t , Cullen returns to the panoramic bird's eye view. This picture, done after Canada's famous Group of Seven landscapes of the wilds, unites the Impressionist palette with a broader treatment of brushstroke in large areas of color bounded by sinuous curved lines. There are blue snow shadows, and alternating planes of light and dark. Aerial perspective is used to give - 66 - the d i s t a n t peak a hazy b l u e , f a r - a w a y , appearance, and t h i s c o n t r a s t s v i v i d l y w i t h the golden tones of the f o r e g r o u n d p l a n e . The dark swath of the r i v e r and the t r e e s c u t t i n g d i a g o n a l l y a c r o s s the c e n t e r of the p i c t u r e makes an a x i s about which the curve of the f o r e g r o u n d y e l l o w p l a n e , and the curve of the d i s t a n t r i v e r bank form s y m m e t r i c a l r e v e r s e images. The c a r e f u l s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of n a t u r e , the b a l a n c i n g from s i d e to s i d e , of curve f o r c u r v e , and r i s e o f h i l l s on the l e f t f r o n t , to r i s e of h i l l s i n the r i g h t d i s t a n c e , and the i n t e r e s t i n s u b t l e nuances i s t y p i c a l of Monet, P i s s a r r o , and S i s l e y l a n d s c a p e s . Yet the f l a t n e s s of the p l a n e s , the c l e a r sharp l i n e s , the apparent depth i n t o the p i c t u r e , and the p l a y i n g down o f l i g h t e f f e c t s i s i n d i c a t i v e of a d i f f e r e n t aim i n a r t from I m p r e s s i o n i s m . T h i s l a s t p i c t u r e may somehow show what the Ottawa C i t i z e n , S e p t . 3, 1957, f e l t was the end p r o d u c t o f "The f i e r c e s t r u g g l e of the young C u l l e n to a p p l y the i n n o v a t i o n s of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s to the Canadian l a n d s c a p e . " 1 Speaking about h i s c o l o r t h e o r y , C u l l e n remarked: " T r y never to mix more than two c o l o r s t o g e t h e r - add a t h i r d c o l o r f o r tone o n l y . Do not scrub the c o l o r s t o g e t h e r on the p a l e t t e , r a t h e r weave them t o g e t h e r so t h a t a c t u a l l y the c o l o r s are s t i l l pure but by b e i n g i n o p p o s i t i o n to each o t h e r , they give the f e e l i n g of b e i n g one t o n e . T h i s g i v e s g r e a t e r v a r i e t y 142 and b r i l l i a n c e to the completed w o r k . " A f t e r C u l l e n ' s death i n March, 1934, Marius Barbeau, Saturday N i g h t , June 9, 1934, wrote of "The A r t of M a u r i c e C u l l e n " . " F o r years Mr. C u l l e n r e n d e r e d snow upon canvas s t u d i o u s l y and c o n s i s t e n t l y . . . a n d he has c a r r i e d on t h i s work i n s p i t e o f p o p u l a r and o f f i c i a l p r e j u d i c e a g a i n s t i t . Mr. C u l l e n whose a r t i s t i c sense of beauty and as an i n t e r p r e t e r o f n a t u r e i n h e r most m a j e s t i c moods has gone on w i t h o u t r e a l i z i n g t h a t o t h e r s have - 67 - been discouraging or tabooing the very thing that he has been at great pains to preserve. Mr. Cullen's pictures are most beautiful when they 143 show the play of light and color upon the snow." Jean Chauvin speaking of the art of Maurice Cullen says; "Beginning at the turn of the century Cullen made the first break with the European tradition; he was the first to free our painting from a provincial imitation of older styles abroad. His method was freely to adopt the contemporary Impressionist techniques to our milieu - to our climate, the breadth of our landscape, and the quality of our light...He was the first to look at Canadian scenery through Canadian eyes, thus opening up a way for the Group of 144 Seven and later developments." Marc Aurel de Foy Suzor-Cote was born on April 5, 1869 at Arthabaska, Quebec. "His derivative way of painting like the French, his gift for studio pieces, including Nudes, eventually gave way to a more individual style and a lively interest in his native country. Soon after 1900 he was satisfied to remain for four years in Montreal and at Arthabaska. It is then that he became a Canadian painter and also a sculptor. His outlook and accomplishments were influenced by the prevailing Impressionism of his generation, also by an arbitrary limitation to gentle landscapes patterned after those of France. Even within Canada he looked for pasture and cultivated lands, old habitations, and country roads, like those of his native Arthabaska, almost never for the rugged wilderness. The mellow light permeating his pigments was that of Normandy or Ile-de- 145 France, not the clear and crisp iridescence of Canada." It is a two-hour bus ride from Quebec City to Arthabaska, called the "country of roses" in the Algonquin language, and the home of Canada's great - 68 - I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t e r . No-^one i n the town knows which was the home of S u z o r - C o t e , but the Curef. p o i n t e d out the grave of Cote ( F i g . 48) i n the c h u r c h y a r d of the Chapel of the Sacred H e a r t , o v e r l o o k i n g the v a l l e y of the N i c o l e t R i v e r , ( F i g . 4 9 ) . Nearby, w i t h a view of the r o l l i n g p a s t o r a l c o u n t r y s i d e , i s the home of S i r W i l f r e d L a u r i e r , ( F i g . 50) w i t h i t s bronze plaque ( F i g . 5 1 ) . The house, which i s p r e s e r v e d as a museum,. c o n t a i n s r e p l i c a s of S u z o r-cSte ' s b r o n z e s , an academic p o r t r a i t of Mme. L a u r i e r , and sketches i n c h a r c o a l i n the h a l l s and up the s t a i r c a s e . These sketches were commissioned f o r L o u i s Hemon's n o v e l M a r i a C h a p d e l a i n e . S u z o r - C o t e ' ' s f a t h e r was a n o t a r y of A r t h a b a s k a . H i s mother, C e c i l e de Foy S u z o r , came from a c u l t u r e d and m u s i c a l Quebec f a m i l y . In h i s s c h o o l s t u d i e s S u z o r - C o t e e x c e l l e d i n drawing under B r o t h e r N e p o t i e n , 146 who s a i d , " T h i s one w i l l s u r e l y be an a r t i s t " . On l e a v i n g the c o l l e g e , Suzor a r t i c l e d w i t h M. Guay, a merchant a t V i c t o r i a v i l l e , but commerce d i d not i n t e r e s t him as d i d music and a r t . His f i r s t p a i n t i n g l e s s o n s were taken i n 1886 from Maxime Rousseau, a d e c o r a t o r of churches i n M o n t r e a l where he q u i c k l y l e a r n e d to manager c o l o r s and to do the heads of m a r t y r s and angels so w e l l t h a t he was p a i d f i v e d o l l a r s a day. He devoted h i m s e l f to r e l i g i o u s p a i n t i n g and church d e c o r a t i o n f o r two y e a r s . He a l s o s t u d i e d w i t h C h a l b e r t a t the N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e of F i n e A r t s i n M o n t r e a l . At the age of twenty, i n 1889, S u z o r - C o t e d e c i d e d to go to P a r i s , where he s t u d i e d s i n g i n g a t the C o n s e r v a t o r y under Boulanger and Edouard Masson, making g r e a t p r o g r e s s . He was to have made h i s debut a t the Opera Comique i n the F a l l of 1892, but a t h r o a t i n f e c t i o n caused him to g i v e up s i n g i n g and to take up h i s second g r e a t t a l e n t , p a i n t i n g . - 69 - A / / F o r f o u r y e a r s S u z o r - C o t e f o l l o w e d Leon Bonnat s course a t the E c o l e de Beaux A r t s . The works of Bonnat have been d e s c r i b e d as " a u d a c i o u s harmonies of the p a l e t t e " , " p a i n t i n g i n a p h o t o g r a p h i c way", 147 and " i l l u s i o n i s t i c a l l y t r u e p o r t r a i t s " . These t h r e e t r a i t s of S u z o r - C o t e ' s f i r s t master are seen i n h i s own e a r l y p r i z e - w i n n i n g work, f i l l e d w i t h outdated f o r m u l a s . Suzor took a s t u d i o w i t h the s c u l p t o r , A l f r e d L a l i b e r t e ' , i n . Montparnasse. In 1894 he r e t u r n e d to Canada f o r two y e a r s . He was now an e s t a b l i s h e d a r t i s t and was awarded a homecoming banquet by S i r W i l f r e d L a u r i e r . In 1896 he r e t u r n e d to F r a n c e . In 1898 he a t t e n d e d the c l a s s e s of Benjamin Constant and J u l e s L e f e b v r e a t the C o l a r o s i and J u l i a n Academies. He took d e s i g n from Fernand Cormon. There he l e a r n e d p o r t r a i t and h i s t o r y p a i n t i n g . H i s most n o t a b l e p i c t u r e s a t that time were P a s t o r a l , ( F i g . 53), 1899, and E n t r e V o i s i n , 1900. E n t r e V o i s i n i s l i k e a Dutch s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n t e r i o r g e n r e - t y p e p a i n t i n g . Four men a r e shown p l o t t i n g i n a p o a c h e r ' s hut near a f l a m i n g f i r e p l a c e . In o r d e r to p a i n t t h i s p i c t u r e S u z o r - C o t e had to work f o r over two months i n a s m a l l , smokey h o v e l i n Normandy, i n the most u n p l e a s a n t and unsavory s u r r o u n d i n g s . He would get the men to p i l e peat on the f i r e to g i v e a ruddy glow to the i n t e r i o r and cause a heavy atmospheric e f f e c t . " Y e s , and the d i r t had such d e l i g h t f u l c o l o r s . The c r i t i c s found the p i c t u r e , " v e r y w e l l observed and r e n d e r e d w i t h g r e a t t a l e n t " , and " a n e x c e l l e n t p a i n t e r of p e o p l e i s S u z o r - C o t e " , and "Mr. S u z o r - C o t e shows two v e r y l o v e l y landscapes of r a r e a r t i s t i c worth . R e c a l l i n g h i s e a r l y c a r e e r , Cote s a i d "under the b e n e v o l e n t and wise gaze of the F r e n c h m a s t e r s , Mr. M. J u l e s L e f e b v r e , Benjamin C o n s t a n t , and - 70 - Leon Bonnat, whose l e s s o n s I e s p e c i a l l y f o l l o w e d w i t h p r e c i s i o n , and the c o n t e m p l a t i o n of the m a s t e r p i e c e s i n the L o u v r e , I s l o w l y gained a l i t t l e knowledge. I had begun to t h i n k , to r e f l e c t , and to be moved b e f o r e n a t u r e and a l l the b e a u t i f u l I m p r e s s i o n i s t i c scenes which are b e f o r e us i n 152 each season, a t each hour of the d a y . . . " The p e o p l e o f M o n t r e a l knew of the work of S u z o r - C o t e . At the A r t G a l l e r y o f W. S c o t t and Sons, i n N o t r e Dame S t r e e t , a f t e r 1900 t h e r e was an e x h i b i t of s i x t y - f i v e canvases done i n o i l and p a s t e l s i n F r a n c e . The s a l e of these canvases enabled S u z o r - C o t e to r e t u r n to F r a n c e . H i s h i s t o r i c a l works were done around 1906 and i n c l u d e d Death of Montcalm, F r o n t e n a c and The A r r i v a l of Jacques C a r t i e r a t Stadacona. R e t u r n i n g from the F i e l d s , 1904, was shown i n the J(alon and may be based on a M i l l a i s c o m p o s i t i o n by t h a t name, but Cote has reproduced the atmosphere of a Canadian s c e n e . In h i s f i g u r e s he has d e p i c t e d the t r u e H a b i t a n t , and the i n t e r e s t i n g events of h i s d a i l y l i f e . P o r t Blanc en Bretagne, 1906, ( F i g . 54) i s one of S u z o r - C o t e ' s f i r s t I m p r e s s i o n i s t c a n v a s e s . I t has the h i g h h o r i z o n l i n e , the b i r d ' s eye view, the b l u e and golden ochre c o l o r s to a c h i e v e luminous e f f e c t s , and i t shows a l a n d , s e a , sky, landscape t h a t would have a p p e a l e d to the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . The b l u e s and the y e l l o w s a r e mixed w i t h white to get the same v a l u e . There a r e b l u e shadows, and the c o l o r i s a p p l i e d i n d i s c r e e t tones i n s e p a r a t e b r u s h s t r o k e s i n the I m p r e s s i o n i s t way. S u z o r - C o t e v i s i t e d a l l the f e s t i v e g a t h e r i n g s o f the Canadian c o l o n y i n P a r i s . They met a t the C a f / - a u x - F l e u r s , and d i s c u s s e d the r e v i e w of B e a t r i c e La Palme at the Opera Comique i n M i r e i l l e i n 1905. Suzor a t t e n d - ed the Trocadero w i t h h i s f r i e n d L a l i b e r t e ' f o r the p r e s e n t a t i o n of The Damnation of F a u s t , where the t i t l e r o l e was sung by the o p e r a t i c tenor - 71 - Rudolphe Plamondon. He v i s i t e d the s a l o n s of V i a l l a r d , Stone and N a n t e l . He saw a M o r r i c e canvas and s a i d to h i s f r i e n d , " H i s p a i n t i n g has so few 153 c o l o r s , i t i s so l o v e l y , so d i s c r e e t , so g r a n d ! ! " Donald W. Buchanan s t a t e s t h a t Cote d i d not know M o r r i c e but t h a t t h i s spontaneous a p p r e c i a t i o n from Suzor-C&te was worth more than a l l the j o u r n a l i s t i c p r a i s e s o f P a r i s to M o r r i c e . Next was h i s p e r i o d of t r a v e l to E n g l a n d , S c o t l a n d , S p a i n , I t a l y , H o l l a n d , R u s s i a and Germany about 1907. W r i t i n g to h i s f a m i l y he s a y s , "We see the g r e a t works i n Rotterdam and the Hague and we seem so i g n o r - a n t . " 1 5 4 In London S u z o r - C o t e met Pablo C a s a l s , the famous c e l l i s t , who bought two of h i s snow s c e n e s . "Two l i t t l e m a r v e l s " , s a i d C a s a l s , "which i n - s p i r e d me to make the t r i p to Canada". In 1907 Cote f i n d s another p e r s o n a l and v i v i d mode of e x p r e s s i o n i n the p l a s t i c a r t of s c u l p t u r e . H i s f i r s t p o r t r a i t b u s t was o f S i r W i l f r e d L a u r i e r . In Canada he pursued many s u b j e c t s i n s c u l p t u r e which were t y p i c a l of the p r i m i t i v e l i f e l e a d a t t h a t time i n R u r a l Quebec. S u z o r - C o t e ' s b r o n z e s , begun about 1907, may have been suggested by h i s s t u d i o companion, the s c u l p t o r L a l i b e r t e . He took much i n s p i r a t i o n from R o d i n . H i s s u r f a c e s are l e f t showing the t e x t u r e of the m a t e r i a l and the marks of the t o o l s as I m p r e s s i o n i s t canvases do. There i s a l s o the i n d i s t i n c t , almost atmospheric e f f e c t i n C o t e ' s s c u l p t u r e , as w e l l as a f e e l i n g of a c t i o n as l i g h t f a l l s a c r o s s the f a c e t e d s u r f a c e . Caughnawaga Women ( F i g . 5 5 ) , one of the f o r t y or f i f t y bronze f i g u r e s and groups done by Co'te, r e p r e s e n t s I n d i a n women o f the Caughnawaga N a t i o n going to market i n M o n t r e a l . The Caughnawaga men b u i l d the g i a n t s k y s c r a p e r s o f e a s t e r n America as - 72 - w e l l as the b r i d g e s , c l i m b i n g v e r y h i g h w i t h o u t f e a r on s t e e l g i r d e r s and w i t h a sureness and s k i l l not to be matched by o t h e r s . The group i s r e m i n i s c e n t of R o d i n ' s Burgers of C a l a i s , or the h e a v i l y draped f i g u r e of B a l z a c . Both a r t i s t s p r e s e n t an a m b i g u i t y and s u g g e s t i v e n e s s i n a shimmering s u r f a c e . The h a n d l i n g of the m a t e r i a l and the t e x t u r e of the m a t e r i a l i s e v i d e n t . Other important works of s c u l p t u r e by S u z o r - C $ t e are The Woodcutter W a l k i n g , M a r i a C h a p d e l a i n e , The T r a p p e r , and The Woodcutter. In 1908 the Canadian A r t Club e x h i b i t e d the newest works of Canadian p a i n t i n g . C r i t i c s s a i d t h e r e was sound e x e c u t i o n i n every p i c t u r e . There were t h r e e l a r g e Homer W a t s o n ' s , E r n e s t Lawson showed e i g h t canvasses t h a t 156 were " a t h r i l l of pure s u n l i g h t " and C u l l e n d i d a p a s t e l c a l l e d S o l i t u d e . The b r i l l i a n t works of Suzor-Cotfe were s m a l l , Sugar Bush i n Autumn, A V i l l a g e S t r e e t , and Quebec W i n t e r , were i n d i v i d u a l v i s i o n s i n the m a t t e r of c o l o r and mellow charm. James W. M o r r i c e e x h i b i t e d Market P l a c e S t . Malo. S u z o r - C o t e p a i n t e d some of h i s most b e a u t i f u l snow scenes i n Canada. These a r e v e r y remarkable f o r a most e a r n e s t and s i n c e r e e f f o r t to conquer the d i f f i c u l t i e s of p r e s e n t i n g the b r i l l i a n t sunshine on snow, t r e e s and c o u n t r y - s i d e . Winter Landscape, 1909, ( F i g . 56) i s a view of the N i c o l e t R i v e r , near S u z o r ' s home i n A r t h a b a s k a . L i k e Snow a t L o u v e c i e n n e s , ^ - ^ l S T S , by S i s l e y , t h i s f i n e snow p i c t u r e i s a i r y and l i g h t . The banks of f l u f f y white immaculate snow shows us t h a t white i s not w h i t e . J u s t as snow scenes had p e r m i t t e d t h e a r t i s t s to i n v e s t i g a t e the problems of shadows , the study of water o f f e r e d an e x c e l l e n t o p p o r t u n i t y to observe r e v e r b e r a t i o n s and r e f l e c t i o n s . S o - c a l l e d l o c a l c o l o r was a pure c o n v e n t i o n . E v e r y o b j e c t p r e s e n t s to the eye a scheme of c o l o r d e r i v e d from i t s p r o p e r c o l o r , - 73 - from i t s s u r r o u n d i n g s , and from atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s . " I m p r e s s i o n i s m i n j e c t e d i t s p o w e r f u l i n f l u e n c e i n t o Canadian p a i n t i n g through the work of Mqttrice C u l l e n and M.A. de jt>y S u z o r - C o t e , both of whom r e c o g n i z e d a n a t u r a l a f f i n i t y between the I m p r e s s i o n i s t i c t e c h n i q u e 158 and the v a r i e d l i g h t s and c o l o r s of the Canadian snowscape." The S e t t l e m e n t on the H i l l s i d e , 1909, ( F i g . 57) i s another f i n e snow s c e n e . One of the f a s c i n a t i o n s of snow scenes was t h e i r d i f f i c u l t y of e x e c u t i o n . To p a i n t a l a r g e a r e a of canvas white or almost w h i t e , and yet have enough v a r i a t i o n i n the w h i t e to p r e s e n t l i v e l y c o l o r r e n d i t i o n s o f the c o l o r v a l u e s of l i g h t r e f l e c t e d from snow showing many c o l o r e d h i g h l i g h t s and shadows i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t to a c c o m p l i s h . A l t h o u g h Courbet was the f i r s t F r e n c h p a i n t e r to do snow s c e n e s , Monet c a r r i e d the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f u r t h e r , f i n d i n g b r i g h t e r b l u e s i n the shade, p u r p l e s i n dark shadows and many d i f f e r e n c e s of y e l l o w to white tones i n the snow. S e t t l e m e n t on the H i l l s i d e , ( F i g . 57) and Stream i n W i n t e r , ( F i g . 58) are 159 b o t h v e r y r e l a t e d to M o n e t ' s snow scenes l i k e The Magpie, 1869, and a l s o assume the heavy c r u s t y s u r f a c e treatment of Monet's l a t e r Rouen 160 Facade s e r i e s of 1894. Golden ochre and orange r o u g h l y c o r r e s p o n d to p a l e and dark b l u e , as c o m p l i m e n t a r i e s and much white i s used. Some n e u t r a l browns and greys a r e formed by m i x i n g the c o m p l i m e n t a r i e s . The works o f Monet w e r e . e a r l i e r than those of S i s l e y or P i s s a r r o who c o n t i n u e d the e a r l y type of Impressionism on i n t o the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . P i s s a r r o ' s p a l e t t e and s u r f a c e t e x t u r e of 1901 as seen i n h i s Church o f S a i n t - J a c q u e s a t Dieppe, i s v e r y s i m i l a r , t o that of S u z o r - C o t e from 1906 to the end of h i s l i f e . A 162 S u z o r - C o t e ' s , The P e r i b o n k a Church facade seems borrowed i n 163 164 i n s p i r a t i o n from M o n e t ' s C a t h e d r a l a t Rouen, or S i s l e y ' s Church a t Moret. - 74 - I t i s t o u c h i n g t h a t S u z o r - C o t e s h o u l d show the q u a i n t l i t t l e v i l l a g e church of P e r i b o n k a i n the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s t y l e of the g r e a t F r e n c h C a t h e d r a l s done by Monet, P i s s a r r o and S i s l e y . A / 165 S u z o r - C o t e , as w e l l as W i l l i a m Brymner, d i d l o v e l y nudes. Etude de Nu, and M e l o d i e s , ^ a r e two I m p r e s s i o n i s t ones seen i n an e n v e l o p i n g atmosphere s u g g e s t i v e o f t w i l i g h t . S e u r a t ' s Model i n P r o f i l e , and Model from the 167 / Back a r e v e r y s i m i l a r i n pose and i d e a to the ones chosen by S u z o r - C o t e f o r h i s s t u d i e s . Degas' nudes must be the l i n k between academic nudes and cSt '̂s l a t e r - d a y I m p r e s s i o n i s t nudes. J e a n C h a u v i n , w r i t i n g i n A t e l i e r s , says t h a t : "We a r e i n d e b t e d to him, f o r many female nudes i n o i l s and p a s t e l s , the o n l y nudes shown i n our s a l o n s which seem r e s e r v e d o n l y f o r l a n d s c a p e s . What does one see t h e r e , i n d e e d , these many years? Few p o r t r a i t s , few s t i l l l i f e s , few c o m p o s i t i o n s , no h i s t o r i c a l s u b j e c t s , no genre p a i n t i n g s , no i n t e r i o r s or f a m i l i a r s c e n e s , no nudes, landscapes and seascapes o n l y . Is i t the c o n t a g i o n of the f e v e r 168 f o r landscape t h a t rages i n a l l European s c h o o l s ? " 169 Monet s On the Beach, 1870, shows a l a d y w i t h a p a r a s o l s i t t i n g on a bench i n a pose which i s i d e n t i c a l , o n l y r e v e r s e d , to S u z o r - C o t e ' s Youth 170 and S u n l i g h t , 1913. The l a d y w i t h a p a r a s o l was a f a v o r i t e s u b j e c t of I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . R e n o i r shows them i n f i e l d s , and Monet d i d another famous p a i r c a l l e d , Lady w i t h a P a r a s o l Turned Towards the R i g h t , and the same s u b j e c t Turned Towards the L e f t , b o t h of 1886. Suzor'-s I m p r e s s i o n i s t i n t e r e s t i s seen i n the m i d d l e c l a s s enjoyment of a sunny day. The young l a d y i s on a green g r a s s y h i l l o v e r l o o k i n g a pond. L i g h t i s r e f l e c t e d from the water and the shadows are a l i v e w i t h s u g g e s t i o n s of b l u e s and mauve. - 75 - "Youth i n S u n l i g h t " has the l i g h t - f i l l e d manner o f Monet and P i s s a r r o . The s m a l l touches of pure c o l o r are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . Here i s the t y p i c a l I m p r e s s i o n i s t use of Japanese c o m p o s i t i o n whereby the f i g u r e of the g i r l i s seen from an unusual a n g l e , 172 and i s s i l h o u e t t e d i n a d e c o r a t i v e way a g a i n s t a f l a t b a c k g r o u n d . " Of a l l t h e s e I m p r e s s i o n i s t i c f i g u r e s t u d i e s , Youth and S u n l i g h t i s h i s b e s t known. " L a s t autumn where a t the E x h i b i t i o n of the Royal Academy i n M o n t r e a l appeared the v i s i o n "Youth and S u n l i g h t " by S u z o r - C o t e of a f r e s h and happy l o o k i n g young g i r l h o l d i n g a white sunshade over h e r head, s e a t e d on a garden bench i n the b l a z i n g mid-day sun. H i s f r i e n d s were d a z z l e d . The p i c t u r e i s f u l l of " L a J o i e de V i v r e " and the s u b t l e s t e f f e c t s I T O of l i g h t and shade have been caught and a r e h e l d c a p t i v e h e r e f o r e v e r . " 174 F r a n c o i s T a i l l o n , 1921, a p o r t r a i t of a s t u r d y F r e n c h - C a n a d i a n farmer, shows a mixed t e c h n i q u e . The p o r t r a i t i s a f i n e I m p r e s s i o n i s t r e n d e r i n g of c h a r a c t e r . The background, done i n broad s q u a r e d - o f f b r u s h s t r o k e a r e a s , i s more l i k e van Gogh's broad i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Impressionism. The methods of Impressionism and P o s t - I m p r e s s i o n i s m were o l d and well-known by t h e n , and the c o m b i n a t i o n of t e c h n i q u e , though m o s t l y I m p r e s s i o n i s t , i s d e r i v e d from b o t h s o u r c e s . S u z o r - C ^ t e was v e r y adept a t c h a r a c t e r s t u d i e s i n p o r t r a i t u r e . H i s i l l u s t r a t i o n s i n M a r i a C h a p d e l a i n e , 1921, of N e p o t i e n L a l i b e r t e , Hormidas B^rube and Madame C h a p d e l a i n e , g i v e a s e n s i t i v e p i c t o r i a l e q u i v a l e n t to the s t o r y of the F r e n c h Canadian peasants of the l a s t c e n t u r y . S u z o r - C o t e ' s Sugar Camp, A r t h a b a s k a , 1917, shows a wide range of v a l u e s i n c l u d i n g the s i l v e r s and reds t h a t mark the Maples i n the s p r i n g when the sap i s on the move. There are b l u e shadows c a s t on the snow and on the c a b i n ' s r o o f , g i v i n g a d e c o r a t i v e t r a c e r y e f f e c t found so o f t e n i n - 76 - Sisley's and Monet's snow scenes. When compared with his earlier canvas, Primitive Sugar Camp, 1910, i t is seen that Cote" kept very close to an original inspiration working and reworking i t the way the Impressionists did, to give the impression of the instant. Suzor-Cote is the most consistently Impressionist Canadian painter. He is the only painter who stayed with the Impressionist technique long after the artists in France had given up the idiom. His early work, dating from 1892 to 1905, the period of his training, is characteristically reserved and academic. However, from his return to Canada in 1908, until his death in 1937, he painted a continuous series of Impressionist pictures. Suzor-Cote was a French-Canadian peasant who went overseas to learn an academic way of painting, then on returning to Canada brought with him what appealed to him most. It was the Impressionist palette that pleased him, and that was what he chose to use on his return. The studio of Suzor-Cote" as visited by Jean Chauvin in 1927, represented Co\e's varied interests and his double heritage and appreciation of what was old and picturesque in Canada and in France. There were priceless French Aubusson rugs, old Brettpn chests, a three hundred year old marquetry and mahogany harpsichord and Indian curios a l l gathered to- gether. Perhaps no other Canadian painter has blended so rich a heritage of music, painting and sculpture, with the native and peasant l i f e of Quebec. CHAPTER V One of the e a r l i e s t major a r t p a t r o n s i n Canada was S i r W i l l i a m Van Horne, 1843 - 1915. He i s d e s c r i b e d i n the M o n t r e a l Museum of F i n e A r t s C a t a l o g u e as "The foremost r a i l r o a d o r g a n i z e r of h i s day, and a c r e a t o r o f the C . P . R . . . A g i f t e d amateur p a i n t e r , and an e n l i g h t e n e d c o l l e c t o r and c o n n o i s s e u r . " ' ' ' ^ His p i c t u r e S t e e l M i l l s a t Sydney, Cape B r e t o n , 1907, ( F i g . 60) shows a dramatic view of s t e e l - m i l l s i n f u l l - b l a s t , seen a c r o s s the water a t n i g h t . Van Horne made many t r i p s abroad and was always i n t e r e s t e d i n modern a r t , e s p e c i a l l y when i t had some r e l a t i o n to r a i l - ways and heavy i n d u s t r y . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t Armand G u i l l a u m i n , j u s t two y e a r s o l d e r than Van Horne, began working f o r the P a r i s - O r l e a n s Railway Company and p a i n t e d i n h i s l e i s u r e hours around P a r i s where he l i v e d . He showed i n . s i x of the e i g h t I m p r e s s i o n i s t e x h i b i t i o n s and 176 p a i n t e d a v e r y unusual view of Sunset At I v r y , about 1873. I t was shown i n the f i r s t I m p r e s s i o n i s t e x h i b i t i o n at N a d a r ' s i n 1874, d e p i c t i n g a sunset s c e n e , w i t h f a c t o r i e s i n the d i s t a n c e sending up volumes of b r i l l i a n t l y c o l o r e d smoke, a l l r e f l e c t e d i n the w i n d i n g r i v e r i n the f o r e g r o u n d . G u i l l a u m i n , who became i n d e p e n d e n t l y wealthy i n 1892 c o u l d presumably move i n the c i r c l e s f r e q u e n t e d by Van Horne and i t i s most l i k e l y t h a t Van Horne admired t h i s p i c t u r e a t some t i m e , as h i s own i s p a t t e r n e d so c l o s e l y a f t e r i t . L i k e Monet, G u i l l a u m i n s t u d i e d s u n r i s e and sunset e f f e c t s and was the f i r s t to use f a c t o r y chimneys as s u b j e c t s . S i n c e W i l l i a m Brymner taught a t the A r t A s s o c i a t i o n , M o n t r e a l , from 1886 u n t i l 1921, and h i s l a t e r p a i n t i n g s , F e e d i n g C h i c k e n s , 1912, L a t e A f t e r n o o n , and Sea Foam, 1911, assume a s u p e r f i c i a l l i g h t n e s s , a c h o i c e o f s u b j e c t and the i n d i s t i n c t n e s s of Impressionism; i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h r e e of h i s p u p i l s are e s s e n t i a l l y I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . These a r e Mabel May, F r e d e r i c k W. H u t c h i s o n , and W i l l i a m Henry C l a p p . - 78 - Mabel May's work i s c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h that of o t h e r M o n t r e a l p a i n t e r s . There a r e s u b t l e t i e s i n the c o l o r o f the M o n t r e a l s c h o o l which i s more I m p r e s s i o n i s t i c than the work of the Toronto group. Miss May was a l s o i n f l u e n c e d by the F r e n c h I m p r e s s i o n i s t s when she was i n P a r i s from 1912 to 1913. The R e g a t t a , 1914, ( F i g . 61) draws h e a v i l y f o r i n s p i r a t i o n on Monet's works a t A r g e n t e u i l of 1874 and 1875. The p i c t u r e i s v e r y 178 s i m i l a r i n c o m p o s i t i o n to M a n e t ' s The S e i n e a t A r g e n t e u i l , however, the h a n d l i n g i s l o o s e r and l e s s d i s t i n c t , more l i k e the work of R e n o i r and Monet of 1874. The b r u s h s t r o k e f o l l o w s the form of what the a r t i s t p a i n t s - and does not f o l l o w any p r e a r r a n g e d p a t t e r n . F r e d e r i c k W. H u t c h i s o n , 1871 - 1953 was b o r n i n M o n t r e a l . As a student i n P a r i s he was a p u p i l of Benjamin C o n s t a n t . R e t u r n i n g to America he was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the a r t l i f e of the U n i t e d S t a t e s t r a v e l l i n g between New York S t a t e , I l l i n o i s , and h i s summer home i n Quebec. H i s October Snow, B a i e S t . P a u l , ( F i g . 62) shows the i n t e r e s t i n warm l i g h t and c o o l shadow on snow and houses. " T h i s p i c t u r e i s a s u b t l e and p o e t i c arrangement w i t h emphasis p l a c e d on atmospheric envelopment and charm of 179 c o l o r " . H i s landscapes have a f i n e d i f f u s i o n of l i g h t . He i s a t r u e I m p r e s s i o n i s t w i t h an e x q u i s i t e sense of c o l o r . The s u n - f i l l e d p i c t u r e On The Road To Murray Bay, ( F i g . 63) i s a b i r d ' s eye view down a w i n d i n g roadway i n t o a v a l l e y . The i r r e g u l a r b r u s h s t r o k e s of pure pigment a r e r e m i n i s c e n t of the e a r l y I m p r e s s i o n i s t works by P i s s a r r o , Monet and R e n o i r . The c o l o r s are reduced to b l u e , y e l l o w and green w i t h much white added. H u t c h i n s o n ' s work has t h a t l i g h t e r b r i g h t e r c o l o r of R e n o i r w h i c h , when a p p l i e d to a Canadian s c e n e , makes a most p l e a s i n g p i c t u r e . B l a i r B r u c e ' s v e r y e a r l y I m p r e s s i o n i s t i c works of 1887 were done i n the neighborhood of M o n e t ' s home i n G i v e r n y and take the same s u b j e c t s - 79 - chosen by Monet and Sargent when they p a i n t e d t o g e t h e r a t Monet's home i n 1889. The pose, v i e w p o i n t and l i g h t e f f e c t s i n B r u c e 1 s P l e a s a n t Moment, 1887, ( F i g . 64)are a l s o s i m i l a r to Berthe M o r i s o t ' s p i c t u r e , The A r t i s t ' s 180 Sister,Mme. P o n t i l l o n Seated on the G r a s s , 1873, M a n e t ' s The Monet 181 F a m i l y i n T h e i r Garden i n A r g e n t e u i l , 1874, and R e n o i r ' s Mme. Monet and 182 Her Son i n T h e i r Garden a t A r g e n t e u i l , 1874. I n B r u c e ' s G i v e r n y F r a n c e , 1887, ( F i g . 65) t h e r e i s an e m u l a t i o n of R e n o i r ' s Path C l i m b i n g Through 183 Long G r a s s , 1878. Bruce must have seen these p i c t u r e s or o t h e r s l i k e them, i n F r a n c e , 1881 - 1895. H i s works a r e not I m p r e s s i o n i s t i n t e c h - nique but b o r r o w i n g from the s u p e r f i c i a l ' p l e i n - a i r ' e f f e c t s of Impressionism they show an e a r l y F r e n c h I m p r e s s i o n i s t i n f l u e n c e on a Canadian a r t i s t who went abroad to l i v e and p a i n t . W i l l i a m Henry Clapp was born i n M o n t r e a l i n 1879 where h e , t o o , began h i s a r t s t u d i e s under W i l l i a m Brymner. In P a r i s he s t u d i e d w i t h J e a n - P a u l L a u r e n s , L u c i e n Simon, E r n e s t L a u r e n t , Tony R o b e r t - F l e u r y , and w i t h L a p a r r a . The e f f e c t s of s t r o n g s u n l i g h t i n t e r e s t e d him and p l a y e d a l a r g e p a r t i n the landscapes he p a i n t e d i n F r a n c e , S p a i n , and Cuba. He won the J e s s i e Dow p r i z e i n M o n t r e a l i n 1908. Morning i n S p a i n , 1907, ( F i g . 66) i s l i k e a S i s l e y landscape w h i l e The Orchard Quebec, 1909, ( F i g . 67) i s r e m i n i s c e n t of P i s s a r r o 1 s Orchard 184 185 of P o n t o i s e , 1877, and h i s P i c k i n g A p p l e s , 1886. The New C h u r c h , 1913, ( F i g . 68) has a more P o i n t i l i s t s t y l e but Lumber B o a t s , ( F i g . 69)' may be 186 compared w i t h Monet's Beach a t S t . A n d r e s s e , 1867, so c l o s e l y does the t e c h n i q u e compare. As a p a i n t e r , Clapp may be c l a s s e d w i t h the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s a l t h o u g h h i s manner o f p a i n t i n g a l s o suggests the P o i n t i l l i s m o r D i v i s i o n i s m o f the l a t e r ;Neo-Impressionists. His c o l o r i s more I m p r e s s i o n i s t i c because i t does not employ the s c i e n t i f i c a l l y f o r m u l a t e d - 80 - color laws which Seurat followed. "He uses an empirically studied system to paint the objective, determined by his interest in what he termed 'physical vision', the coming in contact of color forces with the retina of the eye."1 8 7 In a letter written in Italy by A.Y. Jackson on Dec. 6, 1912, to Albert Laberge, art editor of "La Presse", Montreal, Jackson finds "The Futurists, Cubists, and Post-Impressionists are working feverishly and already the old Impressionist movement seems like ancient history in Paris. I suppose Montreal s t i l l laughs at Clapp, the loud empty laugh 188 which speaks the vacant mind. But they will learn." From his letter, one may conclude that Jackson considered Clapp's technique Impressionist. Jackson found that Montreal was not ready to accept an art form that was already "ancient history in Paris". This quotation also points out that as late as 1912, the Impressionist way of painting was considered by some Canadian artists to be a current and acceptable way of painting. Ernest Lawson, 1873 - 1939 was a landscape painter who used the French Impressionist style. Newton MacTavish has compared his palette 189 to crushed jewels. Certainly his vibrating brushstrokes and divided color areas are applied in rich o i l pigment that tends to obliterate form. His early Impressionist technique seen in Snowbound Boats, 1907, (Fig. 70) he learned from his teachers John Twachtman and Alden Weir. He lived most of his life in the United States where in 1908 the MacBeth Galleries exhibited canvases painted by eight of the younger American artists including Lawson. Winter, 1914, (Fig. 71) and Misty Day, 1918, (Fig. 72) are also representative of his early atmospheric Impressionism. His later works seen in The Bathers, (Fig. 73) and Sailboats, (Fig. 74) - 81 - b o t h show a much b r i g h t e r and c l e a r e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , more i n f l u e n c e d by P o s t - I m p r e s s i o n i s m . Ida G. H a m i l t o n ' s S u n l i g h t and Shadows of 1923, ( F i g . 75) reminds one of P i s s a r r o ' s The Red R o o f s , 1877, L o u v r e , P a r i s . In b o t h works t h e r e i s a d i s s o c i a t i o n of the elements of houses, t r e e s , and f i e l d s . The landscape i s p r e s e n t e d i n a s i n g l e equal v i b r a t i o n of c o l o r s of the same v a l u e . The dappled shadow e f f e c t of the l e a v e s and f e n c e on the r o a d , and the a l l over b r i g h t d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t , makes t h i s a v i r t u o s o I m p r e s s i o n i s t p i c t u r e . I t i s not e x a c t l y l i k e any s i n g l e I m p r e s s i o n i s t m a s t e r ' s work but i s a f a i t h f u l e c l e c t i c c o p y i n g of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t elements of s t y l e a t a much l a t e r p e r i o d to g i v e an almost p e r f e c t I m p r e s s i o n i s t e f f e c t . "One has to b e g i n any o u t l i n e of the Group of Seven by m e n t i o n i n g Lawren H a r r i s " . He i t was who saw an e x h i b i t i o n of sketches by James Edward Hervey MacDonald and knew the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of Canadian landscape p a i n t i n g . With the h e l p of Dr. James McCallum he persuaded men l i k e Tom Thomson, A r t h u r L i s m e r , F r e d e r i c k V a r l e y , A l e x a n d e r J a c k s o n , F r a n k l i n C a r m i c h a e l and Franz J o h n s t o n to j o i n a group and develop a s c h o o l of p a i n t i n g which h e l d i t s f i r s t e x h i b i t i o n i n 1920. The o l d e s t member of the group was James MacDonald, 1873 - 1932, who began working as a d e s i g n e r i n the commercial p r i n t i n g and a d v e r t i z i n g f i r m of G r i p and Company i n 1895. He worked s t e a d i l y t h e r e u n t i l 1904 when he l e f t Canada to s t u d y a r t a t the C a r l t o n S t u d i o , London. On h i s r e t u r n home i n 1907 he a g a i n took up work w i t h G r i p Company as a s e n i o r member. He p a i n t e d and sketched i n h i s spare t i m e . In 1909 he t r a v e l l e d i n t o n o r t h e r n O n t a r i o f o r the f i r s t t i m e , and i n 1910 went to Georgian Bay. H i s e a r l y snow p i c t u r e s draw h e a v i l y on I m p r e s s i o n i s t masters f o r i n s p i r a t i o n . Tracks and T r a f f i c , - 82 - 1912, ( F i g . 76) i s immediately r e m i n i s c e n t of Monet's s e r i e s of s t u d i e s 191 of La Gare S t . L a z a r e . The r a i l w a y was a g r e a t n o v e l t y to the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . S i n c e T u r n e r ' s R a i n , Steam and Speed of 1844, Monet, P i s s a r r o , and S i s l e y s t u d i e d w i t h g r e a t i n t e r e s t the e f f e c t s of steam and smoke changing w i t h the wind, but f i x e d as c l o u d e f f e c t s and r e f l e c t i o n s on t h e i r canvases. MacDonald's p i c t u r e i n c l u d e s d i s t a n t f a c t o r y chimneys sending up c l o u d s o f smoke, as w e l l as a l o c o m o t i v e ' s steamy v a p o r s , and the Gas Works near the w a t e r f r o n t of T o r o n t o . Lawren H a r r i s ' p i c t u r e The Gas Works, 1912, ( F i g . 105) i s v e r y s i m i l a r i n a t m o s p h e r i c q u a l i t i e s to the MacDonald. Edge of a Town, ( F i g . 77) i n the U n i v e r s i t y Women's C l u b , T o r o n t o , has a b l u e shadow e f f e c t on the snow as dusk f a l l s b e h i n d f i g u r e s making t h e i r way toward home. The dappled l i g h t e f f e c t on the ground was a 192 s p e c i a l t y of R e n o i r as seen i n The Swing, 1876, or La M o u l i n de L a 193 G a l e t t e , 1876. Shadow e f f e c t s on snow p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d MacDonald. Winter Sunshine, ( F i g . 78) p r e s e n t s a broad v i s t a over snow-covered f i e l d s as an Elm c a s t s b l u e shadows a c r o s s the f o r e g r o u n d p l a n e and the shaded foreward s l o p e s of the r o o f s p r e s e n t b l u e patches i n the m i d d l e ground. High Park, the Luxembourg Gardens of T o r o n t o , was a f a v o r i t e s k e t c h i n g ground f o r MacDonald. I t was c l o s e to the G r i p Company o f f i c e s , and near h i s Toronto r e s i d e n c e and a t the t u r n of the c e n t u r y p r e s e n t e d an u n d i s t u r b e d park a r e a i n which to p a i n t . In Morning A f t e r Snow, ( F i g . 79) done i n High Park, the f o o t p r i n t s c r o s s i n g the snow p r o v i d e the i n c i d e n t a l human touch to the landscape which the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s u s u a l l y i n c l u d e d . L a t e r snow scenes n e g l e c t e d t h i s t o u c h . The mauves and b l u e s of l a t e I m p r e s s i o n i s m a r e seen i n E a r l y E v e n i n g , - 83 - W i n t e r , 1912, ( F i g . 8 0 ) . A l a r g e f u z z y sun shows through a snowstorm. T h i s i s a v e r y i n d i s t i n c t r e n d e r i n g , a s e a r c h i n g f o r a l l the l i g h t e f f e c t s of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , and perhaps i t f a l l s i n t o the e r r o r of the l a t e I m p r e s s i o n i s t s i n b e i n g too d i f f u s e d . MacDonald developed the i n t e r e s t i n shadow and snow e f f e c t s f u r t h e r than the F r e n c h I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . In The Pine Shadows M o o n l i g h t , 1912, ( F i g . 81) MacDonald i n t r o d u c e s a new concept i n t o h i s p i c t u r e . The shadow o f the t r e e on the snow i s the main s u b j e c t , and the canvas becomes a d e c o r a t i v e p a t t e r n o f l i g h t and dark a r e a s . I t was i n 1912 t h a t MacDonald and H a r r i s v i s i t e d the E x h i b i t i o n of S c a n d i n a v i a n A r t a t the A l b r i g h t A r t G a l l e r y , B u f f a l o , New York. In 1894 Gusta\fcGeffroy p u b l i s h e d h i s H i s t o r y o f I m p r e s s i o n i s m , thus g i v i n g I m p r e s s i o n i s m a p l a c e i n the h i s t o r y of a r t . In 1897 t h e r e were I m p r e s s i o n i s t e x h i b i t i o n s i n London and Stockholm. T h i s e a r l y c o n t a c t o f Sweden w i t h I m p r e s s i o n i s m would r e a c h Canada i n d i r e c t l y through the 1912 B u f f a l o e x h i b i t i o n . From t h i s l a r g e s c a l e c o n c e p t i o n of shadows MacDonald f i n d s another new approach to Impressionism i n Snowbound, 1915, ( F i g . 82) a c l o s e u p view of branches bent low by the snow w i t h shadows beneath and b r i g h t h i g h l i g h t s b e h i n d . At t h i s time Lawren H a r r i s and MacDonald were working c l o s e l y t o g e t h e r and the s i m i l a r i t y between MacDonald's Snow Bound, ( F i g . 82) and the snow scene of H a r r i s ( F i g . 83) i n the Robert B. McMichael c o l l e c t i o n i s v e r y s t r i k i n g . A s i m i l a r remarkable e a r l y Tom Thomson canvas i n the McMichael C o l l e c t i o n , h a v i n g d i s t i n c t I m p r e s s i o n i s t f e a t u r e s i s In A l g o n q u i n Park, 1914 ( F i g . 8 4 ) . I t i s r e m i n i s c e n t of the work of the American I m p r e s s i o n i s t s Twachtman, Weir and Lawson. In MacDonald's F a l l s , M o n t r e a l R i v e r , 1920, ( F i g . 85) the a p p l i c a t i o n - 84 - of paint in small brushstrokes of pure color appears Impressionist in isolated areas. In the allover effect the canvases' larger areas of color, sweeping sinuous lines, and abstract forms reflect the influence of many styles. In his Sketch No. 2 for Tangled Garden, (Fig. 86) we see. an intimate bit of the artist's garden with reserved grayed foliage and yellow flowers against a pale blue sky. There are irregular brush strokes which remind one of the Impressionist garden studies but in his final canvas of 194 Tangled Garden, 1916, there is a change to a riot of thick and pasty Fauve color which shocked the public and the critics. Tom Thomson has painted, in the vivid bright colors of Canada, one of our most Impressionist canvases. His Bateaux (Fig. 87) is a more 195 vigorous painting of Claude Monet's Regatta at Argenteuil, 1872. "It was at Argenteuil that the Impressionist technique was really invented. Trie light as reflected in the rippling water cast up reflections beneath the arches of the bridge, while the white sails reflected in the river provide 196 a natural example of the separate of strokes and color." This was Monet's home and there he did his boldest fresh and free work. Arthur Lismer who painted with Tom Thomson in the north says of him, "Thomson belonged to no group. He was as timid as a deer. Every nerve and fibre seemed to be waiting for the time and place to register some creative impression. He was almost monastic in his desire for seclusion, in his seeking out of lonely spots. He was a creature of depression and of ecastatic moments. I've been with him in the woods when I've got the definite feeling that he was part of them, that the birds and animals recognized something in him that they had themselves. That's why I say that the rest of us were painting pictures; he was expressing moods. He - 85 - 197 was simply a part of nature." Tom Thomson exemplifies one of the greatest influences on the younger Canadian painters. He was not always an Impressionist painter, but the s p i r i t of Impressionism led him to the landscape subject, the outdoor scene, and the dependence on the v i s u a l scene for a subject which he then painted with a free-flowing execution, catching the f e e l i n g of the instant i n pure color. Subjects l i k e sunset, autumn landscapes, northern l i g h t s ; the i n t e r e s t i n the c o l o r f u l f a l l e f f e c t s of northern landscapes; intangible themes l i k e a west wind, a shimmering lake, a golden autumn, and moonlight are Impressionist i n s p i r i t . Post-Impressionism, Fauvism, Art Nouveau, and Expressionism are other influences to be found i n h i s works. The sketches for h i s canvases have much more sponteniety and f r e s h - ness of color than the f i n i s h e d painting. Spring Ice, 1916, ( F i g . 88) with i t s l y r i c harmonies of blue and green, perhaps comes c l o s e s t to the freedom of the sketches. Wide color areas are syncopated with smaller areas of Impressionist brush strokes. There i s a high horizon l i n e , an a l l - o v e r cool f e e l i n g of spring, blue shadows and an instantaneous impression. But the s w i r l of brush stroke and the heavy areas of paint are not the r e f i n e d d e l i c a t e modelling of Impressionism but a new more f o r c e f u l , urgent, and emotional rendering. In Edge of the Log Run, 1916, (Fig. 89) the strong color i s swirled and p i l e d high as the a r t i s t depicts the dynamism of the run. Figures 90 and 91, from the McMichael c o l l e c t i o n i l l u s t r a t e how the a r t i s t has gone beyond Impressionism to a broad dynamic brush stroke and yet retains a color rendering that sparkles, s c i n t i l a t e s and moves i n water and sky, i n an Impressionist way; which has a l l the force of color and brush work that the great northland i n s p i r e d . - 86 - F r a n k l i n C a r m i c h a e l , 1890 - 1945, a p u p i l of W i l l i a m Cruikshank might have adopted the m i s t y B a r b i z o n s t y l e o f h i s t e a c h e r . I n s t e a d he became an expert d e s i g n t e a c h e r i n h i s own r i g h t and as a water c o l o r i s t he p a i n t e d d e l i c a t e , b e a u t i f u l l y designed work. Autumn: O r i l l i a , ( F i g . 92) i s an I m p r e s s i o n i s t work o v e r l a i d w i t h a l a c e - l i k e p a t t e r n of t r e e trunks and branches g i v i n g a designed d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t , s u g g e s t i v e of Mark Toby's C a l l i o g r a p h i c w r i t i n g . H i s Winter Landscape ( F i g . 93) shows the meticulous care w i t h which he put down each b r u s h s t r o k e i n b u i l d i n g up t h i s I m p r e s s i o n i s t canvas. The g r e a t c o l o r i s t of the group was F r e d e r i c k Horsman V a r l e y , 1881 - . H i s P o r t r a i t of J a n e t , ( F i g . 94) i s of a d e l i g h t f u l c h i l d i n her white d r e s s , s t a n d i n g i n the l i g h t - f i l l e d b u t - o f - d o o r s . Only i n the e x p r e s s i v e f a c e does the f i n e draughtsmanship of the a r t i s t become e v i d e n t . V e r a , ( F i g . 95) a p o r t r a i t of a young woman done i n the jewel c o l o r s of a R e n o i r may a l s o have s m a l l areas of I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g combined w i t h areas of Fauve c o l o r and the o u t l i n i n g of P o s t - I m p r e s s i o n i s m . In a p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w w i t h the p a i n t e r A r t h u r L i s m e r , i n h i s A r t A s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c e i n M o n t r e a l i n the f a l l of 1964, Mr. L i s m e r , when asked about h i s p a i n t i n g The G u i d e ' s Home, A l g o n q u i n , 1914, ( F i g . 96) s a i d " T h a t i s d e f i n i t e l y F r e n c h I m p r e s s i o n i s m and I never r e p e a t e d i t " . He f e l t t h a t the i n f l u e n c e of Impressionism was not as c o n s c i o u s l y f e l t by p a i n t e r s as by the c r i t i c s i n Canada. The F r e n c h I m p r e s s i o n i s t l a n d - scape s u b j e c t was i n t i m a t e and a p p e a l e d to the more v o l a t i l e F r e n c h . The more sober a s s o c i a t e s , l a t e r to form the Group of Seven, found t h a t the I m p r e s s i o n i s t mode of e x p r e s s i o n was not s u i t e d to the w i l d s of Canadian l a n d s c a p e . Lismer thought t h a t Canadian p a i n t i n g adopted I m p r e s s i o n i s t c o l o r , but o n l y used the s m a l l I m p r e s s i o n i s t b r u s h s t r o k e as an a c c e n t and - 87 - contrast to the broader areas used in painting Canadian scenery. He pointed out the thorough-going influence Impressionism had in interior decoration, textiles, and in bringing the newly invented scientific colors to the fore. Afternoon Sunlight, 1915 - 1916, (Fig. 97) and Springtime on the Farm, 1916 - 1917, (Fig. 98) are two canvases of the same scene painted in different seasons of the year. Like the Impressionists, Lismer suggests the presence of people but does not show them. A ladder stands beside the tree in the fenced-in enclosure. Smoke comes from the chimney and a wash is on the line. Two geese are moving along outside the picket fence. These intimate personal touches are found in Impressionism. "It seemed to Arthur Lismer as though French Impressionism, by which he was so stirred, was indeed vibration, not simply of the soul but also 198 an actual physical vibration." Alexander Young Jackson states "It was through Cullen and Morrice that we in Montreal first became aware of the fresh and invigorating 199 movements going on in the art circles of France; ... On Cullen's first return from France he held an exhibition at the Fraser Institute ... To 200 us he was a hero." "Few people liked the work I brought home from Europe. The French Impressionist influence in i t was regarded as • 11 201 extreme modernism'. An early canvas Canoe Lake, (Fig. 99) is an Impressionist snow scene. Two war pictures Churches at Lievin, 1918 (Fig. 100) and A Screened Road, 1918, (Fig. 101) show Impressionist influences. In his 202 canvas Road to St. Simon, 1940, he uses the Impressionist color of blue and yellow but the sinuous curves and wide sweeps of color areas 203 belong to Post-Impressionism. Winter Morning, is a glorious - 88 - I m p r e s s i o n i s t i n f l u e n c e d canvas of b l u e and o c h r e ; but i n s t e a d of b r u s h s t r o k e s t h e r e a r e s w i r l s of p a i n t . The v a s t a r e a of f o o t h i l l s r i s e h i g h e r and h i g h e r on the canvas i n u n d u l a t i n g curves r e m i n i s c e n t of W i l l i a m C u l l e n B r y a n t ' s poem The P r a i r i e s . J a c k s o n ' s p a i n t i n g from the McMichael c o l l e c t i o n ( F i g . 102) i s another such canvas. I t was Lawren H a r r i s , 1885 - , who had the energy and d r i v e to f u l f i l J . E . H . MacDonald's dream of a s c h o o l of p a i n t i n g i n Canada t h a t would r e a l i z e the w e a l t h of m o t i f s which p r e s e n t e d t h e m s e l v e s . " V e r s a t i l i t y has been the keynote of Lawren H a r r i s ' l o n g c a r e e r . . . . H i s v a r i a t i o n s have always been d i c t a t e d by s u b j e c t m a t t e r and an i n n e r . 204 s p i r i t u a l compulsion . H a r r i s had s t u d i e d ' A r t Nouveau' and J u g e n d s t i l i n B e r l i n , and ' A r t Nouveau' was the s t y l e used by the commercial a r t i s t s i n Canada b e f o r e 1913. I t was i n 1913 t h a t Lawren H a r r i s met Thorn Thomson and i t i s h a r d to say j u s t what the exchange of i d e a s was between these two men. I t was Thomson who i n t r o d u c e d H a r r i s to landscape p a i n t i n g as they went s k e t c h i n g t o g e t h e r i n t o A l g o n q u i n Park i n 1914. Thomson's Snow i n O c t o b e r , 1914, 205 ( F i g . 103) and March suggest H a r r i s 1 Winter Woods, 1914, but the canvases of Lawren H a r r i s have a touch of f o r m a l i t y not found i n the work of Thomson. From a d e c o r a t i v e p a t t e r n u s i n g I m p r e s s i o n i s t c o l o r and b r u s h 206 s t r o k e as seen i n Houses, Richmond S t r e e t , T o r o n t o , 1911, the s t y l e of H a r r i s became s i m p l e r , the forms more p o w e r f u l and the l i n e s more a c c e n t u a t e d . The b r u s h s t r o k e and c o l o r of I m p r e s s i o n i s m i s combined w i t h an Arabesque l i n e , the s i l h o u e t t e e f f e c t and elements o f A r t Nouveau. H a r r i s d i d a s e r i e s of snow p i c t u r e s i n the e a r l y t w e n t i e s , one of which Snow II, ( F i g . 104) i s a v e r y I m p r e s s i o n i s t scene of a grove of spruce t r e e s i n the f o r e g r o u n d l a d e n w i t h snow and bathed i n i r i d e s c e n t b l u e , - 89 - mauve, purple, pink, white, and yellow shadows, with very dark greens. In the sun-filled background bright whites, oranges and yellows complement the foreground colors and set up Impressionist vibrations of color. Thomson had watched the style of Harris develop and change from the more traditional Naturalism through Impressionism toward a more abstract design and his own painting mirrors this progression. Thus we see Impressionism not being discarded but being developed. It is difficult to include and assess a l l the Impressionist painters working in Canada after 1900. When part of the Caillebotte collection of Impressionist paintings was accepted by the Luxembourg in 1896 and the Moreau-Nelaton collection by the Louvre in 1906. Canadian artists studying abroad could see great French Impressionist works. By 1910 many Canadian artists were painting pictures in the Impressionist style, but the influence of Impressionism carries on into contemporary work. "The Impressionist tradition, and the love of vibrant colors as autonomous factors of emotion, sometimes independent of the form, are s t i l l continued by artists of a refined sensibility and a very sure taste. Their works dating from after 1945, do not mark a stylistic break, nor even an essential transformation in relation to paintings executed before that date, for these artists had by then reached the age of forty or more, and their aesthetic conceptions and personal techniques had become stabilized. They brilliantly continue a French tradition of sensitive and sensual gracefulness, which often seems a normal develop- 207 ment of Impressionism." FOOTNOTES CHAPTER I 1 Graham C. Mclnnes, A Short H i s t o r y of Canadian A r t , new e d . , T o r o n t o , M a c M i l l a n and Company, 1950, p. 58 2 I b i d . , p. 47 3 I b i d . , p. 3 CHAPTER II 4 H e l e n Gardner, A r t Through The Ages, New York, H a r c o u r t , Brace and Company, 1959, p. 657 5 C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o , L e t t e r s To H i s Son L u c i e n , New Y o r k , Pantheon Books I n c o r p o r a t e d , 1943, p. 14 6 F r a n c o i s Mathey, The I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , New York, F r e d e r i c k A. P r a e g e r , 1961, p. 232 7 John Rewald, The H i s t o r y of I m p r e s s i o n i s m , New Y o r k , The Museum of Modern A r t , 1961, p. 114 8 I b i d . , p. 17 9 I b i d . , p. 29 10 I b i d . , p. 16 11 F r a n c o i s Mathey, The I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , New York, F r e d e r i c k A. Praeger, 1961, p. 217 12 I b i d . , p. 39 13 I b i d . 14 John Rewald, The H i s t o r y of I m p r e s s i o n i s m , New York, The Museum o f Modern A r t , 1961, p. 28 15 I b i d . , p. 34 16 I b i d . , p. 8 17 F r a n g o i s Mathey, The I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , New Y o r k , F r e d e r i c k A . P r a e g e r , - 90 - - 91 - 1961, p. 109 18 I b i d . , p. 13 19 I b i d . , p. 5 0 - 5 1 20 C . J . Smith, I n t e r m e d i a t e P h y s i c s , London, Edward A r n o l d and Company, 1947, p. 495 21 C h a r l e s E. Gauss, The A e s t h e t i c T h e o r i e s of F r e n c h A r t i s t s , B a l t i m o r e , Johns Hopkins P r e s s , 1949, p. 33 22 Jean Auguste Domenique I n g r e s , Comtesse d ' H a u s s o n v i l l e , 1845, The Henry C l a y F r i c k C o l l e c t i o n ; John Canaday, Mainstreams of Modern A r t , New Y o r k , H o l t R i n e h a r t and Winston, 1963, 1 1 1 . , p. 70 23 F r a n c o i s Mathey, The I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , New York, F r e d e r i c k A . P r a e g e r , 1961, p. 109 24 P i e r r e C h a r l e s B a u d e l a i r e , The M i r r o r of A r t , Garden C i t y , New York, Doubleday and Co. I n c . , 1956, p. 49 25 John Rewald, The H i s t o r y of I m p r e s s i o n i s m , New York, The Museum of Modern A r t , 1961, p. 339, No. 22 26 P i e r r e C o u r t h i o n , P a r i s In Our Time, New Y o r k , S k i r a , 1957, p. 17 27 M.E. C h e v r e u l , The P r i n c i p l e s of Harmony and C o n t r a s t o f C o l o u r s , London, George B e l l and Sons, 1890, p. 227 28 C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o , L e t t e r s to H i s Son L u c i e n , New York, Pantheon Books I n c o r p o r a t e d , 1943, p. 15 29 F r a n c o i s Mathey, The I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , New York, F r e d e r i c k A. P r a e g e r , 1961, p. 40 30 John Rewald, The H i s t o r y of I m p r e s s i o n i s m , New York, The Museum of Modern A r t , 1961, p. 258 31 I b i d . , p. 258 - 92 - 32 Pissarro, Letters, op. cit., p. 355 33 Pierre Renoir, Renoir, London, Thames and Hudson, Chapter 2, p. 59 34 Germain Bazin, Impressionist Paintings In The Louvre, London, Thames and Hudson, 1964, p. 14 35 Rewald, Impressionism, op. cit., p. 150 36 John Canaday, Seminars In Art, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Portfolio J, 1964, p. 10 37 Bazin, Impressionist,Paintings, op. cit., p. 260 38 James R. Mellow, "A New Look At Claude Monet", The Best In Arts; New York, Horizon Press, 1962, p. 143 39 Ibid., p. 144 40 Ibid., p. 145 41 Ibid., p. 146 42 Ibid., p. 146 43 Ibid., p. 148 44 Ibid., p. 148 45 Ibid., p. 148 46 Bazin, Impressionist Paintings, op. cit., p. 65 47 Ibid., p. 66 48 Ibid., p. 67 49 Ibid., p. 65 50 The Art Institute of Chicago Paintings, Catalogue, Amsterdam, J. Brandt and Zn, 1961, p. 68 51 Daniel M. Mendelowitz, A History of American Art, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960, p. 444 52 Hirschl and Adler Galleries, Catalogue, New York, Feb. 18, 1964 53 Mathey, Impressionists, op. cit., p. 168 54 Oliver W. Larkin, Art and Life In America, New York, Rinehart and Company, 1949, p. 305 55 R.H. Hubbard, National Gallery of Canada, Catalogue of Paintings and Sculpture, Volume 111, Canadian School, Ottawa, 1960, p. 165. CHAPTER III 56 J. Russell Harper, Homer Watson, R.C.A., 1855 - 1936, Paintings and Drawings, Ottawa, The National Gallery of Canada, Catalogue, 1963 57 Beaumont Newhall, The History of Photography, New York, The Museum of Modern Art, 1964, p. 17 58 Homer Watson, The Flood Gate; Harper Catalogue, op. cit., 1963 plate III 59 J. Russell Harper, Homer Watson, R.C.A., 1855 - 1936, Paintings and Drawings, Catalogue, 1963 60 Ibid., plate 48 61 Ibid., plate 53 62 Ibid., plate 56 63 J. Russell Harper, Paintings and Drawings, Catalogue, op. cit, 1963 64 Alfred H. Robson, Canadian Landscape Painters, Toronto, The Ryerson Press, 1932, p. 114 65 Rewald, Impressionism, p. 40 66 Ibid. 67 Ibid., p. 61 68 Art Vivant, "Duret To Manet", Aug., 1928, p. 261 69 Rewald, Impressionism, op. cit., p. 532 - 94 - 70 I b i d . , pp. 471 - 472 71 B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t e r s , op. c i t . , pp. 65 - 66 72 V i n c e n t van Gogh, Complete L e t t e r s , V o l . 1, Greenwich C o n n e c t i c u t , New York G r a p h i c S o c i e t y , 1959, p. 476 73 I b i d . , V o l . 3, pp. 80 - 83 74 E r i c Brown, " S t u d i o T a l k , T o r o n t o " , I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i o , V o l . 40, 1910, p. 243 75 Newlin P r i c e , H o r a t i o Walker, New York, Lewis C a r r i e r , 1928, p. 4 76 Claude Monet, The Break-up of the I c e Near V e t h e u i l ; Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 443 77 H o r a t i o Walker, L i t t l e White P i g s and Mother; H a r p e r , C a t a l o g u e , Ottawa, N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y of Canada, op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 326 78 Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m, op. c i t . , p. 456 79 C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o , Low Path a t P o n t o i s e , Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m, op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 470 80 Claude Monet, T u r k e y s ; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 288 81 H o r a t i o Walker, White T u r k e y s ; P r i c e , Walker, op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 26 82 H o r a t i o Walker, The Sugar Bush; Canadian P a i n t e r s , P h a i d o n , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p l a t e II 83 Isham and C o r t o i s s o z , H i s t o r y of American P a i n t i n g , New Y o r k , 1927, pp. 495 - 496 84 H o r a t i o Walker, The R o y a l M a i l Over The I c e B r i d g e ; Jean C h a u v i n , A t e l i e r s , M o n t r e a l , L o u i s C a r r i e r & C i e , 1928, 1 1 1 . , p. 70 85 D a n i e l M. M e n d e l o w i t z , American A r t , New York, H o l t R i n e h a r t and Winston, 1960, p. 255 - 95 - 86 J . M . B a r n s l e y , R i v e r Bank, F r a n c e ; J . B a r r y L o r d , J . M . B a r n s l e y , 1861 - 1929, R e t r o s p e c t i v e E x h i b i t i o n , C a t a l o g u e , p l a t e 15 87 Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , p. 227 88 J . M . B a r n s l e y , L ' E n t r e e du P o r t a Dieppe; L o r d , B a r n s l e y R e t r o s p e c t i v e , C a t a l o g u e , op. c i t . , p. 13 89 L o r d , B a r n s l e y R e t r o s p e c t i v e , C a t a l o g u e , op. c i t . 90 Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , p. 110 91 I b i d . , p. 37 92 I b i d . , p. 38 93 I b i d . 94 I b i d . , p. 46 95 Claude Monet, The Seine E s t u a r y a t H o n f l e u r ; Rewald, Impressionism, op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 122 96 Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , p. 123 97 C h a r l e s Daubigny, The F e r r y ; Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . 1 1 1 . , p. 103 98 W i l l i a m C o l g a t e , Canadian A r t , T o r o n t o , Ryerson P r e s s , 1943, p. 122 99 Robert P i l o t , Wm. Brymner, ( T y p e w r i t t e n Notes sent to the N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y Ottawa) June 22, 1958, S e c t i o n 2 100 A l b e r t Henry Robson, Canadian Landscape P a i n t e r s , T o r o n t o , The Ryerson P r e s s , 1932, p. 73 101 A l f r e d H. B a r r , M a t i s s e , New York, The Museum of Modern A r t , 1951, pp. 15 - 16 102 C a m i l l e C o r o t , The Gust of Wind; Mathey, The I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 1 103 F l o r e n c e L e w i s o n , "Theodore Robinson and Claude Monet", A p o l l o , S e p t . 1963, pp. 208 - 211 - 96 - 104 Theodore Robinson, W i l l o w s ; M e n d e l o w i t z , American A r t , op. c i t . 1 1 1 . , p. 443 105 Mary C a s s a t t , Young Woman Sewing; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 211 106 Mary C a s s a t t , The B a t h ; A r t I n s t i t u t e of C h i c a g o , C a t a l o g u e , 111. , p. 369 107 John S. S a r g e n t , The Wyndham S i s t e r s ; Canaday Seminars In A r t H i s t o r y , P o r t f o l i o 4, op. c i t . , p l a t e 39 108 John S. S a r g e n t , Monet P a i n t i n g In H i s Garden; Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 153 109 Auguste R e n o i r , La Loge; F r a n c o i s F o s c a , R e n o i r , London, Thames and Hudson, 1961, 1 1 1 . , p. 40 110 W i l l i a m G l a c k e n s , Chez Mouquin; A r t I n s t i t u t e of C h i c a g o , C a t a l o g u e , • I op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 377 111 I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i o , V o l . 58, 1916, pp. 269 - 274 112 H. Mortimer Lamb, " S t u d i o T a l k , M o n t r e a l " , I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i o , V o l . 58, 1916, pp. 63 - 67 113 I b i d . 114 P i l o t , Brymner, Typed N o t e s , N.G.O., op. c i t . , (99), 1958 CHAPTER IV 115 Romain Gour, M a u r i c e C u l l e n , un M a i t r e de l ' a r t au Canada, Les E d i t i o n s E o l i e n n e s , p. 5 116 W i l l i a m R. Watson, "The A r t of Maurice C u l l e n " , Canadian Review of Music and A r t , T o r o n t o , O n t a r i o , J a n . , 1943, La Grange L i b r a r y , T o r o n t o . 117 B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g s , op. c i t . , p. 30 118 I b i d . , pp. 30&32 119 Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , p. 72 120 Robert W. P i l o t , Maurice C u l l e n , R.C.A., Typed copy of an address g i v e n to The A r t s Club of M o n t r e a l , 1937, La Grange L i b r a r y , T o r o n t o . 121 " W i l l i a m Brymner" l e t t e r f i l e , La Grange L i b r a r y , Toronto 122 Robert W. P i l o t , M a u r i c e C u l l e n , R.C.A., Typed copy of an address g i v e n to The A r t s Club of M o n t r e a l , 1937, L a Grange L i b r a r y , Toronto 123 I b i d . 124- Newton M a c T a v i s h , The F i n e A r t s i n Canada, T o r o n t o , M a c m i l l a n , 1925, p. 539 125 " E x p o s i t i o n r e t r o s p e c t i v e des oeuvres de Maurice C u l l e n " , L ' A c t i o n C a t h o l i q u e , Quebec, January 11, 1957 126 Armand G u i l l a u m i n , Sunset At I v r y ; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g s , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 137 127 A l f r e d S i s l e y , The F l o o d a t P o r t M a r l y ; Mathey, I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , op . c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 73 128 C h a r l e s Daubigny, The F e r r y ; Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 103 129 Denys S u t t o n , "A Bouquet f o r S a r g e n t , " A p o l l o , May, 1964, p. 397 130 Edward Manet, The S p a n i s h G u i t a r i s t ; John Canaday, Mainstreams of Modern A r t , New York, H o l t , R i n e h a r t and W i n s t o n , 1 1 1 . , p.159 131 Robert P i l o t , M a u r i c e C u l l e n , typed notes of address g i v e n to the A r t s Club of M o n t r e a l i n 1937, La Grange L i b r a r y , T o r o n t o 132 Georges S e u r a t , H a y s t a c k s ; Rewald, Impressionism, op. c i t . , 111., p. 507 133 Claude Monet, Haystacks a t G i v e r n y ; Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . 1 1 1 . , p. 517 - 98 - 134 M o n t r e a l G a z e t t e , J u l y , 1929, N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y Ottawa, L i b r a r y 135 La Grange L i b r a r y , Toronto 136 Marius Barbeau, "The A r t of M a u r i c e C u l l e n " , Saturday N i g h t , June 9, 1934 137 I b i d . 138 James W i l s o n M o r r i c e l e t t e r , 1911, L a Grange, L i b r a r y , Toronto 139 W i l l i a m R. Watson, " M a u r i c e C u l l e n " , Canadian Review of Music and A r t , 1943 140 Newton M a c T a v i s h , The F i n e A r t s i n Canada, T o r o n t o , M a c m i l l a n Co. o f Canada L t d . , 1917, p. 537 141 N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y Ottawa, L i b r a r y 142 P i l o t , A d d r e s s , op. c i t . 143 N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y Canada, L i b r a r y 144 M o n t r e a l G a z e t t e , October 5, 1956 145 Marius Barbeau, P a i n t e r s of Quebec, T o r o n t o , The Ryerson P r e s s , May 8, 1945, p. 4 146 Romain Gour, S u z o r - C o t e , A r t i s t e M u l t i f o r m e (1869 - 1937), C a t a l o g u e , Les E d i t i o n s E o l i e n n e s , La Grange, L i b r a r y , N.D. 147 I b i d . 148 M o n t r e a l G a z e t t e , September 30, 1914 149 C. B a t a i l l e , Le J o u r n a l , P a r i s , 1900, Gour, Suzor-Cotr^, op. c i t . 150 M. D ' A l v a r , European A r t i s t , P a r i s , 1900, Gour, S u z o r-c6te 151 A l b e r t L e f e b v r e , The Review of Two F r a n c e ' s , P a r i s , 1900, Gour, Suzor-Cote', op. c i t . 152 Romain Gour, S u z o r - C o t e , op. c i t . 153 I b i d . 154 I b i d . - 99 - 155 I b i d . 156 H . C . , " S t u d i o T a l k , T o r o n t o " , I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i o , March - June, 1916, pp. 269 - 274 157 A l f r e d S i s l e y , Snow a t L o u v e c i e n n e s ; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g s , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 188 158 Dagobert D. Runes, and H a r r y G. S c h r i c k e l , E n c y c l o p e d i a of The A r t s , New York, 1946, p. 136 159 Claude Monet, The Magpie; Mathey, I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , op. c i t . , 111., p. 57 160 Claude Monet, Rouen C a t h e d r a l ; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 260 161 C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o , Church of S a i n t - J a c q u e s a t Dieppe; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , 111. p. 262 162 S u z o r - C ^ t e , The P e r i b o n k a C h u r c h ; L o u i s Hemon, M a r i a C h a p d e l a i n e , M o n t r e a l , A . T . Chapman, 1921, 1 1 1 . , 3 163 Claude Monet, Rouen C a t h e d r a l ; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g s , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 290 164 A l f r e d S i s l e y , Church a t M o r e t ; Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 577 165 Suzor.-Cote, Etude de Nu; C h a u v i n , A t e l i e r s , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 90 166 S u z o r - C o t e , M e l o d i e s ; I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i o , V o l . 58, F e b . , 1916, 1 1 1 . , p. 62 167 Georges S e u r a t , Model i n P r o f i l e ; Model From The Back; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g s , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 299 168 Jean C h a u v i n , A t e l i e r s , M o n t r e a l , L o u i s C a r r i e r and Company, 1928, p. 91 169 Claude Monet, On The Beach; Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 252 - 100 - 170 Suzor-Cote, Youth in Sunlight; National Gallery Ottawa, Catalogue, 111., p. 289 171 Claude Monet, Lady With A Parasol Turned Toward The Right, Lady With A Parasol Turned Toward The Left; Bazin, Impressionist Paintings, op. cit., 111., p. 289 172 R.H. Hubbard, The Development of Canadian Art, Ottawa, The National Gallery of Canada, N.D., pp. 80 - 81 173 Montreal Gazette, September 30, 1914 174 Suzor-Cofe\ Francois Taillon; Canadian Painters, Phaic|on, 111., a • p. 8 CHAPTER V 175 John Steegman, Catalogue of Paintings, Montreal, Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, 1960, p. 42 176 Armand Guillaumin, Sunset at Ivry; Bazin, Impressionist Paintings, op. cit., 111., p. 137 177 Bazin, Impressionist Paintings, op. cit., p. 136 178 Edouard Manet, The Seine at Argenteuil; Rewald, Impressionism, op. cit., 111., p. 347 179 Robson, Canadian Landscape Painters, op. cit., p. 109 180 Berthe Morisot, The Artistes Sister, Mme. Pontillon Seated on the Grass; Rewald, Impressionism, op. cit., 111., p. 325 181 Edouard Manet, The Monet Family in their Garden in Argenteuil; Rewald, Impressionism, op. cit., 111., p. 343 182 Auguste Renoir, Mme. Monet and Her Son in Their Garden at Argenteuil; Rewald, Impressionism, op. cit., 111., p. 343 183 Auguste Renoir, Path Climbing Through Long Grass; Bazin, Impressionist Paintings, op. cit., 111., p. 155 - 101 - \ 184 C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o , O r c h a r d of P o n t o i s e ; Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , 111. , p. 411 185 I b i d . , p. 529 186 Claude Monet, Beach A t S t . A d r e s s e ; Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 154 187 The Examiner, San F r a n c i s c o , C a l i f o r n i a , August 17, 1930. 188 J a c k s o n l e t t e r f i l e , L a Grange L i b r a r y , Toronto 189 Newton M a c T a v i s h , "Some Canadian P a i n t e r s Of The Snow", I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i o , V o l . 66, 1918 - 19, pp. 78 - 82 190 Robson, Canadian Landscape P a i n t e r s , op. c i t . , p. 150 191 Claude Monet, L a Gare S t . L a z a r e ; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g s , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 174 192 Auguste R e n o i r , The Swing; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g s , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 165 193 I b i d . , p. 163 194 J . E . H . MacDonald, Tangled Garden; N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y Ottawa, C a t a l o g u e , 1 1 1 . , p. 193 195 Claude Monet, R e g a t t a a t A r g e n t e u i l ; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g s , o p i c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 131 196 B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g , op c i t . , p. 130 197 Macleans Magazine, J u l y 1, 1953, p. 30 198 Roger F r y , E x h i b i t i o n of F r e n c h A r t at the G r a f t o n G a l l e r i e s , London, 1909, p. 15 199 A . Y . J a c k s o n , A P a i n t e r ' s C o u n t r y , Canada, C l a r k e , I r w i n , and Company, 1963, p. 16 200 I b i d . , p. 17 201 I b i d . , p. 20 - 102 - 202 A . Y . J a c k s o n , Road to S t . Simon; J a c k s o n , A P a i n t e r ' s C o u n t r y , op. c i t . , (199), 1 1 1 . , p. 32 203 A . Y . J a c k s o n , Winter Morning; 1 1 1 . , MacLeans Magazine, F e b . 15 1947 204 P a u l D u v a l , "From Nature to A b s t r a c t i o n " , Lawren H a r r i s , 1963 Vancouver, Seymour P r e s s , 1963, p. 23 205 Lawren H a r r i s , W i n t e r Woods; Lawren H a r r i s P a i n t i n g s 1910 - 1948 C a t a l o g u e , p l a t e 3 206 I b i d . , p l a t e 1 207 A r t S i n c e 1945, New York, Washington Square P r e s s , 1962, p. 16 B I 0 G R A P H I E S THE PRE-IMPRESSIONISTS and IMPRESSIONISTS IN CANADA - 103 - HOMER RANSFORD WATSON 1855 - 1936 Homer watson was c a l l e d The Sage of Doon. He spent h i s w h i l e l i f e p a i n t i n g the O n t a r i o landscape as seen near h i s home a t Doon, a v i l l a g e i n the v a l l e y of the Grand R i v e r near the c i t y of K i t c h e n e r . In 1874 he j o i n e d Notman's P h o t o g r a p h i c S t u d i o i n T o r o n t o . In 1876 he v i s i t e d New York C i t y and met George I n n i s who encouraged and g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d the Canadian a r t i s t to p a i n t i n the A d i r o n d a c k s and a l o n g the Hudson R i v e r . Watson's The P i o n e e r M i l l , 1889, was e x h i b i t e d a t the R o y a l Canadian Academy e x h i b i t i o n i n a u g u r a t e d by the Marquis of L o m e and P r i n c e s s L o u i s e . Queen V i c t o r i a bought one of h i s p a i n t i n g s and James Spooner, an a r t d e a l e r i n T o r o n t o , promoted h i s work. Oscar W i l d e , v i s i t i n g Toronto i n 1882, c a l l e d Watson the " C a n a d i a n C o n s t a b l e " , and l a t e r i n t r o d u c e d Watson to W h i s t l e r i n London. H i s p a i n t i n g s were e x h i b i t e d i n London a t the C o l o n i a l and I n d i a n E x h i b i t i o n of 1886 where he won a bronze medal. Watson v i s i t e d London, 1887 - 90, and was a great f r i e n d o f S i r George Chausen. While i n London he c o u l d study the works of C o n s t a b l e . W h i s t l e r taught Watson e t c h i n g and from London Watson v i s i t e d P a r i s where he saw the e x h i b i t s of Old Masters and B a r b i z o n p a i n t e r s . M o n t r e a l a r t p a t r o n s were b u y i n g not o n l y o l d master works but I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g s . In 1893 he was awarded the b r o n z e medal a t the W o r l d ' s Columbian E x p o s i t i o n , C h i c a g o , and i n 1896 he s k e t c h e d on the XLle d ' O r l e a n s w i t h H o r a t i o Walker. I n 1901 Watson v i s i t e d England w i t h H o r a t i o Walker. S i r W i l l i a m Van Horne, R.B. Angus, James Ross, and A . C . Hutchinson were b u y i n g Watson's p a i n t i n g s and promoting e x h i b i t i o n s o f h i s work. By 1902 he was a s u c c e s s . He had won a g o l d medal a t the Pan American E x p o s i t i o n i n B u f f a l o . He was a p r e s i d e n t o f the Canadian A r t Club f o r f o u r years a f t e r i t s f o u n d i n g i n 1907. Canadian p a i n t i n g was - 104 - b e i n g r e c o g n i z e d . In 1911 an e x h i b i t i o n of Canadian p a i n t i n g i n L i v e r p o o l r e c e i v e d f a v o u r a b l e c r i t i c i s m . In 1914 Watson became a War a r t i s t and made a r e c o r d i n g o f the F i r s t Canadian C o n t i n g e n t a t V a l c a r t i e r Camp. From 1918 - 1921 he was p r e s i d e n t of the R o y a l Canadian Academy and J . R u s s e l l Harper s t a t e s i n h i s N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y of Canada b r o c h u r e t h a t Watson was the man who "brought i n t o sharp focus the moods of n a t u r e , the s u r f a c e p a t t e r n s , the n o s t a l g i a o f the O n t a r i o woodland, which P e r r e , J a c o b i , M a r t i n and a h o s t of o t h e r Canadians of the time saw o n l y as dreamy b l u r r e d p a s t i c h e s of European p a i n t i n g w i t h o u t any i n d i v i d u a l Canadian c h a r a c t e r . He was, as i t were, the"man who f i r s t saw Canada as Canada". In 1922 Watson began an a c t i v e s t u d y of I m p r e s s i o n i s m . He v i s i t e d Western Canada. F r e d S. H a i n e s , p r i n c i p a l of the A r t G a l l e r y of T o r o n t o , h e l d a r e t r o s p e c t i v e e x h i b i t i o n o f h i s work i n 1930. He d i e d a t Doon i n 1936 and was g i v e n a posthumous L . L . D . degree by Western U n i v e r s i t y , London, O n t a r i o . - 105 - HORATIO WALKER, 1858 - 1938, was born at Lis towel, Perth County, Ontario in 1858. His grandmother came from an old French family of Rouen. At an early age Horatio liked to draw pigs and in 1870 he was taken to Quebec City by his father, Thomas Walker. He was then apprenticed to Notman and Fraser, Photographers, Toronto. At the age of twenty he opened a studio of his own in New York City, and from there he visited Rochester, Buffalo and other American cities from 1878 - 1880. He took a walking tour from Montreal to Quebec City in 1880 and the next year he sold his first picture of pigs called The Sty in New York City. In 1882 he visited the English and French Museums. He spent two years in Spain, Belgium and Holland before settling in St. Petronille on the Isle of Orleans, P.Q. where, for forty-two years, he was to live among the farmers and their families and paint pictures of their daily lives that were bright, lively and colorful. In 1887 he was a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters, and of the Royal Institute, England. In 1888 he won the Evans Award of the American Water-Color Society. His pictures were popular and costly and were shown in American collections. As a country gentleman, Walker would paint about five large canvases a year and do many preliminary drawings. M.C.J. Simard, an erudite collector and amateur critic, paid him visits looking for works of art for the Museum of Quebec. In 1896 he sketched with Homer Watson on his Lie d'Orleans. In 1901 he visited England with Homer Watson and visited the studios of Sir George Clausen and J.M. Whistler. In 1906 he was Gold Medalist at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts. In 1907 he became a member of the Canadian Art Club founded to give Canadian painters an opportunity to be members and exhibit whether they lived in Canada or abroad, so that a standard of - 106 - e x c e l l e n c e c o u l d thus be m a i n t a i n e d . The o r i g i n a l members of the group were: Homer Watson, P r e s i d e n t ; C u r t i s W i l l i a m s o n , S e c r e t a r y ; A r c h i b a l d Browne, W.E. A t k i n s o n , H o r a t i o Walker, James W i l s o n M o r r i c e , F r a n k l i n B r o w n e l l and Edmund M o r r i s . I n 1925 he was made p r e s i d e n t of the R o y a l Canadian Academy. As a t o u r i s t of t h a t time one c o u l d stand b e f o r e the s u n l i t windows of the Chateau F r o n t e n a c , w a i t i n g f o r a cab d r i v e r to d r i v e one to the a r t i s t ' s s t u d i o . One drove past the g i l t r o c o c c o monument of C a r d i n a l Tachereau " w i t h i t s chubby cherubs which were as out of p l a c e i n t h a t s e t t i n g as a t o u r i s t " . The c a b l e c a r would take one down to the D u f f e r i n T e r r a c e b e h i n d the Champlain monument where Champlain bows and d o f f s h i s h a t . One passes on to the q u a i and from t h e r e c r o s s e s to the I s l e of O r l e a n s . "The c a r r i a g e goes by the l i t t l e v i l l a g e of S t . P e t r o n i l l e and a l o n g a w a l l of r o c k which f a c e s the s p i l l - w a y to the Mont Morency F a l l s and then e n c l o s e s the domaine of H o r a t i o Walker. The master a c c o r d s one a l o o k i n t o h i s s u i t e i n a s p a c i o u s p a v i l l i o n which he has made h i s a t i l l i e r . He i s t a l l and t h i n w i t h a c u r l i n g moustache which g i v e s him a c a v a l i e r l o o k l i k e a V e l a s q u e z . B r i l l i a n t d r a p e r i e s hang to the r i g h t o f l a r g e bay windows and the s t u d i o w a l l s have f r e s c o e s r e p r e s e n t i n g the seasons. There a r e o l d shoes about and bundles of p e n c i l s . A chimney under the r o o f i s d e c o r a t e d w i t h p r e c i o u s Chinese t r i n k e t s . There i s a Samovar and a death mask of Cromwell. Everywhere t h e r e i s o l d armour and b e a u t i f u l p o t t e r y . There a r e a dozen e a s e l s w i t h p i c t u r e s , water c o l o r s and p a s t e l s , not to speak of sketches w i t h o u t number." Walker l i v e d and s k e t c h e d on the l i e d 1 O r l e a n s i n the summer and moved to New York i n the w i n t e r . He was a member of many important s o c i e t i e s i n America and had been awarded s e v e r a l g o l d medals. " P a i n t i n g the p r i m i t i v e - 107 - peasant l i f e of Quebec he was called "The Canadian Millet". There may be a certain analogy but his art springs from a deep and sincere sympathy and understanding of the habitant l i f e about him". He received an L.L.D. (Toronto) 1915 and an Hon. Doctorate Laval (Laval) 1934. He died at his home on the Isle of Orleans in 1938. - 108 - JAMES MACDONALD BARNSLEY, 1861 - 1929, was the son of a paper m i l l o p e r a t o r near Dundas, O n t a r i o . H i s mother, Mrs. B a n s l e y , o p e r a t e d the m i l l a f t e r the death of h i s f a t h e r and i n 1871 changed t h e i r name to B a r n s l e y . Two years l a t e r the f a m i l y moved to S t . L o u i s , where B a r n s l e y went to the S t . L o u i s S c h o o l o f F i n e A r t s . Under the d i r e c t i o n of H a l s e y Ives he l e a r n e d to s k e t c h i n the l a k e d i s t r i c t of Upper New York S t a t e . He was awarded a gold medal on g r a d u a t i o n and i n 1883 he had a s t u d i o i n P a r i s . He e x h i b i t e d Le Quai S t . Bernard i n the S a l o n which a l s o e x h i b i t e d L u i g i L o i r ' s Le P o i n t du j o u r a A u t e u i l and B o u d i n ' s L 'Entree and L a S o r t i e . T h i s same year a l s o saw the f i r s t comprehensive Boudin e x h i b i t i o n a t the Durand-Ruel G a l l e r i e s . B a r n s l e y sketched and p a i n t e d i n Dieppe and a l o n g the S e i n e near P a r i s . He won a f i r s t c l a s s g o l d medal a t an e x h i b i t i o n i n V e r s a i l l e s and e x h i b i t e d w i t h the R o y a l Canadian Academy. He v i s i t e d V e n i c e , S c o t l a n d and I r e l a n d b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g to S t . L o u i s . I n 1890 he v i s i t e d H o l l a n d and i n 1891 he j o i n e d W i l l i a m Brymner i n I r e l a n d a t K i l l a r n e y and Cork. In 1892 he was awarded f i r s t p r i z e f o r landscape a t the M o n t r e a l S p r i n g E x h i b i t i o n . He was a d m i t t e d to Verdun P r o t e s t a n t H o s p i t a l , c h r o n i c a l l y i l l . The Canadian s e c t i o n of the W o r l d ' s Columbian E x p o s i t i o n i n Chicago of 1893 e x h i b i t e d one o i l and t h r e e water c o l o r s . In 1920 h i s works were shown a t the R o y a l Canadian Academy E x h i b i t i o n and the l a s t showing of h i s work was i n the M o n t r e a l S p r i n g E x h i b i t i o n of 1921. - 109 - WILLIAM BRYMNER was b o r n a t Greenoch, S c o t l a n d on December 14, 1855. H i s p a r e n t s came to Canada when he was a c h i l d i n May, 1857 and s e t t l e d i n Melbourne, an e a s t e r n township of Quebec. H i s f a t h e r , Dr. Douglas Brymner, h e l p e d to found the Dominion A r c h i v e s i n 1872 and became the f i r s t government a r c h i v i s t a t Ottawa. W i l l i a m Brymner began h i s a r t i s t i c c a r e e r as a s t u d e n t o f a r c h i t e c t u r e i n the o f f i c e of the c h i e f government a r c h i t e c t i n Ottawa. L a t e r he was a r t i c l e d by h i s f a t h e r a t the o f f i c e of R.C. Urender i n M o n t r e a l , to complete h i s s t u d i e s i n a r c h i t e c t u r e . He s t u d i e d a t the A t e l i e r J u l i a n , 1878 - 1885, under Tony Robert F l e u r y who, s e e i n g drawings by Brymner a t the Academy a s k e d , "What do you i n t e n d to do?" "I am going to be an a r c h i t e c t " . " D o n ' t do t h a t . I f you take my a d v i c e y o u ' l l t r y p a i n t i n g . There you w i l l s u c c e e d " . Brymner s t u d i e d p a i n t i n g i n P a r i s under Bouguereau and Tony R o b e r t - F l e u r y and a l s o w i t h C a r o l u s - D u r a n . Brymner e x h i b i t e d a p a i n t i n g i n the 1885 S a l o n , Bord de F o r e t . In 1886 he won the I n t e r n a t i o n a l J u r y of awards S i l v e r Medal a t S t . L o u i s . He was e l e c t e d as an A s s o c i a t e of the R.C.A. i n 1885, was made a f u l l member i n 1886, and p r e s i d e n t i n 1909. Brymner was asked to a c c e p t the d i r e c t o r s h i p of the c l a s s e s of the A r t A s s o c i a t i o n of M o n t r e a l i n 1885. T h i s p o s t he h e l d from 1886 u n t i l 1921. In t h i s n o t a b l e 35 y e a r s of t e a c h i n g he saw c l a s s e s grow from l e s s than t e n to over one hundred. Many o f h i s p u p i l s gained d i s t i n c t i o n i n Canadian a r t . At the Pan American e x h i b i t i o n of 1901 he was awarded the g o l d medal. In 1907 he spent a summer i n V e n i c e . In 1908 Brymner s t a y e d a t M a r t i g u e s near M a r s e i l l e s , where he wrote a s k e t c h of h i s l i f e and r e - c a l l e d t h a t the " e f f e c t s " i n Canada were as b e a u t i f u l as e l s e w h e r e . While t h e r e , he p a i n t e d a market scene i n water c o l o r , and a s u n s e t , - 110 - both are vivid impressions set down with confidence. He painted in water color on canvas. In 1916 he received the distinguished honor from his Majesty, King George V, "Companion of St. Michael and St. George". On January 24, 1921 Brymner and his wife left Canada to spend two years in France, Spain and Italy. Sir William Van Home of the C.P.R. was a patron and encouraged Brymner. He died at Waltasey,Cheshire June 20, 1925. The Montreal Gazette of February 2, 1926, states: In a memorial exhibit forty-three works were exhibited, "landscapes with or without figures, marines, quay side scenes with shipping, portraits and s t i l l l i f e " . The Watson Art Galleries in December 1925, records: "He attempted no grand flights. Saw subjects for his brush in everything around him and set them down with a convincing sincerity". - I l l - MAURICE GALBRAITH CULLEN was born a t S t . J o h n ' s , Newfoundland i n 1886 Some time between 1884 and 1888 he began h i s d e s i g n s t u d i e s w i t h Abbe Jose C. C h a l b e r t , a t the N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e of the F i n e A r t s and S c i e n c e s , M o n t r e a l . C h a l b e r t ' s p u p i l s i n c l u d e d Ludger L a r o s e , Joseph S a i n t - C h a r l e s , Joseph C. F r a n c h e r e and A. de Foy S u z o r - C ^ t e . The I n s t i t u t e was r o u g h l y p a t t e r n e d a f t e r the Sorbonne i n P a r i s . In i t C h a l b e r t had accumulated a r a r e and complete c o l l e c t i o n o f p l a s t e r c a s t s which s e r v e d to teach the p u p i l s from a n t i q u e models. In 1886 - 1889 C u l l e n e n r o l l e d i n the s c h o o l of the s c u l p t o r P h i l i p p e H e b e r t , where he s t u d i e d f o r t h r e e y e a r s . He h e l p e d Hebert c a r v e the s t a t u e s on the r o o f of S t . James' C a t h e d r a l . He s a i l e d f o r P a r i s about 1889 w i t h h i s U n c l e Dr. Ward. He s t u d i e d s c u l p t u r e w i t h H a l l a n d Gerome a t the Beaux A r t s Academy, and a t the C o l a r o s s i A t e l i e r w i t h C o u r t o i s and R i x e n . About 1890 he r e t u r n e d to the Beaux A r t s Academy. The work of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s made a profound i n f l u e n c e on C u l l e n , and the study of atmospheric e f f e c t s soon took him to B r i t t a n y between 1890 - 1895, to p a i n t i n the open a i r w i t h James W i l s o n M o r r i c e . C u l l e n r e t u r n e d to Canada i n 1895, coming back by way of E l K a u t u r n , B i s k r a , A l c a n t a r a , S p a i n , I t a l y , Le P o u l d u , and G i v e r n y . He showed i n the Salons of P a r i s 1900 and 1901. Between 1902 and 1908 C u l l e n t r a v e l l e d between P a r i s and M o n t r e a l . These t r i p s i n c l u d e d B e a u p r £ , Quebec, M o n t r e a l , I t a l y and F r a n c e , and B r i t t a n y . When i n Canada he p a i n t e d w i t h Brymner, M o r r i c e and Dyonnet. From 1911 to the end o f h i s l i f e , C u l l e n p a i n t e d i n the w i l d s of the L a u r e n t i a n s , a t Lac T r e m b l a n t , and a l o n g the Cache R i v e r . D u r i n g the war, i n 1918, the Canadian Government commissioned him to go overseas as a war a r t i s t , and on h i s r e t u r n home i n 1919 he a g a i n made h i s home i n the L a u r e n t i a n a r e a u n t i l h i s death on March 28, 1934. - 112 - A • MARC AUREL de FOY SUZOR-COTE was b o r n i n 1869 a t A r t h a b a s k a . In s c h o o l he e x c e l l e d i n the drawing c l a s s of B r o t h e r N e p o t i e n . A t the age of e i g h t e e n he a r r i v e d a t the A t e l i e r of Maxime Rousseau, a church d e c o r a t o r . In 1889 Suzor h e l p e d Rousseau to d e c o r a t e the w a l l s of the P a r i s h church and the c h a p e l of the l o c a l c o l l e g e . He a l s o d e c o r a t e d churches around A r t h a b a s k a , a t S t . H y a c i n t h e and a t S t . J a c q u e s . He s t u d i e d w i t h C h a l b e r t a t the N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e of F i n e A r t s a t M o n t r e a l . H i s s c h o o l mates were Joseph S t . C h a r l e s and F r a n c h e r e . In 1889 he sent some drawings to M o n t r e a l where they were e x h i b i t e d . On a r r i v i n g i n P a r i s i n 1890, Suzor e n r o l l e d a t the C o n s e r v a t o r y of M u s i c , where he undertook an opera course under Boulanger and Edouard Masson. He s t u d i e d music f o r two y e a r s u n t i l a t h r o a t o p e r a t i o n f o r c e d him out o f music and i n t o p a i n t i n g . Le'on Bonnat was h i s t e a c h e r f o r f o u r years a t the S c h o o l of F i n e A r t s . Suzor-Cote', M a u r i c e C u l l e n and James W i l s o n M o r r i c e , were a l l s t u d y i n g t o g e t h e r i n P a r i s . The s c u l p t o r , A l f r e d L a l i b e r t e took a s t u d i o w i t h Suzor i n Montparnasse. Suzor t r a v e l l e d to F o n t a i n e b l e a u , Ramboulette, I v r y , and S e n l i s , Normandy and B r i t t a n y . F o r the f i r s t time i n 1894 he d e c i d e d to t r y f o r the o f f i c i a l S a l o n . He submitted a Normandy I n t e r i o r , which was a c c e p t e d . In 1894 he came home to A r t h a b a s k a f o r two y e a r s . He r e t u r n e d to France i n 1896 and s t a y e d u n t i l 1900. In 1898 he a t t e n d e d Benjamin Constant and J u l e s y L e f e b r e ' s c l a s s e s a t the Academy l e a r n i n g p o r t r a i t u r e and h i s t o r i c a l A p a i n t i n g . The Death of Archimedes won Suzor the grand p r i z e and he won the s i l v e r medal a t the C a l a r o s i Academy. He showed a P a s t o u r e l l e i n the 1898 S a l o n , and he spent two y e a r s between 1899 and 1900 i n Germany. In 1901, Suzor won the Bronze Medal - 113 - a t the P a r i s I n t e r n a t i o n a l E x p o s i t i o n f o r E n t r e V o i s i n and i n 1901 showed a t the P a r i s S a l o n to win an h o n o r a b l e mention, and to be made an o f f i c e r of the Academy o f the French Government. In 1906 he d i d a l a r g e h i s t o r i c a l p i c t u r e The L a n d i n g of Jacques C a r t i e r a t Quebec. One of h i s f i r s t bronzes dates about 1907, The T r a p p e r . He and the o t h e r Canadian s t u d e n t s met a t the C a f e - A u x - F l e u r s . In 1907 he s t a r t e d a p e r i o d of t r a v e l , v i s i t i n g E n g l a n d , S c o t l a n d , R u s s i a , Germany, S p a i n , I t a l y and H o l l a n d . In 1908, he r e t u r n e d to Canada and s e t up as a " P i e d a T e r r e " , a s t u d i o i n M o n t r e a l on V i c t o r i a S t r e e t near S t . C a t h e r i n e ' s , where he was to spend the w i n t e r s u n t i l 1917. In the summers Suzor-cSte p a i n t e d i n the Arthabaska r e g i o n and a l o n g the N i c o l e t R i v e r . From S u z o r ' s sketches of the Quebec p e a s a n t r y he made b r o n z e s . I n 1910 Edmund Dyonnet, R.C.A. of M o n t r e a l , as s e c r e t a r y o f the R.C.A. took an e x h i b i t i o n of Canadian p a i n t i n g to the C r y s t a l P a l a c e i n London f o r the F e s t i v a l of Empire, which i n c l u d e d S u z o r - C o t e ' s P r i m i t i v e Sugar Camp. The e x h i b i t i o n was c a n c e l l e d because of the death of Edward VII i n 1910, but was shown i n L i v e r p o o l b e f o r e Dyonnet's r e t u r n to Canada. In 1912 Suzor j o i n e d the Royal Canadian Academy. By 1917 Suzor-C&te was d o i n g some of h i s b e s t I m p r e s s i o n i s t work. He won the J e s s i e Dow p r i z e i n 1929, the y e a r he s u f f e r e d a s t r o k e . F o r the next ten y e a r s he l i v e d i n r e t i r e m e n t a t Daytona Beach, F l o r i d a , where he d i e d i n 1939. APPENDIX PICTURES BY HORATIO WALKER FIG. 4 OXEN DRINKING OIL ON CANVAS 47 1/2" X 35 1/2" 1899 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 5 EVENING ILE D'ORLEANS OIL ON CANVAS 28" X 36" 1909 TORONTO ART GALLERY FIG. 6 HORSES AT THE TROUGH OIL ON CANVAS 50" X 40" N.D. MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY HOMER RANSFORD WATSON F I G . 1 A COMING STORM IN THE ADIRONDACKS OIL ON CANVAS 34" X 47" 1879 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS FIG. 2 THE OLD MILL OIL ON CANVAS 38 1/4" X 58" 1886 TORONTO ART GALLERY F I G . 3 LOG CUTTING IN THE WOODS OIL ON CANVAS 18" X 24" 1894 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY HORATIO WALKER F I G . 7 THE ICE CUTTERS OIL ON CANVAS 21" X 38" 1904 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS THE ICE CUTTERS DETAIL THE ICE CUTTERS I PICTURES BY JAMES MACDONALD BARNSLEY F I G . 8 STUDY FOR LA JETEE DU POLLET DIEPPE OIL ON CANVAS 14 3/4'X 21 5/8" 1884 MRS. W.C. MUNDERLOK MONTREAL F I G . 9 ON THE SEINE COURBEVOIE OIL ON CANVAS 18 3/4" X 32 1/2" PARIS 1883 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA FIG. 10 LA JETEE DU POLLET DIEPPE OIL ON CANVAS 43" X 68 1/2" 1885 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA PICTURES BY JAMES MACDONALD BARNSLEY LA JETEE DU POLLET DIEPPE DETAIL F I G . 11 FRENCH PADDLE STEAMER OIL ON CANVAS 18 1/8" X 30" 1888 DR. & MRS. D. RAFF WESTMOUNT FIG. 12 HIGH TIDE AT DIEPPE OIL ON CANVAS 42 1/2" X 58 3/8" 1886 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY JAMES MACDONALD BARNSLEY HIGH TIDE AT DIEPPE DETAIL F I G . 13 THE LAST RAYS OIL ON CANVAS 55" X 75 3/4" 1887 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY WILLIAM BRYMNER 9* • FIG. 14 DOUGLAS BRYMNER OIL ON CANVAS 1886 MISS GRACE BRYMNER TORONTO FIG. 15 ROBERT BRYMNER AGE 15 OIL ON CANVAS 1890 MISS GRACE BRYMNER TORONTO FIG. 16 WILLIAM BRYMNER BY: GEORGE W. HILL PLASTER CAST OF ORIGINAL BRONZE IN NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA 19" HIGH 1918 PICTURES BY WILLIAM BRYMNER FIG. 17 BAIE S T . PAUL OIL ON CANVAS 1886 MISS GRACE BRYMNER TORONTO F I G . 18 SAD MEMORIES OIL ON CANVAS ABOUT 1885 MISS GRACE BRYMNER TORONTO FIG. 19 EARLY MOONRISE IN SEPTEMBER OIL ON CANVAS 1886 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY WILLIAM BRYMNER F I G . 20 CHAMP DE MARS WINTER OIL ON CANVAS 29 1/2" X 40" 1892 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS FIG. 21 EARLY MOONRISE IN SEPTEMBER OIL ON CANVAS 28 1/2" X 39 1/2' 1899 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 22 WOMAN SEWING OIL ON CANVAS 25 1/2" X 16" ABOUT 1900 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY WILLIAM BRYMNER FIG. 23 THE VAUGHAN SISTERS OIL ON CANVAS 40" X 50 1/2" 1910 HAMILTON ART GALLERY F I G . 24 CARITA OIL ON CANVAS 32 1/2" X 23 3/4" 1910 TORONTO ART GALLERY FIG. 25 RECLINING FIGURE OIL ON CANVAS 18 1/2" X 34 1/2" 1915 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY MAURICE CULLEN FIG. 26 THE MILL STREAM OIL ON CANVAS FRANCE 1894 HAMILTON ART GALLERY F I G . 27 MORET IN SUMMER OIL ON CANVAS FRANCE, 1896 HAMILTON ART GALLERY FIG. 28 MORET IN WINTER OIL ON CANVAS FRANCE, 1895 TORONTO ART GALLERY PICTURE BY AUGUSTE RENOIR F I G . 29 % LA SEINE A CHATOU OIL ON CANVAS ABOUT 1878 TORONTO ART GALLERY PICTURES BY MAURICE CULLEN PICTURES BY MAURICE CULLEN FIG. 32 , WINTER SUNLIGHT BEAUPRE OIL ON CANVAS 1896 HAMILTON ART GALLERY A F I G . 34 WINTER EVENING QUEBEC OIL ON CANVAS 29 1/2" X 39 1/4" 1905 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA PICTURES BY MAURICE CULLEN FIG. 35 LEVIS FROM QUEBEC OIL ON CANVAS 1906 TORONTO ART GALLERY FIG. 36 WINTER STREET SCENE OIL ON CANVAS ABOUT 1912 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS F I G . 37 SNOW STORM EVENING OIL ON CANVAS 18" X 15" 1914 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA PAINTINGS BY MAURICE CULLEN F I G . 38 PACKING ICE OIL ON CANVAS 29 1/2" X 39 1/2" 1906 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA FIG. 39 THE LAST LOADS OIL ON CANVAS 1906 TORONTO ART GALLERY F I G . 40 ICE HARVEST OIL ON CANVAS 1914 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY MAURICE CULLEN FIG. 41 THE OLD FERRY BOAT, LOUIS BASIN, QUEBEC OIL ON CANVAS 23 3/4" X 28 3/4" 1907 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 42 SUMMER NIGHT OIL ON CANVAS ABOUT 1907 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA PICTURES BY MAURICE CULLEN F I G . 44 OUR GUNS AT BONN UNIVERSITY OIL ON CANVAS 56" X 70" 1918 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 45 BOMBING AREA SEAFORD OIL ON CANVAS 34" X 44" 1918 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 46 A MARCH EVENING OIL ON CANVAS 30" X 45" 1923 NATIONAL GALLERY CANADA PICTURE BY MAURICE CULLEN F I G . 47 VALLEY OF THE DEVIL RIVER OIL ON CANVAS 30" X 40" 1927 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA FIG. 48 GRAVESTONE OF SUZOR-c6TE AND THE CHURCH AT ARTHABASKA F I G . 49 OVERLOOKING THE VALLEY OF THE NICOLET F I G . 50 HOME OF SIR WILFRED LAURIER, ARTHABASKA FIG. 51 BRONZE PLAQUE AT THE LAURIER HOUSE A / PICTURES BY MARC AUREL DE FOY SUZOR-COTE F I G . 52 AUTUMN LANDSCAPE EVENING, PARIS OIL ON CANVAS 24" X 32" 1900 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA FIG. 53 LANDSCAPE MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY MARC SUZOR-COTE F I G . 54 PORT BLANC EN BRETAGNE OIL ON CANVAS 1906 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 55 CAUGHNAWAGA WOMEN BRONZE 17 1/2" X 22" 1909 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 56 WINTER LANDSCAPE OIL ON CANVAS 28 1/4" X 37 1/4" 1909 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA A ' PICTURES BY MARC SUZOR-COTE FIG. 57 THE SETTLEMENT ON THE HILLSIDE OIL ON CANVAS 23" X 28 3/4" 1909 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA FIG. 59 ARTHABASKA RIVER OIL ON A PANEL N.D. NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA PICTURE BY SIR WILLIAM VAN HORNE FIG.60 STEEL-MILLS AT SYDNEY, CAPE BRETON OIL ON CANVAS 37 1/2" X 48 1/4" 1907 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURE BY MABEL MAY PICTURE BY FREDERICK W. HUTCHISON FIG. 62 OCTOBER SNOW BAIE ST. PAUL PICTURE BY FREDERICK W. HUTCHISON PICTURES BY BIAIR BRUCE F I G . 64 PLEASANT MOMENT OIL ON CANVAS 1887 HAMILTON ART GALLERY F I G . 65 GIVERNY FRANCE OIL ON CANVAS 1887 HAMILTON ART GALLERY PICTURES BY WILLIAM HENRY CLAPP F I G . 66 MORNING IN SPAIN OIL ON CANVAS 29" X 36 1/2" 1907 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 67 IN THE ORCHARD QUEBEC OIL ON CANVAS 1909 HAMILTON ART GALLERY FIG. 68 THE NEW CHURCH OIL ON CANVAS 1913 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA PICTURE BY WILLIAM HENRY CLAPP F I G . 69 LUMBER BOATS OIL ON CANVAS HAMILTON ART GALLERY PICTURES BY ERNEST LAWSON F I G . 70 SNOW-BOUND BOATS OIL ON CANVAS 24 3/4" X 29 3/4" 1907 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 71 WINTER OIL ON CANVAS 24 3/4" X 29 3/4' 1914 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA PICTURES BY ERNEST IAWSON PICTURE BY IDA G. HAMILTON F I G . 75 SUNLIGHT AND SHADOWS OIL ON CANVAS 1923 HAMILTON ART GALLERY PICTURES BY JAMES EDWARD HERVEY MACDONALD F I G . 76 TRACKS AND TRAFFIC OIL ON CANVAS 1912 TORONTO ART GALLERY F I G . 77 EDGE OF A TOWN OIL ON CANVAS UNIVERSITY WOMEN'S CLUB TORONTO FIG. 78 WINTER SUNSHINE OIL ON CANVAS HAMILTON ART GALLERY FIG. 79 MORNING AFTER SNOW HIGH PARK OIL ON CANVAS 1912-1914 TORONTO ART GALLERY F I G . 80 EARLY EVENING WINTER OIL ON CANVAS 1912 TORONTO ART GALLERY PICTURES BY J . E . H . MACDONALD F I G . 81 IN THE PINE SHADOWS MOONLIGHT OIL ON CANVAS 31 1/2" X 27 1/4" 1912 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 82 SNOW-BOUND OIL ON CANVAS 19 1/2" X 29 1/2" 1915 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA PICTURE BY LAWREN HARRIS F I G . 83 SNOW SCENE OIL ON CANVAS 1915-1916 R.B. McMICHAEL PICTURE BY TOM THOMSON F I G . 84 IN ALGONQUIN PARK OIL ON CANVAS 1914 R.B. McMICHAEL PICTURES BY J . E . H . MACDONALD F I G . 85 FALLS MONTREAL RIVER OIL ON CANVAS 1920 TORONTO ART GALLERY PICTURE BY J . E . H . MACDONALD F I G . 86 TANGLED GARDEN SKETCH NO. 2 OIL ON PANEL 1916 TORONTO ART GALLERY PICTURES BY TOM THOMSON PICTURES BY TOM THOMSON FIG. 89 EDGE OF THE LOG RUN OIL ON PANEL 1916 R.B. McMICHAEL F I G . 90 NORTHERN LAKE OIL ON PANEL ABOUT 1916 R.B. McMICHAEL F I G . 91 NORTHERN SKY OIL ON PANEL ABOUT 1916 R.B. McMICHAEL PICTURES BY FRANKLIN CARMICHAEL F I G . 92 SILVERY TANGLE OIL ON CANVAS 40" X 47" BEAVERBROOK ART GALLERY F I G . 93 WINTER LANDSCAPE OIL ON CANVAS 35" X 27" MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS DETAILS PICTURES BY FREDERICK HORSMA.N VARLEY PICTURES BY ARTHUR LISMER F I G . 96 THE GUIDE'S HOME OIL ON CANVAS 39 1/2" X 44 1/2" 1914 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA FIG. 97 AFTERNOON SUNLIGHT OIL ON CANVAS 28"'X 36" 1915-1916 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS F I G . 98 SPRINGTIME ON THE FARM OIL ON CANVAS 26" X 32" 1916-1917 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY ALEXANDER YOUNG JACKSON FIG. 99 CANOE LAKE OIL ON CANVAS HAMILTON ART GALLERY FIG. 100 CHURCHES AT LIEVIN OIL ON CANVAS 1918 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS F I G . 101 A SCREENED ROAD OIL ON CANVAS 1918 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURE BY A . Y . JACKSON F I G . 102 OLD BARNS QUEBEC OIL ON CANVAS 44" X 34" ABOUT 1940 R.B. 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